The Nervous System

• Week 3 after a human egg is fertilized, the nervous

system starts to form in an embryo.

• Weeks 4-5 the heart begins to beat.

• The "embryo" becomes a "fetus" after the 8th

week.

• Week 25 is probably when the fetus may feel pain

as this is when the neurons have multiplied.
Name two kinds of cells in our
body that are long and
skinny………

What is that common character

shared between them?
 Can a Nerve cell divide?

At what stage of the cell cycle is

a neuron?
Do we develop more neurons
over time???
So lets delve deep……
A Nerve Cell (Anatomy of a Neuron)

Nerve cells are specialized for carrying electrical

signals from one part of the body to another
What are Nerves then?
Nerves
• Nerves: Nerves are
collection of Axons.
• Inside Nerves group of
neurons are organized into
bundles:- Fasciculi.
• Each Fasciculi is hold
together by Perineurium.
• Neurons and Blood Vessels
are hold by loose connective
tissue: Endoneurium.
• A layer of dense connective
tissue around all:
Epineurium.
Role of Myelin Sheath

– Myelin is an electrically insulating material that

forms a layer, the myelin sheath, around only the
axon of a neuron.
– Cholesterol is an essential constituent of myelin.
Myelin is about 40% water; the dry mass is about
70–85% lipids and about 15–30% proteins.
– The main purpose of a myelin layer (or sheath) is to
increase the speed at which impulses propagate
along the myelinated fiber.
– Myelinated fibers succeed in reducing sodium
leakage into the extracellular fluid
 Myelin Sheath Continued……

Non-myelinated, neurons have very slow conduction

rates, about 0.5 to 2 m/sec, compared to myelinated
neurons which conduct at around 300 - 400 m/ sec
Which Human Neurons Have Myelin Around Them

• All neurons are myelinated with the single exception of C

fibres.
• These are very small diameter 'primary afferent‘ fibres
associated with detection of temperature change, noxious
cold and noxious heat. C fibres are often called 'pain fibres'
('slow pain‟).
• Being small diameter and non-myelinated, they have very slow
conduction rates, about 0.5 to 2 m / second, compared to say,
large, myelinated motor neurons which conduct at around 300
- 400 metres / second.
• We could not function if all CNS neurons conducted at that
rate. It would give us a reaction time in excess of 2 seconds as
opposed to the average human reaction time of 500ms (that
would select us out of the competition very quickly).
 Multiple Sclerosis
is a progressive de-myelinating
disorder.
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple Sclerosis
The Nature of Nerve Impulses

• Information is transmitted through neurons in

the form of nerve impulses (Action Potential).
• Involve a sequence of chemical events at the
cell membrane of the neuron.
The Polarization Chemical Event
The Na-K Pump

Why nervous tissue has one of the highest

rates of ATP consumption of any tissue in
the body, and why it demands so much
glucose and oxygen?

Can you relate with Obsessive Compulsive

Disorder
What happens when you smell a
perfume?

You keep stuffs and don‟t feel it?

 How nerve impulse is
transmitted from one neuron to
another
What is a Synapse!!!!!
• The synapse is the small space (20-40nm)
between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrite of another neuron.
• Neurons communicate with one another
through the activities at the synapse.
• When the nerve impulse in one neuron
reaches the synapse, chemicals are released
from the end of the axon.
– Called neurotransmitters
– Which bind to receptor sites on the
dendrite of the other neuron causing
depolarization.
Synaptic Transmission
What is the process
of release of
neurotransmitters
called as?
 Why is destruction / re-uptake of
neurotransmitters important?

What could be the possible outcome?

Identify the disease……
 Identify the disease……

Can occur due to excess retention of

neurotransmitters
A Probable cause to Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and
disabling brain disorder and one of the
world's greatest public health concerns.
People with the disorder may hear voices
other people don't hear. They may believe
other people are reading their minds,
controlling their thoughts, or plotting to harm
them. This can terrify the sufferers and make
them withdrawn or extremely agitated.
What Cocaine does?

Addiction
 Neurotransmitter types

• Excitatory and Inhibitory…

• Guess their mode(s) of action…!!

 Why does drinking
coffee have a
stimulating effect?

 Caffeine inhibits
GABA release and
inhibits Adenosine
action
 Why does
drinking alcohol
shuts everything
down?

 Alcohol
stimulates
GABA release
Why does smoking cigarettes have a
stimulating effect?

ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine

Identify this disease associated with
old age…
Why are chocolates everyone’s
favorite gift items?
• Is there any logic in Grandma’s
advice to drink milk before sleeping
at night?
Serotonin is one of the most important brain chemicals, or
neurotransmitters, for regulating the sleep/wake cycle. Diets high in the
amino acid tryptophan can maintain healthy serotonin levels, but
lifestyle choices like constant travel and an erratic sleep schedule can
disrupt serotonin production. When serotonin levels are not normal,
sleep disturbances and other issues can result, including depression and
Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
chronic fatigue syndrome.
 Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
Nervous System: Structural Division

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Nervous System: Structural Division

• Central Nervous System

(CNS)
– Brain
– Spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)
– Afferent Division
– Efferent Division
Ganglion vs Nuclei
• Ganglion is a group of nerve cell bodies located in the PNS.
In the periphery, cell bodies are not usually found in isolation.

• Ganglia often interconnects with other ganglia to form a

complex system of ganglia known as a Plexus.

• In the CNS, the same clusters of cell bodies are referred to as

“nuclei”, an unfortunate terminology.
Grey Matter Vs White Matter
The CNS has two kinds of tissue: grey matter and white
matter, Grey matter, which has a pinkish-grey color in the
living brain, contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon
terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. White
matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey
matter to each other.
Grey Matter Vs White Matter
Nervous System Structural Organization

Afferent division
– Sends information from internal and external
environment to CNS
• Visceral afferent
– Incoming pathway for information from internal viscera
(organs in body cavities)

• Sensory afferent
– Somatic (body sense) sensation
» Sensation arising from body surface and pro-
prioception
– Special senses
» Vision, hearing, taste, smell
Nervous System Organization

 Efferent division
• Carries information away from CNS to effector organs
(muscles and glands)
• Divided into
– Somatic nervous system
» Consists of fibers of motor neurons that supply
skeletal muscles
– Autonomic nervous system
» Consists of fibers that innervate smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
» Two divisions:
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
Nervous System Organization
Functional Classes of Neurons

• Afferent neurons
– Inform CNS about conditions in both the external
and internal environment
• Efferent neurons
– Carry instructions from CNS to effector organs –
muscles and glands
• Inter-neurons
– Found entirely within CNS
– Responsible for
• Integrating afferent information and formulating an
efferent response
• Higher mental functions associated with the “mind”
Functional Classes of Neurons
What are Inter-Neurons
An interneuron (also called relay neuron, association neuron,
connector neuron or local circuit neuron) is a neuron that forms a
connection between other neurons.

Inter-neurons are neither motor nor sensory. The term is also

applied to brain and spinal cord neurons whose axons connect only
with nearby neurons, to distinguish them from "projection" neurons,
whose axons project to more distant regions of the brain or spinal
cord.

There are more than 100 billion inter-neurons in the human body,
which makes them the most abundant of the three major neuron
types.

Typically, inter-neurons will release glutamate, an excitatory

neurotransmitter, similarly, they may utilize gamma-amino butyric
acid (GABA) when inhibition of a tissue is necessary.
Some Decisions May Require More Inter-Neurons
Not all Brain Cells are Neurons

How inter-neurons are supported?

• Neurons are famous. They are the
stars of the brain show and get all the
attention (10% of all cells).
• The types of cells that play the
supporting roles in the brain are
called glia. Because glia don’t do
fancy electrical tricks, but they are
the glue that keeps the whole brain
working properly.
• In fact, the word ‘glia’ actually means Neurons are like the „movie
glue. star‟ cells of the brain… but
• Neuroglial cells physically, let‟s not forget the other
brain cells, GLIAL cells that
metabolically, and functionally have important jobs in the
support interneurons. background.
Types of Glial Cells
Glia are more numerous than
nerve cells in the brain,
outnumbering them by a huge
ratio.

Four major types of cells in CNS

1. Astrocytes

2. Oligodendrocytes

3. Microglia

4. Ependymal cells
Neuroglial Cells
Astrocytes
– They are involved in the physical
structuring of the brain.

– Establishment of blood-brain barrier.

– Take up excess K+ and Glutamate from

brain ECF.

– Glycogen fuel reserve buffer.

– Along with other glial cells – enhance

synapse formation and modify synaptic
transmission (Tri-partite Synapse)

– Can act as Stem Cells

Astrocytes--Video
Oligodendrogytes

– Form myelin sheaths around

axons in CNS (Schwann Cell
Alternative)

– All white matter tracts contain

oligodendrocytes to form myelin.

– The most frequent disease

involving oligodendrocytes is MS.
It is caused by a loss of myelin in
defined areas of brain and spinal
cord and thus leads to an
impairment of axonal
conductance.
 Like oligodendrocytes schwann cells
wrap themselves around nerve axons, but
the difference is that a single schwann cell
makes up a single segment of an axon's
myelin sheath. Oligodendrocytes on the
other hand, wrap themselves around
numerous axons at once.
Oligodendrogytes

Previous studies have shown abnormalities in the brain’s white

matter—its wiring and insulation—associated with
Schizophrenia.
Microglia: The Constant Gardeners

 Immune defense cells of the CNS

 In resting state release low levels of
growth factors that help neurons
and other glial cells to survive and
thrive
 They not only eat up invaders,
damaged tissue, misfolded protein,
but also trim away weak
connections, or synapses,
between neurons.

 Neuro-developmental disorders
such as schizophrenia are often
associated with faulty pruning.
Ependymal Cells

Line internal, fluid-filled cavities of the

CNS.

Ependymal cells possess tiny hair-like

structures called cilia on their surfaces
facing the open space of the cavities
they line.

The cilia beat in a coordinated pattern to

influence the direction of flow of CSF,
bringing nutrients and other substances to
neurons and filtering out molecules that
may be harmful to the cells.
Regeneration of Nerves

• The CNS has limited ability to

fix its damaged nerves, in
contrast to the PNS.
• CNS cannot generate new
neurons nor regenerate new
axons of previously severed
neurons.
• Remarkably, almost 90% of
cells in the CNS are not even
neurons. Rather they are glial
cells.
• In the CNS, two "glial culprits―
oligodendrocytes and
astrocytes INHIBIT axon
regeneration.
How body protects CNS?
• Enclosed by hard, bony
structures

• Wrapped by meninges
– Dura mater
– Arachnoid mater
– Pia mater

• Floats in cushioning fluid

(CSF)
Dura Mater is actually latin for “Tough
Mother” it literally has 2,000 pounds per
• Blood-brain barrier square inch of tensile strength
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Surrounds and cushions brain and
spinal cord

• Formed primarily by choroid plexuses.

It is responsible for pumping out about
500 ml per day. It also supplies nutrients
and hormones to the brain while
clearing waste. CSF changes with age.

• During sleep, the flow of CSF

increases dramatically, washing away
harmful waste proteins that build up
between brain cells during waking
hours.
CSF is recycled (flushed) 4 times per day in
order to clean out metabolites and toxins
like beta amyloid. Hence the choroid plexus
must produce about 500 milliliters of CSF
daily (or 21 mL per hour).
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation
1. Is choroid plexus the only place of exchange of nutrients in
brain?

2. So, is CSF the only carrier of nourishment in brain?

3. So isnt there blood flowing through brain/CNS? Or is it

only CSF?

4. What is blood brain barrier then, how stuffs are

exchanged?

5. So how do pain killers act then?

6. Can blood brain barrier be breached?

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

• It acts as a gatekeeper
• Prevent harmful blood-borne substances
to reach central nervous tissue
• Prevents neurotransmitters from
reaching brain
• Limits use of drugs for treatment of
brain and spinal cord disorders
– Many drugs cannot penetrate BBB
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
Brain Anatomy

• Brain components
– Brain stem
– Cerebellum
– Forebrain
• Diencephalon
– Hypothalamus
– Thalamus
– Cerebrum
• Basal nuclei
• Cerebral cortex
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla

Spinal cord
Major Functions Brain component
1. Sensory perception
2. Voluntary control of movement
Cerebral cortex
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements Basal nuclei
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness Thalamus
4. Role in motor control
1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
control, thirst, urine output, and food intake Hypothalamus
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
2. Enhancement of muscle tone Cerebellum
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves
2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers Brain stem
3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture (midbrain, pons,
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord; and medulla)
arousal and activation of Human
cerebral cortex
Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System
Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Brain Stem

• Oldest region of the brain

• Continuous with spinal cord
• Consists of
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla

It controls breathing, heart rate, body

temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion,
sneezing, coughing, vomiting, swallowing and
co-ordinates motor signals.
Brain Stem
• Some other Functions

– Most of cranial nerves arise from brain stem

– RETICULAR FORMATION
– (wakefulness centre / radar / RAS) within brain stem
receives and integrates all incoming sensory
synaptic input (controls sub-conscious mind (40
million bits of data/sec).

– Centers that govern sleep are in brain stem

(evidence suggests center promoting slow-wave sleep
lies in hypothalamus).
The part of the brain that keeps you “ALERT”
Helps you pay attention to new stimulus
At the most rudimentary level, information from the senses
makes a stop-over in a structure called the reticular
formation of the brainstem. The reticular formation is a
cluster of interconnected neurons similar to a web of fiber
optics. This structure sends signals to far-reaching parts
of the brain, influencing the general sense of alertness.
Pain, light touch, head movement, smell, sound, and
light stop over here in the reticular formation on its way
to the cortex.
Your Sub-conscious Desire is
therefore Important

It will start putting the

path/resources to get to your
desire

So tuning ON your reticular is

important
Brain Stem: Sleep Control
Active process consisting of
two types of sleep
characterized by different EEG
patterns and different
behaviors:-

1. Slow-wave sleep
2. Paradoxical or REM Sleep

It has been observed that mental activity is present

during all stages of sleep, though from different
regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular
understanding, the brain never completely shuts
down during sleep.
Comparison of Slow-Wave and Paradoxical
Sleep
Active and Inactive Areas in Sleep
Neuronal Control of Sleep
Hypothalamus and Sleep
The brainstem and hypothalamus promote wakefulness by sending
arousal signals to the cerebral cortex, the brain’s largest region.

One area of the brain that promotes arousal is the tubero-mammillary

nucleus (TMN). Here, neurons release histamine as one of their
neurotransmitters.

Other neurons produce a neurotransmitter called orexin (also known

as hypocretin), which directly stimulates the arousal centers as well as
the cerebral cortex itself.

Neurons in a part of the hypothalamus called the ventrolateral preoptic

nucleus (VLPO) connect directly to the many arousal-promoting
centers. Rather than stimulating activity in these areas, signals from
VLPO neurons inhibit their activity
Diencephalon

• Houses two brain

components

– Thalamus
• sensory processing

– Hypothalamus
• homeostatic functions
important in maintaining
stability of internal
environment
Thalamus (The relay station)

• Serves to relay sensory to cerebral cortex

• Along with brain stem and cortical association
areas, important in ability to direct attention to
stimuli of interest
• Capable of crude awareness of various types of
sensation (hot/cold).
Apart from smell all sensory inputs pass
through Thalamus
The ultimate reality is that without thalamus, the cortex is
useless, it's not receiving any information in the first place.
Hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus gland has a very important job — to

connect the nervous system with the endocrine system.
• Functions
– body homeostatic system
– Say temperature (deeper functions by cortex)
– thirst and urine output
– food intake
– Produces posterior pituitary hormones
– uterine contractions and milk ejection
– Participates in sleep-wake cycle.
The Limbic System
• Includes two major portions:
o Amygdala: almond shaped mass of nuclei
involved in emotional responses, hormonal
secretions, and memory.
o Hippocampus: a tiny nub that acts as a
memory indexer -- sending memories out to
the appropriate part of the cerebral
hemisphere for long-term storage and
retrieving them when necessary.

• Responsible for
– Emotion (some may last for 4-5hrs)
– Motivation and learning
The amygdala is a key coordinator of
emotional behavior
The Amygdala and Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

• The first good evidence linking the amygdala to emotion

was obtained in 1939 by Heinrich Kluver and Paul
Bucy.

• They removed the amygdala bilaterally in monkeys.

• They observed a dramatic change in emotional behavior:
– Monkeys became tame, fearless, and had “blunted”
emotions.
– Increased oral activity, including placing inedible
objects in their mouth.

• Micro-stimulation of the amygdala produces feelings

of fear and apprehension.
“How could I do that, what could I have
possibly been thinking?”

Well in reality you weren’t thinking you

were overwhelmed with an emotional
reaction. You were hijacked.
The Amygdala and Emotional Processing

• Imaging studies have revealed that the amygdala is activated

differentially by emotional facial expressions. Other functional
imaging studies have shown the amygdala to respond to
emotionally arousing stimuli.

In most people, the amygdala rapidly habituates, or

decreases its response, to repeated social stimuli. But
scientists have discovered for the first time that the amygdala
of people with autism does not adapt to repeated viewings of
faces.
A schematic model for how hormonal systems can
modulate memory storage via the amygdala
• Emotionally arousing events
activate the sympathetic nervous
system and the HPA axis,
resulting in the release of
epinephrine and glucocorticoids,
which have been shown to enhance
emotional memory.

• Lesions of the amygdala block this

memory-enhancing neuro-
modulatory function.

• The amygdala is reciprocally

connected with the hippocampus
and the neo-cortex, both
implicated in memory processes.
The Hippocampus

Cerebral Cortex
Previously formed memories are stored in the cerebral cortex.
Thalamus
Areas of the thalamus are considered to have a role in the formation of new memories
partly through their connections with the hippocampus, and partly because the thalamus
is considered to be important for mental alertness.

Hippocampus
The hippocampus is believed to have a critical role in the formation of new memories. It
functions as a memory "gateway" through which new memories must pass before
entering permanent storage in the brain. It is one of the first brain areas to show
damage in Alzheimer's disease. (Declarative Memory OFF; Procedural On)
Memory
• Different stages of human memory function as a sort of filter
that helps to protect us from the flood of information that
confront us on a daily basis, avoiding an overload of
information and helping to keep us sane. Storage of acquired
knowledge for later recall

• Short-term memory/ Consolidation/ Long-term memory

• The more the information is repeated or used, the more likely

it is to be retained in long-term memory.
Memory Storage

• After consolidation, long-term memories are stored throughout the

brain as groups of neurons that are primed to fire together in
the same pattern that created the original experience, and each
component of a memory is stored in the brain area that initiated it
(e.g. groups of neurons in the visual cortex store a sight, neurons in
the amygdala store the associated emotion, etc).

• Indeed, it seems that they may even be encoded redundantly,

several times, in various parts of the cortex, so that, if one memory
trace is wiped out, there are duplicates, or alternative pathways,
elsewhere, through which the memory may still be retrieved.

• Antero-grade Amnesia (inability to create new

memories/cannot recall recent past)

• Retrograde Amnesia (inability to recall past events happened

before amnesia)
Cerebrum
• Highly developed
• Makes up about 80% of total
brain weight (largest portion of
brain)

• Outer surface is highly convoluted

cerebral cortex
– Highest, most complex integrating
area of the brain
– Plays key role in most
sophisticated neural functions
Cerebral Cortex
• Outer most layer of
cerebrum

• Each half of cortex

divided into four
major lobes
– Occipital
– Temporal
– Parietal
– Frontal
Cerebral Pre-Frontal Cortex Maturation
A homunculus is a sensory map of your body, so it looks like an oddly
proportioned human. The reason it's oddly proportioned is that a homunculus
represents each part of the body in proportion to its number of sensory neural
connections and not its actual size. The layout of the sensory neural
connections throughout your body determines the level of sensitivity each area
of your body has, so the hands on a sensory homunculus are its largest body
parts, exaggerated to an almost comical degree, while the arms are skinny.
Speaking and Language
• Primary areas of cortical specialization for
language
– Broca‟s area
• Governs speaking ability (understanding but not able
to speak/express) (Stammering/Stuttering)
– Wernicke‟s area
• Can speak fluently but speaks Non-sense.
• Concerned with language comprehension
• Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech
• Language disorders
– Aphasias (Broca’s or Wenicke’s Lesion)
– Speech impediments
– Dyslexia (disability in reading and arranging infos-
developmental disorder)
Cerebral Hemispheres

• Left cerebral hemisphere

– Excels in logical, analytic, sequential, and verbal
tasks
• Math, language forms, philosophy

• Right cerebral hemisphere

– Excels in nonlanguage skills
• Spatial perception and artistic and musical talents
Cerebellum
• Attached at top rear portion of brain stem
• Balancing
• Subconscious coordination of motor activity
(movement)
• Plays key role in learning skilled motor tasks