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The science of Geology is https://www.earthmagazine.org/a

rticle/benchmarks-march-1913-
concerned with the Earth and first-complete-geologic-
the rocks of which it is timescale-published

composed, the processes by

which they were formed during
geological time, and the
modelling of the Earth's surface
in the past and at the present ARTHUR
day. The Earth is not a static HOLMES
body but is constantly subject to
Radiometric
changes both at its surface and Dating
at deeper levels.

Geological Time
Scale
is a system of
chronological dating
that relates geological
strata (stratigraphy)
to time.
the boundaries on the
geological time scale
correspond to the
origination or extinction
of particular kinds of
fossils

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Philippine
Continental Drift and
Geological
Plate Tectonics Video
Map
(Source: MGB)

Earth Composition and Structure

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Facts: How do the

• Surface area of 510 x 106km2: two-thirds of the surface is covered structure and
by deep ocean.
composition of the
• Surface relief is very varied.
earth cause
geologic activities
and physical
changes?

Surface changes can be

• The earth’s inner and outer core are both observed by engineers
made of iron-nickel alloy. The state of and geologists alike;
among them erosion is
matter depends on its temperature and
a dominant process
pressure. which in time destroys
• Velocity of seismic waves change as they coastal cliffs, reduces
the height of continents,
travel through materials with different and transports the
density. material so removed
either to the sea or to
– No seismic waves in the earth’s core
inland basins of
deposition.

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These plates were free to move with respect to the underlying

asthenosphere, and could also move relatively to one another
in three ways:
(i) by one plate sliding past another along its margin;

(ii) by two plates moving away from one another;

(iii) by two plates moving together and one sliding

underneath the edge of the other.

Plate boundaries in the Earth's crust. P, Pacific Plate. A, North

American Plate. SA. South American Plate. Af, African Plate.
E.Eurasian Plate. I-A, Indo-Australian Plate. Aa. Antarctica. Ph,
Philippine. Ca. Caribbean. N. Nazca. C, Cocos. Ab. Arabian.

SURFACE PROCESSES
Land areas are continually being reduced and their shape
modified by weathering and erosion, and the general term for
this is denudation. Rocks exposed to the atmosphere undergo
weathering from atmospheric agents such as rain and frost.

Rivers, wind, moving ice and water waves are capable of

loosening, dislodging and carrying particles of soil, sediment and
larger pieces of rock. They are therefore described as the agents
of erosion and deposition. The weathered material, the detritus,
is carried away from the areas where it is derived.

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CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

Chemical weathering, or decomposition, is
the break-down of minerals into new
compounds by the action of chemical agents;
acids in the air, in rain and in river water,
although they act slowly, produce noticeable
effects especially in soluble rocks.

Mechanical weathering, or disintegration, breaks MECHANICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

down rocks into small particles by the action of
temperature, by impact from raindrops and by
abrasion from mineral particles carried in the wind.
In very hot and very cold climates changes of
temperature produce flaking of exposed rock
surfaces. In areas of intense rainfall soil particles
may be dislodged and the surface of the soil
weakened by raindrops. In arid areas landforms
are shaped by sand blasted against them during
storms.

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The Fluvial Systems

1. erosional zone
2. transport zone
3. depositional zone

Erosional Zone Transport zone Depositional zone

- stream and - characterized by - characterized by net
riverbeds are near equilibrium sedimentation or
generally degraded, condition of water riverbed aggradations
streams join together and sediment. - there is branching of
at confluences and - bed elevation is the river into channels
their slopes are fairly constant and and the slope of these
generally steep. river generally flows channels is rather flat
- bed material is in a single channel - bed material
characteristically -sediment material generally composed
composed of composed of of fine sand to silt and
boulders, cobbles or gravels/sands of clay
gravels. various sizes.

Biological weathering {biotic weathering} What is Erosion?

describes those mechanical and chemical changes
of the ground that are directly associated with the • Erosion is defined as removal of rocks
activities of animals and plants. When present, and soil by wind, water, ice and gravity.
microbial activity can change the chemistry of the
ground close to ground level. Burrowing animals and
• Wind, water, ice and gravity are also
the roots of plants penetrate the ground and roots known as the agents of erosion.
produce gasses which increase the acidity of
percolating rain water.

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Weathering vs. Erosion
• Wind can play a role by carrying material (especially
Weathering involves two processes
(physical, chemical) that often work
together to break down rocks. Both
processes occur in place. No movement
is involved in weathering.
Sand dunes
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Wind Erosion
sand and clay) from one place to another.
• As the wind blows, it picks up small particles of
sand/sediment and blasts large rocks with the
sand/sediment, cutting and shaping the rock.
•
• The intensity of wind erosion is determined by:
Sum (amount of sand), Speed, Slope, Surface
Water Erosion
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Glaciers wear down the landscape; by

Ice or Glacial
Water Erosion picking up and carrying debris that moves
across the land along with the ice.
Erosion
Glaciers can pick up and carry sediment that
ranges in size from sand grains to boulders
bigger than houses.

Moving like a conveyor belt or a bulldozer, a

single glacier can move millions of tons of
material!

How much erosion takes place is determined

by the: Sum of glaciers, Slope, Speed,
Surface

• Gravity Erosion is better

Ice Erosion known as Mass
Movement and is defined
Gravity Erosion
as the transfer of rock
and soil down slope by
direct action of gravity
without a flowing
medium (such as water
or ice).

• Some of the best

examples of Mass
Movement are:
Creep, Rock fall, Slump,
Landslides, Avalanches

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A type of landscapeKarst Delta. Aerial photograph showing the deposition of reddish brown
sediment. The sediment is carried by water and deposited
where caves are forming a delta at the mouth of the river.
common.
The land has different
sized blocks of
limestone. These
fractures are where
the water seeps in,
dissolves the stone,
and forms caves.

Braiding

Humans are constantly

influencing the nature of
our landscapes.
HOUSES, ROADS,
BUILDINGS,
DEVELOPMENTS,
CANALS, etc., all
change the shape and
Meandering rivers appearance of the land.

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Riverbed degradation

Weathering and Erosion Video

Piura River: Evidence of bed degradation at Sanchez Cerro Bridge. The foundation
of the bridge is exposed, as well as the vertical sheet piles in the bank protection

LOESS (pronounced “LUSS”)

Ambuklao is a very fine light soil, often buff, yellow, or gray in color;
is eolian (wind blown in origin)
Dam
“riverbed
armoring
or
degradation”
China’s Loess Plateau

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China’s Yellow River

Capo de’Orso
• Sardinia, Italy
• a massive
block of
granite eroded
by the wind
over centuries

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The Wave 12 APOSTLES

• a sandstone • miocene
limestone stacks
rock
off the shore of
formation in Port Campbell
Coyote National Park,
Butte, by the Great
Arizona Ocean Road in
Victoria,
Australia.

White Cliffs of Dover Svartifoss or Black Falls

• The cliffs' chalk face shows • Vatnajökull
horizontal bands of dark- National
coloured flint which is Park in
composed of the remains of southern
sea sponges and siliceous Iceland
planktonic micro-organisms • Layered
that hardened into the basaltic lava
microscopic quartz crystals. columns

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3. The structures should be constructed on the good, strong and

Engineering Importance
1.Weathering is an important aspect from civil engineering
point of view because all the civil structures are
constructed using stone masonry and concrete work.
4. Designers uses the marbles, granites for the ornamental work
2.Most important constitute material is stone which should
be strong, tough, sound and hard. So the quality of the
stone depends upon the weathering condition of the
available rock. The weathered stone has to be avoided as
their strength is low and unsound.
unweathered rock surface. Thus, the extent of weathering is
important criteria for the site selection especially in case of high
rise building, sea shore structures, tunnels, dams as the
process of weathering weaken the strength of the rocks or soil.
for the interior as well as the surface exposed to atmosphere. In
that case, it is necessary to determine their suitability from the
environment point of view as these stones are usually affected
by chemical weathering agents like rains, temperature etc. and
there is a chance to more porosity like honeycomb resulting in
the loss of strength, durability, appearance and life.

5. All the constructions like buildings, dams , bridges etc., are

exposed to the weather of the location. With time, this weather
shows effect on the structures. While preparing the design and
estimate of the project, these factors are taken in to account **Weatherability of Material
and the structures are designed & constructed to withstand the
weather and the material quality (like cement, steel etc), short-term susceptibility to alteration
construction methods (like quick setting , needing less curing
etc) depends on the weather conditions. often associated with the behavior of
rocks when in contact with water.
6. Still, as the time passes, the weather shows effect on the
structures if not properly maintained. The life expectancy of a
structure will be given by the civil engineers before construction
of the project itself and the structure needs normal maintenance
during 70% of the life time.

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Main Results of Weathering Rate of weathering depends on

1. Production of more stable minerals
1. Environmental Factors: climate,
2. Breakdown of geological materials from a massive to a clastic
or plastic state hydrology, biology and time
3. Changes in volume, density, particle-size distribution, surface 2. Parent material: mineralogy, proportion of
area, porosity, permeability, compressibility and strength.
4. The formation of new materials, aggregates and solutions. different minerals (mode), induration,
5. Changes in durability of original minerals permeability, existing grade of weathering
6. The redistribution of mineral and salts
7. Preparation of rock surfaces for erosion
3. Structure: discontinuity spacing,
8. Formation of new land surfaces and deposits. openness of discontinuities

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