RUNNING HEAD: SEX TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS 1

SEX TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

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Topic: Why have sex?

Questions

1. List the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction purely involves only a single parent and therefore there is no need for a

mate that would be costly in terms of up resources. Furthermore, there is a shorter time span

accrued to asexual reproduction than the sexual mode. This owes to the fact that it only required

of the single parent to reproduce. Often, asexual reproduction results in a great multitude in

terms of the offsprings. A single reproduction process that amasses so many offsprings within a

very short time.

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Result offsprings are usually identical in their genetic makeup. This is a poses a great danger

with the changing environmental conditions. The species naturally cannot adapt therefore they

are to be extinct in case of a threat from without.

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

Offsprings are genetically different and diversified coupled with a great measure of uniqueness.

This presents the possibility of a superior offspring with complex features. These survival

features and characteristics are passed on to the new generation and therefore there are limited

chances of extinction as survival tactics increase hyperbolically. Changes in environmental

conditions only become a threat to a small number of the population while the rest as able to

successfully adapt and finally survive.

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Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction strictly requires two parents, a male, and a female. This is quite tasking and

costly in maintaining both the two organisms. The two parents both require adequate resources

and often dwell in a common ecological niche. Sometimes competition may arise due to

preferred mating partners resulting into a conflict of interest. Sexual mating is also characterized

with long duration and hard work. Both the parties involved have to physically look the partners

whenever they are on heat. This is time-consuming and even difficult enough for larger animals

to mate with those of smaller size but the same species. Some species end up dying in the

process of mating. Again, it is very tasking to perform sexual reproduction externally by

transferring sperms safely to an egg cell. There is too much technological sophistication involved

including highly skilled personnel.

There are certain species of organisms that are able to maximize reproduction through both

sexual and asexual means. Flowering plants and certain animals take advantage of different

environmental conditions and consequently thrive well.

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2. Why can parthenogenesis in the whiptail skink be considered a degenerate form of

reproduction?

Parthenogenesis results in an only female population with eggs as well. Ovulation is still

expected to occur only after one female has mimicked the presence of a male as required during

the courtship period. This suggestively shows the initial presence of the male population during

the reproduction process. The courtship behavior being passed on to different offsprings in the

evolution process of the species (Jackson & Bateman, 2018).

D1. Describe several different hypotheses for why sexual reproduction evolved. How do

you think some groups of rotifers have managed to exist for millions of years without sex?

Pathogens and parasites are known to have a short lifespan and therefore must continually evolve

in order to keep up with the ever-changing system of the host. The hosts, on the other hand, must

ensure proper mechanisms for defense against the parasites. Offsprings due to asexual

reproduction are more viable to parasite attack as a result of lack of variation in the genetic

makeup. Those organisms developed out of sexual reproduction always result in varied species.

The parasites are therefore not able to attack all the species at the same time. Poeciliopsis, fish

genus exhibit both asexual and sexual reproduction forms according to Steven & William (2017).
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Topic: Human Reproductive Systems

CT1. How could you redesign the male reproductive system so that the path of urine and

the path of sperm are separate?

Separating paths for sperm and urine only involves creating a different tube for urine probably at

the end of the penis. This enables the sperms and urine paths to work independently preventing

undesirable mix-ups.

CT2. Animals that reproduce in water typically do not have a penis. What advantage does

a penis serve for humans, who reproduce on land?

The penis is long enough and mechanically strong to penetrate deeply into the vagina, therefore,

depositing the sperms at the right place for enhancing pregnancy. Penis muscles when fully filled

with blood improves sexual activities for the male.

The penis has what disadvantage?

The penis is held protruding from the body making this vital organ prone to injuries.

Vulnerability and susceptibility issues are also associated with the penis especially when it is

erect making it very visible even when inside the clothing.

CT3. How could you redesign the female reproductive system so that the vagina is not both

the organ of copulation and the birth canal?

The birth canal is at times overburdened especially after a number of births. Therefore separating

the birth canal from the copulation canal is a bright idea that enhances sexual enjoyment.
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Creating another canal just above the birth canal can be of great help. The two canals are

supposed to converge at the cervical area to improve pregnancy efficiency.

CT4. Following menopause, females stop producing eggs and cannot get pregnant. Males

produce sperm their entire lives. Relate this discrepancy to differences in the reproductive

function and expected behavior of the sexes.

Menopause is a physiological condition in women especially at the age of 45-55 where the ladies

are incapable of conception. Men, on the other hand, are still strong and very viable to produce

sperms. The body of men at 45 is still strong enough as compared to that of women which after

45 years undergo a full degeneration inhibiting successful pregnancy. The females, therefore,

will stop the ovulation process while for men, there are no risks yet associated with reproduction

activities at the age of 45 years and above (Tailor& Preston-Hsu, 2018)

Topic: Human Sexual Response

Questions

1. The Masters and Johnson model of human sexual response has how many phases?

What are they?

Filardo et al., (2018) affirms that Masters and Johnson came up with a respectable human sexual

response model commonly known as the human sexual response cycle. The phases include

Excitement phase (initial arousal), Plateau phase (Full arousal preceding orgasm), Orgasm and

Resolution phase (right after orgasm). This model is in no difference with Sigmund Freud’s

purported categories including ‘vaginal orgasm’ and ‘clitoral orgasm’. These two results in the
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same response though with different stimulation. Masters and Johnson also found that men

usually undergo a period of refractory in which there is no more ejaculation as opposed to the

women who are capable of undergoing multiple orgasms during the refractory phase. Again

Masters and Johnson were among those who initially described the rhythmic contraction

phenomenon during orgasms in both sexes. This occurs in the initial 0.8-second intervals and

then slowly fades in terms of speed and intensity.

4. How do men and women differ with regard to sexual arousal?

Men and women exhibit certain key differences with regards to their sexual arousal responses.

Certainly enough, men’s arousal is physically evident and can be noticed through the outward

erection whereas women’s arousal is more hidden in nature. Man through physical arousal and

mental show their response through partial or full erection that is visible to those within his

vicinity. Women on the contrary experience the sexual arousal in a quite different way.

Whenever aroused, both men and women experience increased blood flow to the genital areas.

This results in the erection in the case of men. However, in women, the increased blood

circulation to the genitals increases the production of women’s natural vaginal fluids. These

natural lubricants ‘wets’ the vaginal area in the case of an intense arousal activity.

6. Discuss three controversies about the female sexual response.

Orgasms: women are believed to experience more than two different types of orgasms all

originating from varied pathways.

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The G-Sport: This is quite controversial since there is no primary evidence about the existence of

a G-Sport on the female reproductive system. The existence of a G-Sport is based on the

possibility of the presence of a very sensitive area on the inner front wall of the vagina.

Ejaculation: It is not very clear whether the females produce semen like men from the urethra at

the time of orgasm. The contents of the female ejaculation are quite speculative and controversial

in nature.

CT2. Women are more apt to see sexual desire as a means to love, emotional intimacy, or

physical closeness. Is this goal consistent with the female’s role of bearing children? Why?

Yes, most women are in congruence with the fact that sexual desire is viewed as a means of love,

emotional intimacy and physical closeness blended together with the childbearing role. Apart

from the emotional response of any woman, the husband in question is keen on the final result of

their marriage. Children are considered the only positive output in any relationship. Therefore,

whenever a woman is expectant, she exhibits some level of great love to the husband. The

emotional intimacy and physical closeness consequently rise exponentially.

Topic Animal Mating Systems

Questions

1. Why is polyandry uncommon? What sorts of ecological and phylogenetic circumstances

might favor polyandry in animals?

Males in their natural set up always compete for more mating partners as compared to the

counterpart females who are so keen and particular about their male partners. Some species,

however, the males are known to supply the females with protein-rich sperm packets as ‘gifts’
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increasing the mating tendency. Polyandry has become quite uncommon owing to the fact that

the females largely invest in the sperms. In the Animalia kingdom, there are some ecological and

phylogenetic circumstances favoring the existence of polyandry. Firstly, there the ability to adapt

easily to a new environment and being able to obtain food. Body size is again another factor

favoring polyandry in animals. This is quite consistent with the L-selected system.

2. The graph on page 341 shows the relationship between harem size and the number of

females that a male monopolizes, and the ratio of male-to-female body length, a measure of

sexual dimorphism, in a variety of species of seals.

The graph shows an outstanding relationship between the harem and the body size of the males

involved. A larger seal is noticeably able to take possession of a big number of female seals. The

larger number of female families associated with a sizeable male seal is attributed to the fact that

the male seal is able to competitively win and overthrow other males. The physical strength is

indeed and a survival mechanism and a way to obtain many mating partners as well.

A. What is the most likely cause of this relationship? B. What prediction could you make

about the breeding habitat occupied by a species at the lower left of the curve versus one at

the upper right?

The lower left end of the curve as a breeding habitat would have a small number of species due

to insufficient lush coupled with volatility. This presents inadequate spots for shelter and fewer

food resources to sustain the whole population. The upper right end of the curve provides a

suitable site with plentiful resources to sustain a dense population of organisms.

Topic Sexual Selection

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Questions

2. When we see differences between the sexes, we usually assume that they have come

about by sexual selection. Can you think of selection pressures other than obtaining mates

that might produce such differences?

A selection pressure can actually be attributed to anything fashionable and that which is

relatively attractive with longtime frames, impacting positively on the species survival

techniques. Potential pressure can be derived from prey availability, pressure from predators,

environmental stresses, competition from within and without. The human being can be part of

the competition from without. In the world of evolution, reproduction is weighted and considered

the most important aspect of the species survival. Therefore, when a predator consumes only

those old species incapable of reproducing, the prey species are still able to survive and undergo

the required evolution.

Selection pressure actually is void of intelligence, reason, rhyme, and foresight and exclusively

operates on the individual level. Any new adaptation only benefits an individual and can only be

applicable to the whole community if it becomes fixed in a population though it may be

detrimental to the species evolution.

Psychologists in the field of evolution have come up with varied theories to explain the existing

differences among men and women. Evolutionary psychology stand s out to explain the sex

differences and impacted upon by pressure from both the physical and social environments

during the early stages of life. Each sex is believed to have faced a different pressure that was

very key in the shaping of the reproductive status of that particular sex. The result is evident in

the sex-specific evolved mechanism that human beings carry resulting into the different self-
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differentiated behaviors. These varying mechanisms ensure survival and constant reproduction

ensuring generational success. The difference in psychology and social roles are also results of

psychological evolutionary. This also tends to explain the remarkable difference between men

and women, especially concerning reproduction issues. Men are less concerned as opposed to

women who are so choosy about their mates and the kind of the offsprings they bring up.

The environment is also very key to shaping the predispositions yielding the varied sex-typed

responses.

The social structural theory also attributes sex differences to the existing social structures. Men

and women tend to have varied social roles and therefore this is presupposed believed to

psychologically enable them to adjust to their social roles. Both sexes are believed to face

different situations in the society right from the historical perspective of the cultural arena

thereby influencing their sexual orientation. Men are believed to be very agile and physically

able therefore they amass the great level of attention and respect in the society. The physical

orientation of one particular sex influences its role in the society. And because one sex performs

exemplary well in a particular task, it is placed in a particular social structure. This placement, in

turn, leads to the development of certain basic traits. Men are generally accorded roles of greater

power and of good standing in the society illustrating their dominance. Women generally are

classified with low dignity and status in the society producing more of subordinate behavior. The

social structural theory also emphasizes that women’s selection of mates is majorly based on the

power and social status in the society apart from the reproduction ability. Mate selection

probably provides a way of elevating the social status in the world of women (Bektas & Waines,

2018).
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3. Males typically compete for access to females and often obtain more than one mate,

while females are particular about their choice of mates. In some species, however, the

male supplies the female with large “gifts” in the form of captured prey or large, protein-

rich sperm packets. What differences might you expect to see in the reproductive behavior

of such species when compared with the typical pattern?

Reproductive behavior includes any relevant activity aimed at continuing the species population.

There exist many reproductive modes as a result of the variety in the reproductive behavior.

Animals undergo a series of events in the reproductive behavior to ensure replacement of their

kind. Evolutionists view reproduction not as a way of increasing population but as a way to

maximize the representation of its very own kind genetically in the next generation.

A single male is able to mate with several females thus lowering the selective value among males

and elevating the value of females in the population. Sexual selection, therefore, favors a

polygamous and a promiscuous system as evident among the Aves. Polygamy is quite among the

mammals since the males are less considered in the care for the offsprings. Monogamy, on the

other hand, is favored in the case of insufficient resources and maximum care of both parents

required for the survival of the offspring. The mating system employed therefore as a result of

pure natural selection.

A. Name and describe the hypotheses proposed to explain the evolution of sexually

dimorphic traits.

Explaining the origin of diversity has been the center of focus in the evolutionary and ecological

biology thus several theories and mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon.
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Sexual dimorphism presents an intriguing situation where male and females of the same species

exhibit differences in coloration, behavior, vocalizations, ornamentation and body size.

Darwin argues that mate choice and competition for mates’ influences sexual dimorphism as

exhibited in several taxa. Researchers also have found that competition for mates is indeed in the

core of sexual selection and greatly influences mating and fertilization success. The differences

in the sexual behavior of orgasms also are key drivers in the sexual dimorphism in a number of

species. Other proposed ideas explaining patterns of dimorphisms include sex-specified

divergent selection which is in response to environmental gradients by each sex.

Adaptive canalization hypothesis is such another pattern that also explains sexual dimorphism

based on the species size. Larger sexes are favored under large bodies and therefore those of

suboptimal body sizes automatically experience lower fitness. Additionally, a condition-

dependence hypothesis also emphasizes the preference of larger sex under strong directional

selection though it will be affected by environmental conditions as compared to the smaller sex.

Topic Sexual Signals

Questions

8. Why is it usually the case that the male courts the female rather than the other way

around?

Males are often the ones involved in the courting of the females as they depend entirely on the

females for reproductive success. Females furthermore are the ones that make major parental

investments. Therefore the males often compete for female access by displaying their genetic

quality through sexual signs and presenting themselves in suggestive ways.

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A. Please provide a mate choice example of each of the three types of signal mentioned

on pg 279. Describe the signal used and the effect it has on the reproductive success of

the emitter.

The signal involved here is the nuptial chemical as a gift to the females from which they

determine the kind of the mating partner. The male Ornate moth presents to the females a self-

synthesized spermatophore consisting of sperm, nutrients, and alkaloids. The females after

receiving a number of these gifts preferentially decide on the type that would fertilize its egg.

Auditory signals can again be used to lure the females for mating purposes. Males are able to

produce larynx sound and mechanical calls uniquely for mate selection. Birds also produce

unique sounds as a sign of reproductive success. Visual signals are at times applied as in the case

of dances blended with auditory signals such as the male peacock spider which uses its colored

abdomen combined with vibratory signals during the courtship practice.

Topic Post-copulatory mechanisms of sexual selection

Questions

3. In many species, females mate with more than one male, setting the stage for cryptic

female choice or sperm competition, as discussed in this chapter. Can you think of

observations or experiments that would distinguish between these two possibilities? For a

further discussion on criteria for demonstrating cryptic female choice, see Birkhead, 1998

and Eberhard, 2000.

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Sperm Competition

This is a gift void of a nutritional value but the males still present it to the females for mating

purposes. Males at times associated with the females without the display of courtship behaviors.

This common practice known as ‘mate-guarding’ hinders rival males from a particular female

thereby helping to reduce sperm competition. Mate guarding can occur at any time, before or

after mating. A male damselfly is known to protect its female mate by grasping her thorax with

its abdomen particularly the wheel position. This indeed subsequent mating with other males and

therefore safeguards this particular female preventing competition. Males cannot totally

dominate a particular female and therefore other means are used to ensure that the sperms

particular male fertilizers the most number of eggs. Such practices include repeated copulation

and for the longer duration, therefore, increasing sperm quantity delivered and pregnancy

efficiency (Coombes, Stockley, & Hurst, 2018).

Cryptic Female Choice

Most cases involve females in the mating investment and intersexual selection thereby referred

to as the female choice. Males are selected based on their ability to provide resources like food

and oviposition sites and also on their genetic quality. Females can also choose the sites for the

offspring immediately after the mating process commonly referred to as cryptic female choice.

Though not readily noticed, recent studies are in full confirmation of this event as experiments

show how females are able to control the paternity of their offspring. Orb-web spider females,

Argiope Keyserling, can actually terminate copulation process by capturing and consuming the

males. , experimentally females mated with two or more males experienced delayed cannibalism

(Dixson, 2018).
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Courtship in itself is a proper platform to effectively reduce the risks of cannibalism especially

when the female attempts sexual cannibalism before the mating process. Sexual cannibalism

often occurs after mating has commenced especially among the nudibranch, praying mantis and

certain spider species. Sexual cannibalism is at times necessary among the praying mantis in

order to result in an effective copulation. Sexual cannibalism again can be attributed to

insufficient food for the egg production for the females.

4. using the figure on page 326, describe the general relationship between testes weight

and body weight for different primate genera and then explain why some genera are

above the line and below it. What can you summarize about human mating systems from

this graph?

Among the primates, sperm quality is directly connected with the mating system employed

especially among the gorillas and orangutans. These primates believe that only the winners in the

mating competition get relative access to the females. Chimpanzees, however, several males

mate with a female in an attempt to cope up with the competition. Møller (1988) argued that in

this case competition "takes place in the female’s fallopian tubes and that the male with the most

and best sperm fertilizes the egg. In fact, chimps have larger testes than other apes and produce a

high-quality ejaculate—greater numbers of sperm and more motile sperm. Species in which

more than one male mates with a female have relatively large testis."
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Human Mating Systems

The graph illustrates that in each scenario, females only have one mating partner which is also

true with the males. There are no cases of multiple partners thereby the males do not have large

testis.

Topic Sexual Conflict

Questions

1. What is a sexual conflict?

The sexual conflict involves disagreements between males and females with regards to their

evolutionary interests centered on frequency and mode of reproduction.

2. What is the sexually antagonistic selection?

Sexually antagonistic selection is a relationship between males and females where there are

conflicting evolutionary interests between the two reproducing individuals involved. Males have

evolved and developed physical fitness thus increasing their reproduction success. Females, on

the other hand, have developed resistance mechanisms in order to counteract their counterpart

males who are oriented to frequent mating.

3. What is the difference between inter- and intra-locus conflicts?

The inter-locus conflict involves males and females experiencing the opposing pressure with

regards to their traits. The traits are expressed differently due to the conflicting genetic makeup

of the species.

Intra-locus conflict on the other hand showcase males and females of the same trait but subjected

to varied selection pressure.

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Topic Sexual Orientation

Questions

1. What is the Kinsey Scale? Why is its creation considered to be so valuable? What are

its downfalls?

Kinsey scale measures sexuality on a scale of 0 to 6 through one’s sexual behavior; in which 0

implies exclusive heterosexual while 6 being exclusively homosexual. Continuum has been of

great help and value as it shows how variety exists with regards to human sexuality apart from

just homosexuals and the heterosexuals. Based on the measure of human behavior and not sexual

orientation, continuum has led to great awareness concerning sexual variation in species. Kinsey

suggests that both the guys’ side and the straights’ sides are in within the human existence and

most people prefer only one side as opposed to both sexes equally. This almost locks out the

singles and the bisexuals (Swan, 2018).

2. Theories and models about the origins of sexual orientation have focused on

psychosocial, biological and evolutionary factors. Outline and discuss each of

these factors.

Biological factors: These are more concerned with the genetic composition of a species. These

genes affect greatly orientation of a particular species. Research continues to show how the DNA

molecule contains multiple genes that shape the sexual orientation.

Prenatal care issues also contribute to how one species adapt to the prevailing environmental

and the final orientation accordingly. Prenatal period is such critical to the development of an

organism that determines the sexual orientation of the species involved.

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Psychosocial: certain sexual orientations like gays, homosexuals are as a result of poor

psychosocial experiences. Such orientations are categorized under the categorical condition that

without the prevailing circumstances then such orientations would have been avoided. As a

result, nature would take its course and heterosexuality would be the result.

Topic Plant Reproduction

Questions

D1. Describe the sequence of events that begins when a pollen grain lands on the surface

of a compatible stigma and ends in double fertilization.

A pollen grain falls on the surface of a compatible stigma initiating the production of enzymes to

digest the pollen molecules. The suitable prevailing conditions like the presence of a generative

cell and a tube accelerates the growth of the pollen tube down the style of the flower. The

generative cell travels through the pollen tube and divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen

tube then penetrates through the micropyle then enters the ovule to start the fertilization process.

Pollen tube on reaching the embryo sac, one of the generative cells, sperm cells fuses with the

egg forming a diploid zygote while the other sperm cell joins the two nuclei cells for a complete

fertilization process.

D2. Why is the cereal grain really a fruit?

Caryopsis fruits like the cereal grain are actually non-fleshy in nature. Moreover, the cereal grain

is void of an ovary, therefore, it is considered to be a fruit.

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D3. Describe apomixis. What would be an evolutionary advantage to a plant having this

mode of reproduction?

Apomixis is a reproductive process especially in plants where there is no female meiosis and egg

fertilization as well but the embryos and seeds develop successfully. This is a genetically

oriented process and the offsprings are the true replica of the mother plant in terms of genetical

identity. Evolutionary, apomixis is advantageous in the sense that production a large population

of the genetically uniform crops is possible.

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References

Bektas, H., & Waines, J. G. Root and shoot traits in parental, early and late generation Green

Revolution wheats (Triticum spp.) under glasshouse conditions. Genetic Resources and

Crop Evolution, 1-10.

Coombes, H. A., Stockley, P., & Hurst, J. L. (2018). Female Chemical Signalling Underlying

Reproduction in Mammals. Journal of chemical ecology, 1-23.

Dixson, A. F. (2018). Copulatory and Postcopulatory Sexual Selection in Primates. Folia

Primatologica, 89(3-4), 258-286.

Jackson, L. N., & Bateman, H. L. (2018). DIFFERING ECTOPARASITE LOADS, SEXUAL

MODES, AND ABUNDANCES OF WHIPTAIL LIZARDS FROM NATIVE AND

NON- Steven, J. B., & William, G. (2017). Egg coat zona pellucida 3 glycoprotein â

evolution of its putative sperm-binding region in Old World murine rodents (Rodentia:

Muridae). Reproduction, fertility, and development NATIVE HABITATS. Herpetological

Conservation and Biolog Filardo, P. M., Victoria Aarons, Blaim, A., Brennan, D. M.,

Condé, H. V., Gelsinger, C. F & Gorman, R. F. (2018). Ontological incompleteness and

music. y, 13(1), 294-301.

Swan, D. J. (2018). 2 Models and Measures of Sexual Orientation. In Bisexuality (pp. 19-36).

Springer, Cham.

Tailor, Y., & Preston-Hsu, E. (2018). Initiating a women's health physician–run rehabilitation

clinic in the United States. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, 61, e506.