UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS

Avionics - Combination of aviation and electronics

Avionics system or Avionics sub-system dependent on electronics

Avionics industry- a major multi-billion dollar industry world wide

Avionics equipment on a modern military or civil aircraft / account for around

 30% of the total cost of the aircraft

 40% in the case of a maritime patrol/anti-submarine aircraft (or helicopter)

 Over 75% of the total cost in the case of an airborne early warning aircraft such as
an AWACS

To meet the mission requirements with the minimum flight crew (namely the first pilot
and the second pilot)
Economic benefits like
 Saving of crew salaries
 Expenses and training costs
 Reduction in weigh-more passengers or longer range on less fuel

Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and
spacecraft which is a Combination of aviation and electronics.
Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management
of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform
individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as
complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform.
Avionics system or Avionics sub-system dependent on electronics
Avionics industry- a major multi-billion dollar industry world wide
Avionics equipment on a modern military or civil aircraft\ account for around
 30% of the total cost of the aircraft
 40% in the case of a maritime patrol/anti-submarine aircraft (or helicopter)
 Over 75% of the total cost in the case of an airborne early warning aircraft
such as an AWACS

AVIONIC SYSTEMS ARE ESSENTIAL

To enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and efficiently
Mission is carrying passengers to their destination (Civil Airliner)
Intercepting a hostile aircraft, attacking a ground target, reconnaissance or maritime
patrol (Military Aircraft)
 1. NEED FOR AVIONICS IN CIVIL AND MILITARY
AIRCRAFT AND SPACE SYSTEMS
Need for avionics in Civil Aircraft systems
1) For Mission and Management computation
2) For getting the magnetic field thru Magnetometer
3) For various Payloads and Data-link Control through extended I/O
4) Reduce the crew workload
5) By Avionics in Civil Aircrafts, aircraft mission carried safely and efficiently.
6) By All Weather operation thru avionics reduce the maintenance cost of aircraft
7) For better flight control, performing computations and increased control over flight
control surfaces. (PWM)
8) For navigation, provide information using sensors like Altitude and Head Reference
System (AHRS).
9) Provide air data like altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, etc.
10) Increased safety for crew and passengers.
11) Reduction in aircraft weight which can be translated into increased number of
passengers or long range.

Need for Avionics in Space Systems

 Through Avionics, excellent Sensors used around the spacecraft for data
acquisition.
 Redundancy system and autopilot are the needs using Avionics in Space systems
 Fly-by-wire communication system used for space vehicle's attitude and translation
control.
 Autopilot redundancy system.
 On-board computers used in satellites for processing the data.

Military aircraft
 Avionics in fighter aircraft eliminates the need for a second crew member like
navigator, observer etc., which helps in reducing the training costs.
 A single seat fighter is lighter and costs less than an equivalent two seat version.
 Improved aircraft performance, control and handling.
 Reduction in maintenance cost.
 Secure communication.

IN THE MILITARY CASE

A single seat fighter or strike (attack) aircraft is lighter
 Costs less than an equivalent two seat version
 Elimination of the second crew member (navigator/observer/crew member)
 Reduction in training costs
2. TYPICAL AVIONIC SUB SYSTEMS
 1. Air Data System-indicating Pr, Altitude, Speed, Mach Number,Statc Air Temp etc
2. Flight Control System-indicating Signals for 3 axes Auto stabilization
3. Navigation system.
4. Display System-like HUD,HOTAS
5. Cabin Inter-Communication System
6. Engine Control system for engine temp, pr.
7. Flight Management System-FMS for flight path
1. AIR DATA SYSTEM
1. Indicate Pr,
2. Altitude,
3. Speed,
4. Mach Number,
5. Static Air Temp etc thru a computer called ADC

2. FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM-AUTOPILOT SYSTEM

1. Means Fly by wire and Fly by Light –two methods in Flight Control system
2. Include automatically controlling flight using auto-pilots Scheme to control
heading and altitude and for Auto stabilization-AFC
3. Limited authority on thrust and flight control surfaces
 3. NAVIGATION SYSTEM

A. By Very High Frequency Omni directional Range or Distance Measuring

Equipment DME
B. By Satellite Based Navigation by MEO Satellites at 1575 MHz Satcom via the
Inmarsat satellites using 4 Satellites centralized over the Pacific Ocean, Indian
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean-East, and Atlantic Ocean-West for high altitudes
C. Ground Based Navigation using LOS by VOR/DME having B-Nav and P-Nav
where the track accuracy is within +/- 5 nm and +/-1nm
D. Use VOR for getting the navigation track from many ground stations between
Aircraft and ATC through VHF Freq. (108.1 through 117.95 MHz)
E. Satellite Based Navigation by GPS on 1575 MHz

VOR
 A Radio Navigation system for Aircrafts sending VHF AM signal to the Aircraft
 Aircraft derive a Magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft (direction from
the VOR station in relation to Earths North at the time of installation)
 Providing OMNI (VOR) or LOCALIZER (LOC) information with built-in
VOR/LOC Converter
 Used with other nav/comms
GPS Navigation
 Aircraft position by signals from MEO Satellites high above the Earth
 3 satellites for fixing aircrafts position
 3 segments; 1. space segment (SS), 2. a control segment (CS), and 3.user segment
 Space Segment for No.of Satellites (12)Control Segment to track the position of
Satellites, (3).User segment (GPS receiver)

4. DISPLAY SYSTEM
1. Produce Pre-Flight info
2. Giving Navigation Information
3. Airframe Data
4. Warning Information
5. Head up Display and
6. Multifunction Display

5. COMMUNICATION
 Two way communication between the ground bases and the aircraft or between
aircraft
 Communication radio suite on modern aircraft is a very comprehensive one and
covers several operating frequency bands
 Long range - HF radios operating in the band 2-30 Mhz
 Near to medium range (civil aircraft) by VHF radios operating in the band 30-100
Mhz
 VHF and UHF are line of sight propagation systems
 Equipment is usually at duplex level of redundancy
 VHF radios are generally by triplex level on a modern airliner
  SATCOM systems in many modern aircraft and provide very reliable world wide
communication
 Music thru Satellite Radio, MP3 or CD player on Stereo

6. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

 Engine control for Air density, throttle lever position, engine temperature and
engine pressure etc.
 Providing optimum engine efficiency for a given flight condition with redundant
digital panels for Safety.

7. FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

 Flight Crew enter Flight Data such as Wind conditions, Runway Length, Cruise
Altitude to FMS
 FMS computes power settings for various phases of the flight

4. INTEGRATED AVIONICS SYSTEM

Integrated avionics means different things to different people.
 To the pilot, it means all the information is coordinated and available from a single
source.
 To the software engineer, it means access to shared data about the situation, the
mission, and the aircraft systems.
 To the hardware designer, it means common modules in a single backplane with
the connectivity and bandwidth to support the required processing.
Integrated Architecture
Advantages of Integrated Avionic System:
1. Advanced flight deck functions
2. Improved situational awareness to Pilot
3. Increased system flexibility for business and regional aircrafts.
4. Large Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Displays
5. Integrated Navigation
6. Quick Modification of Flight Plans for sudden change in weather, Terrain and Air
Traffic.
7. Control of Cock Pit Info and Display Info
8. Integration with subsystems in the aircraft
Other features of Integrated Avionics
 Electronic Warfare
 Stores Management System
 Inertial Reference System with GPS
 Software providing 1.7 million lines of code
 Liquid flow through cooling lending to an mean time between failures (MTBF) of
25,000 hours
 Power Supply modules cooled with polyalphaolefin (PAO) liquid coolant to carry
away heat generated by the supplies' power-conversion process
Integrated Avionics Weapon Systems:
 SONAR
 RADAR
 Military communications
 Electro optics (FLIR or PIDS)
 ECM OR ECCM
 ESM/DAS
 Tactical missile guidance
Integrated Weapon System:
 Consisting of AIM-9 air-to-air missile fired with F-22 maneuvering 60 degrees
Rolling per second
 All 52 missile tests prior to IOT&E complete
 First JDAM separation test complete
 Successful Gun system tests
 Certified Chaff and flare countermeasures
 DESIGN APPROACHES AND RECENT ADVANCES
Type of Approaches include
1. Integrated Modular System approach
2. Glass Cockpits
3. Fault Tolerant System
4. Federated &
5. Integrated Architecture
1. Integrated Modular System approach

 By using Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) system increase the efficiency by

reducing Space, Weight and Power (SWaP)
 Example:Boeing‘s 787 Dreamliner and Airbus‘ A380
 Objective of IMA to combine a number of traditional, stand-alone federated
systems into integrated common platforms.
 IMA increase power efficiency and reduces processor boards, reducing bill of
materials (BOM) and number of Line Replaceable Units (LRUs)
2. Glass Cockpits
 Glass Cockpit avionics design providing prices often lower than the aggregate sum
of all the analog gauges
 This shift allowing smaller aircraft to fly behind modern glass cockpit avionics
available in airliners and business jets.
3.Fault Tolerant System
 Required to ensure safe operation of digital avionics systems performing flight-
critical functions.
 FTS requirements must be documented in a specification of the intended behavior
of a system, specifying the tolerances imposed on the various outputs from the
system
5. Integrated Architecture
 Proposing a system organization where several functions (even of different
criticality level) sharing now computing and communication resources. as
integrated modular avionics
 MA enables resource savings, thus reasonably limits the global development costs.
 Airbus A380 and Boeing B777 are examples of aircrafts using IMA
 5. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMPUTER AND
MEMORIES.

Schematics of a Digital Computer

1. CPU
2. Memory- RAM/ROM
3. Input Port-keyboard, mouse, camera, scanner
4. Output Port-monitor, printer
5. Data Buses- A bus connecting CPU to I/O ports and Memory
Schematics of a Digital Computer

Elements of a Computer
•CPU=Mother board,
• RAM+ ROM
•Input Port- Keyboard, Mouse, Camera
•Output Port-Printer
•Unidirectional Address Bus-carries control information between the CPU and main
memory
•Bi Directional Data Bus-carries data between all the hardware components of the
computer
•Uni directional Control Bus-used by CPUs for communicating with other devices
within the computer.
Parts of a Computer
•CPU consisting of
•Mother board- a PCB - the foundation of a computer CPU, RAM to function with
each other
•Mother board has BIOS,CMOS RAM for permanent info. Storage
•Input/Output devices
Air Data Computer ADC
•Determine the calibrated airspeed, Mach number , altitude, and altitude trend data
from an aircraft's pitot-static system
•Computes air data information from the pitot-static pneumatic system, aircraft
temperature probe and barometric correction device
•Designed for FMS, GPS and GPWS applications

Avionics computer/Air Data Computer

Features of Flight Computer

1.Large LCD screen displaying prompts labeled Inputs and outputs
2.Flight planning Menu and execution
3.16 unit conversions (mph to NMI etc)
4.Calculating true airspeed, ground speed, mach number, altitudes, fuel, headings and
courses, time/speed/distance, winds, headwind/crosswind components, gliding
information, and weight and balance
5.Count Down and Count up Timer
6.Clock displaying both local and UTC time

Features of AMADC (Modern Digital Aircrafts)-Honeywell

•On Aircraft Software Loading
•Can work with Stringent Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace RVSM
•Modular Software
•ARINC 429 input/output
•Less Effort for Software Upgradation
•Meeting with DO-178B level testing
MEMORIES
 UNIT – II
AVIONICS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
 Establishing the basic architecture is the first and the most fundamental challenge
faced by the designer
 The architecture must conform to the overall aircraft mission and design while
ensuring that the avionics system meets its performance requirements
 These architectures rely on the data buses for intra and intersystem communications
 The optimum architecture can only be selected after a series of exhaustive design
tradeoffs that address the evaluation factors
1. AVIONICS ARCHITECTURE
First Generation Architecture ( 1940’s–1950’s)
 Disjoint or Independent Architecture ( MiG-21)
 Centralized Architecture (F-111)
Second Generation Architecture ( 1960’s–1970’s)
 Federated Architecture (F-16 A/B)
 Distributed Architecture (DAIS)
 Hierarchical Architecture (F-16 C/D, EAP)
Third Generation Architecture ( 1980’s–1990’s)
 Pave Pillar Architecture ( F-22)
Fourth Generation Architecture (Post 2005)
 Pave Pace Architecture- JSF
 Open System Architecture
FGA - DISJOINT ARCHITECTURE
 The early avionics systems were stand alone black boxes where each functional
area had separate, dedicated sensors, processors and displays and the interconnect
media is point to point wiring
 The system was integrated by the air-crew who had to look at various dials and
displays connected to disjoint sensors correlate the data provided by them, apply
error corrections, orchestrate the functions of the sensors and perform mode and
failure management in addition to flying the aircraft
 This was feasible due to the simple nature of tasks to be performed and due to the
availability of time
FGA - CENTRALIZED ARCHITECTURE
 •As the digital technology evolved, a central computer was added to integrate the
information from the sensors and subsystems
 •The central computing complex is connected to other subsystems and sensors
through analog, digital, synchro and other interfaces
 •When interfacing with computer a variety of different transmission methods , some
of which required signal conversion (A/D) when interfacing with computer
 •Signal conditioning and computation take place in one or more computers in a
LRU located in an avionics bay with signals transmitted over one way data bus
 •Data are transmitted from the systems to the central computer and the data
conversion takes place at the central computer
ADVANTAGES
 Simple Design
 Software can be written easily
 Computers are located in readily accessible bay
DISADVANTAGE
 Requirement of long data buses
 Low flexibility in software
 Increased vulnerability to change
 Different conversion techniques needed at Central Computer

SGA – FEDERATED ARCHITECTURE

Federated: Join together, Become partners
Each system acts independently but united (Loosely Coupled)
 Unlike FGA – CA , Data conversion occurs at the system level and the data‘s are
send as digital form – called Digital Avionics Information Systems(DAIS)
 Several standard data processors are often used to perform a variety of Low –
Bandwidth functions such as navigation, weapon delivery , stores management
and flight control
 Systems are connected in a Time – Shared Multiplex Highway
 Resource sharing occurs at the last link in the information chain – via controls and
displays
 Programmability and versatility of the data processors
ADVANTAGES
 Contrast to analog avionics – DDP provide precise solutions over long range of
flight , weapon and sensor conditions
 Sharing of Resources
 Use of TDMA saves hundreds of pounds of wiring
 Standardization of protocol makes the interchangeability of equipments easier
 Allows Independent system design and optimization of major systems
 Changes in system software and hardware are easy to make
 Fault containment – Failure is not propagated
DISADVANTAGES :
 Profligate of resources

SGA - DAIS HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE

SGA - DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE

• It has multiple processors throughout the aircraft that are designed for computing
takes on a real-time basis as a function of mission phase and/or system status
 Processing is performed in the sensors and actuators
ADVANTAGES
• Fewer, Shorter buses
• Faster program execution
• Intrinsic Partitioning

DISADVANTAGES
• Potentially greater diversity in processor types which aggravates software
generation and validation.

SGA – HIERARCHICAL ARCHITECTURE

 This architecture is derived from the federated architecture
 It is based on the TREE Topology
ADVANTAGES
 Critical functions are placed in a separate bus and Non-Critical functions are
placed in another bus
 Failure in non – critical parts of networks do not generate hazards to the critical
parts of network
 The communication between the subsystems of a particular group are confined
to their particular group
 The overload of data in the main bus is reduced
PAVE PILLAR ARCHITECTURE
 Component reliability gains
 Use of redundancy and resource sharing
 Application of fault tolerance
 Reduction of maintenance test and repair time
 Increasing crew station automation
 Enhancing stealth operation
 Wide use of common modules (HW & SW))
 Ability to perform in-aircraft test and maintenance of avionics
 Use of VHSIC technology and
 Capability to operate over extended periods of time at austere, deployed locations
and be maintainable without the Avionics Intermediate Shop

WHY PAVE PACE

 Modularity concepts cuts down the cost of the avionics related to VMS, Mission
Processing, PVI and SMS
 The sensor costs accounts for 70% of the avionics cost
 USAF initiated a study project to cut down the cost of sensors used in the fighter
aircraft
 In 1990, Wright Laboratory – McDonnell Aircraft, Boeing aircraft company and
Lockheed launched the Pave Pace Program
 Come with the Concept of Integrated Sensor System(IS2)
 Pave Pace takes Pave Pillar as a base line standard
  The integration concept extends to the skin of the aircraft – Integration of the RF &
EO sensors
 Originally designed for Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)

2. Data Bus
 It provides a medium for the exchange of data and information between various
Avionics subsystems
 Integration of Avionics subsystems in military or civil aircraft and spacecraft.
Protocol
 Set of formal rules and conventions governing the flow of information among the
systems.
 Low level protocols define the electrical and physical standards.
 High level protocols deal with the data formatting, including the syntax of
messages and its format.
Types of Protocol
Command/Response : Centralized Control Method
Token Passing : Decentralized Control Method (Free token)
CSMA/CA : Random Access Method

Topology
How the systems are interconnected in a particular fashion
LINEAR NETWORK
o Linear Cable
o All the systems are connected in across the Cable
RING NETWORK
o Point to Point interconnection
o Datas flow through the next system from previous system
SWITCHED NETWORK
o Similar to telephone network
o Provides communications paths between terminals
 3. MIL-STD 1553B
MIL-STD-1553B has evolved since the original publication of MIL-STD-1553 in
1973. The standard has developed through 1553A standard issued in 1975 to the present
1553B standard issued in September 1978. The basic layout of a MIL-STD-1553B data
bus is shown in Figure 2.11. The data bus comprises a screened twisted wire pair along
which data combined with clock information are passed. The standard generally supports
multiple redundant operation with dual-redundant operation being by far the most
common configuration actually used. This allows physical separation of the data buses
within the aircraft, thereby permitting a degree of battle damage resistance.
Control of the bus is performed by a bus controller (BC) which communicates with
a number of remote terminals (RTs) (up to a maximum of 31) via the data bus. RTs only
perform the data bus related functions and interface with the host (user) equipment they
support. In early systems the RT comprised one or more circuit cards, whereas nowadays
it is

usually an embedded chip or hybrid module within the host equipment. Data are
transmitted at 1 MHz using a self-clocked Manchester biphase digital format. The
transmission of data in true and complement form down a twisted screened pair offers an
error detection capability.
Words may be formatted as data words, command words or status words, as shown
in Figure. Data words encompass a 16 bit digital word, while the command and status
Words are associated with the data bus transmission protocol. Command and status words
are compartmented to include various address, sub address and control functions, as
shown in Figure.
 MIL-STD-1553B is a command–response system in which transmissions are
conducted under the control of a single bus controller at any one time; although only one
bus controller is shown in these examples, a practical system will employ two bus
controllers to provide control redundancy.
 Two typical transactions are shown in Figure. In a simple transfer of data from RT
A to the BC, the BC sends a transmit command to RT A, which replies after a short
interval known as the response time with a status word, followed immediately by one or
more data words up to a maximum of 32 data words. In the example shown in the upper
part of the figure, transfer of one data word from RT A to the BC will take approximately
70 ms (depending upon the exact value of the response time plus propagation time down
the bus cable).
For the direct transfer of data between two RTs as shown from RTA to RT B, the
BC sends a receive command to RT B followed by a transmit command to RT A. RT A
will send its status word plus the data (up to a maximum of 32 words) to RT B which then
responds by sending its status word to the BC, thereby concluding the transaction. In the
simple RT to RT transaction shown in Figure, the total elapsed time is around 120 ms for
the transmission of a single data word, which appears to be rather expensive on account of
the overhead of having to transmit two command words and two status words as well.
However, if the maximum number of data words had been transmitted (32), the same
overhead of two command and two status words would represent a much lower percentage
of the overall message time.

Remote Terminal
Remote terminal is defined within the standard as ―All terminals not operating as the bus
controller or as a bus monitor.‖ Therefore if it is not a controller, monitor, or the main bus
or stub, it must be a remote terminal — sort of a ―catch all‖ clause. Basically, the remote
terminal is the electronics necessary to transfer data between the data bus and the
subsystem.
COUPLING METHODS

The standard specifies two stub methods: direct and transformer coupled. This
refers to the method in which a terminal is connected to the main bus. Figure shows the
two methods; the primary difference between the two being that the transformer coupled
method utilizes an isolation transformer for connecting the stub cable to the main bus
cable.
In both methods, two isolation resistors are placed in series with the bus. In the
direct coupled method, the resistors are typically located within the terminal, whereas in
the transformer coupled method, the resistors are typically located with the coupling
transformer in boxes called data bus couplers.
A variety of couplers are available, providing single or multiple stub connections.
Another difference between the two coupling methods is the length of the stub. For the
direct coupled method, the stub length is limited to a maximum of 1 ft. For the transformer
coupled method, the stub can be up to a maximum length of 20 ft. Therefore for direct
coupled systems, the data bus must be routed in close proximity to each of the terminals,
whereas for a transformer coupled system, the data bus may be up to 20 ft away from each
terminal.
 4. ARINC 429
ARINC 429 is a single-source, multiple-sink, half-duplex bus that operates at two
transmission rates; most commonly the higher rate of 100 kbit/s is used. Although the data
bus has its origins in the civil marketplace, it is also used extensively on civil platforms
that have been adopted for military use, such as the Boeing 737, Boeing 767 and A330.
High-performance business jets such as the Bombardier Global Express and Gulfstream
GV that are frequently modified as electronic intelligence (ELINT) or reconnaissance
platforms also employ A429.

The characteristics of ARINC 429 were agreed among the airlines in 1977/78, and
it was first used throughout the B757/B767 and Airbus A300 and A310 aircraft. ARINC,
short for Aeronautical Radio Inc., is a corporation in the United States whose stockholders
comprise US and foreign airlines and aircraft manufacturers. As such it is a powerful
organization central to the specification of equipment standards for known and perceived
technical requirements.
The ARINC 429 (A429) bus operates in a single-source–multiple sink mode so that
a source may transmit to a number of different terminals or sinks, each of which may
receive the data message. However, if any of the sink equipment needs to reply, then each
piece of equipment will require its own transmitter and a separate physical bus to do so,
and cannot reply down the same wire pair. This half-duplex mode of operation has certain
disadvantages.
If it is desired to add additional equipment as shown in Figure , a new set of buses
may be required – up to a maximum of eight new buses in this example if each new link
needs to operate in bidirectional mode. The physical implementation of the A429 data bus
is a screened, twisted wire pair with the screen earthed at both ends and at all intermediate
breaks. The transmitting element shown on the left in Figure is embedded in the source
equipment and may interface with up to 20 receiving terminals in the sink equipment.
 Information may be transmitted at a low rate of 12–14 kbit/s or a higher rate of 100
kbit/s; the higher rate is by far the most commonly used.

The modulation technique is bipolar return to zero (RTZ), as shown in the box in
the figure. The RTZ modulation technique has three signal levels: high, null and low. A
logic state 1 is represented by a high state returning to zero; a logic state 0 is represented
by a low state returning to null. Information is transmitted down the bus as 32 bit words,
as shown in Figure.
Modulation
Return-To-Zero (RZ) modulation is used. The voltage levels are used for this
modulation scheme
 The standard embraces many fixed labels and formats, so that a particular type of
equipment always transmits data in a particular way. This standardisation has the
advantage that all manufacturers of particular equipment know what data to expect. Where
necessary, additions to the standard may also be implemented.

5. ARINC 629
ARINC 629 was introduced in May 1995 and is currently used on the Boeing 777,
Airbus A330 and A340 aircraft. The ARINC 629 bus is a true data bus in that the bus
operates as a multiple-source, multiple sink system as shown in Figure . That is, each
terminal can transmit data to, and receive data from, every other terminal on the data bus.
This allows much more freedom in the exchange of data between units in the avionics
system. The true data bus topology is much more flexible in that additional units can be
fairly readily accepted physically on the data bus. A further attractive feature of ARINC
629 is the ability to accommodate up to a total of 128 terminals on a data bus shown in
Figure , though in a realistic implementation the high amount of data bus traffic would
probably preclude the use of this large number of terminals. It supports a data rate of 2
Mbps.
 The protocol utilized by ARINC 629 is a time based, collision-avoidance concept in
which each terminal is allocated a particular time slot to access the bus and transmit data
on to the bus. Each terminal will autonomously decide when the appropriate time slot is
available through the use of several control timers embedded in the bus interfaces and
transmit the necessary data. Figure 4 shows the typical ARINC 629 20 bit data word
format which is very similar toMILSTD-1553B. The first three bits are related to word
time synchronization. The next 16 bits are the data contents, and the final bit is a parity bit.
The data words may have a variety of formats depending on the word function; there is
provision for general formats, systems status, function status, parameter validity, and
binary and discrete data words.
The ARINC 629 data bus cable consists of an unshielded twisted pair of wires. The
wires are #20 AWG and are bonded together continuously along their length. The cables
can be up to 100 meters long and have no provisions for field splicing. ARINC 629 is
defined for both voltage and current modes of operation. One attractive feature of ARINC
629 is that it will be defined for a fiber optic interface ARINC 629 data transmitted in
groups called messages. Messages are comprised of word strings, up to 31 word strings
can be in a message. Word strings begin with a label followed by up to 256 data words.
Each label word and data word is 20 bits.
 Unit III

1. CRT (CATHODE RAY TUBE)

2. LED DISPLAY(LIGHT EMITTING
DIODE)
3. LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
4. PLASMA PANEL
5. TOUCH SCREEN
6. DIRECT VOICE INPUT (DVI)
 7. HOTAS

8. HEAD UP DISPLAY (HUD)

9. HEAD MOUNT DISPLAY (HMD)
10 . HEAD DOWN DISPLAY(HDD) OR
MULTIFUNCTION DISPLAY(MFD)
 11. MULTI-FUNCTION KEYBOARD (MFK)

The Multi Function Keyboard (MFK) is an avionics sub-system through which the pilot
interacts to configure mission related parameters like flight plan, airfield database, and
communication equipment during initialization and operation flight phase of mission.

o The MFK consists of a MOTOROLA 68000 series processor with ROM, RAM and
EEPROM memory. It is connected to one of the 1553B buses used for data
communication. It is also connected to the Multi Function Rotary switch (MFR) through a
RS422 interface.
o The MFK has a built-in display unit and a keyboard. The display unit is a pair of
LCD based Colour Graphical Display, as well as a Monochrome Heads-Up Display. The
Real-time operating specifications are very stringent in such applications because the
performance and safety of the aircraft depend on it. Efficient design of the architecture and
code is required for successful operation. Technology Highlights: ―pSOS Real- Time OS,
―68000 Processor,‖ C and Assembly code, ―1553B Bus Protocol

 As the cockpits of modern aircraft have more controls jammed into them, the point
reached where there is no more space. Multifunction keyboards (MFKs) offer a very
attractive solution to this space problem wherein a single panel of switches performs a
variety of functions depending on the phase of the mission or the keyboard menu
selected.
 Multifunction keyboards can be implemented in several ways. The first two ways
use LEDs or LCDs in panels in a central location. Designs using LEDs have arrays
(typically ranging from five rows of three switches to seven rows of five switches) of
standard sized push button switches with legends built into the surface of the switches.
 UNIT – IV

1. AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING (ADF)

Automatic direction finding (ADF) involves the use of a loop direction finding
technique to establish the bearing to a radiating source. This might be to a VHF beacon or
a non-distance beacon (NDB) operating in the 200–1600 kHz band. Non-directional
beacons, in particular, are the most prolific and widely spread beacons in use today.
The aircraft ADF system comprises integral sense and loop antennas which
establish the bearing of the NBD station to which the ADF receiver is tuned. The bearing
is shown on the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) in the analogue cockpit of a ‗classic‘
aircraft or more likely on the electronic flight instrument system (EFIS), as appropriate.
ADF is used by surveillance aircraft such as MPA on an air sea rescue mission to home on
to a personal locator beacon used by downed airmen or installed in life rafts.

2. VERY HIGH-FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE (VOR)

The VOR system was accepted as standard by the United States in 1946 and later
adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) as an international
standard.
The system provides a widely used set of radio beacons operating in the VHF
frequency band over the range 108–117.95MHz with a 100 kHz spacing. Each beacon
emits a Morse code modulated tone which may be provided to the flight crew for the
purposes of beacon identification. The ground station radiates a cardioid pattern which
rotates at 30 r/min generating a 30 Hz modulation at the aircraft receiver.
The ground station also radiates an omnidirectional signal which is frequency
modulated with a 30 Hz reference tone. The phase difference between the two tones varies
directly with the bearing of the aircraft. At the high frequencies at which VHF operates
there are no sky wave effects and the system performance is relatively consistent.
VOR has the disadvantage that it can be severely disrupted by adverse weather –
particularly by electrical storms – and as such it cannot be used as a primary means of
Navigation for a civil aircraft.
Overland in the North American continent and Europe, VOR beacons are widely
situated to provide an overall coverage of beacons. Usually these are arranged to coincide
with major airway waypoints and intersections in conjunction with DME stations – see
below – such that the aircraft may navigate for the entire flight using the extensive
route/beacon structure.
By virtue of the transmissions within the VHF band, these beacons are subject to
the line-ofsight and terrain-masking limitations of VHF communications. Advisory
circular AC 00- 31A lays out a method for complying with the airworthiness rules for
VOR/DME/TACAN.
 3. DISTANCE-MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
Distance-measuring equipment (DME) is a method of pulse ranging used in the
960– 1215MHz band to determine the distance of the aircraft from a designated ground
station.

The aircraft equipment interrogates a ground-based beacon and, upon the receipt of
retransmitted pulses, unique to the on-board equipment, is able to determine the range to
the DME beacon (Figure 8.14). DME beacons are able to service requests from a large
number of aircraft simultaneously but are generally understood to have the capacity to
handle _200 aircraft at once. Specified DME accuracy is _3% or _0.5 nm, whichever is the
greater (advisory circular AC 00-31A).

DME and TACAN beacons are paired with ILS/VOR beacons throughout the
airway route structure in accordance with the table set out in Appendix 3 of advisory
circular AC 00-31A. This is organised such that aircraft can navigate the airways by
having a combination of VOR bearing and DME distance to the next beacon in the airway
route structure. A more recent development – scanning DME – allows the airborne
equipment rapidly to scan a number of DME beacons, thereby achieving greater accuracy
by taking the best estimate of a number of distance readings. This combination of
VOR/DME navigation aids has served the aviation community well in the United States
and Europe for many years, but it does depend upon establishing and maintaining a beacon
structure across the land mass or continent being covered. New developments in third-
world countries are more likely to skip this approach in favour of a global positioning
system (GPS),
 4. TACAN

Tactical air navigation (TACAN) is military omnibearing and distance-measuring

equipment with similar techniques for distance measurement as DME. The bearing
information is accomplished by amplitude modulation achieved within the beacon which
imposes 15 and 135 Hz modulated patterns and transmits this data together with 15 and
135 Hz reference pulses.
The airborne equipment is therefore able to measure distance using DME interrogation
Techniques while using the modulated data to establish bearing.
TACAN beacons operate in the frequency band 960–1215 MHz as opposed to the
108– 118MHz used by DME. This means that the beacons are smaller, making them
suitable for ship borne and mobile tactical use. Some airborne equipment have the ability
to offset to a point remote from the beacon which facilitates recovery to an airfield when
the TACAN beacon is not co-located. TACAN is reportedly accurate to within _1% in
azimuth and _0.1 nm in range, so it offers accuracy improvements over VOR/DME.
TACAN also has the ability to allow aircraft to home on to another aircraft, a feature that
is used in air-to-air refueling to enable aircraft to home on to the donor tanker.

5. INERTIAL LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

6. MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)
 7. INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM(INS)


It is a type of dead Reckoning system.

It is the self contained , autonomous and unjammable.

It measures linear motion and rotations using accelerometers and gyroscopes.
 
From the initial navigation data obtained from the other navigation system or user,
the navigation computer gives the attitude , position and velocity.

It is faster than the data given by the GPS.

INS is very accurate over the short distance.

It is of two different configuration based on the Inertial sensor placement. They are
a. Stable or Gimballed platform.
b. Strap down platform

Stable or Gimballed Platform system:
In which the Accelerometer and gyro are placed in the stable platform which
is maintained stable by the gimbal system. Then the acceleration measured in the inertial
coordinates

Strap down Platform
In this system the accelerometers are mounted on the vehicle platform and
are therefore fixed to the vehicle coordinate system. The acceleration measured are then in
vehicle coordinates.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Stable platform.

It is very reliable, accurate and value for the money.

The mechanical gimbal arrangement is very complex.

Expensive and replacing , rebuild are very lengthy process

Calibrations are very lengthy process
Error in INS System

Basic Principle
• If we can measure the acceleration of a vehicle we can
• integrate the acceleration to get velocity
• integrate the velocity to get position
• Then, assuming that we know the initial position and velocity we can
determine the position of the vehicle at ant time t.
STABLE PLATFORM
There are three main problems to be solved:
1. The accelerator platform has to be mechanically isolated from the rotation
of the aircraft
2. The aircraft travels over a spherical surface and thus the direction of the
gravity vector changes with position
3. The earth rotates on its axis and thus the direction of the gravity vector
changes with time Aircraft Axes Definition

The three axes of the aircraft are:

1. The roll axis which is roughly parallel to the line joining the nose and
the tail Positive angle: right wing down
2. The pitch axis which is roughly parallel to the line joining the
wingtips Positive angle: nose up
3. The yaw axis is vertical
Positive angle: nose to the right Platform Isolation
The platform is isolated from the aircraft rotation by means of a gimbal system
• The platform is connected to the first (inner) gimbal by two pivots along the
vertical (yaw) axis. This isolates it in the yaw axis
• The inner gimbal is the connected to the second gimbal by means of two pivots
along the roll axis. This isolates the platform in the roll axis.
• The second gimbal is connected to the INU (Inertial Navigation Unit) chassis by
means of two pivots along the pitch axis. This isolates it in the pitch axis.

Alignment
Before the INS can navigate it must do two things:
• Orient the platform perpendicular to the gravity vector
• Determine the direction of True North
Also it must be given:
• Initial Position: Input by the Pilot (or navigation computer)
• Velocity: This is always zero for commercial systems
Orientation
In the alignment mode the INU uses the accelerometers to send commands to the pivot
motors to orient the platform so that the output of the accelerometers is zero.
Note that the earth (and therefore the INU) is rotating so that it will be necessary to rotate
the platform in order to keep it level.
Gyrocompassing
The rotation of the platform to keep it level is used to determine the direction of True
North relative to the platform heading
The platform is being rotated around the X and Y axes at measured rates: RX=ΩcosΦcosα
RY=ΩcosΦsinα
Since Ω is known (15.equations05107intwo unknownsº/hour) and can calculate we have to
Φ (Latitude) and α (platform heading)

Navigation
Once the INU has been aligned it can be put into NAVIGATE mode.
In navigate mode, the outputs of the accelerometers are used to determine the vehicle‟s
position and the gyroscopes are used to keep the platform level.
This involves
1. compensating for the earth‟s rotation
2. compensating for travel over the earth‟s (somewhat) spherical surface

Accelerometers
Requirements:
• high dynamic range (10-4 g to 10g)
• low cross coupling
• good linearity
• little or no asymmetry

Exacting requirements dictate the use of Force-Rebalance type of devices

Types:
• Pendulum
• floating
• flexure pivot
• Vibrating String or Beam
• MEMS (micro electromechanical systems)

Gyroscopes-Three main types:

Spinning Mass
Ring Laser
MEMS
Spinning Mass:
Rigidity in Space:
A spinning mass has a tendency to maintain its orientation in INERTIAL space Its rigidity
(or resistance to change) depends on its moment of inertia and its angular velocity about
the spin axis (INU gyros spin at around 25,000 RPM)
Precession;
If a torque τ is applied perpendicular to the spinning mass it will respond by rotating
around an axis 90 degrees to the applied torque. I.e. ω× τ
8. LORAN
9. OMEGA
10. DECCA
10. GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)
ORBITS
 Global positioning system (GPS) is also known as Navigation System with Time and
Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR) GPS. Originally designed for military
purposes, GPS is being increasingly used by civilians for various applications like marine
navigation, surveying, car navigation. Signals made available for civilian use, known as
the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) can be freely accessed by general public. On the
other hand, the more accurate Precise Positioning Service (PPS) can only be used by
authorized government agencies. The development of GPS system was mainly aimed for
these aspects:
a) To provide user‟s with locational coordinate
b) To provide an accurate and continuous 3 dimensional positioning capability operating
in all weather conditions over global extent
c) To offer potential for various civilian applications
Some examples of space based GPS systems include GLONASS which is operated by
the Russian Aerospace Defence forces, BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) which
is a Chinese satellite navigation system which has been operational since 2000, Galilieo:
global navigation satellite system currently built by European Union and European Space
Agency, Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) being developed by the
Indian Space Research Organisation. The configuration of a GPS system is comprised of
three distinct segments:
i) Space segment: The space segment comprises of 24 satellites orbiting the earth at
approximately 20200 km every 12 hours. There are 6 orbital planes with nominally four
satellite vehicles in each orbit. The space segment is designed in such a way that there will
always be a minimum of 4 satellites visible above 150 cut off/mask angle at any po any
time. The reason will be clear by the end of this module. Each of the GPS satellites have
highly precise atomic clocks on board which operate at a fundamental frequency of 10.23
MHz. These clocks are crucial to generate the signals which are broadcasted from the
satellite. Satellites generally broadcast two carrier waves which are in the L band. These
carrier waves are usually derived using the fundamental frequency generated by the highly
precise atomic clock onboard the satellite. The L band waves used are
a) L1 carrier wave at a frequency of 1575.42 MHz and L2 carrier broadcasted at a
frequency of 1227.60 MHz.
These carrier waves have codes modulated upon it. The L1 carrier wave has two codes
known as C/A code or coarse acquisition code and P code known as precision code. The
C/A code is modulated at 1.023 MHz whereas the P code is modulated at 10.23 MHz
frequency. The C/A code is based upon the time provided by a highly accurate atomic
clock. The receiver also will contain a clock which is used to generate a matching C/A
code. The incoming satellite code can be compared with the code generated by the
receiver. The L2 carrier wave has just one code modulated upon it at 10.23 MHz. As the
space segment consists of nearly 24 orbiting satellites, in order to distinguish between
satellites, GPS receivers use different codes. The time for radio signal (L band) to travel
from the satellite to any GPS receiver can be calculated using these codes.
 Schematic showing C/A and P code
ii) Control segment: The control segment comprise of a master control station with 5
monitoring stations.
These stations track/control the or located at Hawaii, Colorado Springs, Ascension
islands, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein. It is essential to estimate the orbit of each satellite in
order to predict its path 24 x 7. This information is available in uploaded to each of these
orbiting satellites which are subsequently broadcasted from them. The signals from
satellites are read at the control stations which estimate the measurement errors. These
errors are then transmitted to the master control station in Colorado Springs wherein
processing takes place to determine any errors in each of these satellites. This information
from the master control station is resent to the four monitoring stations which are then
uploaded to these satellites.
iv) User Segment- GPS receivers are used to receive the GPS signals which can then be
used for navigation and other purposes. Anyone who avails this facility comprises the user
segment. The various applications for which GPS receivers can be used range from
surveying, aerial/marine/land navigation, defense machinery control etc.
2. Principle
The information broadcasted as a continuous stream of data by each satellite to the
earth is termed as GPS navigation message. In order to calculate the current position of the
satellites as well as to determine the signal transmit times, it is highly essential that we
know this navigation message. The data stream is transmitted at 50 bits per second.
Ephemeris and almanac data, the satellite orbits and the relevant coordinates of a specific
satellite can be determined at a defined point in time.

Schematic showing receiver and satellite signal time difference

GPS relies on different methods for estimating location coordinates which are dependent
on the accuracy required by the user and the type of GPS used. GPS determines the
pseudoranges and the time of arrival of signal. The simplest technique used by GPS
receivers for instantaneous estimation of locational coordinates is analogous to the two
point problem in plane table surveying. The basic concept is that if we know the distance
of three points relative to our own position, we can determine our position relative to those
three points. The navigation technique is known as ―Trilateration‖ , which distance is to
two based or more stations (located at known coordinates) that transmit signals (at known
time). This will result in an infinite number of locations, which when plotted form a
hyperbolic curve. In order to narrow down on the exact user location, a second
measurement needs to be taken to a different pair of stations which will produce a second
curve and so on.
 UNIT V
1. ALTITUDE
2. MACH NUMBER
3. AIR SPEED
 4. Longitudinal auto-pilot
Introduction
1 Displacement auto-pilot
2 Pitch speed control system
3 Acceleration control system
4 Vertical speed control
5 Mach speed control
6 Altitude control

Longitudinal auto-pilot
Introduction
Note: in all block diagrams, all sum blocks are with a feedback as:

even if + & - symbols do not appear.

Control surface actuator:
so far, various Transfer Functions (TF) that represent the aircraft dynamics have been
seen, still missing some control systems:
• Servo actuators are used to deflect the aerodynamic control surfaces: either electrical,
hydraulic, pneumatic or some combination of the 3. Typically their TF is of a 1st order
system.
• Transfer functions for any sensors in the control loop: attitude gyro, rate gyro, altimeter
or velocity sensor: TF for most sensors can been approximated by a gain K.

1. Displacement AP
• First auto-pilot was developed by Sperry Corporation
• linked a gyroscopic attitude with a magneto-compass to the rudder, the elevator and the
flaps (with hydraulic system)
• allowed the plane to flight straight and leveled without pilot‘s attention
• ―straight-and-level‖ AP is the most common and thus the cheapest
• low error due to the use of simple control systems
 pitch/attitude angle: between horizontal and longitudinal axis

• plane trimmed to reference pitch→ turned on AP

• if pitch angle varies, voltage eg is generated → amplified → servo-elevator (hydraulic
for ex.), positions the elevator
→ pitch movement so that the aircraft moves with the desired pitch angle
Transfer function represents aircraft dynamics
Remember: 6 hypothesis:
1. X and Z axis in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft and its gravity center = origin of
the system of axis
2. Aircraft has a constant mass
3. Aircraft = rigid solid
4. Earth = inertial reference frame
5. Small perturbations with respect to the equilibrium
6. Leveled, non accelerated, non turbulent flight

Longitudinal model transfer function

Elevator’s movement:

Short period oscillation mode

• Study of the oscillation frequency and damping factor after the perturbation
• Fast damping without effort from the pilot

Pitch rate feedback

Need to increase damping of the short oscillation mode by adding an inner feedback loop

• No rule to select Kva but, for a bigger Kva value, bigger stability margin and faster
response is obtained
• Pitch rate feedback controls the jet well enough, but is always better to have a Type I
system (here we had it already) to cancel the position error in steady state
 2. Speed AP
Input: desired pitch rate; to obtain a type I system a integrator gyro is added through a
direct loop

Control stick steering used to position the elevator, and keeping pressure on the stick,
pitch rate is maintained
Used in aircraft with bad longitudinal stability
→ pitch up occurs, which causes stall for great angles of attack
→ either you use a limiter of angle of attack
→ or a automatic control system is used, which would allow the aircraft to fly with angles
of attack higher than the critical one

3. Acceleration control system

Control: is done through an accelerometer. Correction is good but:

• acceleration control system can‘t distinguish between the acceleration of gravity and the
acceleration due to the movement of the aircraft → it has to be insensitive to small
accelerations
• non desired turbulence acceleration → noise, has to be filtered These problems + there
are not so many requirements needing the aircraft to fly at constant acceleration →
acceleration AP scarcely used Sometimes used for tactical maneuvers and missile control
 maintain pitch angle constant
• maintain pitch rate constant + used for fight aircrafts
• maintain pitch acceleration constant
Both cases: add an inner loop over pitch rate increases

Damping of short period oscillations

Basic modes: when pilot turns on AP, are activated by default
 4. Vertical Speed
Another basic mode: maintain constant vertical speed

2 loops:

• outer loop: sends θ associated to piloting functions → input control

• greater loop: controls trajectory parameters → guidance function (maintains pitch
desired for the aircraft based on flight info: instrumentation, vision…)
→ stabilizing function
• inner loop corresponds to servo (stabilizer)
Sensors: Vertical gyro measures pitch angle
Variometer measures vertical speed
Control laws: (choice of KVz based on FL (flight level))

Superior modes

Selected in AP command: Flight Control Unit (FCU)

3 phases:
• turn on the mode
• identify the reference value
• maintain it

5. Speed AP (Mach)

Used during cruise flight

In Mach hold mode, aircraft flies at constant Mach speed through automatic control
of pitch angle by the elevator
Aircraft flies → fuel is burned → weight decreases→ speed tends to increase
Speed increase detected by control system → corrected by elevator → aircraft rises
Making plane rise slowly due to burned fuel (constant Mach #), beneficial effect in long
term flights (fuel consumption lowers with altitude)
 6. Altitude control AP
Constant altitude is needed due to:

• Terrain topography
• Vertical distance between planes in flight
Maintain altitude during cruise flight: manual piloting is a monotone and tedious job →
interesting to use AP
Mach number is being controlled, manual or automatically by thrust
Visual and noise alarm: warns the crew that aircraft‘s trajectory is closer or further from
the selected one
 5. Lateral AP
1 Roll attitude AP
2 Heading AP
3 VOR Modes
4 Navigation modes
1. Roll attitude AP

• basic mode: bank angle AP ON when AP is turnedON

• + integral correction (accuracy) + bank angle and bank rate limitation
• AP designed to maintain straight and leveled flight path
 control laws

2. Heading AP

basic mode
• sensor 1: vertical gyro
• sensor 2: directional gyro

3. VOR Mode
Superior modes: select and maintain magnetic heading
 Superior modes: select and maintain magnetic heading

• If there is wind, when the plane is following its determined airways, Ψ-Ψref won‘t be
cancelled.
• In order to maintain the airways, an integral factor is added.

4. Navigation Mode

 This mode allows to follow a route described by the flight plan: composed of a
series of waypoints.
 The crew introduces route in the flight calculator or in the Flight Management
System.
 An inertial central gives the actual aircraft position information.
Flight calculator calculates differences and track:
 Position guidance of the route (XTK)
 Ground speed (GS) of the route.
 Angle and attitude of the route ( TAE- Track Angler Error)
 6. AUTOPILOT
An autopilot (or pilot) is a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system which can
maintain a vessel on a predetermined (set) course without the need for human intervention.
Using a direct or indirect connection with a vessel‘s steering mechanism, the autopilot
relieves the crew from the task of manually steering the ship.
Autopilot have evolved from simple course holding systems to adaptive computer systems
that offer reduced fuel costs and increased transit times. These new systems learn the
characteristics of the vessel‘s handling and minimize rudder movement reducing drag on
the vessel. Increased speed and lower fuel consumption makes autopilot more user
friendly.
Autopilots do not replace a human operator, but assist them in controlling the ship,
allowing them to focus on broader aspects of operation, such as monitoring the trajectory,
weather and systems.
 This instrument is not to replace the helmsman.
 It is not to be used in restricted waters or during manoeuvring.
 Not to be used for large alterations of more than 15-20
 Autopilot will operate efficiently over a certain speed (approx. > 5 knots), below
which it will start to wander.
 Autopilot is normally used when ship has to steer same course for long period of
time.

What is working principle of autopilot system?

An output from a gyro or magnetic repeating compass is coupled to a differential
amplifier along with a signal derived from a manual course-setting control. If no
difference exists between the two signals, no output will be produced by the amplifier and
no movement of the rudder occurs. When a difference is detected between the two sources
of data, an output error signal, proportional in magnitude to the size of the difference, is
applied to the heading error amplifier. Output of this amplifier is coupled to the rudder
actuator circuit, which causes the rudder to move in the direction determined by the sign
of the output voltage. The error signal between compass and selected course inputs
produces an output voltage from the differential amplifier that is proportional to the off-
course error. This type of control, therefore, is termed ‗proportional‘ control. As it has
been shown, the use of proportional control only, causes the vessel to oscillate either side
of its intended course due to inertia producing overshooting.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
The effect on steering when only proportional control is applied causes the rudder
to move by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer and the
ship will oscillate on either side of the required course-line.
DERIVATIVE CONTROL
The rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of ship‘s
deviation from the course. The ship will make good a course which is parallel to the
required course and will continue to do so until the autopilot is again caused to operate by
external force acting on the ship.
INTEGRAL CONTROL
There are certain errors due to design parameters of the vessel which have to be
corrected. Data signals are produced by continuously sensing heading error over a period
of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm is used for this purpose.
The permanent helm acts as mid-ship.
PID CONTROL
The output of the three controls are combined and the net resultant drives the
rudder. This type of autopilot is also called as PID Auto Pilot.
A Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controller (PID controller) is a control
loop feedback mechanism (controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference between a
desired set point and a measured process variable. The controller attempts to minimize the
error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of a control valve,
a damper, or the power supply.
 P accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is large and
positive, the control output will also be large and positive.
 I accounts for past values of the error. For example, if the current output is not
sufficiently strong, error will accumulate over time, and the controller will respond
by applying a stronger action.
 D accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of
change
With a Proportional, Integral and Derivative steering control system, the oscillation is
minimized by modifying the error signal produced as the difference between the selected
heading and the compass heading. Figure shows that a three-input summing-amplifier is
used, called a dynamics amplifier, to produce a resultant output signal equal to the sum of
one or more of the input signals.
The demanded rudder error signal is inspected by both the differentiator and the
integrator. The differentiator determines the rate of change of heading as the vessel returns
to the selected course. This sensed rate of change, as a voltage, is compared with a fixed
electrical time constant and, if necessary, a counter rudder signal is produced. The
magnitude of this signal slows the rate of change of course and thus damps the off-course
oscillation.
Obviously the time constant of the differentiation circuit is critical if oscillations
are to be fully damped. Time constant parameters depend upon the design characteristics
of the vessel and are normally calculated and set when the vessel undergoes initial trials.
In addition, a ‗counter rudder‘ control is fitted in order that the magnitude of the counter
rudder signal may be varied to suit prevailing conditions.
What are settings of Autopilot system?
 Permanent helm:
To be used only if a constant influence, like cross wind or beam sea is experienced. If
there is a very strong beam wind from starboard side then a permanent 5 degrees starboard
helm may be set.
 Rudder:
This setting determines the rudder to be given for each degree of course drifted. Eg. 2
degrees for every 1 degree off course.
 Counter rudder:
Determines the amount of counter rudder to be given once v/l has started swinging
towards correct course to stop swing. Both rudder & counter rudder to be set after
considering condition of v/l (ballast, loaded, etc.). Eg. Laden condition full ahead, not
advisable to go over 10 degrees rudder.
 Weather:
The effect of weather & sea conditions effectively counteracted by use of this control. This
setting increases the dead band width. Comes in handy if vessel is yawing excessively.
What are different Steering modes of Auto Pilot?
 Auto / manual: allows user to select between manual steering & autopilot. Officer
to steer correct course, rudder to be on midships,course to steer set (gyro pointer on
lubber line), off course alarm set before changing over to autopilot.
 Follow up: if rudder is to be put on starboard 10, helm is put on starboard 10.
When helm is on midship rudder will return to midships.
 Non-follow up: if rudder to be put on starboard 10 helm is turned to starboard, a
few degrees before starboard 10 the helm is put on midships, rudder then settles on
starboard 10. If rudder goes beyond starboard 10, slight port helm to be given. Rudder
will remain on starboard 10 even when helm is returned to midship. To bring it back
to midships port helm to be given.
What is Off course alarm?
 It is fitted on the autopilot usually set for 5 or 10 degrees. If difference between
actual course & course set by officer for autopilot is more than value set for alarm, it
will sound.
 This alarm will not sound in case of gyro failure.
 Only indication in this case is a gyro failure alarm. Gyro compass & repeaters to
compared frequently along with magnetic compass.
What are disadvantages of Autopilot?
 The auto pilot gives rudder according to the gyro heading.
 If the gyro fails the autopilot will still keep the gyro course & wander with the gyro.
 Gyro alarm to be taken seriously or the v/l will collide if there are sudden
alterations.