Experiment 1

Manometer
Aim:
To understand the working principle of manometer and to find the pressure drop
between two points in a straight pipe.

Apparatus:
A supply tank of water, pipe, U-tube manometer

Introduction and Theory:

A manometer is used to measure the pressure difference, in course of flow.
Assume that U-tube is filled with liquid A having a density ρA, and that the arms
of the U tube above the liquid are filled with fluid B having density ρB. Fluid B is
immiscible with liquid A and less dense than A.

A Pressure pa, is exerted in one arm of the U tube and a pressure pb in the
other. As a result of the difference in pressure pa-pb, the meniscus in one branch
of the U tube is higher than in the other, and the vertical distance between the
two meniscuses Rm may be used to measure the difference in pressure.

The following equation is used to measure pressure difference using U tube

manometer,
pa - pb = (g/gc) Rm (ρA - ρB)
Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:

1. Fill up the tank with water.

2. Attach U-tube manometer to the pipe.
3. Open the bypass valve.
4. Switch on the motor.
5. Open manometer valves to remove air and then close it.
6. Open valves which connect U-tube manometer and pipe.
7. If pressure drop is to be increased, bypass valve should be closed.
8. Close both the manometer valves attached to the pipe simultaneously.
9. Remove air and Switch off the set up.

Precautions:
1. Carefully keep sufficient level of fluid in the supply tank.
2. Make sure that mercury level in any end of the U tube manometer does not
go very low.

Observation Table:
Sr. No. Height (Left), Height (Right),
mm mm
1. 137 120
Rm (mm) 17

ρA 13600

ρB 1000

Calculations:

● Formula: (Pa – Pb) = ( Ƿa - Ƿb)*(Rm)*g

⮚ Rm = Da – Db
= 137– 120
= 17 mm
= 17*10-3 m

⮚ So, For mercury,

Pa – Pb = (13600-1000)*(17*10-3)*(9.8)
= (12600)*(17*10-3)*(9.8)
= 2099160 Pa or N/m2

Result:

⮚ Pressure Difference, Pa - Pb = 2099160 Pa = 209.9160kPa

Conclusion:

⮚ We can measure the pressure difference by using U-

manometer.
 Experiment2

Friction
factor for pipe
Aim: To determine friction factor for the pipe by major losses.
Apparatus: A flow pipe of different diameter 15 mm, 25 mm, 32 mm, U-tube manometer,
collecting tank.

Introduction and Theory:

A pipe is closed conduit through which fluid flows under the pressure. When in the pipe, fluid
flows, some of the potential energy is lost to overcome hydraulic resistance which is classified as:
1. The viscous friction effect associated with fluid flow.
2. The local resistance which result from flow disturbances caused by
- Sudden expansion and contraction in pipe
- Obstruction in the form of valvn and contraction in pipe
- Obstruction in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings.
- Curves and bend in the pipe.
- Entrance and exit losses.
The viscous friction loss or major loss in head potential energy due to friction is given by
hf = 4 f l v2 / 2 g d

Schematic Diagram:
Experimental Procedure:
1. Pressure tapping of a pipe is kept open while for other pipe is closed.
2. The flow rate was adjusted to it's maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount of
steady flow in the pipe.
3. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the left
and right limbs of manometer tube.This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure
tapping of this pipe and for opening of other pipe.
4. Also, note down the length of the pipe between the pressure tapping.

Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of manometer tubes, note the
mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

Observation Table:
Diameter of pipe, D =
Length of pipe between pressure tapping, L =
Area of collecting tank =

Sr. No. Manometer reading Discharge measurement F=(hf*D2

g)
Left Right h1 - h2 Average(mm) Time Dischar
/(flv2) =
limb, h1 limb, h2 (sec) ge, Q
(cm) (cm) (cm3/sec
)

1 227 222 5 80 23.85 3.54*10-3 46.393

2 350 85 265 90 49 1.86*10-3 185.659

3 237 210 27 100 29.45 3.340*10-3 73.6033

Calculations:

Flow rate(in cm3/s)

1)
=0.08/23.85
=3.54*10-3
2)
=0.09/49
=1.86*10-3
3)
=0.1/29.49
=3.34*10-3

Velocity = flow rate/ area (in m/s)

1)
=(3.54*10-3)*4/(3.14(32*10-3)2)
=4.17
2)
=1.836*10-3*4/3.14*(15*10-3)2
=10.39
3)
=3.340*10-3*4/(3.14*(25*10-3)2)
=6.80

Nre =pvd/u

1.
=32*10-3 * 1000*4.17/(8.90*10-4)
=149932.58
2.
=15*10-3*1000*10.39?(0.89*10-3)
=175112.35
3.
=(25*10-3)*1000*6.80/(0.89*10-3)
=191011.236

ΔP= flv2/2gd

1.
F=46.39
2.
F=185.65
3.
F=73.60

Result: friction factor for different pipes are fond.

 Conclusion:
Friction factor is varies with diameter.
 Experiment 3
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Aim:
To validate Bernoulli’s Theorem as applied to the flow of water in a tapering circular duct.

Apparatus:
A supply tank of water, Tapered circular pipe, 8 no.s piezometer tubes, measuring tank, level
indicator, stop watch

Introduction and Theory:

Bernoulli's principle is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli who
published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Bernoulli’s principle in its simplest
form states that "the pressure of a fluid [liquid or gas] decreases as the speed of the fluid
increases." The principle behind Bernoulli’s theorem is the law of conservation of energy. It states
that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but merely changed from one form to another.
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in
many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view: 1) Potential Energy 2)
Kinetic Energy and 3) Pressure Energy.

Potential energy of a Liquid in Motion: It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of
its position. If a liquid particle is Z meters above the horizontal datum (arbitrary chosen), the
potential energy of the particle will be Z meter-kilogram (briefly written as mkg) per kg of liquid.
Potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z meters of the liquid.

Kinetic Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue
of its motion or velocity. If a liquid particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v meter per second,
then the kinetic energy of the particle will be v2 /2g meter of the liquid. Velocity head of the liquid,
at that velocity, will be v2 /2g meter of liquid.

Pressure Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion: It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by
virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid particle is under a pressure of p kg/m2 , then the pressure
energy of the particle will be p/w mkg per kg of liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid.
Pressure head of the liquid under that pressure will be p/w meter of the liquid.

Total Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion: The total energy of a liquid particle, in motion, is the
sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. Mathematically,
Total Energy kg m/kg of liquid,

Bernoulli’s Equation: It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream,
the total energy of a particle remains the same; while the particle moves from one point to
another.” This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in
pipe. Mathematically,
Schematic Diagram:
Experimental Procedure:
1. Note down the area of cross-section of the conduit at sections where piezometers have been
fixed.
2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow in the conduit so that the water level in the inlet
tank remains at a constant level (i.e., the flow becomes steady).
3. Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected suitable horizontal plane) in
different piezometer tubes.
4. Measure the discharge by calculating time taken for 5litres or 10 liters flow.
5. Repeat steps (2) to (4) for other discharges.
Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing there is a fluctuation in the height of fluid in the piezometer tubes,
note the mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in the supply tank.

Observation Table:

For reading (1)

 V=Q/A (flow rate/area)

V1=0.0806*10-3/09.08* 10-4=8.87*10-2 m/s
V2=0.0806*10-3/5.94* 10-4=0.135 m/s
V3=0.0806*10-3/4.12* 10-4=0.195m/s
V4=0.0806*10-3/4.91* 10-4=0.164m/s
…..similarly
 V5=0.13 m/s
V6=0.106 m/s
V7=0.08770 m/s
V8=0.07414 m/s
.

 V2/2g (velocity head)

V12/2g=(8.87*10-2 m/s)2/2*9.81m/s2 = 4.01*10^-4 m
V22/2g=(0.135 m/s)2/2*9.81m/s2 = 9.28*10^-4 m
V32/2g=(0.195 m/s)2/2*9.81m/s2 = 1.93*10^-4 m
similarly …….
V4^2/2g=1.37.* 10^-4 m
V52/2g=8.6*10^-4 m
V62/2g=5.7*10^-4 m
V72/2g=3.92*10^-4 m
V82/2g=2.80*10^-4 m

 Z=0 , Reference of height is taken at z=0 only.

 H=P/pg (Pressure head)

H1=0.135m
H2=0.131m
H3=0.124m
H4=0.123m
Similarly…
H5=0.124
H6=0.124
H7=0.127
H8=0.129.
 E= V2/2g (velocity head) +H=P/pg (Pressure head) +Z(=0)
E1 = 0.135 +4.01 * 10-4 = 0.222J
E2 =0.131 + 9.28 * 10-3 = 0.266 J
Similarly…
E3=0.1259 J
E4=0.12437J
E5=0.1248J
E6=0.1267J
E7=0.127J
E8=0.1294J
.
Plot:
1. {(p/ρg) + z} v/s distance (x) of piezometer tubes from some reference point. Draw a smooth
curve passing through the plotted points. This is known as the hydraulic gradient line.

P/pg + z Vs X1
0.136
0.134
0.132
0.13
0.128
0.126
0.124
0.122
12 12.5 13 13.5 14

P/pg+z Vs X2
0.195

0.19

0.185

0.18

0.175

0.17

0.165
16 17 18 19 20
2.E = {(p/ρg) + z + V2/2g} v/s distance (x) of piezometer tubes on the graph {(p/ρg) + z} v/s
distance. Draw a smooth curve passing through the plotted points. This is the total energy line.

E(1) Vs X(1)
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
12 12.5 13 13.5 14

E(2) Vs X(2)
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
16.5 17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5

Result:
E(avg)1=0.21773 J
E(avg)2=0.24948 J

Conclusion:
Sum of Potential energy, kinetic and pressure energy is almost constant at that particular
Medium.
 Experiment 4
Reynolds Number

Aim: To find Reynolds number for a pipe flow.

Apparatus: Flow condition inlet supply, glass pipe, collecting tank.

Introduction and Theory

Reynolds number is defined as ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the viscous force of the
fluid. The expression is as follows:
Re = d V /

Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill the supply tank some times before the experiment.
2. Set the discharge by using the valve of that particular flow can be obtained.
3. The type of flow in glass tube may be seen using dye.
4. Take the reading of discharge for particular flow.
5. Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take reading of discharge accurately.
2. Set the discharge valve accurately for each flow.
 Observation Table:

Sr. No. Diameter of Velocity of fluid Density of fluid Viscosity of fluid

glass pipe

1. 1 inch 6.32*10-2m/s, 997 kg/m3 801.5*10-6cp

Low flow rate
2. 1 inch 11.26*10-2m/s, 997kg/m3 801.5*10-6cp
High flow rate

Calculations:

ρ𝑣𝑥
 Reynolds No. for Low flow rate=
η
= (6.32*10 *997*0.0254)/(801.5*10 ) =1996
-2 -6

ρ𝑣𝑥
 Reynolds No. for High flow rate= =(11.26*10 *997*0.0254)/(801.5*10 ) =3557.65
-2 -6

Result:
Reynolds No. for Low flow rate: Reynolds no. is less than 2100 Reynolds no. So, It’s LAMINAR FLOW.

Reynolds No. for Low flow rate :Reynolds no. is more than 2100 and lesser than 4000.So, It’s TRANSIENT
FLOW.

Concluslion: by this found Raymond's number.

Experiment 6
Rotameter

Aim: To calibrate and study Rotameter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

The rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flowrate of liquids and gases. The
rotameter consists of a tube and float. The float response to flowrate changes is linear. The
rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement range, and low
pressure drop. It is simple to install and maintain.
The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a
tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float
is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the float is
raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid. With gases,
buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone.

All flowmeters are mounted along a pipeline with sufficient distance to stabilize flow between two
meters. The pressure taps are provided at sections as given in the fig. Pressure head difference
between sections can be read on manometer having mercury as the manometer fluid. A valve,
fitted at the end of the pipeline, is used for regulating the discharge in the pipeline

Rotameter:
Size = 1- 1000 LPH
Type = Thread Ends

Schematic Diagram:
Experimental Procedure:
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Rotameter open control valve of the same.
4) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
5) Measure the level of knob in the rotameter.
6) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for
the same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
2. The parallax error should be avoided.
 Observation Table:

Sr. No. Rotameter Scale (in LPH) Flow rate (in LPS)
1. 800 0.20325

2. 1200 0.3125

3. 1600 0.45045

Calculations:
Discharge from Rotameter in LPH =1200
Flow rates=At rotameter scale 800,1200 and 1600 are
5/24.60=0.20325LPS
5/16=0.3125LPS
5/11.1=0.45045LPS respectively.
Actual Discharge , Qa=0.001/tm3/sec
= 0.3125LPS
In LPH; Qa*3600000 = 0.3125*3600
=1125 LPH

Result:

Actual discharge flow rate is nearly or approximately equal to discharge flow rate from
rotameter.
From Rotameter it is 1200LPH and actual discharge 1125LPH.

Conclusion:find the error in rotameter flowrate and actual flow rate.

 Experiment 7
Venturimeter

Aim: To calibrate and study Venturimeter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

Like orifice meter, a venturimeter is also used for the measurement of discharge in a pipeline.
Since head loss caused due to installation of venturi meter in a pipeline is less than that caused
due to installation of orficemeter, the former is usually preferred particularly for higher flow rates.
A venturimeter consists of a converging tube which is followed by a diverging tube. The junction
of the two is termed as 'throat' which is the section of minimum cross-section.

Venturimeter:

Size = 26 mm
Throat Size = 16 mm
Dia. Ratio = 0.615
 Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Venturimeter open control valve of the same.
4) Open the vent cocks provided at the top of the manometer to drive out the air from the
manometer limbs and close both of them as soon as water start coming out.
5) Note down the difference of level of mercury in the manometer limbs.
6) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
7) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for
the same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
 2. The parallax error should be avoided.

Observation Table:

Diameter at Inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Diameter at Orifice D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer difference in mm Flow rate (in LPS)

of Hg
1. 1.4 0.4464LPS

2. 4.1 0.4950LPS

Calculations:

Actual Discharge ,
Q = Cd x A2 (2g (h1- h2))1/2 / (1- (A2/A1)2)1/2

Flow rate = 5/11.20=0.4464 LPS

= 5/10.10=0.4950 LPS

Cd1=12.452
Similarly, Cd2 =8.0401

Result: coefficient of discharge from orifice meter are Cd1=12.452,Cd2=8.0401.

Conclusion by this find coefficient and actual flowrate

 Experiment8
Orificemeter
Aim: To calibrate and study Orificemeter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

A circular Opening in a plate which is fitted suitably in a pipeline is a simple device to measure
the discharge flowing in the pipeline. Such a device is known as orifice meter and is as shown in
the figure. the opening is normally at the centre of the plate as shown in figure. Applying Bernoulli's
equation between section 1 and 2 and using the continuity equation, it can be shown that,
Qa = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1))0.5
where A2 is the area of cross section of the orifice, and (h1 – h2) is the difference in the piezometeric
heads at section 1 and 2.

Orificemeter:
Size = 26 mm
Orifice Size = 16 mm
Dia. Ratio = 0.615
 Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Orificemeter open control valve of the same.
4) Open the vent cocks provided at the top of the manometer to drive out the air from the
manometer limbs and close both of them as soon as water start coming out.
5) Note down the difference of level of mercury in the manometer limbs.
6) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
7) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for
the same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
 1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
2. The parallax error should be avoided.

Observation Table:

Diameter at Inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Diameter at Orifice D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer difference in mm Flow rate (in LPS)

of Hg

1 2.8 0.332

2 5.3 0.446

Calculations:
Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec
Flow rate = 5/15.03=0.332 Lps
= 5/11.20=0.446 Lps
= 5/15.44=0.323 Lps

Q = Cd x A2 (2g (h1- h2))1/2 / (1- (A2/A1)2)1/2

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =

Cd=6.552
Similarly, Cd2 =6.376
Cd3=6.7291

Result : coefficient of discharge from orificemetere are Cd1=6.552,Cd2=6.376,Cd3=6.7291

Conclusion:
by this found
coefficient
and flow rate.
 Experiment 9
Pitot Tube

Aim: To understand working principle of Pitot tube and to measure velocity profile.

Apparatus: Long smooth walled pipe connected to the suction of a blower, manometer.

Introduction and Theory:

When a fluid is flowing through a circular conduit, the velocity is given by dividing the volumetric
flow rate by the area of the cross section of the conduit.This velocity is average mean velocity.
Actually, the velocity of the fluid is not the same at all points in the pipe. The velocity is maximum
at the axis of the pipe and tapers off the zero at the wall of the pipe.

Pitot tube is used for determining the local velocity at various points in a pipe. It consists of an
impact tube, which is positioned perpendicular to the direction of flow and a static tube, which is
positioned parallel to the direction of flow. One end of the manometer is connected to the impact
tube and the other end to the static tube.
hm = hm1 - hm2 V = (2 * g * h)1

Where h = hm (⍴m - ⍴a) / ⍴a

Schematic Diagram:
Experimental Procedure:
1) Make electric connection to the blower and plug in.
2) Switch on the motor of the blower.
3) Start with a particular flow rate of air in the tube.
4) Adjust the position of the impact tube at a definite position in pipe.
5) Measure the distance from the end.
6) When a steady state is reached, record the manometer reading.
7) Take readings for different flow rates of air.

Observations:
Inside diameter of pipe = 100 mm
Length of test pipe = 1000 mm
Cross sectional area of pipe, A = 0.00785 m2
Density of air, ⍴a = 1.205 kg/m3
Density of manometer fluid, ⍴m = 1000 kg/m3
Cp = 0.99-0.995
G = 9.81 m/s2

Manometer reading (hm1) Air velocity V = 4.385 * (hv)½

(m/s)
34 691.8m/s
1
30 691.8m/s
2
23 691.8m/s
3

Calculations:

hv = Manometer reading * ⍴m / ⍴a

Air velocity =
= 4.385 (24896.2656)1/2
= 691.8m/s

Area= π*r2
=3.14*(0.050)2
=7.85*10-3m2
Air volumetric flow rate= 691.8*7.85*10-3
Qv =5.43063m3/s
Air mass flow rate Qm=Density *Qv
= 5. 4306 * 1.205
= 6.5439 kg/s

Result:
For max. velocity =
Air velocity = 691.8 m/s
Air vol. fow rate =5.43063 m3 /s
Air mass flow rate=6.5439 kg/s

Conclusion:by this find air velocity..