10.

ANIMAL TISSUE
Tissue -A group of cells having same embryonic origin, structure and function is called
tissue.

The somatic cells are group into four types of somatic tissue

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Location

1. It is found on inner and outer body surface.

2. It is seen to line the hollow organs, body cavities, blood vessels and ducts.

Origin

It originates from all the three primary germ layers i.e. ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

Properties/characteristics

1. Cells of epithelial tissue are compactly arranged and thus a very little or no
intercellular space is seen.
2. Cells are placed on thin, double layered, non cellular basement membrane.
3. Epithelial tissue has nerve supply of its own
4. This tissue is avascular i.e. I lacks its own blood supply and hence obtains nutrients
which diffuse out of blood vessels
5. Epithelial tissue has the capacity of self renewal and repair.
6. The old injured dead cells are sloughed off regularly.

Functions

1. The epithelial tissue covers the body surface and helps in imparting protection from
mechanical injury.
2. Large number of epithelial cells are modified which are responsible for many bodily
secretion which are antibacterial (sweat) in nature or useful in metabolic activities
3. Epithelial cells also help in removal of excess of toxic material from the body
4. The modified epithelial cells are provided with microvilli useful in adsorption.
Microvilli increase surface area for absorption.
5. The sensory cells are important sites for receiving stimuli which are followed by
showing an orderly response.

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Types

A) Simple epithelium

a) Squamous epithelium

Location –it is found in peritoneum of coelom and endothelium

Structure

1. The cells are polygonal in shape, thin delicate and flat.

2. The nucleus is centrally placed
3. They appear like flat tiles when viewed from above, hence called pavement
epithelium.

Functions

Filtration and diffusion of material

b) Cuboidal epithelium

Location- it is found in thyroid gland and kidney

Structure

 The cells are cube shaped.

 The nucleus is centrally placed with round or elliptical in shape.

Functions

Secretion and absorption

c) Columnar Epithelium

Location- it makes inner lining of stomach, intestine and other internal lining

Structure

 The cells are tall and pillar-like.

 The anterior end of cells is broader than posterior narrow basal ends attached
to basement membrane.
 Nucleus is oval or elliptical and placed near the basal end.
 Columnar epithelium is classified as ciliated and non ciliated columnar
epithelium

d) Ciliated columnar epithelium

Location- it is found in upper respiratory tract and fallopian tube of vertebrates.

Structure

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 The cells are tall and pillar-like.

 The anterior end of cells is broader than posterior narrow basal ends attached
to basement membrane.
 Nucleus is oval or elliptical and placed near the basal end.
 The anterior free end shows cilia which seen arising from basal granule.

Function –cilia are capable of vibratory movement. They are able to remove foreign
particle from the surface. Cilia help in movement of non-motile ovum in fallopian
tube.

e) Non- ciliated columnar epithelium

Location- It is found in inner lining of stomach and intestine

Structure

 It is type of columnar epithelium

 The anterior end of cells is broader than posterior narrow basal ends attached
to basement membrane.
 Nucleus is oval or elliptical and placed near the basal end.
 The anterior free end show presence of finger like protoplasmic projections
called microvilli, which help in increasing surface area for absorption.

Function- Absorption

f) Glandular epithelium

Location- it is found in various types of glands.

Structure

 Specialized epithelial cells capable of synthesizing substances like enzymes,

hormones, sweat, oil etc form glandular epithelium.
 These secretions are carried into ducts (tubes) on the surface or into blood.
 Glands are further classified as endocrine and exocrine depending on mode of
secretions.

Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands

1. They are ductless glands. 1. They possess ducts.
2. Secretion is directly poured into 2. Secretion is carried by means of ducts or
blood stream. tube to the site of action
3. Their secretions are called Hormones. 3. Their secretion can be enzymes, sweat,
oil, milk etc.
e.g. Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid gland e.g. Tear gland, salivary gland, gastric gland etc.
 Exocrine glands are further classified as per number of cells as Unicellular or
Multicellular glands,

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Unicellular gland

 In unicellular glands an individual epithelial cell is modified into glandular

cell e.g. Globlet cell
 Goblet cell line the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts

Multicellular Gland

 In multicellular glands, large number of glandular cells aggregate and form

distict microscopic or macroscopic organ
 e.g. Salivary gland, sebaceous gland (Oil gland), sudoriferous gland (sweat
gland).
 Multicellular gland are classified on the basis of their duct type (branched or
unbranched) and shape of their secretory portion as simple or compound

g) Compound epithelium

 It is stratified epithelium tissue which consists of many layers of cells.

 Only lowermost layer is based on basement membrane.
 This layer is called stratum germinativum, the cells of which have ability to divide
and re-divide.
 e.g. Skin

Cell junctions

1) Tight junction help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue

2) Adhering junctions perform cementing to keep neighboring cells together.
3) Gap Junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the
cytoplasm of adjoin cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecule and sometimes
big molecule.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 It is widely distributed in the body

 It binds supports and provides strength to other body tissues.
 Connective tissue is characterized by presence of two important elements
a) Cells
b) Extra cellular matrix or ground substance.
 All connective are highly vascular ie. They have a rich supply of blood except
cartilage.

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Types of Connective tissue

1. Loose connective tissue

a) Areolar connective tissue
b) Adipose tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
a) Dense regular tissue e.g. Tendon and Ligament
b) Dense irregular tissue e.g Skin
3. Specialized connective tissue
a) Cartilage
b) Bone
c) Blood

a) Areolar connective tissue

This is also known as loose connective tissue as fibres and cells are not densely packed.

Location
It is found below skin, muscles and bones.

Extracellular matrix
It is jelly like, made up of gelatin

Cells
There are four types of cells present in areolar connective tissue.

1) Fibroblasts

 They are large, flat cells with many branching process.

 They are useful in secretion of two types of fibres
White fibres

 They are unbranched, wavy and arranged in bundles.

 White fibres are also called collagen fibres as they contain proteinaceous substance
called collagen (colla- glue)
 They give tensile strength to tissue.
Yellow fibres

 They are branched, straight, thin, and slender and arranged singly.
 They posses elastic property due to presence of a protein called elastin.
 Since they are profusely branched these are interconnected to form large network.

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2) Mast cells

 They are many and found surrounding blood vessels.

 The cytoplasm of mast cells contains heparin and histamine granules.
 Heparin prevents clotting of blood
 Histamine is useful in dilating blood vessels, an inflammatory response to injury or
infection.
3) Macrophages -These are large cells which are phagocytic in action.

4) Adipocytes- These are useful in storage of fats

ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

It is modified areolar tissue consisting of large number of adipocytes i.e. cells specialized for
storage of fats.

Location
It is found in association with areolar connective tissue.

Structure

 It contains large number of adipocytes.

 The adipocytes are filled up with fats.
 Thus the nucleus and the cytoplasm are shifted to periphery.

Types
a) White adipose tissue
It appears opaque due to presence of large number of adipocytes.
It is commonly seen in adults
b) Brown adipose tissue
It is reddish brown in colour due to presence of large number of blood vessels.
It is mostly found in developing foetus and infants
Function

 The adipose tissue is good insulator and is the major source of energy reserve.
 It supports and protects the various internal organs.

Due to increase in the amount of adipose tissue a person becomes obese and new blood
vessels are formed.

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Thus, an obese suffers more commonly with high blood pressure as compared to a lean
person.

TENDONS

 These attach skeletal muscle bundle to bones.

 They are formed of collagen fibres (white fibres).
 They play very important role in various movements.
e.g. Achielles tendon, Hamstring tendon

LIGAMENTS

 They are formed of bundle of yellow fibres.

 They bind tow different bones at the joints.
 They play very important role in preventing dislocation of bones and at the same time
providing flexibility to joints.

SKELETAL TISSUE –
CARTILAGE
Location
It forms endoskeleton in large number of vertebrates

Structure
Perichondrium

 The cartilage enclosed in sheath of white fibrous tissue called perichondrium.

 It contains blood vessels and nerve fibers.

Matrix

 Perichondrium encloses semisolid matrix called chondrin.

Cells

 Towards the periphery of the inner margin of perichondrium a layer of small

immature chondroblast (cartilage forming cells) are seen.
 In due course of time chondroblast get convert in chondrocytes (cartilage cell).

Lacunae

 Chondrocytes are enclosed within lacunae and are seen scattered in matrix.
 Each lacuna contains 2-8 chondrocytes.
 The exchange of material (nutrients) between chondrocytes and matrix is by simple
diffusion from blood vessels present in the perichondrium.

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Depending on the nature of matrix the cartilage is classified as follows

Types Location Matrix Functions
1) Hyaline cartilage Found at ends of long Bluish white and gel like. It provides flexibility and
bones, anterior end of It contain very fine collagen fibres supports the body
ribs, nose tip, larynx, and chondrocytes It also helps in reducing
bronchial tree, foetal friction and also acts as a
and embryonic good shock absorber
skeleton
2) Elastic cartilage It is found in The matrix contain thread like It gives support and
epiglottis (lid on top network of elastic fibres. maintains shape
of larynx), external Chondrocytes are few in number
ear (auricle), trachea
etc
3) Fibrocartilage It is found in pubic The matrix contains bundles of This cartilage helps to
symphysis, collagen fibres. Chondrocytes are supports and for
intervertbral disc few in number and seen in scattered connection of different
in bundles of collagen fibres organs of the body
4) Calcified cartilage This found in old age Matrix contain deposition of various
salts
Due to deposition the cartilage loses
its flexibility.

BONE.

Structure
Periosteum and endosteum

 Bone is enclosed in thin layer of white fibrous connective tissue (Collagen fibres)
called periosteum. Blood vessels and nerves pierce through periosteum.
 Endosteum surrounds the marrow cavity.

Matrix

 Bone shows presence of hard, solid, calcified matrix called ossein.

 The hardness is due to deposition of inorganic mineral salt called hydroxyl-apatite
(Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2).
 In bone, the matrix is arranged in concentric circles called lamellae with a large
number of living cells, osteoblasts or osteocytes in fluid filled cavity called lacuna.
 Osteoblasts are active bone cells and osteocytes are inactive. Each lacuna has fine
cytoplasmic extensions called canaliculi which pass through lamella and makes
connection with adjacent lacunae.

Haversian system or osteon

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 The structural unit of bone is Haversian system or Osteon. Presence of Haversian

system is characteristic feature of mammalian bone.
 Haversian system shows Haversian canal in the center.
 Haversian canal consists of blood vessels artery and vein, lymph vessels and a nerve.
 Lacunae containing osteoblasts or osteocytes are seen arranged in concentrically
around Haversian canal.
 The two adjacent Haversian Systems are interconnected by Volkmann’s Canal.

Functions

 It is supporting and protective tissue of vertebrates which prevent internal soft and
delicate tissue

Types of bones
Bones are classified on basis of matrix

Spongy bone

 It is present at the expanded ends (epiphysial region) of long bones.

 The matrix or ossein is web like containing column of bone called trabeculae with
many spaces in between.
 It filled with soft tissue called red marrow responsible for haemopoiesis.
 It lacks Haversian system

Compact bone

 It is seen in the shaft of the long bones

 The matrix is hard, solid, and dense without space.
 It is filled with fatty tissue called yellow bone marrow which store fats.
 It has many Haversian system.

Function of skeletal tissue

 Skeletal tissue supports the body by forming endoskeleton of an organism.

 It is useful in protection of internal organ.
 It forms the base for attachment of muscles
 In long bones, the yellow bone marrow cavity helps in storage of reserve food
material while the red marrow cavity is useful in haemopoiesis.

MUSCULAR TISSUE
Properties
1. It is made up of thin, elongated contractile muscle fibres, hence it is called contractile
muscle fibres, and hence it is called contractile tissue. Thus, they play an important
role in locomotion and movement.
2. The fibers have the ability to contract due to presence of protein filaments myosin and
actin.

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3. Their outer covering is sarcolemma which encloses specialized cytoplasm called
sarcoplasm.
4. Muscular tissue is innervated with nerve fibers.
5. They are vascular and are supplied with blood vessels, which carry nutrients and take
away the metabolic waste.
6. About 40% of total body weight is due to muscles in mammals.
On the basis of their structure, location and function they are classified as striated, non
striated and cardiac fibers

Smooth muscle fibres (Non striated muscles)

They are involuntary in nature i.e. their contractions are not controlled by our will.

Location
They are seen in the wall of all visceral organ like stomach, intestine, reproductive and
urinary system etc. therefore, they are also known as visceral muscles.

Structure

 Smooth muscles fibers are elongated, slender and spindle shaped (with tapering ends).
 They are arranged in sheet or layers and are bound by sarcolemma.
 Cross- striations are absent within the sarcoplasm.
 These spindle fibers show presence of centrally placed single large oval nucleus.
 Each muscle fiber contains many fine contractile myofibrils arranged longitudinally.
 These are innervated by autonomous nervous system.
 They undergo prolonged but slow contractions and relaxations.
The frequency and intensity varies. They are responsible for peristaltic movement which
helps in passage of food in the digestive tract

Striated muscle fibers

Location

 These are seen attached to bones in head, trunk and limb region. Thus they are also
called skeletal muscles.
 Working of skeletal muscle is under the control of the will. Hence they are also
known as voluntary muscles.

Structure

 Striated muscle shows presence of cross-striations in the form of light and dark bands.
 They also contain large number of peripherally placed nuclei.
 Several muscle fibres are placed parallel to one another and are connected together by
means connective tissue to form small muscle bundles.
 Each muscle fiber contains large number of myofibrils within the sarcoplasm covered
with thick membranous sheath-sarcolemma. It is composed of lipoprotein.

Striations

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 These myofibrils are marked by presence of distinct cross-striations in the form of

alternately light and dark bands.
 Light bands are also called “I” or Isotropic bands. They allow light to pass through
and so appears light.
 A narrow dark line is seen in light band and is called “Z” line or Krause’s membrane.
 Dark band or “A” or Anisotropic band doesn’t allow light to pass through and so it
appears dark.
 In the middle of “A” band a thin fibrous membrane is present called M line.
 Dark band is interuupted with narrow light line called H-zone or “Hensen’zone”.
 A portion between two adjacent Z line is called sarcomere.

CARDIAC MUSCLES
Location

 These are involuntary muscles and are found only in the wall of heart or myocardium.

Structure

 An individual fiber is intermediate between striated and unstriated muscle fibres.

 These are short, branched with ill defined sarcolemma.
 Basically the fibers are uinucleated but as they are joined together by neighbouring
cardiac muscle fibers. It appears to be multinucleated.
 The branches of cardiac fiber join together to form network. The place where these
fibers unite is marked by presence of special zig-zag junctions called intercalated disc.
 Intercalated disc are unique features of cardiac muscles and are formed by transverse
thickenings of sarcolemma. They show presence of alternate light and dark bands.

Pacemaker and Myogenic heart

 The contraction of cardiac muscle is initiated from a particular point in heart which is
known as pacemaker. Such type of heart is called myogenic heart.

Neurogenic heart

 Cardiac muscles in some animals are sometimes seen innervated with nerve fibers
which are responsible for triggering the contraction. Such type is called neurogenic.

Function of cardiac muscle

 They are responsible for bringing about contraction and relaxation of heart which
helps in circulation of blood throughout body.

NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous system is made up of nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue is composed of

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1. Nerve cells or neuron
The neuron provides the quickest means of communication within the body and helps
the body to give response to external stimulus. Thus, the neuron is considered as
impulse generating and impulse conducting unit
2. Supportive cells neuroglia or glial cells
Neuron possess two important basic properties
1. Excitability
It is excitation by external stimulus by changing the action potential of their
membrane.
2. Conductivity
It is to carry a wave of electric impulse from the Dendron to axon.
Neuroglial cells

 In the central nervous system, the interneuronal space is filled with large amount of
supporting non nervous cells called neuroglial cells (microglial cells and
oligodendrocytes).
 These cells are more in number as compared to neurons. They are capable of
regeneration and division which is lacking in nerve cell.
Functions

 The glial cells are useful in supporting neurons, nouringshment of neuron and provide
protection to neurons by engulfing the foreign particles (Phagocytosis.)

Neuron
Structure

 Neuron is covered by neurilemma and is made up of two distinct region; cyton and
cytoplasmic extensions.

Cyton

 Cytons or Cell body is also called perikaryon or soma and contains granular
cytoplasm with large number of network of neurofibrils, various cell organelles like
mitochondria, Golgi complex, RER and centrally place nucleus.
 The granules present in cytoplasm are conical, rich in RNA and are involved in
protein synthesis. These are called Nissl’s granules.

Cytoplasmic extension

 There are two types of cytoplasmic extensions seen arising from the cyton namely,
dendrons or dendrites and axon.
 Dendrites are thin, small cytoplasmic extensions seen in the periphery of the cyton or
cell body of neuron. These are many in number and break into numerous fine

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cytoplasmic processes useful in conduction of impulse away from the cell body. They
are provided with few of the neurofibrils.
 Axon is the longest cytoplasmic process useful in conduction of impulse away from
the cell body.
 It is lined by axonal membrane and encloses cytoplasm called axoplasm.
 The axoplasm is in continuation with the cytoplasm of cyton. It contains large number
of mitochondria, RER, and neurofibrils but lacks Nissl’s granules and Golgi complex.
 The axon, throughout the length is wrapped by Schwann cell which forms insulating
myelin sheath. Such neurons are called myelinated neuron
 In certain animals neuron lacks the myeline sheath and is called non-myelinated
neuron.

Telodendron

 The terminal end of the axon in both myelinated and non- myelinated neuron shows
presence of many swollen knob-like structures called telodendrons. They are filled up
with neurosecretory (acetylcholine and adrenaline) material which acts as
neurotransmitter.

Depending on the number and arrangement of cytoplasmic extensions, the neuron are
classified as unipolar, bipolar and multipolar neuron
1. Unipolar neuron- It has single process. It is also called monopolar neuron
2. Bipolar neuron- It has two processes originate from the opposite poles of the cell
body.
3. Multipolar neuron- It has more than two processes.
Depending on the function, neurons are classified as sensory, intermediate and motor
neuron
1. Sensory neuron- It respond to external stimulates and carries impulse towards the
central nervous system
2. Intermediate neuron- The axonal part of sensory neuron terminates in the
intermediate neurons which are seen in brain and spinal cord. This are stimulated by
the impulses that are received from sensory neuron or the other intermediate neuron.
3. Motor neuron- they carry impulse from the central nervous system towards the
effector organs which brings about the response.

Depending on the presence or absence of myelin sheath they are further classified as
1. Myelinated or medullated neuron-
 It is the one which has its axon surrounded by many cells called Schwann
cells.
 They secrete insulating fatty layer around the nerve fibres form myelin sheath.
 It is interrupted at regular intervals called Nodes of Ranvier. As impulse
jumps from one Node of Ranvier to another, this is called Saltatory
conduction.
2. Non Myelinated or non medullated neuron-
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 The axon of the nerve fiber lacks the myelin sheath as the Schwann cells
present around the nerve fibre does not secrete the sheath.
 These are present in autonomous nerves of vertebrates and invertebrate
nervous system. These nerve fibers also help in conduction of impulse but at
much slower rate as compared to myelinated nerve fibres

Endoneurium: Each nerve cell is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called

endoneurium.
Perineurium: A large number of nerve fibers are bound together in the bundle by
perineurium
Epineurium: Several bundles are surrounded by epineurium collectively make a nerve.
Synapse: The telodendron comes in close functional opposition between dendrites of another
neuron. This type of functional contact between axon and dendrites of two different neurons
is called a synapse.
Synaptonemal complex: The space enclosed between the telodendron of first neuron and
cyton of second neuron forms synaptonemal complex.

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