Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry Relative Atomic Mass : The weighted average mass of an element compared with carbon-12 atomwhere mass of each carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 units. Relative Isotopic Mass : The mass of an atom of an isotope compared with carbon-12 atom where mass of each carbon-12 atomis exactly 12 units Relative Molecular Mass : The mass of molecule of a particular substance compared with carbon-12 atom where mass of each carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 units. Emperical Formula: The simplest integer ratio of the elements presentiin ache mical compound, ‘Mokcular Formula: The"exact number of atoms of elements pre sentin.a chemical compund. Chemical Bonding : lonizationE nergy : The enthalpy change when one mole of electron is removed from ane mole ‘of gaseous atom to praduce ane mole of mon opastive cation under standard conditions. Electronegativity : The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the bonded pair of electrons towards itself. Bond Length : The average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. Bond Energy : The amount of energy required to break one mole of a covalent bond. Bond Polarity : The conce pt used to describe the sharing of electrons between atoms ina molecule Chemical Energetics : Hess's Law : The reaction may proceed in one step or muttiple steps, the total enthaply change always remains the same. Exothermic Reaction : A reaction is exothermic if the enthalpy of the reactant is greater than the ‘enthalpy of product and bond forming occurs. Endotheimic Reaction :/A réaction is endotiermicif the enthalpyof productis greaterthan the ‘enthalpy of reactant and bond breaking occurs Standard Enthalpy Change Of Reaction : The enthalpy change when substances react to form products under standard conditions as represented by balanced chemical equations. Standard Enthalpy Change Of Atomization : The enthalpy change required to produce one mole of gaseous atom fromit's element in i's standard state under standard conditions Standard Enthalpy Change Of Formation : The enthalpy change when one mole of compound is formed from it's elements under standard conditions.Standard Enthalpy Change Of Combustion : The enthalpy change when one mole of substance reacts with excess of oxygen when ignited under standard condition s. ‘Standard Enthalpy Change Of Solution : The enthalpy when one male of a compound dissolves in large amounts of water to form an infinitely dilute solution under standard conditions Enthalpy Change Of Hydration : The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous ions dissolve in large amounts of water to give an infinitely dilute solution. Enthalpy Change Of Neutralization : The enthalpy change when acid and base react to form ‘one mole of water. Chemical Equiibria : LeChatlier’s Principle: If a systemin equilibrium isattered by changing temperature, pressure or concentration, the equilibrium will favor the side that minimizes the effect. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Cracking : Breaking down of large chain hydrocarbons into short chain hydrocarbons. Fractional Distillation : Seperating hydrocatbon fractions on bases of their boiling points. Chiral Carbon : Carbon atom with four different groups attached to it. Free Radical : High energy specie with unpaired electron. Nucleophile: Specie that donates lone pair. Electrophile : Specie that accepts lone pair. ‘Structural Isomers : Compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula. Stereoisomers : Compounds with same structural formula but different spacial arrangement. Geometrical Isomerism : !somerism obtained by rotating molecule across the C=C carbon double bond. Homolytic Fission: The fission in which the bond equally splits and free radicals are formed. Heterolytic Fission : The fission in which bond does not split equally and ions are formed.Organic Chemistry Mechanisms Free Radical Substitution With Halogen : x2 can be any halogen according UN Light to the question = X+X' Initiation : Xe TSyierecw? = You have to write both the equations given in Progagation step. . . * - Hydrocarbon may be different Propagation : C2Hs + X ——+ C2Hs+ HX pee ‘same fogte will be applied. "C2Hs + X2 —4 C2HsX + X” - One H atom is replaced by Halogen atom. Termination :°C2Hs+"C2Hs —% CHsCH2CH2CHs | fcens mrmintwren "GzHs + X*—4 C2HoX °X + X"= +4 X2 1 Substitution 2 NaQH,,., Conditions : NaOH (aq) with heat es} under reflux, H H = You have to write one ofthese ioc ulerkal poatene eu Nucleophillic Addition With HCN : ‘Carbony! Compounds can be reduced with HCN Souda rice GeO, Condtins Heat win HON OH H 0 ‘and NaCN (catalyst). | | — CHs—E—CHh > CH» E—CH CN CN - Same mechanism for both Aldehyde and Ketones. - If H ion is used instead of CN in the first step then the reaction is known as Reduction.2 eal Partial Oxidation of 1 Alcohol = 4° Aleohol partially oxidises to form Aldehyde. + Reagent : limited KeCr207and diluted H.SO+ ~Conaltions : Heat gently and distill out the 4 Aldehyde as it forms. Oxidation of 2+ Alcohol = 2+ Alcohol oxidises to form Ketones. Reagent : KeCr207 and diluted HeSO« = Conditions : Heat under reflux 1 Full Oxidation of = Aleoho! fully oxidises to form Carboxylic Acid. = Reagent : excess KeCri07 and diluted H:SOs =Conditions : Heat under reflux distill the product when reaction ends. Carboxylic Aci d <——— Aldehyde Hydrolysis: Reagent : excess conc. H/KMNOs Reagent : dilute HaSO« Condition : Heat under reflux Esterification Conditions: Heat Reagent : Alcohol Oxidation ren srnder catia Conditions: Heat gently Catalyst : HoSOx Reagent: limited conc. HKMnO« Cconaitions : Heat anc disil ater reaction Ketone Aldehydes and Ketones reduce to reform Alcohol Esters 4 ‘Oxidation Nucl. Addition (Reduction ® — poms prunnonds “Aldehydes reduce to form ‘Thermal Cracking R. —_— ene Thermal Cracking) N, Pe Conditions Heatat 900 oo Dehydration tones posto form Alk ton ee Catalyst cone. Besos ; anes — oe shin dra het jr uncer refx Tae ydrogenaton Alkenes iscsi Reagent : Hydrogen Gas Ha conulons Heat at 140° tmp i, Svaenion Sa: etl une Carboryic Acs reduce ae eater using LiAIHs in dry ether, Elimination BSO« catal Reagent :NaoH dissolved ipacation) Alcohol Radical Substitution in ethanol Elec. Addition agent : Halogen Xz + Conditions : Heat under reflux. Reagent : HX 7 Conatione * Room temp Nuc. Substitution Conditions : UV Light at rtp 1 - Hydrolysis : React with Aqueous NaOH ion to form Alcohol. 2 Halogenation : Heat with HBr, Halogen Alkanes 4; ‘SOCle, PCs, PX3 to form H.Alkane