CROP WATER MANAGEMENT

Crop: A group of plants grown at a particular time by human beings for different benefits such
as grains, leaves, tubers, roots, underground stems etc. Different benefits of crop are obtained
by both plants and animals.

Plant: A living organism which can prepare its own food during the process of photosynthesis
is known as plant. If a wheat plant is grown in the field it produces 3 to 4 tillers. If it is grown
singly i.e, only a single plant is grown in favorable conditions can produce 30 to 40 tillers.

Crop water management:

Definition: It is the management of amount of water received in the field through any source viz
irrigation or precipitation, for efficient growth and development of plant to get maximum yield.

It is very important to manage the crop water because water is very important for the proper
growth and development of plants. Water which can be available to plants in the field is only
capillary water. So, its proper management is very important and necessary.

SEASONAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

There are generally four recognized seasons in a year

1. Summer (MAY to AUG)

2. Autumn (SEP to OCT)
3. Winter (NOV to JAN)
4. Spring (FEB to APRIL)

On the basis of these seasons the crops are classified into;

1. Rabi crops 2. Zaid Rabi crops

3. Kharif crops 4. Zaid Kharif crops

(1) Rabi Crops: Crops which are grown in winter (Nov –Jan.) & harvested in spring season
(Feb-April) e.g, wheat.

(2) Zaid Rabi Crops: Crops sown in Jan.—Feb. and harvested after termination of “rabi”
season e.g tobacco.

(3) Kharif Crops: Crops grown in summer (May-June) and harvested in autumn (Sep.-
Oct.) e.g rice.

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 (4) Zaid Kharif Crops: Crops which is harvested after termination of kharif season (Jan.-
Feb.) e.g Brassica compestris/Toria.

Water: Water is a substance which may justifiably be called as a fluid of life as no plant or
animal life is possible without water.

It posses unique physical and chemical properties which enables it to play very important role in
plant processes. It is a triatomic molecule in which 1 oxygen atom and 2 hydrogen atoms are
covalently bonded.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER

Water is very important from different aspects of life. It is necessary for all living organisms.

Chemically

It is triatomic molecule. In this 2 hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded with 1 oxygen
atoms. It is a polar molecule. This polarity is due to partial positive charge of hydrogen
atoms and partial negative charge of oxygen atom. This polarity is called as hydrogen
bonding. Hydrogen bonding develops between different water molecules. Water is involved
in hydration, mobilization of material etc. Due to hydrogen bonding water show different
interesting properties.

Physically

Water is most important in all universe. Total amount of water is 1.33 bkm3. It covers 71%
of earth. Oceans contain more than 97% of this. Other sources are glaciers, ground water,
icecap etc. No organism can survive without it. A plant seed can only germinate under the
presence of sufficient moisture. Otherwise it will not germinate.

Physiologically

Water is very important in different physiological processes such as germination, growth,

photosynthesis, translocation of solute, respiration, transpiration, stomatal opening &
closening, flowering & fruiting, fruit ripening, dormancy and senescence.

Biochemically

Water is one of the prime elements responsible for life on earth. Water circulates through
the land just as it does through the human body, transporting, dissolving, replenishing
nutrients and organic matter, while carrying away waste material. Further in the body, it
regulates the activities of fluids, tissues, cells, lymph, blood and glandular secretions.

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 An average adult body contains 42 litres of water and with just a small loss of 2.7 litres he
or she can suffer from dehydration, displaying symptoms of irritability, fatigue,
nervousness, dizziness, weakness, headaches and consequently reach a state of pathology.

Water is also very important from biochemical point of view. It is involved as a compulsory
component in different reactions such as hydrolysis, hydration, solubilization, osmosis,
mobilization of materials within a living organism and dehydration. Turgor pressure and
osmotic pressure also depends upon water presence.

According to the Holy Quran:

According to Holy Quran water has a lot of importance. All the life started from water. If
there is no water there will be no life.

Sura Al-Hijar :22

Translation: ”And we send the winds fertilizing (to fill heavily the clouds with water), then
cause the water (rain) to descend from the sky, and we give it to you to drink, and it is not
you who are the owners of it’s stores (i.e to give water to whom you like or to withhold it
from whom you like)”.

Sura Al-Baqra: 22

Translation: “Who made the earth as resting place for you and made the sky a canopy and
causes rain from the sky and produces from it fruits as your food? Therefore, don’t equate
any one with ALLAH while you know”.

These verses shows the importance of water that water is very important and necessary for
the living organisms. Plants, grains and fruits can produce by the availability of water.

PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Physical properties
a. High specific heat:
Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of calories required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of that substance by 10C. As water has a high specific heat, it can absorb
large amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. It also means that water releases heat
energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the
moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature more
effectively.

b. High Latent heat of Evaporation:

It is the number of calories required to change 1 gram of liquid to vapour. For water at 100*C,
this is 539 calories. Due to this property, when water evaporates it has profound cooling effects.

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 Thus transpiration of water has cooling effects on plants. The high latent heat of evaporation
gives resistance to dehydration.

c. Heat of Fusion

It is the number of calories required to convert 1 gram of solid at freezing point to 1 gram liquid
at same temperature. For water it is 80 calories. This property reduces radial changes in
temperature. The specific heat of fusion of water is 333.55 kJ·kg−1 at 0 °C. This property confers
resistance to melting upon the ice of glaciers

d. High Surface Tension:

Water has a high surface tension. In other words, water is adhesive and elastic, and tends to
aggregate in drops rather than spread out over a surface as a thin film. This phenomenon also
causes water to stick to the sides of vertical structures despite gravity's downward pull. Water's
high surface tension allows plants to move water and dissolved nutrients from their roots to their
leaves, and the movement of blood through tiny vessels in the bodies of some animals.

e. Existence of water in Three States:

Water molecules are the only substance on earth that exists in all three physical states of matter:
solid, liquid, and gas. Incorporated in the changes of state are massive amounts of heat exchange.
This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in the Earth's
atmosphere.

f. High specific gravity:

It is the density of a substance relative to some standard density. Water has high specific gravity
at 4*C. Because of this pure water freezes only at surface. It has made possible the survival of
marine life under frozen water.

The freezing of water molecules causes their mass to occupy a larger volume. When water
freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by volume. Fresh water has a maximum density at
around 4° Celsius . Water is the only substance on this planet where the maximum density of its
mass does not occur when it becomes solidified.

2. Chemical Properties

a. Good Conductor:

Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact causes large bodies
of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a uniform vertical temperature profile.

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Heat absorbs by water is readily distributed. This equalize temperature both in environment and
inside plant cells.

b. Hydrogen Bonding.

Water has a net positive charge on the hydrogen atoms, and a net negative charge on the
oxygen atom. The presence of a charge on each of these atoms gives each water molecule a net
dipole moment. Electrical attraction between water molecules due to this dipole pulls
individual molecules closer together, making it more difficult to separate the molecules and
therefore raising the boiling point. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding.

c. Neutral pH

Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor basic. Water
changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH of about 5.6
because it contains natural derived carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

d. Universal Solvent:

Water is a universal solvent. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical

compounds. This feature also enables water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff, infiltration,
groundwater flow, and living organisms.

e. Amphoteric Nature

Water has the ability to act as both an acid (proton donor) as well as a base (proton acceptor). It
acts as a base to acids stronger than itself and acts as an acid to bases stronger than itself. This
amphoteric nature is clearly visible in the below reaction, wherein water molecule reacts with
acid as a base.

FORMS OF SOIL WATER

Physical Classification

1. Gravitational water --- -1/3 bar

2. Capillary water --- -1/3 to -31 bars
3. Hygroscopic water --- -10,000 bars
1. Gravitational water:
i. Free water that moves through the soil due to the force of gravity.

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 ii. Gravitational water is found in the macropores.

iii. It moves rapidly out of well drained soil and is not considered to be available to
plants.

iv. It can cause upland plants to wilt and die because gravitational water occupies air
space, which is necessary to supply oxygen to the roots.

v. Drains out of the soil in 2-3 days

2. Capillary water:
i. Water in the microprobes, the soil solution. Most, but not all, of this water is available for
plant growth.
ii. Capillary water is held in the soil.against the pull of gravity

Forces Acting on Capillary Water

i. Micropores exert more force on water than do macropores

ii. Capillary water is held by cohesion (attraction of water molecules to each other)
and adhesion (attraction of water molecule to the soil particle).

iii. The amount of water held is a function of the pore size (cross-sectional diameter)
and pore space (total volume of all pores)

iv. This means that the tension (measured in bars) is increasing as the soil dries out.

3. Hygroscopic water:

i. This water forms very thin films around soil particles and is not available to the
plant. The water is held so tightly by the soil that it can not be taken up by roots.

ii. not held in the pores, but on the particle surface. This means clay will contain
much more of this type of water than sands because of surface area differences.
iii. Hygroscopic water is held very tightly, by forces of adhesion. this water is not
available to the plant.
iv. Gravity is always acting to pull water down through the soil profile. However, the
force of gravity is counteracted by forces of attraction between water molecules
and soil particles and by the attraction of water molecules to each other.

Forces on Soil Water

 Adhesion: The attraction o f soil water to soil particles.

 Cohesion: The attraction of water molecules to other water molecules.

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  Capillarity: A capillary is a very thin tube in which a liquid can move against the force
of gravity. The liquid moves due to the forces of adhesion and cohesion.

Soil Moisture Tension or Soil Water Potential

When working with water we are interested in the force with which water is held in the soil.

 bar is the term used to measure this force.

 one bar equals one atmosphere of pressure

BAR- pressure exerted by a column of water 1023 cm in height. approx. = to 1

atmosphere = 14.7 lb in2 or 760 mm of mercury.

Water Tension and Water Content

As water content decreases tension on the water becomes greater or soil water potential becomes
less. Tension (suction) is measured in bars. 1 bar = 14.7 lbs. per sq. in. If water tension = 1 bar, a
plant root must exert a pull (suction) greater than 14.1 psi to get water from the soil.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER MEASUREMENT

Water measurement is an important component of evaluation of existing irrigation systems and

designing new projects. Accuracy of water measurement is , therefore, of prime importance in
the operation of any water distribution system. Water measurement prevents poor crop growth
resulting from insufficient water application and also reduces chances of water logging problems
of over irrigation.

Units of Water Measurement:

Water can be measured either at rest or in motion. Water at rest, i.e., in reservoirs, ponds and
tanks is measured in units of volume. Measurement of water in motion, i.e., flowing in rivers,
canals, pipelines, field channels and channel structures, is expressed in the units of flow rate.

1. Volume Units/ stationary units: Volume can be measured in a number of units but the
commonly used are defined as follows:

Hectare-Meter: A volume required to cover an area of one hectare to a depth of one meter.

1 hectare meter = 10,000 m3

Acre-Foot: A volume required to cover an area of one acre to a depth of one foot.

1 acre foot = 43560 ft3

Acre-Inch: A volume required to cover an area of one acre to a depth of one inch.

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 1 acre inch = 3630 ft3

Second Feet Day: If the water flowing at the rate of one cubic feet per second (CFS) is
collected for 24hours, the volume of water will be SFD.

SFD = 86400ft3
2. Flow or Discharge Units

There are many units of measuring discharge, but the commonly used ones are given below:

Liter Per Second: If a volume of one liter water is passing through a given cross section in one
second, the discharge is called one litter per second.

Cusec: If one cubic foot volume of water is passing through a section in one second, the
discharge is called one cubic foot per second or one cusec.

Cumec: If one cubic meter volume of water is passing through a section in one second, the
discharge will be one meter cube per second.

Methods of Water Measurement:

Several methods are available for measuring irrigation water. They can be grouped into
following categories:

1. Volumetric method

2. Velocity area method

3. Measuring structures (orifices, weirs, flumes)

1. VOLUMETRIC METHOD:

A simple method of measuring small irrigation streams is to collect the flow in a reservoir of
known volume for a measured period of time. The time required to fill the container is recorded
with a stop watch. The rate of flow is measured as:

Discharge (liters/sec) = volume of reservoir (liters)/time required to fill (sec)

Volumetric method is the most accurate and is used in hydraulic laboratory for calibrating other
devices and instruments for measuring flow rate.

2. VELOCITY AREA METHODS:

The rate of flow passing through a section of a pipe or open channel is determined by
multiplying the cross sectional area of the flow section at right angle to the direction of flow by
the average velocity of water.

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Two procedures used under velocity area method include;

a. Float method

b. Current meter method

a. FLOAT METHOD:

It is rough method for flow measurement which consists of noting the average rate of movement
of a floating body and the average cross sectional area of water measured at right angle to the
direction of flow. The product of average velocity and average cross sectional area gives the
discharge.

b. CURRENT METER METHOD:

The velocity of water in a stream or river may be measured directly with a current meter. The
discharge is estimated by multiplying the mean velocity of water by the area of cross section of
the stream. The current meter is a small instrument containing a revolving wheal that is rotated
by the movement of water.

WATER MEASURING DEVICES:

In farm irrigation practices, the most commonly used devices for measuring water are:

1. Orifice

2. Weirs

3. Flumes

1. ORIFICE:

An orifice is an opening, usually round or rectangular through which water flows. It may be used
for measuring flow from a reservoir or through a pipe. Orifices may operate under free flow or
submerged flow conditions. Under free flow conditions, the flow from orifice discharges entirely
into air. Under submerged conditions, the downstream water level is above the crest of orifice.

Advantages:

1. Cheaper than weirs.

2. Submerged orifices require small loss of head which makes it suitable for use in areas having
leveled land.

Disadvantages:

1. The head loss due to friction is higher than that in flumes.

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2. Collecting of floating debris, sand and silt above the orifice thus preventing accurate
measurement.

2. WEIR:

A weir is an obstruction in the channel that causes the water to rise behind the weir and then to
flow over it. Weirs are used to measure the flow in an irrigation channel, a well or a canal outlet
at the source.

The top of the weir over which water flows is called THE CREST. The sheet of water flowing
over a weir is known as VEIN. The depth of water flowing over the weir crest measured at some
point in the weir pond is called HEAD.

Advantages:

1. Accuracy

2. Simplicity and ease of construction

3. Non-obstruction by floating material

4. Durability

Disadvantages:

1. Requirement of considerable loss of head makes their use in different areas having low
topographic slope.

2. Deposition of gravel, sand and silt upstream of the weir prevents accurate measurements.

3. FLUMES:

A flume is a specially shaped open channel flow section used to measure the rate of flow of
water. There are mainly three types of flumes:

a. Parshall flumes

b. Cutthroat flumes

c. broad crested flumes

a. PARSHALL FLUMES:

The parshall flume is an open channel type measuring device that operates with a small drop in
head.

b. CUT-THROAT FLUME:

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The cut-throat flume consists of a converging inlet section, a diverging outlet section with a flat
bottom. That is why it is called cut-throat flume.

c. BROAD CRESTED FLUME:

Unlike parshall and cut-throat flumes, the control section in the broad crested flume is provided
by raising the bed instead of providing a contraction. The whole length of flume has same length.
The water flows through the flume in the same way as over a broad crested weir.

Advantages:

1. It is economical and easy to construct.

2. It gives satisfactory accuracy.

Disadvantages:

1. The parshall flumes are usually more expensive than weirs and flumes.

2. They require a solid water tight foundation.

IRRIGATION & IRRIGATION METHODS

Irrigation: ”Artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying moisture
essential for plant growth”.
Objectives:
 To supply essential water for normal growth of plants.
 To save the crop from drought.
 To save the crop from frost.
 To provide suitable environment for plant growth.
 To remove the salts from soil.
 To loosen the soil for making tillage easy by implements.
Importance of irrigation:
All salts and other compounds have a particular attraction for water. On making solution
of these substances in water, the more the concentration of these substances in water, the higher
will be the attraction for water, osmosis and osmotic pressure. The water move from a solution of
lower concentration to a solution of higher concentration. The osmotic potential of the soil
around the roots should be more compared to roots so that the movement of water to roots should
take place from soil to roots that are why irrigation is necessary.

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 OR
Under arid and semi arid climatic conditions of Pakistan w/e average annual rainfall is less
than 10 inches against a potential demand of about 70 inches of water for agriculture, irrigation
is essential. Moreover, increased population pressure demands increased crop production. This
necessitates i. multiple cropping, ii. increased use of fertilizer, iii. improved crop varieties.
This cannot be done without providing requisite irrigation water.
Sources of irrigation water:
There are three sources of irrigation water in Pakistan.
 Precipitation
 Surface water
 Ground water
Precipitation:
The source of all water supplies is atmospheric precipitation i.e. rainfall, dew, mist, fog, hail and
snow. Among the above sources, rainfall is the most important because it contributes substantially
to crop water requirements. The rainfall zones roughly can be discussed as under.
Proportion of land in Pakistan (%) Average annual rainfall (%)
67 (arid) < 10 inches
24 (semi arid) 10 – 20 inches
5.5 (sub humid) 20 – 30 inches
3.5 (para humid ( very wet) >30 inches
The cultivable canal commanded area of Indus plain and Peshawar valley receives 25 MAF
(22.5 cm) annually. However, distribution and intensity of this rainfall is so erratic that successful
crop husbandry is not possible with rain water alone. Therefore, surface and ground water are
needed to supplement the crop water requirements on a continuous basis to harvest the maximum
potential of crop.
Surface Water:
The basic source of surface water in the Indus basin is the snow melts and precipitations over the
mountainous region, runoff water through streams and rivers is stored in reservoirs. From where it is
diverted into canals for onward transmission to the fields for irrigation
In Pakistan, surface water resources (according to the Indus Basin Treaty 1960) are limited to the
water of Indus, Jhelum, Chenab and Kabul (while the Sutlaj, Ravi and Bias were given to India).

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The irrigation system of Indus basin comprises rivers, dams, main canals,branch canals, distributries
minors, water courses and field ditches.
Indus Basin Irrigation System: comprises
 3 dams
 19 barrages-link canal
 48 principal canals
Components of Indus Basin Irrigation System:
i. Main Canals:
It takes its supply directly from the river through a dam or barrage. Direct irrigation is usually not
carried from the main canal. Examples Upper Jhelum, Lower Jhelum and Upper Chenab.
ii. Branch Canal
It takes its water supply from main canals and convey the water to different part of irrigated areas.
Small branch canals are provided with outlets for delivery of water to the fields. Examples are
Gughera and Rakh branch.
iii. Major/Main Distributry: (Usually Called Rajbals or Distributries)
Take off from branch canals ( sometimes from main canals) and supply water to minor distributries or
directly to canal outlets.Examples are Niazbag, Shalikot and Narana etc.
iv. Minor Distributry:
Take off from major distributry and rarely from branch canals.These supply water to water courses
for irrigation. Kamogil minor ahd Thatti minor are minor distributries of Niazbag distributry.
v. Water Course:
vi. Field Channel:
Annual River Flow in Pakistan:
The annual river flow in Pakistan is 142 MAF of which 92 MAF (65%) is delivered into
canal irrigation system and 50 MAF (35 %) flows into the Arabian sea. Of the 92 MAF water
delivered to the canal irrigation system, only 65 % is available at mogha while the remaining is lost
through seepage from canals.
Annual available water flow in river = 142MAF
Water diverted to canal
irrigation system =92 Water flows to Arabian sea

MAF = 50 MAF

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 Water available at
Annual water discharge
mogha = 60 MAF
from tube wells = 33
Total water available at MAF
head of water course = Water course delivery losses
93 MAF = 37 MAF

Water available at nakka Field application losses = 14

= 56 MAF MAF

Water available for crops =

42 MAF

Ground Water:
It is lifted to the soil surface through
 Natural springs
 Wells
 Gallies and karezes
 Tube wells
Tube wells are however, the most important source of ground irrigation water. Currently, the
annual discharge of water is 33 MAF. Presently about 3,00000 private and 3000 public tube
wells are pumping water to supplement the surface water supplies. On the average, about 10,000
tube wells are added to the system annually.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN IRRIGATION

: Crop Water Requirements
It refers to the total amount of water required, at a field head regardless of its source, to mature a
crop.
It takes into account ET, eco. unavoidable losses and any special needs but does not include
conveyance losses. Because it is not always possible to apply exact amount of water required to

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 bring the root zone to field capacity. Some water losses through percolation or run off are
unavoidable such losses are called application losses.
Irrigation water is sometime needed to perform the special operations i.e. leaching of excess salt,
puddling, raising of nursery and pre sowing irrigation or rauni etc.
Crop water requirement may be expressed as
WR= ET+WAL+WNSO
Where
WR= Water requirement of crop
ET= evapotranspiration
WAL= water application losses
WNSO = Water needed for special operation
Factors Affecting the Water Requirments of Crops
1. Climatic Parameters
i. Temperature
ii. Rainfall
iii. Wind
iv. Humidity
2. Crop parameters
i. Crop type
Rice and sugarcane required more water than crops like wheat and beans
ii. Crop Growth Stage
Fully grown crops require more water than the crops that just been planted
3. Edaphic factors
i. Level of ground water table
Shallow water table vs deep water table
ii. Slope of the land
Sloppy soil requires more water than the crops grown on leveled soils.
iii. Soil drainage
Soil with good drainage (sandy soils) require relative more water than soil with less
drainage (clayey soil)
4. Systems of irrigation

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 Drip, sprinkler, Furrow or border, strip etc.
5. Type and amount of manure applied to field
Application of well decomposed organic manure i.e. FYM increases WHC of soil hence
WR of soil. Similarly correct type and time of chemical fertilizer application increases
WUE.
DUTY OF WATER
It may be defined as the “Number of acres of crop successfully raised with irrigation by a
constant flow of 1 cusec of water throughout the period of irrigation of the crop”. For example
DOW of Lower Chenab canal = 75%
DOW of Lower Bari Doab = 66%
A DOW of one cusec for more than 130 ha in Pakistan as against one cusec for 40 ha in the USA
makes the canal irrigation system and crop highly dependent on precipitaton.
Factors affecting duty of water

i. Nature of crop: Crops differ in their water requirements, some crops require more water to
mature while others need less water. If the water needed for the crop is more, the duty will be
less and vice versa.
ii. Nature of soil: if the soil is coarse, it will require more to irrigate the field due to quick and
more percolation, which affect the duty of water adversely.
iii. Nature of sub-soil: if the sub-soil is porous in nature, the duty of water will be reduce, due to
more percolation.
iv. Method of irrigation: select a method of irrigation that is adopted to the supply of water,
soil, crop and the crop.
v. Time of application of irrigation water: if the water is applied at noon to the crops, more
time and water will be consumed, resulting in the decrease in duty of water.
vi. Frequency of irrigation: In case the crop is irrigated more frequently the duty of water will
reduce.
vii. Method of cultivation:
viii. Season of the crop; if there are more rains during the growing period of the crop, the duty of
water will be more, because less irrigation water will be required to irrigate the crops.
Kinds of duty of water

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  Absolute DOW: it is the total quantity of water that the crop uses in the in the form of
rainfall, irrigation and the moisture already present in the soil. In other words, it covers the
overall supply of water to the crop (Total RF + irrigation + moisture in soil).
 Gross DOW: At canal head: it is the number of acres of crop, which can be matured by
a cusec of water at the head of the canal. Suppose 360 acres of wheat can be matured during
a year with one cusec at the point, from where the canal starts, and then this will be the gross
duty of that canal.
 Net DOW: At outlet to farmer: it is the number of acres of crop, which can be
matured by a cusec of water at the outlet given to the farmer. For example the grass duty of
lower Chenab canal is 100 percent, but the net earmarked is 75 percent.
 Optimum DOW- surface Indus + water under given set of condition of land for growing
crops: it is the surface inches of water required under a given set of conditions of land of
growing crops. The conditions are the availability of water, cost of production of crops, price
of crops. In this case, those crop are generally selected which gives the maximum return of
profit to the farmer.
 Base DOW- Number of flowing days: by this we mean the number of days for which the
discharge of water is allowed to flow during a year. For example if the water remains running
for 200 days during a year in a canal or minor, it will be the base of duty of that canal or
minor.
The duty of water is always considered at the head of canal, but the base of the duty is
that from where the water is actually delivered to the farmer for irrigation that is the
outlet of the minors.
How DOW can be increased
1. Improved agricultural practices
2. Khal Kiari system
3. Block sowing
4. Straight and clean water channels
5. Leveling of field
6. Proper watch and ward
7. Conserving rain water
8. Mulching

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Delta of Water
It is the depth of irrigation water required the full crop period (not including rainfall
water) to mature the crop .
Crops Delta of water ( D.O.W )
Sugar cane 68 inches
Rice 60 inches
Berseem 49 inches
Cotton 25 inches
Maize 19 inches
Wheat 15 inches
Gram 10 inches
Toria 7 inches
IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY:
It may be defined as how efficiently the available water supply is being used for crop production.
Quantity of water stored in the root zone
Irrigation efficiency (IE) = × 100.
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

Ei is product of Ea and Ed.

Ed (Irrigation efficiency (IE)) = Q2 ( water applied to field ) /Q1 (water from the source ) multiply
by 100.
Ea (applied efficiency ) = soil moisture depth/ gross depth multiply by 100.
EI = Ed multiply by Ea divided by 100.
Unfortunately, EI in Pakistan is very low. About 35 % of canal water ( supplied from diversion
headworks ) is lost in the main and sub canal while the losses during the delivery of canal water
from mogha to nakka raise to 24 %.Thus about 59 % of the irrigation water supplied from diversion
headworks is lost before it reaches the field for irrigation. Similarly 13 5 of the tubewell water is lost
in water courses and field water channels. The total irrigation water ( canal + well water ) available
at field nakka is 56 MAF of which 25 % is lost during field application, due to surface evaporation,
surface runoff, deep percolation and uneven distribution over the field.
Thus, it is evident that the amount of water effectively utilized by the crops in the form of evapo-
transpiration or consumption is less than 20 % of the total water released from diversion head works.

18
 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
It may be defined as the process of irrigating crop at proper time and in proper amount to
replenish the soil water, the crop has used before it is damaged by shortage of water ( crop water
stress ).
PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
1. When to irrigate
2. How much to irrigate?
3. How long to apply water?
1. WHEN TO IRRIGATE:
It refer to predicting the time to next irrigation. This can be accomplished/ practised by the
following methods.
i. On the basis of external apperance of crop
ii. On the basis of apperance of soil
iii. On the basis of degree of osmotic potential ( moisture tension) for moisture
iv. On the basis of total available and used water basis

i. On the basis of external apperance of crop:

Plant apperance is often used as a guide in determining when to irrigate. Symptoms such as
1) Slowing of growth
2) Bluish colour of leaves
3) Temporary afternoon wilting
For example, a light green colour in alfalfa generally indicates adequate moisture and
satisfactory growth whereas a dark green colour indicates lack of moisture. Among root
crops sugar beet readily indicate need for water by temporary wilting, particularly during
warmest part of the day. Grain crops also indicate need for water by temporary wilt
However, it is difficult to detect the need for water from the apperance of leaves of fruit
trees. It is therefore, desirable to base the time of application of irrigation to the orchards on
the observations of moisture content in the soil.
ii. On the basis of apperance of soil:
On the basis of physical symptoms of soil

19
 a. Feel and apperance method
b. Percentage moisture in the soil
iii. On the basis of degree of osmotic potential (moisture tension) for moisture
For this purpose tensiometer is used. Tentiometer can measure moisture tension upto
0.85 atmosphere.
Note: Osmotic potential for moisture and % age moisture are two different things.
Sandy soils = 0.75 atm.
Loamy soil = 2 atm.
Clayey soils = 4.5 atm.
iv. On the basis of total available and used water basis
2. HOW MUCH TO IRRIGATE
This depends on the following things as:
i. Absorption Capacity of soil
ii. Moisture % in the soil
iii. Rooting depth of the plant
iv. Purpose of irrigation
v. Growth stage of crop

i. Absorption Capacity of soil e.g.

a. Sandy soil = 0.8 cm/cm3
b.
Loamy soil = 0.15 cm / cm3
c.
Clay soil = 0.19 cm / cm3
ii. Moisture %age in the soil
Different methods of soil moisture measurements are
a. Touch and feel method
b. Sun drying method
c. Gravimetric method
d. Tensiometer method
e. Irrometric method
f. Gypsum block method
g. Speedy moisture method

20
a. Touch and feel method:
If it becomes a moist ball by taking the soil into fist, then no need of irrigation.
If it becomes a strong ball then no need of irrigation.
If it becomes a strip by pressing the soil by taking it between the little finger and
thumb.
b. Sun-drying method:
a) Determine the wt. of sheet / bag with a sample.
b) Spread in the sun and break the clods for a period of 3-5 hours in hot season and 4
hours in cold season.
c) Re-weight the dry sample.
d) Difference of a) and c) will indicate the moisture present.
c. Gravimetric method:
a) Take the soil sample with augor.
b) Wt. the empty container (A).
c) Wt. the sample in the container (B).
d) Put the container in oven for for 24 hours at 105-110 C.
e) Again the wt. of moisture free sample.
f) Difference of c) and d) is soil moisture present.
Suppose
Wt. of container = A g
Wt. of empty container + wet soil = B g
Wt. of wet soil = (B – A)
Difference of wt. of wet soil - wt of dry soil = (B – A) – (C – A)
Wt. of dry soil = container = C
Wt. of dry soil = (C – A)
d. Tensiometer method:
A porous cup filled with water attached to vaccum guaze / manometer. A hole is
bored into the soil and cup pushed inti it. A temporary connection is soon established
between the water inside the cup and the water in the soil. As water moves out of the
cup because of suction existing in the soil, vaccum is created on the guaze.
Drawback:

21
 Operates upto 0.85 atm., hence useful for sandy soils only.
e. Neutron method:
Fast neutrons are emitted from a source into the surrounding. Fast neutran are slowed
down by the water. Fast neutrons are not recorded by the counter.only slowed
neutrans are recorded. The more the water, the more the slowed down neutrans
recorded.
f. Irrometer method:
Just like tensiometer, but in this case atmosphere are not recorded but only reading is
taken.
Reading as 0 – 10 saturated
10 – 20 at F.C
30 – 60 starting irrigation range
70 – above all available moisture used
g. Gypsum block method:
Two electrodes used with block. Moisture in the gypsum block tends to equilibrium
with the moisture in the soil. As the moisture in the block decrease, the amount of
gypsum in the solution increases and the tensin between the wires increases.
Disadvantages:
a) Gypsum block soluble in water and deteriorates in 1 – 3 seasons.
b) Operates upto 1 – 15 atm.
h. Speedy moisture method:
iii. Rooting depth of plants
Irrigation depends on the depth of roots of crops. In general there are three ranges of crop roots.

1 -2 ft ( 30-60 cm) 2-4 ft ( 60-120 cm) 4-6 ft (120-180 cm)

Vegetables Wheat Cotton

Rice Maize Sugarcane

Potatoes Barley, Oat Sorghum

22
 Clover
Orchard

iv. Purpose of irrigation

a) For rauni
b) For crops
c) For vegetables
v. Stage of crop growth
3. HOW LONG TO APPLY IRRIGATE?
qt = ad
Where
q= flow rate
T= time of irrigatin in hours
A= Area in hectares
d. = Depth of water apply in cm
Then
t=28×ad/q
This t is for net depth of irrigation.in order to take of the apply
Losses, gross depth of irrigation is to be calculated accordingly
Time of irrigatin is enhanced. The above equation becomes

Ed
T = 28 × × Ea
q
Where Ea= application efficiency
Example: A farmer wants to apply 15 cm of water to berseem crop on one hectare with a flow
rate of 70 litter / sec. what would be the duration of irrigation. If the application efficiency is to
be assumed as 70%.
ad
T = 28 × × Ea
q

23
 15
T = 28 × 1 × 70 × 0.70

Since with each irrigation the moisture content of the soil has to be increased upto the field
capacity. Thus the amount of water that need to be added is equal to field capacity minus soil
moisture content at the time of irrigation. So if the moisture content in the crop root zone the
in crop root zone=25-13=12% by weight
So in terms of depth of water, it will be
Ad
Depth = 12% 𝑏𝑦 wt × As ×
100
20
= 12 × 1.2 ×
100
=88.64 cm
Where As=Bulk density of soil in g/cc
D=depth of root zone in cm
ad
T = 28 × ×
q
15
T = 28 × 1 × 70 × 70

=8.5 hours

Irrigation Methods
The choice of irrigation method depends on
i. Type of Soil
ii. Type of crop
iii. Sowing method
iv. Topography
v. Quantity of irrigation water
vi. Quality of irrigation water
vii. Nature & availability of labor
Following are the irrigation Methods:
A. Surface Irrigation

24
B. Sub-surface irrigation
C. Sprinkler Irrigation
D. Drip / Trickel Irrigation
E. Picher Irrigation
A. Surface Irrigation:
a. Border Irrigation:
Application of water by dividing farm into a number of strips separately by low levees or
borders.
Field leveled transversely and graded/sloped longitudinally. The slope is kept as 2 ft/1000
ft length.
Water is applied from the supply ditches into strips along which it move slowly towards the
lower end.
The strips are long where subsoil is compact and narrow and short when permeable subsoil.
Advantages:
i. Management is easy
ii. Easy leaching of salts
iii. Adopts to mal and large holdings
iv. Higher efficiencies can be achieved
v. Border width is 30-6o’’ and 60 to 120’’ (sandy soils) and 100-180’’ in dry soils.
Disadvantages:
i. Require leveled field to achieve efficiencies
ii. Strips with less length interferes mechanization
iii. Difficult to remove excessive water during monsoon

b) Check Basin Method:

Running large streams into relatively level plots surrounded by levees for
i. Very permeable soil to avoid losses
ii. Heavy soil to deep penetration
Advantages:
i. For dissolving salts
ii. 30-40’ wide and 300-700’ in length

25
Disadvantages:
i. Bunds interference
ii. Land wastage
iii. Crop sensitive to wet conditions not suited
iv. More labor required

Mid test

COMPARISION OF PAKISTANI AND INDIAN PUNJAB

AGRICULTURE

Pakistani Punjab:

Pakistani Punjab is the most populous province of Pakistan, with approximately 56% of the
country's total population. Forming most of the Punjab region, the province is bordered by
Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, India) to the north-east, the Indian
states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east, the Pakistani province of Sindh to the south, the
province of Baluchistan to the southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and
the Islamabad Capital Territory to the north. The Punjab is home to the Punjabis and various
other groups. The name Punjab derives from the Persian words Panj (Five), and Āb (Water), i.e.
(the) Five Waters - referring to five tributaries of the Indus River from which is also the origin
of the name of "India" - these being Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, that flow through
the larger Punjab. Punjab is the most developed, most populous, and most prosperous province
of Pakistan.

Geography

Punjab is Pakistan's second largest province at 205,344 km2 (79,284 sq mi) after Baluchistan
and is located at the northwestern edge of the geologic Indian plate in South Asia. The capital
and largest city is Lahore which was the historical capital of the wider Punjab region. Other
important cities include Multan, Faisalabad, Sheikhupura, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Jhelum and
Rawalpindi. Undivided Punjab is home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistani

26
Punjab. From west to east, these are: the Indus, Jhelum, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Nearly
60% of Pakistan's population lives in the Punjab. It is the nation's only province that touches
every other province;

The province is a mainly a fertile region along the river valleys, while sparse deserts can be
found near the border with Rajasthan and the Sulaiman Range. The region contains the Thar and
Cholistan deserts. The Indus River and its many tributaries traverse the Punjab from north to
south. The landscape is amongst the most heavily irrigated on earth and canals can be found
throughout the province. Weather extremes are notable from the hot and barren south to the cool
hills of the north. The foothills of the Himalayas are found in the extreme north as well.

Climate

Most areas in Punjab experience warm winters, often accompanied by rain. By mid-February the
temperature begins to rise; springtime weather continues until mid-April, when the summer heat
sets in. The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the
early 1970s the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over
the area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively
hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46°C, newspaper sources
claim that it reaches 51°C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the
heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have
risen to 54°C. In August the oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as
barsat, which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler
weather does not come until late October.

Punjab's region temperature ranges from -2° to 40°C, but can reach 47°C (117°F) in summer and
can touch down to -5°C in winter. Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons:

 Hot weather (April to June) when temperature rises as high as 110°F.

 Rainy season (July to September). Average rainfall annual ranges between 96 cm sub-
mountain region and 46 cm in the plains.

Mild weather (October to March). Temperature goes down as low as 40°F

27
. There are 9divisions and 3 districts in Punjab, Pakistan.

1. Rawalpindi

i. Attock
ii. Rawalpindi
iii. Chakwal
iv. Jehlum

19. Lodhran
20. Mandi Bahauddin
2. Attock 21. Mianwali
3. Bahawalnagr 22. Multan
4. Bahawalpur 23. Muzaffargarh
5. Bhakkar 24. Narowal
6. Chakwal 25. Nankana Sahib
7. Chiniot 26. Okara
8. DeraGhazi Khan 27. Pakpattan
9. Faisalabad 28. RahimYar Khan
10. Gujranwala 29. Rajanpur
11. Gujrat 30. Rawalpindi
12. Hafizabad 31. Sahiwal
13. Jhang 32. Sargodha
14. Jhelum 33. Sheikhupura
15. Kasur 34. Sialkot
16. Khanewal 35. TobaTek Singh
17. Khushab 36. Vehari
18. Lahore
19. Layyah

Indian Punjab;

Geography

Punjab is located in northwestern India, and has an area of 50,362 km2. It extends from the
latitudes 29.30° North to 32.32° North and longitudes 73.55° East to 76.50° East. It is bounded

28
on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu and Kashmir, on the northeast by Himachal
Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan.

Most of the Punjab lies in a fertile plain, alluvial plain with many rivers and an extensive
irrigation canal system.[6] A belt of undulating hills extends along the northeastern part of the
state at the foot of the Himalayas. Its average elevation is 300 meters above sea level, with a
range from 180 meters in the southwest to more than 500 meters around the northeast border.
The southwest of the state is semi-arid, eventually merging into the Thar Desert. The Siwalik
Hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas.

The soil characteristics are influenced to a limited extent by the topography, vegetation and
parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of
the regional climatic differences. Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil
types; southwestern, central, and eastern. Punjab falls under seismic zones II, III, and IV. Zone II
is considered a low damage risk zone; zone III is considered a moderate damage risk zones; and
zone IV is considered a high damage risk zone.

THE Punjab covers an area of 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 square miles) and has a
population around 24,000,000 in 2000.The name "Punjab" means "land of five rivers" and
derives from the Persian words 'panj,' meaning five, and 'aab,' meaning water. The rivers,
tributaries of the Indus River, are the Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, and Sutlej. The five rivers,
now divided between India and Pakistan. Area of Punjab that is between rivers of Beus and
Satluj is called Doaba, major cities in this part of punjab are Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur and Nawan
Shahr. Majha is between Beus and Chenab and on both sides of Ravi, this part is called the heart
of Punjab and cities include Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Faridkot and Ferozepur. Area of Malwa is
southern Punjab facing Rajasthan and East of river Beus, cities include Ludhiana, Patiala,
Ambala, Karnal, Sangrur, Malerkotla, Shahabad, and Abohar.

Punjab, northwestern India, is bounded on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu and
Kashmir, on the north east by Himachal Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan.
Physically, the state may be divided into two parts, sub Shivalik strip and Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain.
The sub-Shivalik strip covers the upper portion of Ropar, Hoshiarpur and Gurdaspur districts.

29
The Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain embraces the other districts of the Punjab. Most of the Punjab is an
alluvial plain, bounded by mountains to the North. Despite its dry conditions, it is a rich
agricultural area due to the extensive irrigation made possible by the great rivers. The Indian
Punjab is the wealthiest state in the country per capita, with most of the revenue generated from
agriculture.

Climate

Punjab's climate is characterized by extreme hot and extreme cold conditions. Annual
temperatures in Punjab range from –2 to 40 °C (min/max), but can reach 47 °C (117 °F) in
summer and –4 °C in winter. The northeast area lying near the foothills of the Himalayas
receives heavy rainfall, whereas the area lying further south and west receives less rainfall and
experiences higher temperatures. Average annual rainfall ranges between 960 mm in the sub-
mountain region and 460 mm in the plains.

Punjab has three seasons.

 Summer (April to June), when temperature typically rise as high as 110°F.

 Monsoon season (July to September), when a majority of rainfall occurs.
 Winter (December to February), when temperatures typically fall as low as 40°F.

There is a transitional period between winter and summer in March and early April, as well as a
transitional season between monsoon season and winter in October and November.

Agriculture

Punjab is one of the smallest states of India representing 1.6 per cent of its geographical area and
2.6 per cent of it's cropped area. Agriculture occupies the most prominent place in Punjab's
economy. About 70 per cent of the people are engaged in agriculture. As against an all India
average of 51 per cent, it has 85 per cent of its area under cultivation. the state on an average,
account for 23% of Wheat , 14 % of cotton and 10% of rice production of the whole country. It is
only the districts of Ropar and Hoshiarpur that the cultivated area is less than 60 per cent of the
total. It is in these districts that considerable land is covered by Shivalik Hills and the beds of

30
seasonal streams that cannot be brought under cultivation.The fertilizer consumption in Punjab is
the highest in India. The impact of the Green Revolution is perhaps most affected the state of
Punjab .This has made the country self sufficient in the food needs, overcoming the dangerous
situation of early sixties.

The state of Punjab has built up a system of services to support agricultural development.
Briefly, these are the departments of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, the Punjab Agriculture
University which provides a base for education, research and extension; and the Cooperative
Department which provides credit to the farmers. The university situated in Ludhiana, has
brought about a real revolution in farming techniques and has contributed to increased
agriculture production and improvement of the cultivators' economic status. This institution has
developed high yielding varieties of wheat, rice, bajra and other crops which has spearheaded
Punjab to make the state and the country self sufficient for many key crops.

The efforts of the state government to provide irrigation facilities, cheap power and agriculture
inputs at subsidised rates have acted as a catalyst for agricultural production. Total production of
food grains rose from 170.92 lakh tonnes in 1987-88 to 207 lakh tonnes in 1992-93. Agricultural
production is now nearing the saturation point. Punjab's contribution is highest in the
procurement of food grains for the central pool. Production of wheat in 96-97 was 136.78 lakh
tonnes, a record. To reduce dependence on wheat , paddy rotation , the state government is
encouraging gradual shift in the cropping pattern to oil seeds such as Sun-flower and Soya beans
with positive results. The state is on he threshold of a second spurt n productivity levels.

COMPARISION OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIAN PUNJAB & PAKISTANI PUNJAB

The agriculture in Indian Punjab is mostly mechanized and completely free of feudal
yoke Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan's economy, but inspite of the favourable conditions
of soils and climate, the yield per unit area is low and is nearly half of the yields achieved in
India having the similar climatic conditions. Low yields are mainly attributed to salinity/sodicity,
improper use of fertilizer, inadequate water supplies, insects and pests diseases, poor farm land
and water management practices. Most of our agriculturally productive land falls in the arid and
semi-arid climatic regions therefore, the success of agriculture mainly depends upon the surface

31
irrigation. The pressure brought upon to each nation to feed more people have increased the
significance of food production in arid and semi-arid regions, which constitute one third of the
area of the globe. In India about 75% of the food grains annually, produced in that country. In
Pakistan, 80% of its total land area of 79.61 mha or about 25% of its cultivated of 20.43 mha is
rainfed. Both Pakistan (7,960,96 sq. kilometers) and India (3,287,782 sq. kilometers) are
agricultural countries. Pakistan is comprised of 4 provinces, whereas in India, these are 22
provinces. In Pakistan, the provinces of Punjab, NWFP and Sindh are used to produce the
maximum quantities of food grains. Similarly, in India, the provinces of Punjab, U.P., C.P.,
Behar etc. are mostly fertile and produce huge quantities of food grains for their population. The
provinces of the Punjab of the two countries are very fertile and have significant contributions in
the agricultural productivity of the both countries. They are situated adjacent to each other and
there is only a demarcation line dividing the two provinces from each other countries.

The total geographical areas of Pakistani Punjab are 79284 sq miles and that of Indian Punjab are
19,450 square miles, respectively. Thus, our area is about 4 times greater than that of Indian
Punjab. Yet, the Indian side produces more and feeds almost the entire nation of 950 million.
Similarly, 69.5 percent and 85.2 percent of the total areas of Pakistan and Indian Punjab are
under cultivation. Cropping potentiality is also substantially higher in Indian Punjab as compared
to Pakistan Punjab. Irrigation systems in Indian Punjab is far better than the Pakistani Punjab.
However, the Pakistani Punjab has an extensive system of canals covering distance of 59000
kilometers, which have converted large areas that were formerly desert wastes into prosperous
agricultural settlements. Wheat and cotton are the principal crops, where rainfall or irrigation are
sufficient throughout the year for the crops. Millet and gram are the chief crops in the drier
western part of the province. It has been reported that in 1995, there were 860,000 tube-wells in
the Indian Punjab, while in Pakistani Punjab in 1994, there were 342000 tubewells. In addition,
more than 80 percent tube-wells in Indian Punjab are electrically operated in comparison to only
24 percent in Pakistani Punjab. These differences in the operational patterns of the agricultural
implements have great impact on the agricultural development of the two provinces. In 1994,
there were 1,30,000 tractors in Pakistan Punjab compared to 3, 20,000 in the Indian one. The
cultivated land tractor ratio is 13.40 hectares as compared to that of 93 hectares in Pakistani
Punjab.

32
The per hectare uses of all the fertilizers were 96 kgs in Pakistani Punjab compared to 157 kgs in
Indian Punjab in 1994. Application of more fertilizer is required more operational tube-wells,
because the commitment of adequate and timely irrigation water through the tube-wells allows
more effective use of fertilizers in Indian Punjab. While, the insufficient availability of water and
major dependency on canal water restricted to a great extent the quantity of use of the required
fertilizers in our side. The agricultural extension services have significant role to play in the use
of weedicides which shows the uniform crop stands free from the menace of weeds. The
infestation of weeds in almost all the economical crops has now become a real menace at the
common farm level, especially due to multiple cropping in the present day farming. Different
weeds, which are very similar to the main crop plants are difficult to control by using manual
hand hoeing/hand removal. The use of weedicide is very effective in the control of weeds. Indian
Punjab farmers, use about 60 percent of the total herbicides consumed in India, of which main
parts goes to wheat and rice crops. In Pakistani Punjab, the use of weedicide is very little both on
wheat and rice crops. The use of manual weeding is also negligible. Time of sowing is an
important factor which influences the yield obtained by the farmers. Work done in Indian Punjab
has shown that delay in sowing of wheat by about a week causes yield reduction of 3/4
quintals/hectare. Similarly, work done in Pakistani Punjab has sowing of wheat substantially
reduced crop yield i.e. each day of delay in wheat sowing after third week of November,
produces less wheat yield of 35-40 kgs per hectare.

In Pakistani Punjab a major proportion of wheat is sown late. Wheat sowing continues till early
January. In Indian Punjab, wheat follows coarse rice, where over 90 percent area is under early
maturing coarse rice varieties. In this way, the whole area of wheat is utilized in cultivation. The
comparison of the yields of a few crops in the two Punjabs for the year 1981-82 is given in Table
1.

Conclusion:

The agriculture in Indian Punjab is mostly mechanized and completely free of feudal yoke. In
Pakistani Punjab farmers tried their best to boost up the wheat production. But they face lot of
difficulties in normal agricultural practices. However, the government has given incentive for the
benefit of the farmers.

33
Available food production resources are the plants and the land on which they grow and the
environment, in which they develop. Improved certified seeds, water, compost and farm yard
manure and fertilizers, the skill and the knowledge of production technology and the plant
protection techniques are the supplementary, while markets for farm produce, production credit,
production incentives, farm machineries, transportation, education and extension training
services are the accelerators. High yielding varieties, irrigation schedules and its potential,
agronomic advancement increasing irrigation facility, time of fertilizer application, seed rate,
timely sowing, planting distance and weeding are the important cultural operations. Increasing
the area under high yielding varieties, adaptation of improved cultivation technology,
productivity of backward neglected areas may be pushed on.

Suitable crop planning for rain fed, saline and alkaline areas should be made. The conservation
of rain water may also be useful. Feasibility of introducing cooperative/collective farming,
development of community farm and introduction of contract cultivation may be pushed on.
Similarly, the introduction of grain levy/taxation on farm income may induce the feelings among
the cultivators to produce more food by adopting advance agronomical techniques and raising
the level of management.

Table 1. Area, Production and yield of different crops in 1981-82

Crops Pakistani Punjab Indian Punjab

Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield

(000 (000 (kg/ (000 (000 (kg
ha) tons) ha) ha) tons) ha)
Wheat 5167 7962 1541 2917 8553 2932
Rice 1088 1450 1333 1270 3755 2957
Sugarcane 670 23,733 35422 109 5910 54220
Cotton 1506 474 315 557 193.46 347

34
 From the above table, the differences in the areas and the crop yields of two
provinces are clear.

SKETCH OUT IRRIGATION SYSTEM WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON IRRIGATION

CANAL AND LINKED CANAL

What is irrigation?

It may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to
assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also
has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants against frost,
suppressing weed growing in grain fields. and helping in preventing consolidation. In
contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land
farming. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining.
Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of
surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation Canal:

A permanent irrigation conduit constructed to convey water from the source of supply to one or
more farms.

35
Link canal: Artificial waterway built for transportation, irrigation, water supply, or
drainage.Main sketch of rives of Pakistan:

36
37
Canal System of Pakistan:

Irrigation is the man-made supply of water to the land to encourage vegetation. It is a substitute
for inadequate or erratic rainfall and is extremely essential for arid regions where there are no
rivers and also in humid regions to improve crop output. In Pakistan, 75% of the agricultural land
is under irrigation. Three major water sources in Pakistan are rain water, ground water and rivers.

Irrigation system is not something new. Since olden days, people had devised various methods to
water their fields. Some traditional methods of irrigation are Persian Wheel, Charsa and Shaduf.
Karez is another traditional irrigation system practiced in Baluchistan only. Karez is a horizontal
canal located mainly on the foot hills and it brings the underground water to the surface. Modern
advancements in the irrigation system are the perennial canals and tube well.

38
Pakistan is basically a dry country with the River Indus and its tributaries being the main source
of water supply. Dams both large and small and barrages have been built on the Indus and its
tributaries. Large dams such as Tarbela Dam and Mangla Dam are multipurpose projects which
not only store water, irrigate lands but also generate hydro electricity. Small dams like Khanpur
Dam, Rawal Dam and Hub Dam supply water for agriculture, industrial and domestic purpose
and act as a reservoir as well. A hilly terrain is required to build a dam. Barrages on the other
hand are built on flat surfaces they also supply water for irrigation purpose and industrial and
domestic use. Some barrages are Sukkur Barrage, Guddu Barrage, Kotri Barrage, and Chashma
Barrage.
39
 Canals are taken out from rivers, dams and barrages. Pakistan has one of the largest canal
irrigation systems in the world. The Inundation canals are taken from rivers and they receive
water only when the water level in the rivers is high such as during floods. The perennial canals
are taken from dams and barrages and supply water to the fields throughout the year. In Pakistan
there are 3 large dams, 85 small dams, 19 barrages, 12 inter link canals, 45 canals and 0.7 million
tube wells to meet the commercial, domestic and irrigational needs of the country

Irrigation system of Pakistan:

Indus Waters Treaty 1960:

 Before discussing captioned system in entirety, it is imperative to discuss Indus Waters

Treaty which is back bone of existing system. Soon after independence in 1947 a dispute
arose between India and Pakistan regarding the sharing of the waters of the Indus Basin
Rivers. Pakistan had a lot at stake including irrigation network of about 3.2 Mha of irrigated
land depending entirely on the supply from three eastern Rivers of Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan through good offices of World
Bank in 1960.

40
 Basic provisions of the Treaty are:-
 Awarding to India right to use water of three eastern rivers (Sutlej, Beas and Ravi), whereas
water of three western rivers (Chenab, Jhelum and Indus) was left for utilization by
Pakistan.
 Construction of a system of works in Pakistan popularly known as Indus Basin Project
(IBP). This provided for building of two gigantic dams on rivers Jhelum and Indus,
construction of barrages and one gated siphon to link the western with eastern rivers
through eight inter river link canals.
 Pakistan is mainly depending on surface water supplies of western rivers and direct
precipitation in the northern parts of the country. On the basis of 70 years record (Table – 1)
it has been calculated that the IRS brings 173 Bm3annually. Additionally, precipitation over
the Indus Plains and Peshawar valley contributes 49 Bm3 out of which 31 Bm3 falls in the
Canal Commanded Area.

Irrigation Canals:

 Irrigation canals were constructed at different periods in the provinces of NWFP, Punjab
and Sindh from 1890 onwards. The area served by each canal is called the canal command.
There are 44 total canal commands. There are 24 canal commands in the Punjab, 5 in
NWFP and 15 in Sind/Balochistan. The present diversion capacity of the canals of Pakistan
is 258,600 cusecs. These canals can pass 11.69 million cubic feet per year.
 Due to insufficiency of water in rivers during winter months, the total cultivable
commanded area (CCA) could not be served. Thus some portion of the area was planned to
be served by ever flowing canals called perennial, and another portion was served only
during summer (Kharif) season, called non perennial. In the selection of perennial and non
perennial areas besides the insufficiency of river water many other factors particularly the
nature of soil formation, depth of groundwater, surface salinity etc. were kept in view. The
perennial and non-perennial areas served by these canals are 22 and 11.5 million acres
respectively. In NWFP the full CCA is perennial. In the Punjab out of 20.3 m.ac of CCA,
12.5 m.ac. are perennial and 7.8 m.ac receive non-perennial supplies. Similar in
Sind/Balochistan with total CCA 13.5 m.ac, only 7.6 m.ac get perennial and 5.9 m.ac non-

41
 perennial supplies. Total Gross Commanded Area (GCA) of all the canals is 39.12 m.ac
whereas the Cultureable Commanded Area (CCA) is 34.69 m.ac.
Distributaries and Minors:
 A typical canal system constitutes a barrage or a weir constructed in a river to divert river
water into a canal. At a suitable point the canal is split up into branches. Both the main
canal and the branches are not provided with an arrangement to distribute water for
agricultural purposes. Distributaries are small canals which provide water for agriculture.
Very small distributaries are called Minors. These posses’ means to supply water through
structures called water-courses.
 The main canal and the branches have some sort of control to limit the distribution of water
into the distributaries and minors. There is generally no control on these channels. When a
proper quantity of water enters the head of these channels it is distributed to each outlet
automatically according to its capacity. Automatic working of a distributary without a
manual control requires that it be so designed and worked that at all times and at each point
it will just carry as its full supply a discharge sufficient to supply all the outlets below that
point so that when the proper quantity enters the head all the watercourses should just run
their calculated allowance with no surplus at the tail of the distributary.
Watercourses:
 Watercourses carry water from the distributaries and minors to the fields. There are 107,000
watercourses in the irrigation system with an estimated length of 1.6 million Km. about
100,000 watercourses are in the canal irrigated areas. The largest percentage losses in the
irrigation system occur below the level of canals on watercourses and fields. The lining of
watercourses therefore is very important in conserving water especially in saline water
areas. It is estimated that 15,500 watercourses are lined.

42
 Rivers and Link Canals of Punjab

The Punjab province of Pakistan is blessed with five major rivers and their numerous local
tributaries. All of these five rivers originate from the snow capped peaks of the Himalayan
Mountains.

After traveling hundreds of miles through the high mountain valleys, these rivers ultimately enter
into the plains and plateaus of Punjab via the Frontier province of Pakistan, the State of Kashmir,
and india.

Perhaps no other area in the world could claim that many major rivers flowing through it in that
close proximity of each other. In that sense Punjab is unique. But what makes it further unique is
its river link canal system first devised by the British in early twentieth century and then
expanded by Pakistan under its Indus River Basin Water Management System. The complex
Punjab Rivers and Link Canals System could very well be classified as one of the twentieth
century engineering wonders.

The Indus (Sindh) is the northern and the upper most of the five rivers. The other four rivers
named Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej follow the sequence. Waters of these rivers are managed
through a vast system of large earthen dams and reservoirs, barrages and headworks, and,
irrigation and link canals. Each river is linked to the next lower river through canals originating
or ending at these waterworks and thus developing a grid of rivers and their link canals in the
process.

43
First major storage of Indus waters takes place at Tarbela Reservoir located just north of the
boundary between Punjab and the Frontier Province. From this point on all the way down to the
small town of Miran, with the exception of Kalabagh and Isa Khel areas, the River Indus roughly
forms the boundary between Punjab and the Frontier Province. Within this course of the river
numerous tributaries descending from the eastern slopes of the adjacent mountain ranges join the
Indus. Most notable are the Kabul River that joins at Jahangira and Kurram River that joins at
Kondal or Isa Khel. Both of these two relatively smaller rivers originate in Afghanistan and enter
Pakistan via Frontier Province.

Similarly the waters of the next lower river, Jhelum, are stored at the Mangla Reservoir located
at the boundary between Punjab and Pakistan controlled part of Kashmir known as Azad
Kashmir. In fact River Jhelum as a north-south axis starting from Muzzafarabad, the capital of
Azad Kashmir, to the city of Jhelum in Punjab forms the western boundary of the disputed state
of Kashmir with Pakistan. From the city of Jhelum to the city of Khushab, the river flows
westward just below the famous Salt Range.

The plateau of Potohar forming the land mass between Indus and Jhelum in this area does
not provide terrain favorable for link canals between these two rivers. As a result the first canal
link between Indus and Jhelum rivers takes place pass the Salt Range via Chashma-Jhelum Link
Canal originating from the rather grand Chashma Barrage on Indus River near the Town of
Kundian. The first barrage at River Jhelum is located near the town of Rasul from where it is
linked with the next lower river, Chenab, via Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal. The River Jhelum
ultimately falls into River Chenab near the town of Mudduki. The Trimmu Headworks on River
Chenab is located at this juncture.

The River Chenab enters Punjab near the town of Akhnur in Indian held Kashmir. Marala
Headworks is located at River Chenab near the town of Dhallewali. Khanki is the next
headworks on River Chenab near the town of the same name. Next is the Qadirabad Barrage on
River Chenab near the town of Rasulnagar. Each one of these three headworks/barrages plays a
significant role in the river-canal link system in Punjab.

The next lower river, Ravi, from point Maddoke to point Sidhanwali in Punjab roughly zigzags
between Pakistan and India before it is firmly inside Pakistan. The first link between Chenab and
Ravi is via Marala-Ravi Link Canal and Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian (B.R.B) Link Canal joining
River Ravi at Sidhanwali above the town of Shahdara and Lahore, the capital of Punjab and one
time capital of the vast Mughal Empire under Akbar the Great and then later under his son
Jahangir. In fact Jahangir and his beloved Empress Noor Jahan are buried along the banks of
River Ravi. The first headworks on River Ravi is at Balloki. The Upper Chenab Canal starting
from Marala Headworks ultimately falls into River Ravi at Balloki Headworks. At the same time

44
Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal also connects the two rivers at the same location. The last canal
link between Chenab and Ravi, before they merge together is via Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal
ending at Sidhnai Barrage on River Ravi. From this merging point on the river continues under
the name Chenab where Taunsa Barrage on River Indus provides the link between Indus and
Chenab for the first time via Taunsa-Punjnud Link Canal near the historical city of Multan.

45
The last of the five rivers of Punjab roughly forms the border between Pakistan and India for
several miles before it is completely inside Pakistan.The B.R.B Link Canal from River Ravi is
extended to meet River Sutlej along Pakistan-India border. Sulaimanke is the first headworks on
River Sutlej. Here Ravi and Sutlej are linked for the second time via Balloki-Sulaimanke Link
Canal. While Islam Headworks, also on Sutlej, does not provide any link, the next and the last
link between Ravi and Sutlej takes place at Mailsi via Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal. Ultimately the
River Sutlej joins the River Chenab and together form a body of water commonly known as
Punjnad. A headworks of the same name is placed at this monumental location. Just below the
Punjnad Headworks the waters from the lower four rivers would join the Indus River to complete
the merger of the five rivers and their tributaries. From this point on the story of the five waters
and their link canals in Punjab is passed on to the, one and only, mighty Indus River that would
continue its journey through the Sindh Province of Pakistan till it will empty itself into the
Arabian Sea.

Punjab Rivers and barrages/headworks (total=12):

Indus: Chashma, Taunsa
Jhelum: Rasul
Chenab: Marala, Khanki, Qadirabad, Trimmu
Ravi: Balloki, Sidhnai
Sutlej: Sulaimanke, Islam
Punjnad: Punjnad

River link canals in Punjab and rivers linked (total=10):

Chashma-Jhelum Link - Indus-Jhelum

Taunsa-Punjnad Link - Indus-Chenab
Rasul-Qadirabad Link - Jhelum-Chenab
Marala-Ravi Link - Chenab-Ravi
Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian Link - Chenab-Ravi-Sutlej
Upper Chenab-Balloki Link - Chenab-Ravi
Qadirabad-Balloki Link - Chenab-Ravi
Trimmu-Sidhnai Link - Chenab-Ravi
Balloki-Sulaimanke Link - Ravi-Sutlej
Sidhnai-Mailsi Link - Ravi-Sutlej

46
 DAMS IN PAKISTAN

This is a list of dams in Pakistan in provinces are as fallows:

1. Azad Jammu & Kashmir

Mangla Dam
 Balochistan
 Akra Kaur Dam
 Burj Aziz Khan Dam
 Garuk Dam (planned)
 Hingol Dam (planned)
 Hub Dam
 Mirani Dam
 Naulong Dam (under construction)
 Pelar Dam (planned)
 Sabakzai Dam
 Shakidor Dam
 Sukleji Dam (planned)
 Wali Tangi Dam
 Winder Dam (planned)
 Federally Administered Tribal Areas
 Bara Dam (planned)
 Gomal Zam Dam (nearing completion)
 Kurram Tangi Dam (planned)
 Munda Dam (under construction)
 Gilgit-Baltistan
 Bunji Dam (planned)
 Diamer-Bhasha Dam (under construction)
 Satpara Dam (nearing completion)
 Islamabad Capital Territory
 Rawal Dam
 Simly Dam
 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

47
  Darmalak Dam (under construction)
 Jabba Khattak Dam (under construction)
 Karak Dam (under construction)
 Khair Bara Dam (under construction)
 Khanpur Dam
 Lawaghar Dam (under construction)
 Karak Dam (under construction)
 Palai Dam (under construction)
 Tanda Dam (Ramsar Site)
 Tarbela Dam
 Warsak Dam
 Punjab
 Akhori Dam (planned)
 Dhrabi Dam
 Dohngi Dam
 Ghabir Dam (under construction)
 Kalabagh Dam (planned)
 Khai Dam
 Sindh
 Darawat Dam (under construction)
 Karoonjhar Dam
 Nai Gaj Dam (under construction)

Short Description of some main dams:

Mangla Dam:

The Mangla Dam is located on the Jhelum River in the Mirpur District of Azad Kashmir,
Pakistan. It is the sixteenth largest dam in the world. The main dam is 10,300 feet (3,100 m) long
and 454 feet (138 m) high (above core trench) with a reservoir of 97 square miles (250 km2).
Since its first impounding in 1967, sedimentation has occurred to the extent of 1,130,000 acre
feet (1.39 km3), and the present gross storage capacity has declined to 4,750,000 acre feet (5.86
km3) from the actual design of 5,880,000 acre feet (7.25 km3). The live capacity has declined to
4,580,000 acre feet (5.65 km3) from 5,340,000 acre feet (6.59 km3). This implies a reduction of
19.22% in the capacity of the dam.

Hub Dam:

48
Hub Dam is a large water storage reservoir constructed in 1981 on the Hub River on the arid
plains north of Karachi. It is located on the provincial border between Balochistan and Sindh,
Pakistan. The Hub reservoir can grow up to 32 square miles (83 km2).

Mirani Dam :

Mirani Dam is a medium-size multi-purpose concrete-faced rock-filled dam located on the

Dasht River south of the Central Makran Range in Kech District in Balochistan province of
Pakistan. Its 302,000 acre feet (373,000,000 m3). Reservoir is fed by the Kech River and the
Nihing River.

Wali Tangi Dam:

Wali Tangi Dam is a small dam in the Urak Valley in Balochistan province of Pakistan. It is
situated approximately 20 km east of Quetta at an elevation of approximately 8,350 ft. The dam
stores and utilizes fresh water from melting snows in the surrounding Zarghoon Hills, which are
part of the Sulaiman Range.

Gomal Zam Dam

Gomal Zam Dam is a hydro-electric power and irrigation project under construction in
northwest Pakistan. It sits on the Gomal River in the South Waziristan Agency. Gomal Dam is an
arched, gravity-type roller-compacted concrete dam with a height of 133 meters (437 feet). It has
a gross storage capacity of 1,140,000 acre feet (1.41 km3) and to irrigate about 163,000 acres
(660 km2) of land. It will produce 17.4 MW of electricity.

Munda Dam

Munda Dam is an under-construction medium-size multi-purpose concrete-faced rock-filled

dam located on the Swat River approximately 37 km north of Peshawar and 5 km upstream of
Munda Headworks in the Mohmand Agency of Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas
(FATA). Upon completion, the dam will generate 740 MW of hydroelectricity, irrigate 15,100
acres of land and control floods downstream.

Diamer-Bhasha Dam:

49
Diamer-Bhasha Dam is an under-construction roller compacted concrete (RCC) dam on the
River Indus in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Its foundation stone was laid by Prime Minister Yusuf
Raza Gilani of Pakistan on 18 October 2011. The gross capacity of the reservoir will be
8,100,000 acre feet (10.0 km3), with a live storage of 6,400,000 acre feet (7.9 km3). Two (2)
underground power houses are being proposed, one on each side of the main dam having six (6)
turbines on each side with total installed capacity 4500 MW.

Satpara Dam:

Satpara Dam is an under-construction medium-size multi-purpose concrete-faced earth-filled

dam located downstream of the existing Satpara Lake on the Satpara Stream approximateley 4
km from the town of Skardu in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Upon completion, the dam will enlarge
the size of Satpara Lake, generate 17.36 MW of hydroelectricity and supply power to
approximately 30,000 households in the Skardu Valley, irrigate 15,536 acres (62.87 km2) of land
and supply 3.1 million gallons per day drinking water to Skardu city.

Rawal lake:

Rawal Lake in Pakistan is an artificial reservoir that provides the water needs for the cities of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Korang River along with some other small streams coming from
Margalla Hills have been set to form this artificial lake which covers an area of 8.8 km². Korang
River is the outlet stream of Rawal Dam. Rawal Lake is located within an isolated section of the
Margalla Hills National Park.

Reservoir

 Area: 3 square miles (7.8 km2)

 Maximum depth: 102 feet (31 m)
 Live storage: 43,000 acre feet (53,000,000 m3)
 Dead storage: 4,500 acre feet (5,600,000 m3)
 Gross capacity: 47,500 acre feet (58,600,000 m3)

Simly Dam;

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Simly Dam is an 80m high earthen embankment dam on the Soan River, 30 km east of
Islamabad and Rawalpindi.[1] It is the largest reservoir of drinking water to people living in
Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. The water stored in this dam is fed by the melting snow &
natural springs of Murree hills.

Khanpur Dam:

Khanpur Dam is a dam located on the Haro River near the town of Khanpur, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (formerly NWFP), Pakistan, about 25 miles (40 km) from Islamabad, Pakistan. It
is 167 feet (51 m) high and stores 110,000 acre feet (140,000,000 m3) of water.

Tanda Dam:

Tanda Dam is a small dam located in Kohat District, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.

Tarbela Dam:

Tarbela Dam on the Indus River in Pakistan is the second largest dam in the world by structural
volume. It is located in Haripur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, about 50 kilometres (31 mi)
northwest of Islamabad.

 Capacity 13.69 cubic kilometres (3.28 cu mi)

 Catchment area 168,000 km2
 Surface area 250 km2

Warsak Dam:

Warsak Dam is a mass concrete gravity dam located on the Kabul River approximately 20 km
northwest of the city of Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The total
installed capacity of the Warsak Dam Hydropower Project is nearly 243 MW.

Akhori Dam

51
The Akhori Dam Project is one of the projects of Water Vision 2025, which is proposed by the
former Pakistan Muslim League (Q)'s Government. The dam will stored about 8.6 billion cubic
meters of water that is split filling the Tarbela reservoir during the monsoon season.

Dohngi Dam

Dohngi Dam is a small dam situated 2 kilometers northwest of Gujar Khan in Rawalpindi,
Punjab, Pakistan.

Kalabagh Dam

The Kalabagh dam is a proposed hydroelectric dam on the Indus River at Kalabagh in Mianwali
District of the Punjab province in Pakistan. The project has been controversial since its inception.

 Active capacity 7.52 km3 (6,100,000 acre·ft)

 Inactive capacity 9.7 km3 (7,900,000 acre·ft)
 Catchment area 110,500 sq mi (286,000 km2)

RAINWATER HARVESTING

is the accumulating and storing, of rainwater. It has been used to provide drinking water, water
for livestock, water for irrigation or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge.
Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are especially prepared for this
purpose, is called Storm water harvesting. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or
economical, water source. Rainwater harvesting systems can be simple to construct from
inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations.

Why Rain Water Harvesting OR Objectives of RWH:

52
 • Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground
water.
• Over-exploitation of ground water resource has resulted in decline in water levels in
most parts of the country.
• To enhance availability of ground water at specific place and time.
• To arrest sea water ingress.
• To improve the water quality in aquifers.
• To improve the vegetation cover.
• To raise the water levels in wells and bore wells that is drying up.

Benefits of RWH:
1. An ideal solution to water problems in areas having inadequate water resources.
2. The ground water level will rise.
3. Mitigates the effects of drought and achieves drought proofing.
4. Reduces the runoff which chokes the storm water drains.
5. Flooding of roads is reduced.
6. Quality of water improves.
7. Soil erosion will be reduced.
8. Saving of energy per well for lifting of ground water.
9. Prevention of sea water ingress.

Water Harvesting and Run-off farming

Water harvesting is the process of collecting and storing the precipitation from areas that have
been treated to increase runoff of rainfall and snow melt.

Once the rain water runoff has been harvested from slopes, it can be used or crop production.
The combination is called as run-off farming. Harvested water is scarce commodity and rightly
been termed as “liquid gold”.

Water harvesting techniques

53
These techniques are provided for control o the rain water with physical structures so as to
reduce or control runoff and increase the amount of available water for crop use. There are two
general methods of rain water harvesting.

1. In-situ water harvesting

2. Catchment based water harvesting

In-situ water harvesting:

These methods consist of conserving as much as rain as possible where it falls through
land and soil treatments. However, the excess water that cannot be conserved within the root
profile is collected and recycled to the donor catchment itself. This practice is more useful in
moderate rainfall areas. This may be done with terraces, benches, furrow etc.

Terraces:

It is most commonly employed to control water erosion and to intercept rain water on
agricultural and wastelands by constructing broad channels across the slope of rolling land.
Contouring of cultivated land is always combined with terracing. The function of terracing is to
decrease the length of hillside slope thereby reducing sheet and rill erosion, preventing the
formation of gullies and increasing infiltration.

Graded Terraces: -

It is constructed where it is necessary to drain out excess of rainwater into a constructed or

natural outlet. This type of terrace is constructed by cutting on shallow channel on the uphill side
and use the same earth fill to built the embankment. The side slopes of both the channel and
ridge are kept as flat as possible to facilitate farming operations.

Benching: -

Bench terrace consist of series of level or nearly level strips running across the slope supported
by steep risers. The risers are earth built by earth protected with grass or by rock walls.

Contour Farming :

54
This practice is always more effective if used in conjunction with terraces, where all tillage is
conducted on the contour and each tillage mark retains the rain water. Contour furrows greatly
increase the soil intake and hence, the water storage capacity of soils. They also permit better
weed control and more efficient crop use of limited rainfall.

Broad bed and furrow system

This system is most successful, both to facilitate cultural operations and to control excess water.
The optimum slopes for the bed and furrow system range from 0.3 to 0.8 percent depending upon
the soil type. The system reduces erosion, improves crop drainage and substantially increases
yield as compared to flat planting.

Storage and use of rain water:

Runoff may be inevitable in areas where most of the heavy downpours exceed the absorptive
capacity of soil. The rain water moving down can be successfully intercepted at suitable places to
be stored in ponds/tanks and small dams constructed at suitable sites. This impounded water can
be used for providing supplemental irrigation to the rainfed areas.

Ponds

The pond size varies according to rainfall intensity, nature of soil and amount of runoff.
Consequently the pond size varies from 100-2100 m3 in small catchments, while it may range
from 2100-3000 m3 in medium to relatively large catchments. The payoff is very high and may
work out to be 200 kg/cm/ha of the critical irrigation. Consequently, farm ponds hold great
promise especially in areas characterized by low and erratic rainfall as a life saving device for
rainfed crops.

However, there is difficulty in the light soils for storage in ponds because of high seepage rate.
This problem can be overcome by using sealant material.

The basic objective of farm ponds besides controlling runoff is to irrigate fields below it by
natural flow and the uplands by forcing up water by pumps. This necessitates the ponds to be so
located that it receives the maximum runoff flowing into it.

55
Small/Mini dams

Hill torrents in uplands of Pakistan run in a zigzag way and before the runoff reaches the rivers
through streams, it can be stored in small and mini dams at suitable sites at higher reaches for
irrigation and drinking purposes.

Conveyance losses

Since water collection in small ponds and tanks is limited, the traditional methods of irrigation
are unthinkable as losses are high and efficiency of utilization is low, flood irrigation method is
precluded. The principle of application, is therefore, to cut down Conveyance and evaporation
losses and to force water deep into the profile where roots are extensive and can utilize available
moisture. Lining of channels with concrete or P.V.C pies will provide control against damage
caused by rodents and cattle besides, conveying larger quantities of water in channels of given
size. The comparative economic studies of different irrigation methods will be desirable for
making specific recommendations to the barani farmers of a given rainfed zone.

Lift irrigation

Surface storage may not be feasible everywhere. However there are perennial or non-perennial
streams or “nallahs” that travel through the rainfed areas. They carry substantial quantity of
water especially during rainy season. This water can be used to irrigate the areas along these
streams by lift irrigation.

Flood water harvesting (torrent and”sailaba”farming system)

In our arid and semiarid areas rainfall occurs during short intense storms. The water swiftly
drains away in gullies and natural channels for many miles toward rivers or inland lakes. The
floods caused by this runoff are often devastating.

56
This water is stopped and blocked in the bed of torrent with a temporary diversion dam called
“Bund”,”Gandi” in the local dialects, depending on its size. This water is stopped and raised to
the ground level, is diverted to big embanked fields, varying in area from two to ten hectares,
through the outlet of these dams. Water infiltrates into the soil and when the soil is in proper
moisture conditions, it is prepared for crop production. This system of flood irrigation system is
called Rod-I-Kohi farming in the piedmont plains in the west of river Sindh.

The other major sources of water are floods and heavily rainfall in poorly drained areas. The
production of crops on the residual moisture of these floods is called “sailaba farming system”.
By using improved moisture conservation and conservation practices, crops yield can be
significantly increased.

Catchment based water harvesting

In this system rainwater is allowed to runoff on the upper reaches of catchment and collected at
lower reaches for sustained crop production. The underlying principle is to minimize infiltration
and maximize runoff on catchment slopes for greater water harvest on adjacent areas. The run off
can be increased by vegetation removal, compaction or chemical treatment.

Given the potential for achieving high rates of runoff, the major concern is to harvest the water
without causing considerable soil erosion. To achieve this, the length of bare surface over which
water is allowed to accumulate and runoff must be carefully designed and major water carrying
channels must be grassed or lined with stones or other material to prevent scouring.

Runoff-Run-on system

In this system, the runoff water from the sloped watershed area is allowed to flow into cultivated
area. This additional runoff water over the incidental rain water in the cultivated area
considerably improves its water supply for increased crop production. The watershed/cultivated
area or runoff-run-on ratio varies with the rainfall of a locality. In some areas it may not be
possible to raise the runoff percentage to 50 cent due to low intensity rainfall and light textured
soil.

Khushkaba farming system

57
It is normally practiced in Baluchistan. In this system, the field receives moisture directly from
rainfall or from the localized runoff. For example run-off from large uncultivated blocks is
diverted to cultivated ridged fields. This system is viable in a climate where sowing is carried out
after rains. It may create pounding effect in furrows causing seedling mortality.

In the case of localized run-off, embankments are made facing the hills, so that the natural
gradient within the bunded area helps the runoff to collect above the embankment. The area
inside the bunds is sometimes deliberately left uneven with the areas closer to the bund being the
lowest. This is done so that in case of high rainfall the runoff from areas up slope collects near
the embankment and provides enough moisture to at least grow crops in the lower half of the
field.

The Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, India has already successfully
tested and recommended following methods of run-off concentration for increasing soil moisture
availability in their arid zones

1. Inter-row water harvesting

2. Inter-ploy water harvesting

Area or field water harvesting

In case of “nalahs” flowing through farm, small dam are provided at desirable interval to spread
the run-off water in the adjoining fields. In case of sloppy field, it is divided into donor
catchment and receiver or cropped area. Under this system, no area of the field is lost to
catchment and can be practiced on all types of soil situations.

In case of larger catchment, the runoff is carried to distant places in small streams or nalahs and
collects whatever it meets a depression on a natural topographic barrier which limits its further
course. Crops like wheat are successfully grown in these soil pockets on stored moisture even in
areas receiving annual rainfall of 100 mm.

Desert-strip-farming

This is similar to bench terrace farming and conventional dry land-strip farming. In this the crops
are planted along contours but differ in that the fallow area is used as catchment. The catchment
58
area is often cleared of vegetation, shaped, smoothed, compacted and even treated with sealants
to increase runoff efficiency. Moreover the adjacent cultivated area which is formed by leveling
a swath along the contour, has a small dike on the downhill side to trap runoff water. This
farming system is mainly used for agronomic crops.

Micro-catchment farming

This system provides the highest runoff percentage per unit watershed area. A plant can grow in
a region with too little rainfall for its survival if a rain water catchment basin is built around it,
forcing rainfall from a larger than normal area to irrigate the plant. This practice is called micro-
catchment farming and often used in deserts. The basin stores runoff from the micro-catchment.
However the size of basin is designed according to the expected yield of water, topography and
spacing between the plants.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions of a substance under their own random
translational kinetic energy from an area of its own high concentration to another area of low
concentration.

Examples of Diffusion:-

1) A drop of perfume spreads the fragrance throughout the room. Perfume is volatile hence
quickly begins to evaporate creating a high concentration of perfume molecules above the drop.
Perfume molecules are in random motion and later get evenly intermixed with the nitrogen,
oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules of the air such that they are present in the same
concentration throughout the room.

2) In most biological systems diffusion water takes place across the cell membrane.

Six things that influence the rate of diffusion:

a). Concentration gradient

59
b). Size of molecule involved

c). Distance the molecule has to travel

d). Temperature

e). Solubility of the molecule

f). Surface area of the membrane over which the molecule can work

Importance of diffusion:-

Intake of gases like CO2, O2 from environment and their movement through inter-cellular spaces
takes place through diffusion.

In plants intake of gases, vapor during photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration takes place
through diffusion. Water and minerals are absorbed by root hair by diffusion.

Types of Diffusion:-

Simple diffusion:-

Simple diffusion is when a small, non-polar molecule passes through a lipid bilayer. It is
classified as a means of passive transport. In simple diffusion, a hydrophobic molecule can move
into the hydrophobic region of the membrane without getting rejected. Simple diffusion does not
involve a protein. Hydrophilic molecules cannot participate in simple diffusion because they
would move into the hydrophobic region of the membrane and be rejected. Saturation does not
occur with simple diffusion or with channel diffusion.

Channel diffusion:-
Channel diffusion is another type of passive transport. Channel diffusion involves channel
proteins where material moves through an open, aqueous pore. Channel diffusion can be
regulated. Ions and charged particles can pass through the open pore.
Facilitated Diffusion:-

60
Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes across a membrane, with the help of transport
proteins. Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport in which solute is transported down
its concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion helps in the diffusion of many polar molecules
and ions that are impeded by the membrane's phospholipids bi layer.

It is the movement of specific molecules down a concentration gradient, passing through the
membrane via a specific carrier protein. Thus, rather like enzymes, each carrier has its own shape
and only allows one molecule (or one group of closely related molecules) to pass through.
Selection of molecule is done by its size; shape; charge. Common molecules entering/leaving
cells this way include glucose and amino-acids. It is passive and requires no energy from the cell.
If the molecule is changed on entering the cell (glucose + ATP → glucose phosphate + ADP),
then the concentration gradient of glucose will be kept high, and there will a steady one-way
traffic.

Carrier proteins usually bind a specific type of solute and are thereby induced to undergo a series
of conformational changes which has the effect of carrying the solute to the other side of the
membrane. Such carrier then discharges the solute and, through another conformational change,
reorients in the membrane to its original state. Normally a given carrier will transport only a
small group of related molecules.

Ion Channels .They do not bind the solute, but are like hydrophilic pores through the membrane
that open and allow certain types of solutes, usually inorganic ions, to pass through it.

Osmosis:-

61
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a more
dilute solution (a lower solute concentration) to a less dilute solution (with a higher solute
concentration).What is most important to note in the above definition is that only the water
molecules move from their higher concentration (whether in dilute solution or in pure water
) to their (water molecules) lower concentration (in stronger solution or just a solution in relation
to pure water).

It is the movement of water through the semipermeable membrane. It is better defined as the
movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of the high water potential
(i.e. low concentration) to an area of low water potential (i.e. high concentration). It is a physical
process in which a solvent moves without input energy, across a highly selective membrane
(permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating the two solutions of different
concentrations. Osmosis releases energy, and this energy can be utilized to do work.

Examples of Osmosis:-

1) It is a primary means by which water gets transported into and out of cells.

2) Osmosis largely maintains the turgor pressure of a cell across the cell membrane, between
the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.

3) Biological membranes in general are semi permeable which means that these membranes
are impermeable to organic solutes with large molecules, such as polysaccharides, while
permeable to water and small, uncharged solutes.

4) The roots of the plants draw water from the soil due to osmosis.

5) The freshwater fish cannot live in salt water and vice versa due to the harmful osmotic
effect.

Process of Osmosis:-

Net movement of solvent is from low-concentrated (hypotonic) state to high-concentrated

(hypertonic) state, which tends to reduce the difference in their concentrations. This difference in
concentrations is called gradient. The effect of concentration gradient can be encountered by

62
increasing the pressure of the hypertonic solution, with respect to the hypotonic, such that the
solvent doesn't enter the hypertonic medium (functional barrier, rather than physical).

Osmotic pressure:-

The osmotic pressure is defined as the amount of pressure required to maintain equilibrium, with
no net movement of the solvent. Osmotic pressure of a cell is a colligative property, meaning
the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but is not specific about its
identity.

Importance of Osmosis:-

Osmosis is important in all biological systems, as all living biological membranes are
semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to organic solutes with larger
molecular weights, such as polysaccharides, while permeable to water and also to small
uncharged solutes. Permeability may be depend on charge, solubility properties, as well as the
solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma cell wall and tonoplast (vacuole) or
protoplast in two many ways, either by diffusing across the phospholipids bilayer directly, or
aquaporins (these are small transmembrane proteins similar to those in the facilitated diffusion).

Osmosis provides primary means by which water is transported in and out of the all cells. The
turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained with the osmosis, across the cell membrane,
between the cell interior and its relatively to an hypotonic environment.

63
Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises
from the turgor pressure exerted against all the cell wall, until it equals to osmotic pressure,
creating a steady state. When a plant cell is placed into a hypertonic solution, the water in the
cells moves from an area within the higher solute concentration and the cell shrinks, and it
becomes a flaccid. This means the cell has been become plasmolysed - the cell membrane has
completely left the cell wall due to the lack of water pressure on the opposite of the turgid.

Diffusion Osmosis

In animals, osmosis influences

This way they can create
Importance: energy and other important
nutrients.
the distribution of nutrients
and the release of metabolic
waste products. In plants,
osmosis is partially
responsible for the absorption
of soil water and for the
elevation of the liquid to the
leaves of the plant.

Diffusion mainly occurs in

It occurs when the medium
gaseous state or within gas
surrounding the cell has a
molecules and liquid
higher water concentration
molecules. The molecules of
than the cell, the cell will gain
Process: gases are in constant motion
water. At the same time, many
and collide with the
important molecules, and
membrane. If the membrane is
particles for growth, also
removed the gases will mix
move from one cell to another.
because of random velocities.

Diffusion is a spontaneous Osmosis is the spontaneous

What is it?:
movement of particles from an net movement of water across

64
 area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration
through a semi-permeable
membrane. (e.g. tea flavoring
moving from an area of high
to low concentration in hot
water.)
a semipermeable membrane
from a region of low solute
concentration to a solution
with a high solute
concentration, down a solute
concentration gradient.

Doesn’t need water for

Water: Needs water for movement
movement.

WATER POTENTIAL:-

Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in
reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to
another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure, or matrix effects such as surface tension.
Water potential has proved especially useful in understanding water movement within plants,
animals, and soil. Water potential is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and
very often is represented by the Greek letter Ψ.

Components of water potential:-

Many different factors may affect the total water potential, and the sum of these potentials
determines the overall water potential and the direction of water flow:

Ψ = Ψ0 + Ψπ + Ψp + Ψs + Ψv + Ψm[1]

where:

Ψ0 is the reference correction,

65
Ψπ is the solute potential,

Ψp is the pressure component,

Ψs is the gravimetric component,

Ψv is the potential due to humidity, and

Ψm is the potential due to matrix effects (e.g., fluid cohesion and surface tension.)

All of these factors are quantified as potential energies per unit volume, and different subsets of
these terms may be used for particular applications (e.g., plants or soils). Different conditions are
also defined as reference depending on the application: for example, in soils, the reference
condition is typically defined as pure water at the soil surface.

Pressure Potential:-

Pressure potential is based on mechanical pressure, and is an important component of the total
water potential within plant cells. Pressure potential is increased as water enters a cell. As water
passes through the cell wall and cell membrane, it increases the total amount of water present
inside the cell, which exerts an outward pressure that is retained by the structural rigidity of the
cell wall. By creating this pressure, the plant can maintain turgor, which allows the plant to keep
its rigidity. Without turgor, plants lose structure and wilt.

The pressure potential in a living plant cell is usually positive. In plasmolysed cells, pressure
potential is almost zero. Negative pressure potentials occur when water is pulled through an open
system such as a plant xylem vessel.

Solute potential:-

Pure water is usually defined as having a solute potential (Ψπ) of zero, and in this case, solute
potential can never be positive.

For example, when a solute is dissolved in water, water molecules are less likely to diffuse away
via osmosis than when there is no solute. A solution will have a lower and hence more negative

66
water potential than that of pure water. Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more
negative the solute potential is.

Matrix potential:-

When water is in contact with solid particles (e.g., clay or sand particles within soil), adhesive
intermolecular forces between the water and the solid can be large and important. The forces
between the water molecules and the solid particles in combination with attraction among water
molecules promote surface tension and the formation of menisci within the solid matrix. Force is
then required to break these menisci.

WATER

Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen
and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions,
but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam.
Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth, it is
found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in
aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles
suspended in air), and precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice
caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small
amount of the Earth's water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.

The Structure of water molecule:-

Water is made up of two molecules, hydrogen and oxygen. One oxygen atom is bonded to two
hydrogen atoms and both the hydrogen atoms are bonded to each other through a covalent bond.
The hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom on one side. This results in water molecule
having a positive charge due to presence of hydrogen atom. The other side of the water molecule
is negatively charged due to the presence of oxygen atom. As opposites attract, water molecules
are sticky and are attracted to each other (adhesion property).
A water molecule has neutral charge due to presence of equal number of electrons and protons.
The electrons are drawn away from the hydrogen nuclei due to the force from oxygen nucleus.

67
This leaves the nuclei of hydrogen with a slightly positive charge. Excess of electron density
creates a weak negative charge in the oxygen atom.

Model of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water

Physical Properties of Water:-

There are different properties of water that makes it unique in its league. Water is the major
constituent of all life forms. More than 60% of all plants and animals is made up of water. There
are different physical properties of water, that is discussed below:

i. Adhesion and Cohesion:-

One of the unique properties of water is adhesion and cohesion. Water molecules are attracted to
each other and therefore show the property of cohesion. Water molecules are also attracted to
molecules of other substances called as adhesion. Water gets it property of adhesion due to its
chemical structure. The positive charge from the hydrogen molecule at one end and negative
charge from the oxygen molecules.
ii. Surface Tension:-
Each and every drop of water is attracted to other water molecules due to surface tension
between them. In order to understand surface tension, let's see an example. When you see a drop
of water fall from the rim of faucet, the drop won't fall immediately. The water drop will stretch
itself very thin as much as possible, before falling down. As it falls, it will form a spherical shape

68
and no other shape. This property of water is due to surface tension between the water molecules
that allows them to stick to themselves.

iii. Heat Capacity:-

Another one of the unique properties of water is its heat capacity. Water has the ability to absorb
heat and become hot. Thus, when you boil water, it will take really long to boil. Water tends to
take in as much heat as possible from the surroundings and become hot itself. This property
enables the huge amount of water in our oceans to act as reservoirs of solar heat. Thus,
maintaining a balance of temperatures on earth.
iv. Capillary Action:-
The adhesive property of water gives rise to another one of the physical properties of water,
capillary action. When one places a 'hollow' straw in a glass of water, one will observe the
capillary to climb up the straw. This happens when one water molecule moves into the straw,
other molecules due to their adhesive properties, follow suit. Thus, water moves up the capillary.
The movement of water in the straw is restricted due to the size of straw and action of gravity.
Water moves up higher, if the straw is thinner.

v. Other unique physical properties of water:-

 Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change
the temperature of a substance. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large
amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. It also means that water releases heat
energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the
moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature
more effectively.
 Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor basic.
Water changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH
of about 5.6 because it contains natural derived carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
 Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact causes large
bodies of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a uniform vertical
temperature profile.

69
 Water molecules exist in liquid form over an important range of temperature from 0 -
100° Celsius. This range allows water molecules to exist as a liquid in most places on our
planet.
 Water is a universal solvent. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical
compounds. This feature also enables water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff,
infiltration, groundwater flow, and living organisms.
 Water molecules are the only substance on Earth that exist in all three physical states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Incorporated in the changes of state are massive amounts of
heat exchange. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in
the Earth's atmosphere. In terms of heat being transferred into the atmosphere,
approximately 3/4's of this process is accomplished by the evaporation and condensation
of water.
 The freezing of water molecules causes their mass to occupy a larger volume. When
water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by volume. Fresh water has a
maximum density at around 4° Celsius. Water is the only substance on this planet where
the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it becomes solidified.
 Water expands on freezing; this is one of the unique properties of water that is seen in
very few other substances.
 Water will expand with temperature increase above 4º C.
 Water is slightly compressible as density of water is high.
 Water is a universal solvent.
 Water is one of the few inorganic liquid substances.
 Density of water molecules at various temperatures.

Temperature (degrees Celsius) Density (grams per cubic centimeter)

0 (solid) 0.9150

0 (liquid) 0.9999

70
 4 1.0000

20 0.9982

40 0.9922

60 0.9832

80 0.9718

100 (gas) 0.0006

Chemical Properties of Water:-

71
i. Polarity and hydrogen bonding:-

An important feature of water is its polar nature. The water molecule forms an angle, with
hydrogen atoms at the tips and oxygen at the vertex. Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity
than hydrogen, the side of the molecule with the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. An
object with such a charge difference is called a dipole. The charge differences cause water
molecules to be attracted to each other (the relatively positive areas being attracted to the
relatively negative areas) and to other polar molecules. This attraction contributes to hydrogen
bonding, and explains many of the properties of water, such as solvent action.

A water molecule can form a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two and
donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, methanol form
hydrogen bonds but they do not show anomalous behavior of thermodynamic, kinetic or
structural properties like those observed in water.

i. Universal Solvent

Water has the capacity to dissolve more substances than any other liquid, thus, is called universal
solvent. The universal solvent quality enables water to take other valuable minerals, nutrients or
chemicals with them wherever they go. The polar bonds in water molecule make it a universal
solvent.
iii. Hydrophilic Compounds

Substances dissolving readily in water are called hydrophilic compounds. They consist of ions or
polar molecules that use electrical charge effects to attract water molecules. The water molecules
surround these polar molecules and carry them into the solution, thereby dissolving them. For
example, ionic substances like sodium chloride dissolve in water, as the positive sodium ions and
negative chlorine ions of sodium chloride get attracted to the polar water molecules.

Those substances that can readily dissolve in water are called as hydrophilic molecules. These
substances are made of ions or polar molecules. These ions are attracted to water molecules due
to the electrical charge effect. Each of the ions or polar molecules present on the solid substance
is surrounded by water molecules and thus forming a solution.
iv. Hydrophobic Compounds

72
Molecules with prevailing non polar bonds are the ones that are mostly insoluble in water and are
called hydrophobic compounds. Hydrocarbons containing C-H bonds are examples of
hydrophobic compounds. This is because the intensity, with which water molecules are attracted
to C-H bonds, is far lesser than the intensity towards other water molecules. Hence, water
molecules do not carry these hydrocarbons into the solution.

Those substances with a majority of non-polar bonds and are insoluble in water are called as
hydrophobic molecules. This property is true especially in case of hydrocarbons that have C-H
bonds. As water molecules are not attracted to these substances they do not surround them and
do not form a solution.

v. Water pH

The pH scale runs from 1 to 14, wherein ph 1-6 refers to acidic pH, while pH 8-14 refers to basic
pH. At pH 7, a chemical is known to be neutral. The pH of a chemical substance is determined
by the amount of hydrogen atoms in it. Thus, a chemical compound with high pH has higher
number of hydrogen atoms in its chemical composition and is called acid. Whereas compounds
with lower pH contains lower number of hydrogen atoms and are called bases. The pH of water
is neutral.
vi. Amphoteric Nature

Water has the ability to act as both an acid (proton donor) as well as a base (proton acceptor). It
acts as a base to acids stronger than itself and acts as an acid to bases stronger than itself. This
amphoteric nature is clearly visible in the below reaction, wherein water molecule reacts with
acid as a base.
H2O (l) + HCl (aq) ⇌ H3O++ Cl-
Water molecule also reacts with a strong base as an acid.
H2O (l) + NH3 (aq) ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
Biological Properties of Water:-

There are some biological properties of water that makes it so precious. There are many living
organisms that live in water like microscopic organisms. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoans, phytoplankton, zoo plankton, insects, worms, plants and fish. The neutral pH of

73
water makes it life sustainable. Water makes up 60% of a cell and is vital for survival of life.
More than 70% of earth's surface is covered with water. It is largely found in oceans and other
large water bodies. Water is continuously recycled through the process of evaporation and
transpiration, precipitation, run off, etc. Clean drinking water is very important for humans as
well as other animals as well as plants.

Forms of Soil Water

Soil is the major source of water for plants. The plants absorb water through root hairs from the
soil. The total water content present in the soil is called holard. Out of this, the water which can
be absorbed by plants is chresard and remaining is called echard.

i. Gravitational Water

When the water enters the soil and passes through the spaces between the soil particles and
reaches the water table, the type of soil water is called gravitational water. This water lies far
below and is generally not available to the plant roots.

ii. Hygroscopic Water:-

This is the form of water which is held by soil particles on soil surface. The water is held tightly
around the soil particles due to cohesive and adhesive forces. These forces greatly reduce the
water potential and thus this type of water in soil is not available to plants.

iii. Capillary Water

In smaller pores of the soil, water is held against the force of gravity by capillary forces and is
called capillary water. This form of water is most important to plants and constitutes the only
available source of water to plants.

Run Away Water

All the rain water falling on the soil is not retained by it. Run away water does not enter the soil
and gets drained away from soil surface

Combined water

74
Some water is present in the form of hydrated oxides of aluminium, iron, silicon inside the soil.
This is also a non-available form of water for plant roots.

Absorption of Water by Plants

Plants absorb water through the entire surface - roots, stems and leaves. However, mainly the
water is absorbed by roots. The area of young roots where most absorption takes place is the root
75
hair zone. The root hairs are delicate structures which get continuously replaced by new ones at
an average rate of 100 millions per day. The root hairs lack cuticle and provide a large surface
area. They are extensions of the epidermal cells. They have sticky walls by which they adhere
tightly to soil particles. As the root hairs are extremely thin and large in number, they provide
enormous surface area for absorption. They take in water from the intervening spaces mainly by
osmosis.

Water in the roots move by two pathways:-

i. Apoplast pathway:-

In this pathway the movement of water occurs exclusively through cell wall without the
involvement of any membranes. Majority of the amount of water goes through the apoplast
pathway. The cortex of the root does not oppose such movement of the water.

ii. Symplast pathway

Here the movement of water molecules is from cell to cell through the plasmodesmata. The
plasmodesmata form a network of cytoplasm of all cells.

The Casparian strip separates the cortex and the endodermis. It is composed of a wax like
substance called suberin, which blocks water and solute molecules through the cell wall of the
endodermis. Now the water is forced to go through the cell membranes of different cells leading
to a transmembrane pathway.

What are Casparian strips

76
A band of suberin, an impermeable substance, found in the endodermal cell walls of plant roots;
it was named after R. Caspary. Movement of water through the apoplast pathway is diverted
from the cell wall to the cytoplasm, where it then follows the symplast pathway. The endodermal
cells actively secrete salts into the vascular tissue. This results in a low (more negative) water
potential, allowing water to move down a water potential gradient from the endodermis into the
vascular tissue. The Casparian strip prevents water from returning to the cortex; consequently a
positive hydrostatic pressure is established in the vascular tissue – the phenomenon of root
pressure.

Figure: Mechanism of Water Absorption

Water can be absorbed by two methods:

1. Active absorption

2. Passive absorption

1. Active Absorption

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Water is absorbed due to activities going on in roots. Absorption of water occurs with the help of
energy in the form of ATP, which is released due to metabolic activities of root cells such as
respiration. Absorption takes place against concentration gradient - even when the concentration
of cell sap is lower than that of soil water.

2. Passive Absorption

Passive absorption is by osmosis. Passive absorption takes place along the concentration gradient
- when the concentration of cell sap is higher than that of soil water. Water is absorbed when
transpiration rate is high or soil is dry. Due to high transpiration rate, water deficit is created in
transpiring cells. Rapid transpiration removes water and reduces turgor pressure in living cells of
root. The suction force thus developed is transmitted to root xylem. It pulls water from
surrounding root cells to make up water deficit.

Factors affecting absorption of water:

Physical factors:

The soil and atmosphere are the chief physical factors which determine the flow rate of water
through plant.

A. Soil factors:

i. Soil water content: The plant roots can easily absorb the soil moisture in between field
capacity and permanent wilting point. When the soil moisture decrease below the wilting point,
plant roots have to exert more pressure and thus rate of absorption decreases. On the other hand,
when the soil is completely saturated with water, then soil temperature and aeration are poor and
this condition also affects the absorption of water.
ii) Soil temperature: Soil temperature is known to influence water absorption and ultimately
transpiration to a considerable extent. In many plants, water absorption below a soil temperature
of 10˚C is reduced sharply and 25˚C soil temperature up take of water is slowed down. In most
instances, temperature above 40˚C does not support water absorption and plant can show signs of
wilting. A freezing temperature reduces water absorption because of following causes.
a) Decreased root growth

78
b) Increased viscosity of water
c) Increased resistance to movement of water in to roots, thus is caused by decreased
permeability of cell membrane and the increased viscosity.

iii) Soil aeration and flooding: Most of crop plants are not able to water while standing under
water logged conditions. The following are the possible reasons of flood injury.
a) Poor availability of oxygen and occurrence if higher CO2 concentration around roots.
b) Accumulation of toxic substances either in the submerged roots or around them.
c) Changes in pattern of ion up take resulting in the accumulation of some toxic ions.

In water logged condition, the availability of oxygen is reduced which affects respiratory actively
of roots. In addition, CO2 concentration is increased and it affects permeability of membranes
and adversely influences water up take. Reduced oxygen also affects root growth adversely.

B. Atmospheric factor:

The amount of soil moisture that is available to a plant is determined by the moisture
characteristics of the soil, the depth to which the plant roots extend and the proliferation or
density of the roots. Soil moisture characteristics, such as field capacity and wilting percentage
are peculiar to a soil and are a function of the texture and organic matter. Little can be done to
alter these limits to any great extent. Greater possibilities lie in changing the characteristic of the
plant enabling it extend its rooting system deeper into the soil, thereby enlarging its reservoir of
water. The density of roots proliferation is important.

Water is an unsaturated soil moves very slowly, and only a distance of a few cm. To utilize
effectively the moisture stored in the soil profile, roots must continue to proliferate into
unexploited zones throughout the plants growth cycle. During favorable growing periods, roots
often elongate so rapidly that satisfactory moisture contacts can be maintained even when the
soil moisture content declines. Where transpiration is effected due to the different atmosphere
factors such as wind velocity, humidity, sunlight, etc when temperature and wind velocity are
more sunlight for longer period and humidity are less, under such conditions, transpiration is
more. The increased rate of transpiration results more water uptake.

C. Biological factors:

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Root system is the plant factor which is directly related to the absorption of water from soil.
Under favorable soil water, potential soil temperature, aeration, and roots system of the plants
strongly influence the uptake of water. When growth of roots (root system) is more, uptake of
water is also more under favorable soil conditions. Root growth is influenced by soil and more
therefore agronomic management practices can help to improve root growth.Other plant factors
such as morphology of leaves, stomatal mechanism and growth stage of the crop influence the
rate of transpiration. The increased rate of transpiration results more water absorption.

Good root system has developed during favorable growing periods; a plant can draw its moisture
supply from deeper soil layers.Plants vary genetically in their rooting characteristics. Vegetable
crops such as onions and potatoes have a spare rooting system and are unable to use all the soil
water within the root zone. Forage grasses, sorghum, maize and such other crops have very
fibrous, dense roots. Lucerne has a deep root system. Whether plant is an annual or perennial is
another factor affecting its moisture relations. An annual plant must extend its roots down into
the soil to make availability root depth, and needs only to extend its small roots and hairs to be
able to utilize the entire amount of available soil water.

Plants may be limited in their rooting by factors other than genetic. High water table, shallow
soils and an impermeable formation near the ground surface restrict the depth rooting. Fertility
and salt status of the soil influence the rooting of plants crop management practices, such as
cutting the top growth at different physiological stages and the cultivation and cutting of surface
roots after rooting habits. The rooting pattern of common and crop plants vary widely from soil.
For example, roots of maize crop have been found to extend as deep as 1.5 meters in medium to
textured soils, while in a fine textured soil the crop has a shallower root system.

Effective Root zone:

Effective root zone is the depth from which the roots of average mature plant are capable of
reducing soil moisture to the extent that it should be replaced by irrigation. It is not necessarily to
have maximum root depth for ant given plant especially for plants that have a long taproot. Root
development of any crop varies widely with the type of soil and other factors.

Table: Effective root zone depth of some crops and their classification.

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Rooting Characteristic

Shallow Rooted Moderately Deep Rooted Deep Rooted Very Deep Rooted

Rice Wheat Maize Sugarcane

Potato Castor Cotton Safflower

Cauliflower Ground Nut Sorghum Lucerne

Cabbage Pea Bajra Orchard crops

Lettuce Bean Soybean Grape Vine

onion Chili Sugar Beet

Tobacco Tomato

CROP ROTATION

Definition:

The successive planting of different crops on the same land to improve soil fertility and
help control insects and diseases. Or

In simple terms, crop rotation is a system by which vegetables of a similar character do not
follow one another on the same piece of ground year after year.

Reasons for crop rotation

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 The two problems with growing the same (or similar) crops in the same area year on year, is that
the nutrients in the soil become unbalanced and that pests and diseases which are attracted to the
crop can increase in the soil.

By changing the position of the crops, the nutrients can remain balanced (as different groups of
crops require different nutrients) in addition soil borne pests and diseases are reduced as they are
not given the chance to build up year after year.

One point of using the particular groupings of crops, is that the treatment of the soil is very
similar and over the period of the rotation, the condition of the soil is maintained by the use of
the various soil preparation used. .

Classification of crop rotation

The crop rotation classification used in the USSR since 1968 distinguishes three types of
crop rotation:

1. Field;

In field crop rotations, most of the rotation area is in grains, potatoes, and industrial
crops.

2. Feed:

In feed crop rotations, more than half is in feed crops.

3. Special crop rotations.

4. In special crop rotations, crops are grown that require special conditions and
techniques, for example, such crops as vegetables, tobacco, hemp, cotton, and rice.

The three types are further subdivided :

According to the crops and fallows involved and the ratio between them into

 Grain-fallow rotations:

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 In grain-fallow rotations, grain crops alternate with true fallow; 50–70 percent of the
rotation area is in grains. Such crop rotations are used in the arid regions of Northern
Kazakhstan and in the steppe region of Siberia.

 Grain-fallow-row crop rotations:

In grain-fallow-row crop rotations, grain crops alternate with true fallow and row crops. At
least half the rotation area is in grains. Such crop rotations are common in steppe and
forest-steppe regions throughout the southern and southeastern USSR.

 Grain-grass rotations:

In grain-grass rotations, most of the rotation area is in grains, and the rest in annual and
perennial grasses. Such crop rotations are found in flax-growing regions.

 Grain-row crop rotations:

In grain-row crop rotations, at least half the rotation area is in grains, which alternate with
row crops. Such crop rotations are typical of humid regions.

 Grass-field crop rotations:

In grass-field crop rotations, more than half the land is in perennial grasses, and the rest of
the arable land in annual field crops, such as grains, flax, and annual grasses. Such crop
rotation mostly found in irrigated regions.

 Grass- row crop rotations:

In grass-row crop rotations, row crops alternate with perennial grasses that occupy at least
two fields. Such crop rotations are practiced on floodplains and reclaimed wet lands. They
include alfalfa-cotton rotations.

 Green-manure rotations:

83
 In green-manure rotations, crops such as lupine are raised to provide green manure in
occupied (green-manure) fallows. Such crop rotations are used on loams, sandy loams, and sandy
soils.

 Grain-grass-row crop rotations:

In grain-grass-row crop rotations, or non fallow rotations, grains, row crops, and legumes
alternate. Such crop rotations are common in the irrigated lands in arid regions.

 Row-crop rotations:

In row-crop rotations, at least half the rotation area is in row crops planted in wide rows, planted
as single seeds at the corners of a square, or planted in clusters at the corners of a rectangle. Such
crop rotations are introduced in damp regions.

Advantages of crop rotation/Role in crop production:

i. It improves the soil structure and reduces depletion/erosion: Some crops have strong, deep
roots. They can break up hardpans, and tap moisture and nutrients from deep in the soil. Others
have many fine, shallow roots. They tap nutrients near the surface and bind the soil. They form
many tiny holes so that air and water can get into the soil.
ii. It increases soil fertility: Legumes (such as groundnuts and beans) fix nitrogen in the soil.
When their green parts and roots rot, this nitrogen can be used by other crops such as maize.
The result is higher, more stable yields, without the need to apply expensive inorganic fertilizer.
iii. It helps control weeds, pests and diseases hence reduce reliance on synthetic
chemicals: Planting the same crop season after season encourages certain weeds, insects and
diseases. Planting different crops breaks their life cycle and prevents them from multiplying.

iv. It produces different types of output: Growing a mix of grain, beans, vegetables and fodder
means a more varied diet and more types of produce to sell.

v. It reduces risk: A single crop may fail because of drought. It may be attacked by pests. Or its
market price may be low when time comes to sell it. Producing several different crops reduces
these risks.

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vi. Crop rotation may also replace ploughing the soil since it helps aerate, the soil, recycles
nutrients, and helps control weeds, pests and diseases hence perfectly fitting within the ideals of
conservation agriculture.

vii. Intercropping, strip cropping and relay cropping bring many of the same advantages as
rotation. Even so, it is a good idea to rotate crops even if you use these approaches.

Moreover,

 Rotation of crops improves the fertility of the soil and hence, brings about an increase in the
production of food grains.

 Rotation of crops helps in saving on nitrogenous fertilizers, because leguminous plants grown
during the rotation of crops can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with the help of nitrogen
fixing bacteria.

 Rotation of crops help in weed control and pest control. This is because weeds and pests are
very choosy about the host crop plant, which they attack. When the crop is changed the cycle
is broken. Hence, pesticide cost is reduced.

 Crop rotation adds diversity to an operation.

Assessment of crop rotation

Ideally, the evaluation of a crop is done on the basis of total production and the amount of input
used, but when different crops are grown in the same field the assessment becomes difficult.
Different methods of crop assessment are adopted.

 Cropping Index

The cropping index of a crop rotation can be worked out by the following equation and
expressed in terms of percentage.

85
  Monetary Input Output Relationship

Efficiency of crop rotation can be described as an output per unit of input.

Other good effects of crop rotation

 Higher diversity in plant production and thus in human and livestock nutrition.

 Reduction and reduced risk of pest and weed infestations.

 Greater distribution of channels or biopores created by diverse roots (various form, size and
depths).

 Better distribution of water and nutrients through the soil profile.

 Exploration for nutrients and water of the whole soil profile by roots of many different plant
species resulting in an optimal use of the available nutrients and water.

 Increased nitrogen fixation through certain plant-soil biota symbionts and improved balance of
N/P/K from both organic and mineral sources.

 Increased humus formation.

WATER USE EFFICIENCY

Definition:

The dry mater or harvestable portion of a crop produced per unit of water consumed

It is the measure of the total amount of water required to produce a unit of dry mater. This total
amount of water includes useable water (for plant growth) and water lost (through drainage,
transpiration evaporation and surface run off).

Measuring Water Use Efficiency:

86
There are several ways of measuring water use efficiency (WUE) as Transpiration , a measure
of water use efficiency that is obtained be the determine the effectiveness in moderation water
loss while allowing sufficient carbon dioxide up take for photosynthesis

The amount of dry mater produced depends on the amount of carbon dioxide fixed it is
clear that transpiration ratio and water use efficiency are closely linked. In fact the transpiration
ratio may be defined as “The amount of water transpired per unit of dry mater produced”
OR “ the reciprocal of transpiration index” is called the water use efficiency. Therefore,WUE =
1/transpiration index

WUE ranges from 1/200 to 1/1000. The common range being 1/300 to 1/700. As the climate
becomes hot and dry, the values decline sharply. Insufficient availability of water results in
closure of stomata thus suppressing photosynthesis. Crops with high WUE are able to produce
high yields under drought conditions keeping their stomata open for longer periods of time for
carbon fixation. Drought tolerant species such as sorghum or C4 have higher WUE than C3 plants
(e.g.wheat).

In crop production certain biotic and non biotic factors will influence the ability of plants
to utilize the water available.

Weeds compete with crop plants for water. They disrupt the patterns of water used and cause
shortage at critical times in the crop cycle leading to reduced yield.

Weeds controls are important under rain fed product.

Pathogens cause diseases that reduce physiological activities and deprive plants energy for
growth and development. They are of two types

i-Those that affect leaves reduce photosynthetic surface. ii-Those that are soil borne may destroy
roots and reduce the absorption water and nutrients, resulting in reduced photosynthesis and
growth and development.

Evapo-transpiration is the sum of water transpired by vegetation and evaporated from soil in a
given area within a given period of time.

87
The losses of moisture from leaves and from any exposed surface together constitute the
Evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is influenced by climatic factors such as Winds ,
temperature, humidity and solar radiations

Solar radiations: Evapotranspiration increases on clear sunny day.

leaf area index (LAI).It is also affected by (LAI).

Evapotranspiration can be reduced through mulching, weed control or through certain irrigation
methods viz drip or sprinkler irrigation methods, which are more effective than other irrigation
methods.

In corn under irrigation narrow spacing and higher plant density 28000 plants/acre or 19188
plants/hectare produced higher WUE than spacing at 14000 plants/acre

The two terms ,Crop water use efficiency and field water use efficiency are the same as:

1. Ecw = Y/ET

Where Fcw is the crop water use efficiency (Kg ha-1cm)

Y = Yield of crop in Kg

ET = Evapotranspiration in ha cm

2. Efw = Y/WR

Where Efw = field water used efficiency (Kg ha-1cm)

Y = crop yield in Kg

WR = total water used in the yield in cm.

The yield of crop generally means the marketable product such as grains in case of grains
crop. Other terms such as dry mater is also used for the word yield.

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 In hot and dry regions broad leaves crop has higher WUE whereas narrow leaves crop
has lower WUE. However, WUE will higher at high humidity.

In dry regions minimizes growth restriction due to water shortage. WUE can also be calculated
as these equations.

IRwue = Yi – Yd/IR

WUE of irrigation crops (IRwue) will be grater than WUE of dry land crops.

Here Yi = irrigation yield

Yd = dry land yield

The different in yield, Yi – Yd is due to the use of irrigation water (IR)

Measures to enhance WUE :

WUE of a crop can be increased through different ways. Some of them are as follows.

Through good fertility of soil

By controlling weeds

Through hybrid seeds

Optimum plants population

By the choice of crops ( Bushy crops )

Early planting of crops

Selection of good tillage operation

Deep notated crop

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Good fertility of soil: High fertility of soil is especially important in stretching the water supply.
When any nutrient is lacking, plant growth is retard, but the amount of water lost through
transpiration from leaves, plus evaporation from soil continues at about the same rate.

Optimum plant population : More plants per are, of course do need slightly more water but
water use goes up slower than population because the water is removed from the soil both by
transpiration forms leaves and evaporation from soil surface. Thicker planting shades the ground
earlier and more completely and thus reduced the amount of water that is last by direct
evaporation while the surface of moist.

Planting narrow rows is another way to reduce moisture loss from direct evaporation early in
season. Planting Earlier,make more efficient use of limited water supply for three reasons

The crop shades the soil earlier in the season and thus reducing the water lost by
evaporation. The radiation of sun is increasing daily as the sun moves more
directly over head until 21 June in summer

Early planting corn plant reaches most critical stage of silking with more

Water still left in the sub soil. That often makes a large difference in yield.

Early planting corn plant has its roots as much as a foot deeper in to the sub soil.
When hot dry weather usually hits this extra rooting depth means one or two more
inch of available water. Early planting will be a great advantage if rain fall is short
in all summer.

Weed control, is also important for moisture conservation because weed compete with crops for
moisture. Consequently, Weeds should be eliminated from the soil for efficient water use.

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Chemical and plastic covers to save water ,If plastic were used to conserve moisture, only the
area between rows should be covered rain would be allowed to inter soil in the row. Plastic
covering is already being use to grow high value vegetable crops, but the purpose in this case is
more to control weeds and raise soil temperature than to save moisture. At present this technique
is not use.

Hexadecanol and related chemicals have been used several years to make film one molecule
thick to reduce evaporation from the surface of pounds and reservoirs. These chemicals also
reduce water loss when apply to cell but it takes so much of them.

Soil scientists are also treating soils with chemicals that reduce the surface tension of water so
that in inters the soils more rapidly

Adequate plant protection ,that control diseases and insect pests by the judicious use of various
pesticides and fungicides in crop productivity and there by increase water use efficiency

Selection of suitable plants species, adapted to the total amount and distribution of water is one
of important ways of increasing crop yield and water use efficiency in a particular environments.
Plants species vary greatly in their water requirement the selection of developments of a high
yielding species are diseases and pest resistance crop variety

SOIL REACTION

Refers to the degree of soil acidity or alkalinity. Soil reaction is important because it affects
nutrient availability, microbial activity and plant growth.

It is measured in units of pH, which is approximately defined as

pH = -log [H+]

Most plant species perform best in pH range 5.5 to 6.5 or 7.0 but some prefer extremes. For
example azaleas and blueberries grow best under more acidic conditions. In contrast alfalfa does
best under somewhat alkaline conditions.

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  > pH can be viewed as an abbreviation for power of concentration of hydrogen
ion in solution.

 In soils the neutrality is not pH 7, the neutrality is a range between 6.5 and 7.2

 Sources of H+ and OH-

 The absence of bases or excess of H+

 Importance:

 Nutrient availability

 Ion toxicity

 Microbial activity

 Influence on %BS

 Influence on fertilizer efficiency

 Influence on plant growth

 Influence in the environment

Strongly acid soils pH < 5

Moderately acidic soils 5 pH < 6.5

Neutral to alkaline soils pH 6.5Changes in Soil pH

Soils tend to become acidic as they weather and become leached of basic cations. How a soil is
managed also affects its pH.

.CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL ACIDITY

Active

Exchangeable

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Residual Total

Active acidity refers to H+ in solution. Exchangeable refers to adsorbed H+ and Al(OH)x(3-x)+

that is subject to displacement by addition of an excess of extracting cation such as K+. Residual
is adsorbed H+ and Al(OH)x(3-x)+ that is unextractable by unbuffered salts. Total acidity
includes active, exchangeable and residual acidity. Soil Acidity

Buffering Refers to the tendency of soils to resist a change is pH upon addition of acid or base.
Addition of acid leads to increased adsorption of H+ or consumption of H+ by reaction with
Al(OH)3 to form soluble Al-hydroxy ions, Al(OH)x(3-x)+. At high soil pH, carbonates or
bicarbonates will react with added acid,

On the other hand, addition of OH- leads to its consumption by reaction with H+ or Al(OH)x(3-
x)+.

Magnitude of buffering is quantified in the buffer curve for a soil which relates solution pH to
percentage base saturation. Buffer curves for a soil differ depending on the types and amounts of

different colloids in the soil.

Example buffer curve showing increase in pH with increase in percentage base saturation. Since
percentage base saturation depends on CEC as well as adsorbed basic cations, the larger the CEC
the greater is the amount of acid or base required to affect a change in soil pH.

Disposal of organic wastes

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Results in a greater rate of acidification due to organic and mineral acids produced by microbial
oxidation. Acidification be averted if lime is added to organic material.

Drainage of certain coastal wetlands that contain high levels of reduced S

Oxidation of S or S- in the drained material produces H2SO4. Very low pH may develop.

Acid deposition

Combustion of fuels that contain N and S releases partially oxidized S and N. Further oxidation
and hydration in the atmosphere leads to sulfuric and nitric acids. The H2SO4 and HNO3
represent an additional acidification burden on soil and accelerate the natural leaching
acidification process. Acid deposition is considered a more severe problem for forest soils that
may already be acid, have a low buffer capacity and for which, unlike agricultural soils, liming is
not feasible.

Irrigation water quality

Accumulation of a high concentration of Na+ will tend to elevate soil pH to high values. Other ill
effects include dispersion of soil colloids, resulting in poor hydraulic con- ductivity, and
salinization.

pH Measurement

Indicator dyes have been used for a long time. These change color depending upon whether the
undissociated or dissociated form is present. The glass pH electrode is comparatively new. A
potential develops across the glass membrane when immersed in a solution of H+ activity
different from the internal solution. This potential difference is calibrated to solution pH.

Natural acidification

Carbonic acid, organic acids and H+ released during the oxidation of reduced N and S in organic
matter exchange for basic cations on soil colloids. Basic cations are subject to leaching loss
under humid conditions. Consequently, the percentage base saturation decreases and pH is
lowerd.

94
Controlling Soil pH

Depending upon plants to be grown (or other objective), it may be desired to raise or lower soil
pH. To lower soil pH, S is typically added. It is oxidized to sulfuric acid.

More commonly, however, one wants to raise soil pH and lime is used. Carbonates, oxides and
hydroxides of Ca and Mg are agricultural limes. Of these, ground limestone is the most
commonly used

CaCO3 Calcite

CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite

Called calcitic if Ca mostly present or dolomitic if there is a mix of Ca and Mg.

CaO Burned lime (quicklime) Ca(OH)2 Hydrated lime

When lime is added to an acid soil bicar-bonate is formed.

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Lime Requirement

Depends on:

1) target pH change,

2) buffer capacity of soil,

3) type and purity of lime material and

4) Fineness of lime

Oxides and hydroxides react more quickly than limestones, however, these are more expensive.
Laws on the sale of agricultural limes require that the composition of the material be stated in a
guarantee. And since the finer the limestone, the faster it will react, there is also a fineness
guarantee. In general, if at least 50 % of the particles pass a 60 mesh screen (0.25 mm), the
limestone will reduce soil acidity adequately fast. Wood ashes (oxides of Ca, K and Mg)

The type of lime to use depend on availability, price, and type of soil. Dolomite type are prefered
when Mg is also deficient.

The size of the limestone (coarse vs. fine) define the degree of reactivity. Fine limestone is
MORE reactive than coarse limestone.

Subsoil Acidity

Due to the low solubility of limestone, it is most effective if incorporated. This poses no problem
for correcting topsoil acidity, but deep incorporation of lime to reduce subsoil acidity is difficult
and expensive. An alternative is gypsum, CaSO4 · 2H2O, which is much more soluble. It is not a
lime material and raises soil pH indirectly. The Ca2+ exchanges for some adsorbed Al3+,
making the Al3+ subject to leaching. The SO42- may precipitate Al3+. Also, SO42- tends to be
specifically adsorbed on soil colloids, displacing OH- in the process. Basic definitions

Active acidity: Presence of H+ in soil solution

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Reserve acidity: Adsorbed H+ to colloid surfaces or other un-dissociated H+ sources that will
react with water to yield H+ (e.g. Al3+)

Buffering capacity in soils

 “Ability of a soil to resist a change in pH”

 Direct correlated with CEC of a soil, a high CEC is associated with a large
number of exchange sites

 Example: High buffered soils are organic soils, and 2:1clay soils. Low buffered
soils are low organic matter soils and 1:1 clay soils.

Factors causing soils to become acidic

 Loss of exchangeable bases from the soil CEC

 Leaching

 Removal from plant uptake

 Production of organic acids from organic matter decay

 Use of fertilizers, particularly ammonium sources: (NH4)SO4, NH4NO3, Anhydrous

ammonia, Urea

 Soil erosion: Loss of bases from surface runoff

 Parent material: Presence of acidic materials that weather giving rise to acid soils

 Weathering

 pH and nutrient availability

Summary

As the soil pH increases from an acidic condition to pH 6.5

97
  Macronutrients (N,P,K) increases in solubility

 Secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg, S) increases in solubility

 Micronutrients (except Molybdenum) decreases in solubility

 Al decreases in availability (very important

pH influence on microorganisms

 Bacteria and actinomicete are reduced at low pH

 Nitrification occurs at pH range 6.0 to 9.0, optimum pH 7

 Denitrification (biological loss of N) occurs at a minimu of pH 5.5, bellow this point

chemical denitrification occurs

 Nitrogen fixation by Rhyzobium (legume-bacteria symbiosis) optimum occurs between a

pH of 6.0 to 6.5

 Organic matter decomposition: optimum pH 7.0

pH and fertilizer efficiency

 At low soil pH’s: Al/Fe oxides reacts with phosphorus and molybdenum to form
unavailable P and Mo forms

 At high soil pH’s: Ca and Mg in excess tends to form unavailable form when react with
phosphorus and most micronutrients

 If we are not at the optimum pH for plant nutrient availability, the addition of fertilizer
could be a waste of energy and resources.

 Note: Every crop/plant/turf/tree has an unique optimum soil growth conditions .

 Considerations for correcting acidity

 Original soil pH

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  Type of liming material and its fineness

 Availability of liming materials

 Type of soil (sandy, clayey, loamy, organic) and CEC

 Crop to be grown

 Depth of mixing in the soil

 Soil moisture.

Differentiate between crop period and base period:

“The time period between sowing of crop to its harvesting is called crop period.”

“The time between first harvesting watering of a crop at the time of sowing to its last watering
before harvesting is called base period of the crop.”

Crop period is slightly more than the base period but for all practical purposes, they are
taken as one and sometime and generally expressed in days. Hence, in future the terms like
growth period, crop period, based period etc; will be used as synonyms to each other and will be
represented by base period(in days).

In Punjab, the base period fixed for Kharif season in 183 days and for Rabi season it is 182 days.

Delta and duty of crop:

 Delta

The total quantity of water required by crop for its full growth may be expressed in
hectare-meter, acre-ft or in million cubic meters, million cubic-ft or simply as depth to which
water would stand on the irrigated area. If the total quantity supplied were to stand above the
surface without percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop
to come to maturity is called its delta.

 Example

99
 If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an interval of about 10 days and the
base period is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.

 Solution

Water is required at an interval of 10 days for a period of 120 days. It evidently means
that 12 irrigations will be required with 10 cm depth of water at each irrigation. Therefore, total
depth of water required= 10 cm * 12 = 120 cm

Hence delta for rice = 120 cm

 Delta for certain crops:

The average values of delta for certain crops represent the total water requirement of
crops. The actual requirement of irrigation may be lass, depending upon the useful rainfall.
Moreover, these values represent the values on field i.e. “delta on field.” Which include the
evaporation and percolation losses.

 Values of delta for certain crops:

Crops Delta on field

(cm)

Wheat 48

Toria 25

Berseem 105

Sugarcane 180

100
 Rice 150

Cotton 62

Maize 55

Sorghum 50

 Duty of water:

The “duty” of water is the relationship between the volumes of water and area of crop it
matures. This volume of water is generally expressed by a unit discharge flowing for a time
equal to the base period of the crop, called base of duty.

If water flowing at a rate of 1 cubic meter per second runs continuously for B days, and
matures 300 hectares, then the duty of water for that particular crop will be defined as 300
hectare per cumec to the base period of B days. The duty is generally expressed by the letter D.

In Pakistan duty of water or water allowance varies with each canal. The duty of water at the
outlet in case of canals in Peshawar vale is quite high varying from 1450 hectares to 3100
hectares per cumec except in the left and right banks of upper Sawat canal. In case of Punjab for
perennials canal it is generally equal to 3580 hectares to 4770 per cusec. In Sindh canals of
perennials areas, the duty is nearly of the same order as of Punjab , but for non perennial canals it
is very high and may rise to 750 hectare/ cumec as in case of rice canal.

Relationship between duty and delta:

Assume there is a crop of base period B days, and 1 cusec of water being applied to this
crop on the field in B days. The volume of water applied to this crop during B days (v) is equal
to.

60*60*24 = 86400 B m3

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 By definition of duty (D), 1 cubic meter of water supplied for B days. Matures an area of
10 “D sq m.” Total depth of water is applied on this land is equal to:

Volume 86400 B m3 8.64 B meter

_______ = _________ = ____________

Area 104 D D

By definition total depth of water is called delta.

8.64 B meter

Therefore delta = __________

Or

864 B cm

Delta = _________

Where delta is in cm, B id in days and D is duty in hectare / cusec.

1.98 B

In F.P.S units delta = ______

102
Where delta is in feet, B in days and D in acres/cumec.

 Example:

Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectare / cumec. The base perod of
this crop in the fields 120 days.

864B

Delta (cm) = _____, where B is in days and D is in hectares / cumec.

In this example B = 120 days and D = 864 hectares / cumec.

864 * 120

Therefore delta = ________ = 120 cm

864

 High duty:

The duty is said to be high when a small amount of water matures comparatively large
area under a crop.

 Low duty:

When large quantity of water matures a comparatively smaller area under crops.

Consumptive use for evapotranspiration:

Consumptive use or crop water need is the amount of (or depth) of water used by plant n
transpiration (building of plant tissues) and evaporation from adjacent soil or from plant leaves n
any specified time. Thus, it is the sum of evaporation and transpiration which is called
evapotranspiration. As a matter of fact it is the amount of water needed by the crops to grow
optimally.

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  The consumptive use manly depends on:

 The climate; in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day
than in a cloudy and cool climate.

 The crop type; crop like rice or sugarcane need more water than crops
like millet or sorghum.

 The growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than
crops that have just been planted.

 The major climatic factors which influence the crop water needs are:

 Sunshine

 Temperature

 Rainfall

 Humidity

 Wind speed

Consumptive irrigation requirements (CIR):

It is the amount of irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration needs
of crops during its full growth.

CIR = Cu - Re
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CROP WATER REQUIREMENT AND IRRIGATION
WATER REQUIREMENT:

What is crop water requirement?

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The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to meet the
water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water needed by the
various crops to grow optimally.

The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e. a uniform crop,
actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases, and favorable soil conditions
(including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential under the given
environment.

Application losses

The exact amount of water required to bring the root zone to feed capacity, some water losses
through percolation or run off or unavoidable such water losses are called application losses.

Thus water requirement of crop may therefore be expressed as :

WR = ET+WAL+WNSO

Where: WR = water requirement of the crop

ET = evapotranspiration

WAL = water application losses

WNSO = water need for special operation .

FACTORS EFFECTING CROP WATER NEED:

The crop water need mainly depends on:

the climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a cloudy and cool
climate

the crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum

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 the growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than crops that have just been
planted.

The major climatic factors which influence the crop water needs are:

 sunshine
 humidity-
 windspeed
 temperature

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-

Table indicates the effect of the various climatic factors on crop water needs.

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 EFFECT OF MAJOR CLIMATIC FACTORS ON CROP WATER NEEDS

Crop water need

Climatic Factor
High Low

Temperature hot cool

Humidity low (dry) high (humid)

Windspeed windy little wind

Sunshine sunny (no clouds) cloudy (no sun)

The highest crop water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny. The
lowest values are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind.

The influence of the climate on crop water needs is given by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo). The ETo is usually expressed in millimetres per unit of time, e.g.
mm/day, mm/month, or mm/season. Grass has been taken as the reference crop.

Definition of the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo):

ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area, covered by green grass, 8 to 15 cm tall,
which grows actively, completely shades the ground and which is not short of water

There are several methods to determine the ETo . They are either:

experimental, using an evaporation pan, or

theoretical, using measured climatic data, e.g. the Blaney-Criddle method

Pan Evaporation Method:

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Evaporation pans provide a measurement of the combined effect of temperature, humidity,
windspeed and sunshine on the reference crop evapotranspirationMany different types of
evaporation pans are being used. The best known pans are the Class A evaporation pan (circular
pan)

The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:

the pan is installed in the field

the pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known and the
water depth is measured)

the water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours). For
example, each morning at 7 o'clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is measured
simultaneously

after 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured

the amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured water
depths) is calculated; this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)

the E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan, to obtain the ETo.

Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan

Where:

ETo: reference crop evapotranspiration

K pan: pan coefficient
E pan: pan evaporation

If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added (see Fig. 9a)
and the water depth is measured before and after the water is added. If the water level rises too
much (due to rain) water is taken out of the pan (see Fig. 9b) and the water depths before and
after are

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Determination of K pan

When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made between the
evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard grass.
Of course the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way to the climate.
Therefore a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other.

The pan coefficient, K pan, depends on:

the type of pan used

the pan environment: if the pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area
the climate: the humidity and windspeed

For the Class A evaporation pan, the K pan varies between 0.35 and 0.85. Average K pan = 0.70.

For the Sunken Colorado pan, the K pan varies between 0.45 and 1.10. Average K pan = 0.80.

The K pan is high if: The K pan is low if:

the pan is placed in a fallow area the pan is placed in a cropped area

the humidity is high (i.e. humid) the humidity is low (i.e. dry)

the windspeed is low the windspeed is high

If the pan factor is not known the average value could be used (see box). If more accuracy is
required, the pan factors given in Annex 1 should be applied. These values, however, only refer
to the Class A evaporation pan and the Sunken Colorado pan.

Blaney-Criddle Method:

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humid, clouded areas, the ETo is If no measured data on pan evaporation are available locally, a
theoretical method (e.g. the Blaney-Criddle method) to calculate the reference crop
evapotranspiration ETo has to be used. There are a large number of theoretical methods to
determine the ETo. Many of them have been determined and tested locally. If such local
formulae are available they should be used. If such local formulae are not available one of the
general theoretical methods has to be used.

The most commonly used theoretical method is the modified Penman method which is described
in detail in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24. This method, however, is rather complicated
and beyond the scope of this manual.

Here only the Blaney-Criddle method is given. The Blaney-Criddle method is simple, using
measured data on temperature only (see also Fig. 11 itshould be noted, however, that this method
is not very accurateit provides a rough estimate or "order of magnitude" only. Especially under
"extreme" climatic conditions the Blaney-Criddle method is inaccurate: in windy, dry, sunny
areas, the ETo is underestimated (up to some 60 percent), while in calm,

The Blaney-Criddle formula: ETo = p (0.46 T mean +8)

ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day) as an average for a period of 1 month

T mean = mean daily temperature (°C)
p = mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours

The use of the Blaney-Criddle formula

INFLUENCE OF CROP TYPE ON CROP WATER NEEDS (Kc

Definition of crop factor?

The relationship between the reference grass crop and the crop actually grown is called as crop
factor, Kc

The crop factor, Kc, mainly depends on:

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 the type of crop

the growth stage of the crop

the climate

Kc and the type of crop

Fully developed maize, with its large leaf area will be able to transpire, and thus use, more water
than the reference grass crop: Kc, maize is higher than 1. Cucumber, also fully developed, will
use less water than the reference grass crop: Kc, cucumber is less than 1.

Kc and the growth stage of the crop

A certain crop will use more water once it is fully developed, compared to a crop which has just
recently been planted.

Kc and the climate

The climate influences the duration of the total growing period and the various growth stages. In
a cool climate a certain crop will grow slower than in a warm climate

CALCULATION OF THE CROP WATER NEED

The crop water need ET crop is calculated (see Fig. 15) on a monthly basis, using formula:

ET crop = ETo × Kc

ETo=Crop evapotranspiration

Kc=Crop factor

IRRIGATION WATER NEEDS

The irrigation water need is the difference between the crop water need and that part of the
rainfall which can be used by the plants (effective rainfall). The irrigation water need calculation

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provides the basis for the determination of the irrigation schedule (usually by agronomists) and
the design of the irrigation scheme. The irrigation water requirement of a crop is the difference
between the crop water requirement and the effective rain fall and can be expressed as follow

IWR = WR-(ER+S)

Where: IWR = irrigation water requirement

ER = effective rain fall

S = amount of water available to crop from the soil profile either as stored moisture and / or that
contributed from shallow ground water table

This water can be supplied to the crops in various ways:

by rainfall
by irrigation
by a combination of irrigation and rainfall

In some cases, part of the crop water need is supplied by the groundwater through capillary rise
For the purpose of this paper however, the contribution of capillary rise is not taken into account.

In cases where all the water needed for optimal growth of the crop is provided by rainfall,
irrigation is not required and the Irrigation water need (IN) equals zero: IN = 0.

In cases where there is no rainfall at all during the growing season, all water has to be supplied
by irrigation. Consequently, the irrigation water need (IN) equals the crop water need (ET crop):
IN = ET crop.

In most cases, however, part of the crop water need is supplied by rainfall and the remaining part
by irrigation. In such cases the irrigation water need (IN) is the difference between the crop
water need (ET crop) and that part of the rainfall which is effectively used by the plants (Pe). In
formula: IN = ET crop - Pe.

In summary:

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If sufficient rainfall : IN = 0

If no rainfall at all : IN = ET crop

If partly irrigation, partly rainfall : IN = ET crop - Pe

Now we tell you the method which is commonly used to determined the effective rainfall which
is discussed belowe

DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE RAINFALL*

What is effective rainfall?

The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater useful
for meeting the water need of the crops.

 When rain water ((1) falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the soil (2), some
stagnates on the surface (3), while some flows over the surface as runoff (4).
 When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface (3) evaporates to the
atmosphere (5), while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil (6).
 From all the water that infiltrates into the soil ((2) and (6)), some percolates below the
root zone (7), while the rest

In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus
evaporation (5) and minus deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8) can
be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective part of the rainwater.

For the purpose of this manual only 2 simple formulae are provided to estimate the fraction of
the total rainfall which is used effectively. These formulae can be applied in areas with a
maximum slope of 4-5%:

Pe = 0.8 P 25 if P > 75 mm/month

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Pe = 0.6 P 10 if P < 75 mm/month

with P = rainfall or precipitation (mm/month)

Pe = effective rainfall or effective precipitation (mm/month)

CALCULATION OF THE IRRIGATION WATER NEEDS

We can calculate irrigation eater need by using formula given below

IN = ET crop – Pe

IN=Irrigation water need

ET Crop=Crop water need

Pe=Effective precipitation(mm/month)

(Sura 2, verse 22):

"(God) is the One who made the earth a couch for you and the heavens an edifice, and sent
down water from the sky. He brought forth therewith fruits for your sustenance. Do not join
equals with God when you know."

Sura 2, verse 164):

("Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth,

In the disparity of night and day,
In the ship which runs upon the sea for the profit of mankind,
In the water which God sent down from the sky thereby reviving the earth after its death,
In the beasts of all kinds He scatters therein,
In the change of the winds and the subjected clouds between the sky and earth,
Here are Signs for people who are wise."

115
 The flow rate is expressed in units of volume per unit tym typically, cubic feet per second
(cfs). In this case assume that the total streamflow leaving the basin is the sum of overland flow
and baseflow. 18.9 inly. This value multiplied by the drainage area gives the discharge using this
relation, and converting units leads to

(18.9 inly) (LFT 112in) (Ly 131536000s) (30.9 mi 2 ) (2.79 Efft2/mi2)=43.1 cfs.

Annual available H2O in Rivers.

50 MAF 92 MAF
(Flow to Arbian sea) (Diversion to canal
Irrigation system)
29 MAF
Conveyance losses 63 MAF
In canal system
Water available at
Mogha

Ground water Discharge

From 1,28,000 Tubewells

93 MAF
Water available at
head
37 MAF of water
course
Water course Delivery
losses (40%) in 89,100 water courses 50 MAF
Water irrigation
available at field
Nakka

42 MAF
Field irrigation application Irrigation water losses
(3.5%) in 33,00,000 areas available for crop
consumptive use

116
 Flow chart of Indus basin water supply system

WATER COURSES IN PAKISTAN IRRIGATION WATERS

A WATERCOURSE IS MINIATURE water potiential;

IRRIGATION PROJECT. Surface 143 M.A.F

TOTAL WATERCOURSES IN PAKISTAN 89,100 Ground 50 M.A.F

PUNJAB 49,332 Total 193 M.A.F

SIND 30,018 River infiow [1978-79]; 126 M.A.F

NWFP 3,357 Canal Diversions 105 M.A.F

BALUCHISTAN 1,393 Contribution by watercourses

LENGTH; FRACTION KM 3 TO 4 KM Head 79 M.A.F [75%]

DISCHARGE; 28 TO 250 LPS Contribution by Tubewells; 33

M.A.F

COMMAND AREA; 60 TO 250 HECTARES [66% of potential]

NUMBER OF FARMER; 50 TO 100 Net Available at W.C. 112 M.A.F

Water Losses 51 M.A,F

WATER LOSSES COMPUTATION Field Losses 16 M.A.F

ON WATERCOURSES Available for crops 45 M.A.F

Investigation %Loss reported water available per cropped AC;

EARLIER STUDIES 1.27 AC.FT.

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Kennedy……………………. 28.9 Irrigation Efficiency on

Benton………………………. 28.3 Farm 40%

Blench……………………….. 27.3 Overall System Efficiency; 30%

Hunting MacDonald …. 10 Optimum Requirement; 2.0 AC.FT.

Irrigation Research institute 13.9 Double- cropping

Expert committee on water Requirement; 3.5-4 AC.FT.

Losses 15 Total requirement 120-140 M.A.F

EARLIER STUDIES

CORORADO STATE UNIV. 40 to 50

CUS/WAPDA [40 WC] 47

WAPDA[61 WC] . . . 45

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