1.

HISTORY OF HAL

The history and growth of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is synonymous with the growth
of Aeronautical industry in India for more than 77 years. The Company which had its origin
as the Hindustan Aircraft Limited was incorporated on 23 Dec 1940 at Bangalore by Shri
Walchand Hirachand a farsighted visionary in association with the Government of Mysore
with an Authorised Capital of Rs.4 crores (Paid up capital Rs.40 lakhs) and with the aim of
manufacturing aircraft in India. In March 1941, the Government of India became one of the
shareholders in the Company holding 1/3 of its paid up capital and subsequently took over its
management in 1942. In collaboration with the Inter Continental Aircraft Company of USA,
Hindustan Aircraft Company commenced its business of manufacturing of Harlow Trainer,
Curtiss Hawk Fighter and Vultee Bomber Aircraft. In Dec 1945, the company was placed
under the administrative control of Min. of Industry & Supply. January 1951, Hindustan
Aircraft Private Limited was placed under the Administrative control of Ministry of Defence.
The Company had built aircraft and engines of foreign design under licence, such as Prentice,
Vampire and Gnat aircraft. It also undertook the design and development of aircraft
indigenously. In August 1951, the HT-2 Trainer aircraft, designed and produced by the
company under the able leadership of Dr. V.M.Ghatge flew for the first time. Over 150
Trainers were manufactured and supplied to the Indian Air Force and other customers. With
the gradual building up of its design capability, the company successfully designed and
developed four other aircraft i.e. two seater ‗Pushpak‘ suitable for flying clubs, ‗Krishak‘ for
Air Observatory Post(AOP) role, HF-24 Jet Fighter (Marut) and the HJT-16 Basic Jet Trainer
‗(Kiran)‘. Meanwhile, in August 1963, Aeronautics India Limited (AIL) was incorporated as
a Company wholly owned by the Government of India to undertake the manufacture of the
MiG-21 aircraft under licence. In June 1964, the Aircraft Manufacturing Depot which was set
up in 1960 as an Air Force unit to produce the Airframe for the HS-748 transport aircraft was
transferred to AIL. Soon thereafter, the Government decided to amalgamate Hindustan
Aircraft Limited, with AIL so as to conserve resources in the field of aviation where the
technical talent in the country was limited and to enable the activities of all the aircraft
manufacturing units to be planned and co-ordinated in the most efficient and economical
manner. Amalgamation of the two companies i.e. Hindustan Aircraft Limited and
Aeronautics India Limited was brought about on 1st Oct 1964 by an Amalgamation order
issued by the Government of India and the Company after the amalgamation was named as
―Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) with its principal business being design,
development, manufacture, repair and overhaul of aircraft, helicopter, engines and related
systems like avionics, instruments and accessories.

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 2.DIVISIONS OF HAL

1.Bangalore Complex:
Aircraft Division Bangalore: Aircraft Division was established in the year 1940. Since
inception, the Division has manufactured a variety of Aircraft both licience as well as
indigenously designed and developed. Apart from 1st of Hawk Mk 132 Aircraft (66 Nos.),
the division has signed contract with AirForce and Indian Navy to supply additional 57 Hawk
Aircraft(40Nos.Hawk for Indian Airforce and 17 Nos. Hawk for IndianNavy). Currentluy, the
Division is manufacturing The Hawk Mk.132, a transonic tandem-seat ground attack / trainer,
powered by single Rolls Royce Adour Mk.871 turbo fan under licence from BASE
SYSTEMS, UK.The Division has received the approval of CAR-21 from DGCA for
manufacture of CIVIL Aircraft components.The Pilot Project for the implementation of
Enterprise Resource Planning(ERP) was launched in the Division in July 2004. The ERP
system was made 2rganizatio from Nov-2006. Apart from the existing system, many
additional ERP facilities being integrated. The Division is equipped with modern
infrastructure in Plant and Equipment like CAD – CAM Manufacturing Engineering, Quality
Assurance and Customer support System with 2179 highly skilled personnel including more
than 511 officers working in a covered area of 2,25,000 sq.m. The Division has so far
manufactured over 2010 aircrafts of various types. With experience and capabilities built
over past seven decades, the Aircraft Division is bidding for substantial share in the
International Aeronautical market. 

Engine Division Bangalore: The Engine Division, which is ISO-9002 certified, was set up in
1957 to manufacture Orpheus turbo jet engines under licence from Rolls Royce. In 1959,
another licence agreement was signed with Rolls Royce to manufacture Dart engines to
power HS-748 passenger aircraft and overhaul Avon engines fitted on Canberra & Hunter
aircraft. Since then, the division has grown from strength to strength. It is now engaged in the
manufacture of Artouste engines for Chetak/Cheetah helicopters, Adour engines for Jaguar
aircraft and Garrett engines for Dornier aircraft. Engine division also undertakes repair and
overhaul of various aero engines operated by Indian Airforce, Indian Navy, Indian Army,
Coast Guard, Border Security Force, Corporate sector, State Government and other civil
customers. The division has manufactured more than 2,100 aero engines and overhauled &
repaired 11,000 engines.

Overhaul Division Bangalore: Overhaul Division, one of the oldest Divisions of HAL was
established in December 1940, has been involved from early days in the growth of aircraft
industry in India. Between 1942 and 1945, the Division maintained and repaired varieties of
aircraft like Liberator, Fortress, Mitchell, Dakota, Curtis Commando and PSY Catalina
amphibian aircraft. After 1947, the Division oriented its activities to Major 3 Overhaul of
aircraft of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy and rendering 1st and 2nd Line Maintenance
support to aircraft at various IAF and Naval Bases. The Division, with over 70 years of
experience in aircraft MRO has serviced over 4000 aircraft of different types and over 6500
Piston Engines. The Division has since emerged as a world class MRO agency for the
maintenance and servicing of state-of-the-art Military aircraft, Piston engine and associated
accessories. It also renders highly competent maintenance and retrofit support at user‗s
works. Currently it is the only Organization authorized to undertake Major Inspection of
Mirage 2000 aircraft outside France. The Division is currently exporting its products and
services to Malaysia, Mauritius and Oman. Spread over an area of more than 10 hectares of

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land, Overhaul Division is empowered by a highly skilled workforce comprising of more than
1000 personnel supported by over 250 well qualified and experienced Executives. The
Division has a well equipped Accessories Repair / Overhaul Centre with excellent
infrastructure to handle sophisticated Mechanical, Pneumatic and Avionic accessories.
Highly sensitive testing equipment are employed during Repair / Overhaul of over 900 types
of system accessories.

Foundry & Forge Division Bangalore: The Foundry & Forge Division was established in
1974. The Division‗s facility, set up on a lush expanse of 32 acres, manufactures Castings,
Forgings, Rolled Rings, Shape Memory Alloy Products instead of Shape Memory Alloy
Ferrules, Brake pads and Rubber Products for critical applications for the Aeronautics, Space,
Defense, Locomotive, Earth mover and other industries. Advanced Technology, Quality and
Reliability and a highly skilled workforce have enabled the Division to turn out fail safe
components for vital applications in meeting the exacting needs of every customer.

Aerospace Division Bangalore: India‗s growing involvement in space exploration is

reflected in the establishment of a world class manufacturing base for space worthy hardware.
The Aerospace Division of HAL so established is today dedicated to the manufacture of
hardware for India‗s growing space programs. Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd‗s participation in
space programs started as early as 1972 and formed into a full fledged dedicated facility
thereafter. The Division has the technical expertise to fabricate large size Aluminium Alloy
riveted structures, welded propellant tanks and water tanks. Currently under production are
the Light Alloy Structures for the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geo-stationary
Launch Vehicle (GSLV MkII), Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS), Indian National
Satellite (INSAT) and the structures & welded tanks for the Cryogenic upper stage of GSLV
MkII. The Division has taken up full equipping & integration of the strap on L – 40 stage for
GSLV MkII and also manufacture of all riveted structures & welded tankages for a larger
GSLV MK III vehicle with enhanced capabilities.The Division‗s strength lies in a team of
highly motivated professionals. Out of a total strength of 509, 254 personnel are involved in
direct production. As many as 39 qualified and trained personnel constitute our quality
assurance team.

LCA-Tejas Division Bangalore: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is the principal

partner in the LCA programme with Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) acting as the
Program Co-ordinator. LCA-Production Group (LCA-PG) was launched in 2002 at HAL as
the designated manufacturing unit for manufacturing the indigenously designed 4.5
generation aircraft – Tejas being designed by ADA.LCA PG was upgraded as a full fledged
Division of HAL and christened as LCA Tejas Division, under Bangalore Complex in April
2014 for manufacture of Series Production aircraft. Production system at LCA Tejas Division
are geared up to handle the state of the art technologies of the Fly by wire Tejas multirole
combat aircraft. Being the lightest and smallest in a class of 4.5 generation, Tejas throws up
immense challenges to the production units.

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2. Mig Complex:
Aircraft Manufacturing Division Nasik: Aircraft Division Nasik, established in the year
1964 for licence manufacture of MiG-21FL aircraft & K-13 Missiles, is located at Ojhar, 24
kilometers from Nasik and approximately 200 kilometers from Mumbai in the state of
Maharashtra. The division since then manufactured other MiG variants; viz MiG-21M, MiG-
21 BIS, MiG-27 M and the state-of-the-art aircraft ie Su-30 MKI. Along with manufacturing,
the division also carries out overhaul of the MiG series aircraft and started ROH of Su-30
MKI.The Division is well laid out on a sprawling complex of 1,48,20,000 Sq. meters with a
built-up area of 1,73,900 sq. meters having state-of-the-art plant/machinery/equipment and
infrastructure. It has well qualified and trained manpower in different areas of aviation
technology, viz design and development, manufacture and overhaul of aircraft, accessories
and related products. With the introduction of New a state-of-the art project ie Su-30 MKI
and for smooth activities and operation of the division then Aircraft Division, Nasik is de-
lineated into two Divisions viz Aircraft Manufacturing Division (AMD) for manufacturing
activities and Aircraft Overhaul Division (AOD) for Repair & Overhauling (ROH) activities.

Aircraft Overhaul Division Nasik: HAL Aircraft Division Nasik established in the year
1964 for license manufacture of MiG-21 FL aircraft & K-13 Missiles, is located at Ojhar, 24
kilometers from Nasik and approximately 200 kilometers from Mumbai in the state of
Maharashtra. Since then the division has manufactured and overhauled various MiG
variants;MiG-21 E7FL, MiG-21M, MiG-21BlS, MiG-27M & Su-30 MKI aircraft. Along
with this, the division also caters for repair and design support for other Russian origin
aircrafts. The Nasik Division is well laid out on a built up area of 1,48,20,000 Sq. meters
having state-of-the-art plant /machinery /equipment and infrastructure. It has well-qualified
and trained manpower in different areas of science and technology. With the induction of Su-
30 MKI aircraft manufacturing project, the Aircraft division Nasik is de-lineated in to two
divisions wise – Aircraft manufacturing division ( AMD ) for Manufacturing activities of
new project Su-30 MKI and Aircraft Overhaul Division (AOD) for Repair and Overhauling
activities of MiG 21 variants and Su-30 MKI for its smooth functioning and operations.

Engine Division Koraput: Engine Division, koraput was established in the year 1964 to
manufacture R11F2-300 Sr III engines for fitment in MiG-21FL Aircraft under licence from
erstwhile USSR. In 1976 facilities were established to manufacture R25 engines for fitment
in MiG-21BIS aircraft. Subsequently Division also manufactured R29b and RD33 Engines
under licence from Russia. Since the early 1970, overhauling facilities were established in the
Division and Division has been overhauling Aero Engines of Various types i.e. R11, R25,
R29 and RD33 which power MiG-21FL, MiG-21BIS, MiG-27 and MiG-29 respectively.

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3. Accessories Complex:
TAD-Kanpur Division: The Transport Aircraft Division at Kanpur was established in 1960
and has core competence in manufacture, maintenance, modification and upgrade of light
transport aircraft and trainer aircraft for both domestic and international markets. The
division also carries out maintenance, repair and overhaul of aircraft, its 5rganiza and
undertakes servicing of engines and hydraulic systems of UAVs. The division has also
commenced manufacture of the civil variant of Do-228 aircraft. The Division is also
establishing an assembly facility for a second line of Advanced Light Helicopter production
in order to ramp-up the production capacity. Division also has servicing facilities for AN-32
aircraft at HAL Detachment at Agra.

Accessories Divison Lucknow: HAL Accessories Division, Lucknow was established in

year 1970 with a prime objective of manufacturing aircraft systems and accessories for
Aircrafts, Helicopters and Engines. HAL Lucknow facilities are spread over 116,000 sqm of
built area set in sylvan surroundings. At present, Currently, the division is manufacturing
various Accessories of following aircraft systemsunder one roof: Hydraulics, Engine Fuel,
Air-conditioning and Pressurization, Flight Control, Wheel and Brake, Gyro & Barometric
Instruments, Electrical Power Generation & Control System, Undercarriages, Oxygen and
Electronic System, Fuel Content Gauges etc. The Division undertakes manufacturing and
servicing of accessories under Transfer of Technology (ToT) from more than 40 Licensors
from different countries. In addition, a lot of emphasis has also been given on developing in-
house capability for indigenous Design and Development of various systems and accessories.
This capability has resulted in indigenous design and development of over 400 types of
accessories installed on Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version),
Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH – all versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil), Light
Combat Helicopter(LCH), Light 6 Utility Helicopter (LUH), Hindustan Turbo Trainer (HTT-
40) and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer).

Avionics Divison Hyderabad: Avionics Division, Hyderabad was established in the year
1966 for manufacture of MiG 21 Avionics equipment.Co-located Design Division, Strategic
Electronics Research and Design Centre (SLRDC) has indigenously developed more than 40
types of Avionics systems for LCA, ALH, IJT, SU-30 MKI , HTT-40, Jaguar Darin II & III,
LCH,LUH and Hawk trainer Aircraft. SLRDC provides Design, Development and
Engineering support to several Avionic products which are manufactured for fitment in a
number of fixed and rotary wing Aircraft like MiG 21, Jaguar, MiG 27, MiG 29, Cheetah,
Chetak, ALH, Su-30 MKI, Hawk, Do-228, LCA. Avionics are being continuously upgraded
to latest state-of-the-art technology to suit the requirement of next generation of aircrafts.
Today, the Division is involved in the manufacture and repair & overhaul of a wide range of
avionics equipment, including airborne radars, communication, navigation equipment and on-
board computers fitted on fixed and rotary wing platforms of Russian, Western and Indian
origin. In addition to catering the requirement of Defence services, Division also supplies
avionics equipment to Civil and Export customers. A list of products manufactured at
Avionics Division, Hyderabad is furnished under products. The Division is spread across 292
Acres, with 55 Acres of factory area and the rest as township at prime industrial belt in the
city of Hyderabad, the capital of Telangana. Strategic Electronics Factory (SEF), Kasaragod
established in the year 2012, is functioning as a branch factory of Avionics Division,
Hyderabad. It is involved in the production, repair and overhaul of different types of airborne
mission computers fitted on Su-30 MKI, Jaguar and MiG 27 Aircraft. The facility is located
at Kerala Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation (KINFRA) Small Industries

5
Park set up by the Kerala State Government at Seethangoli in Kasaragod District. The
production facility is set up over 16 acres of land, out of total 196 acres acquired by HAL.

Avionics Division Korwa: Avionics Division Korwa was established in the year 1983, to
take up the production of Display Attack Ranging and Inertial Navigation system for Jaguar
International aircraft for Indian Air Force followed by manufacturing & supply of avionic
systems for Russian origin MiG-27 & Su-30MKI aircraft. Division at present is
manufacturing & repairing various Avionics Systems fitted on MiG-27M Upgrade, Mirage-
2000, LCA, Jaguar upgrade, AJT-HAWK aircraft. Division is also engaged in the
maintenance of UAVs Systems since 2001 onwards.

4.Helicopter Complex:
Helicopter Divison Bangalore: Helicopter Division was established in July 1970. The
division manufactures single engine as well as twin engine helicopters to cater the growing
needs of the market. Helicopter Division manufactures Rudra, Dhruv, Cheetah, Chetak,
Cheetal & Lancer helicopters. The division is supported by the co-located R&D centre –
Rotary Wing Research & Design Centre (RWR&DC). The MRO division caters to the
Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul activities of helicopters. The Rotory Wing Academy
focuses on training of pilots. HAL started manufacturing of helicopters in 1962, by entering
an agreement with M/s SUD-AVIATION (Presently M/s EUROCOPTER, France) for
production of Aloutte III helicopters. (Chetak). The first Chetak (Aloutte III) in ‗Fly Away‗
condition delivered in 1965. License agreement for production of Cheetah (LAMA SA 315-
B) signed with M/s SNIAS (presently M/s, Eurocopter) in 1970. First Cheetah manufactured
from raw materials was delivered in 1976-77. In 1990s, HAL has developed a light attack
helicopter ―Lancer‖. The basic structure of the lancer is derived from reliable and proven
Cheetah helicopter. The helicopter has bullet proof front panels. Gun cum Rocket pod one
each (70 mm Rocket+12.5 mm Gun) fitted on either side. An optical sight has been fitted for
accurate firing. The Cheetal helicopter is a re-engined variant of Cheetah helicopter. The
Cheetal helicopter set the world record of world‗s highest landing at ‗Saser Kangri‗ of
Himalayas in 2006. HAL Helicopter division has successfully manufactured 600 Single
Engine helicopters. HAL achieved self-reliance in design, developing & manufacturing of
twin engine Advanced Light Helicopter ―Dhruv‖. Dhruv is a multi role, multi mission all
weather helicopter in the 5.5 ton category. The indigenously designed twin engine helicopter
started series production during 2001-2002. The division is accredited with AS 9100 C &
ISO 14001:2004 certifications. The division is also approved by Directorate General of Civil
Aviation (DGCA) for CAR 21, CAR 145 & CAR M certifications. HAL with the proven
track record of manufacturing more than 700 helicopters, the helicopter division has expand
its design, developing & production range by manufacturing new helicopters like Weapon
System Integrated (WSI) version of Dhruv (Christened as ―Rudra‖), Light Combat
Helicopter (LCH) and Light Utility Helicopter (LUH).

Helicopter MRO Division Bangalore: The Division provides service and lifetime support to
the ALH and other rotary wing products. In addition, the Division has detachments in 8
various operating bases in India and abroad. The Division also supports the Seaking program
of Indian Navy by providing support for repair and overhaul of Transmission systems of
Seaking helicopters. The Division provides product support to various customers such as

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Indian Army, Indian Air Force, Indian Navy and Coast Guard. The Division has set up
customer support teams at various operating bases of the customer located in India – Nasik,
Bhatinda, Manasbal, Leh, Dinjan, Mamun, Missamari, Likabali, Nagtalao,Haldwani, Sulur,
Bareilly, Sarasawa, Jodhpur, Tezpur, Hakimpet ,ASTE Bengaluru , Kochi, Porbandar and
located in foreign countries –Male, Maldives,Nepal and Mauritius.The number of bases will
grow as the new production helicopters join the services. Currently, the Division has
established full facility for undertaking maintenance and servicing of medium light
helicopters. With the existing infrastructure the division has been successfully taking up
scheduled and unscheduled servicing of ALH MK I, MK II , MK III and MK IV. Division
has inbuilt capacity to handle 26 medium lift H/c per year. The Division is equipped with
modern infrastructure & facilities including dedicated transmission lines, LRU Labs,
Assembly Hangars and test centre. With a view to reduce the turnaround time and the
logistics, the Division during 2009-10 took up servicing of helicopters at base other than
overhaul. Accordingly, a multifunction skilled team from the Division along with the
customer carrying out servicing.Training to the customer technician is also being imparted as
and when required. Helicopter MRO Division is one of the best in class customer centric
organization for Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul of Rotary wing aircrafts / 8rganiza /
LRUs in the country.

Barrackpore Division: HAL, Barrackpore was established originally as a Repair base way
back in 1940 during Second World War under the name of Tata Aviation. In 1951,
Barrackpore Branch Factory became a part of erstwhile Hindustan Aircraft Pvt Ltd,
Bangalore. In the year 1957, it started functioning as an Outstation Base of HAL, Overhaul
Division. Being a part of HAL, Overhaul Division, Barrackpore had undertaken Repair and
Overhaul of Dakota Aircraft and the Division has a track record of overhauling of 1020
aircrafts till 1984. In the year of 1973, Major Servicing facility of Caribou aircraft was
established and the Division had overhauled as many as 108 aircrafts till 1984. In 1980,
Major Servicing line of single engine Otter aircraft was setup and 81 aircrafts were serviced
till 1985. During 1982-83, Major Servicing of Chetak / Cheetah helicopters of Indian Air
Force was started and subsequently Army helicopters were also added. From 1988-89
onwards, 900 hrs./1800 hrs. servicing of AN-32 aircraft was started. In 2004, it became a
Branch unit of Helicopter Division, Bangalore. In 2006, Barrackpore became a full fledged
Division, initially under Design Complex. Subsequently, 9 Barrackpore Division became part
of Helicopter Complex in 2009 upon creation of Helicopter Complex with a view to keep all
the rotary wing related Division under one umbrella. Over the years, Barrackpore Division
has taken-up major servicing work of a number and types of Aircrafts and helicopters of
different makes and class such as Caribou Aircraft, Otter Aircraft, AN 32 Aircraft, Cheetah
and Chetak Helicopters.

Aerospace Composites Division: Aerospace Composites Division (erstwhile Composites

Manufacturing Division) was conceived as early as the dates of design of Light Combat
Aircraft (LCA) & Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) and has experience in manufacturing
and realizing aircraft structures made of composites. Over the years the scope and role of the
facility was defined and refined from ‗Advanced Composites Shop‗ to ‗Centre of
Excellence‗. The Division became fully functional as Composites Manufacturing Division
from April 2007 as a Strategic Business Unit (SBU) of HAL. Currently, the Division is
manufacturing the composite structural parts for Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH), Light
Combat Aircraft (LCA), Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), Light Utility Helicopter (LUH)
and PSLV/GSLV. In a major diversification initiative, the Division has developed
capabilities to manufacture and export high precision Composite parts. The Division is

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equipped with modern infrastructure in Plant and Equipments like Environmental Control
Area of various Classes, -18 degC Cold Store, Autoclaves, High precision 5-Axis CNC
Machining Centers, Automated Ply Cutting Machines, Surface Enhancement Machine (Shot
Peening), Hot Platen Presses, Computer Controlled Air Circulating Ovens, Laser Projection
Systems for Lay –up, CT-Scan, Ultrasonic C-Scan, Coordinate Measuring Machines, Laser
Tracker, Universal Testing Machines and material test laboratory for composite material
testing. With average production rates of several thousand composite parts annually for many
of our products, Aerospace Composites Division is one of the top high volume producers of
advanced composite aerospace products in the country.

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 3. MISSION AND VALUES OF HAL

Mission
To achieve self reliance in design, development, manufacture, upgrade and maintenance of
aerospace equipment diversifying into related areas and managing the business in a climate of
growing professional competence to achieve world class performance standards for global
competitiveness and growth in exports.

Values Customer satisfaction: We are dedicated to building a relationship with our

customers where we become partners in fulfilling their mission. We strive to understand our
customers‗ needs and to deliver products and services that fulfil and exceed all their
requirements.

Commitment to total quality: We are committed to continuous improvement of all our

activities. We will supply products and services that conform to highest standards of design,
manufacture, reliability, maintainability and fitness for use as desired by our customers. Cost
and time consciousness: We believe that our success depends on our ability to continually
reduce the cost and shorten the delivery period of our products and services. We will achieve
this by eliminating waste in all activities and continuously improving all processes in every
area of our work.

Innovation and creativity: We believe in striving for improvement in every activity

involved in our business by pursuing and encouraging risk-taking, experimentation and
learning at all levels within the company with a view to achieving excellence and
competitiveness. Trust and team spirit: We believe in achieving harmony in work life through
mutual trust, transparency, co-operation and a sense of belonging. We will strive for building
empowered teams to work towards achieving 10rganization10l goals.

Respect for the individual: We value our people. We will treat each other with dignity and
respect and strive for individual growth and 10rganizatio of everyone‗s full potential.
Integrity: We believe in a commitment to be honest, trustworthy and fair in all our dealings.
We commit to be loyal and devoted to our 10rganization. We will 10rganiza self discipline
and own responsibility for our actions. We will comply with all requirements so as to ensure
that our 10rganization is always worthy of trust.

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 4. PRODUCTS OF HAL
1. AIRCRAFTS
 HAWK
 LCA
 SU-30 MKI
 IJT
 DORNIER

2. HELICOPTERS
 DHRUV
 CHEETAH
 CHETAK
 LANCER
 CHEETAL
 RUDRA

3. POWER PLANT
 ADOUR MK 871
 GARRETT TPE 331-5
 RD 33
 AL 31 FP
 SHAKTI
 ARTOUSTE III B
 PTAE-7
 LM 2500

4. AVIONICS
 Inertial Navigation System
 Auto Stabilizer
 Head up Display
 Laser range System
 Flight Data Recorder
 Communication Equipment
 Radio Navigation Equipment
 Air Borne Secondary Radar
 Missile Inertial Navigation
 Radar Computers
 Ground Radars

5. SYSTEM AND ACCESSORIES

 Hydraulic system
 Wheels and Brake System 12
 Flight Control System
 Ejector Release Units

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  Panel Instruments
 Gyroscopic/Barometric instruments
 Oxygen System
 Fuel Management System
 Hydraulic Pumps

6. MATERIALS
 Castings
 General Forgings
 Precision Forgings
 Powder Metallurgy
 Rubber Products
 Rolled Rings
 Composites

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 5. HAL -TAD, Kanpur

1) Brief History:

The Transport Aircraft Division at Kanpur was established in 1960 and has core competence
in manufacture, maintenance, modification and upgrade of light transport aircraft and trainer
aircraft for both domestic and international markets. The division also carries out
maintenance, repair and overhaul of aircraft, its rotables and undertakes servicing of engines
and hydraulic systems of UAVs. The division has also commenced manufacture of the civil
variant of Do-228 aircraft. The Division is also establishing an assembly facility for a second
line of Advanced Light Helicopter production in order to ramp-up the production capacity.
Division also has servicing facilities for AN-32 aircraft at HAL Detachment at Agra.

2) Facilities:

2.1) Machining
 5- Axis CNC Profilers, 3 axes CNC milling machines, Vertical machining Centre,
CNC Billet cutting machine etc.
 Turning, Milling, Grinding, Thread Rolling, Broaching, Honing etc
2.2) Composite and plastics
 Hot Air Autoclave
 Vacuum Forming and Deep Drawing machine

2.3) Sheet Metal, Welding and Surface Treatment

 Rubber press, Brake press, Elastomer press, CNC Pipe bending machine, CNC
Routing machine, Horizontal Stretching machine
 Gas, Argon and Spot Welding
 Anodizing, Chrome plating, Copper Nickel plating, CAD Plating, Electro Chemical
Milling, Passivation, Controlled temperature painting
 Heat treatment facilities i.e. Annealing, Precipitation, Solution treatment etc.

2.4) Assembly and Paint Hangar

 Large and spacious hangars for assembly, overhaul, repair and maintenance of
Transport aircraft
 Exclusive Paint hangar with dust free and controlled environment

2.5) Servicing of Rotables

 Mechanical items like propellers, landing gears, actuators, wheel, brake etc.
 Instrument items like flight instruments, fuel quantity and fuel flow system,
pressurization system 14
 Electrical items like alternators, inverters, motors, regulators, control and protection
units etc.
 Avionic items pertaining to communication, navigation and intercom systems,
weather radar and antenna

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 2.6) Quality Control

 3-D Co-ordinate Measuring Machine

 Computerized Cable Loom Tester
 Universal Testing Machine
 Accelerated Weathering Tester
 Hot and Cold Chamber
 Particle Counter
 Inverted Microscope
 Omnimet Image Analyser
 Cold Light Rigid Endoscope
 Flexible Boroscope
 Chemical Testing facilities
 NDT Facilities
 Q.U.V accelerated weathering tester
 Trimos Vertical
 Constant Potential X- Ray machine

3) Services:

3.1) Upgradation of Aircraft and Role Equipment Integration

 Mid-life upgrade of HS-748 Nav & Comm system.

 Integration of customer specific avionics on HS-748, Do-228 and AN-32 aircraft.
 Integration of Maritime Surveillance Radar on Do-228 aircraft. Integration of Search
Light Pod, Gun Pod and IR/UV Scanner, other role specific equipment on Do-228
aircraft
 Modification on Do-228 Aircraft for high altitude operation & Para dropping / Para
jumping

3.2) Aircraft Overhaul, Repair and Modification

 HS-748 medium capacity aircraft

 Do-228 light transport aircraft
 Servicing of AN-32 15
 Depot level maintenance of Un-manned Aerial Vehicles

3.3) Rotables
Overhaul and Repair Division has extensive facilities for multiple of Rotables of different
aircraft including HS748, Do-228 and other medium category aircraft. It has rich
experience of overhauling rotables with competent and qualified workforce to meet the
exacting requirement of the Aviation industry. Shops are built to clean room specifications
and equipped with the complete range of Test Equipment. Range of rotables which can be
overhauled and repaired include the following:
 Mechanical items like propellers, landing gears, actuators, wheel-brake assembly,
hydraulics, fuel and de-icing systems and accessories

13
  Instrument items like flight instruments, fuel quantity and fuel flow system,
pressurization system instruments, Autopilot and all types of pressure switches and
gauges
 Electrical items like alternators, invertors, motors, regulators, control and protection
units, booster pumps, actuators, fans, batteries and voltage regulators
 Avionic items pertaining to communication, navigation, and intercom systems,
weather radar and antenna
 Training
 Conversion training on maintenance and operations of our products

5.1. DORNIER(DO-228)

The 19 seater HAL Do-228 aircraft is a highly versatile multi-purpose light transport
aircraft. It has been developed specifically to meet the manifold requirements of utility and
commuter transport, third level services and air-taxi operations, coast guard duties and
maritime surveillance. Features: Functional versatility with low operating cost makes HAL
Do-228 adaptable for a wide variety of roles including Commuter, Air Taxi, Utility,
Corporate, Aircrew Training, Maritime Surveillance, Search & Rescue and for Observation
& Communication duties. The Garrett TPE-331-5-252D Engines, Landing Gears and many
of the instruments and avionics of the HAL Do-228 aircraft are also manufactured in-house
at different divisions of HAL. This highly fuel-efficient, rugged, reliable, twin turbo-prop
aircraft combines well proven features with advanced technologies in design and
production and has been developed specifically to meet the manifold requirement of a
variety of roles for various military, paramilitary and civil operators. New Aerodynamic
profile and special wing shape in Do-228 ensures improvement of lift / drag ratio compared
to conventional wing design and has reduced induced drag, lower structural weight and
high structural strength. These improvements result in excellent takeoff, climb, cruise and
landing characteristics. Full-fledged facilities for repair, maintenance and overhaul of this
aircraft, its engines and a large number of rotables are available within HAL, enabling it to
provide single- source product support for the complete aircraft. HAL has established a
large customer base for HAL Do-228 and has been supporting Regional Air Services,
Defence Forces - Coast Guard, Navy, Air Force and other customers on regular basis.
Through continuous moder nization / Updation programs, HAL has developed the
capability to provide tailor-made solutions to customer's requirement. Roles:
 Maritime Surveillance
 Pollution Prevention
 Troop Transport
 Aerial Survey
 Search and Rescue
 Commuter Transport
 Calibration of airport NAV-COM Aids
 Remote Sensing Applications
 Causality Evacuation
 Executive Transport

14
 6. Materials testing
Materials testing, measurement of the characteristics and behaviour of such substances as
metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in
specifying the suitability of materials for various applications—e.g., building or aircraft
construction, machinery, or packaging. A full- or small-scale model of a proposed machine or
structure may be tested. Alternatively, investigators may construct mathematical models that
utilize known material characteristics and behaviour to predict capabilities of the structure.

Materials testing breaks down into five major categories: destructive testing (mechanical
testing); testing for thermal properties; testing for electrical properties; testing for resistance
to corrosion, radiation, and biological deterioration; and non destructive testing. Standard test
methods have been established by such national and international bodies as the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), with headquarters in Geneva, and the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia.

1.Non Destructive Testing:

Non destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without
causing damage. The terms non destructive examination (NDE), non destructive
inspection (NDI), and non destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe
this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a
highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation,
troubleshooting, and research. The six most frequently used NDT method sare eddy-
current, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic, and visual testing. NDT
is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum
engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, medicine, and art. Innovations in the field of non destructive testing have had a
profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical
ultrasonography, and digital radiography.
Various national and international trade associations exist to promote the industry, knowledge
about non-destructive testing, and to develop standard methods and training. These include
the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, the Non-Destructive Testing Management
Association, the International Committee for Non-Destructive Testing, the European
Federation for Non-Destructive Testing and the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.
NDT methods rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound and other signal conversions
to examine a wide variety of articles (metallic and non-metallic, food-product, artifacts and
antiquities, infrastructure) for integrity, composition, or condition with no alteration of the
article undergoing examination. Visual inspection (VT), the most commonly applied NDT
method, is quite often enhanced by the use of magnification, boroscopes, cameras, or other
optical arrangements for direct or remote viewing. The internal structure of a sample can be
examined for a volumetric inspection with penetrating radiation (RT), such as X-
rays, neutrons or gamma radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing
(UT), another volumetric NDT method – the mechanical signal (sound) being reflected by
conditions in the test article and evaluated for amplitude and distance from the search unit
(transducer). Another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the

15
application of fine iron particles (either suspended in liquid or dry powder – fluorescent or
colored) that are applied to a part while it is magnetized, either continually or residually. The
particles will be attracted to leakage fields of magnetism on or in the test object, and form
indications (particle collection) on the object's surface, which are evaluated visually. Contrast
and probability of detection for a visual examination by the unaided eye is often enhanced by
using liquids to penetrate the test article surface, allowing for visualization of flaws or other
surface conditions. This method (liquid penetrant testing) (PT) involves using
dyes, fluorescent or colored (typically red), suspended in fluids and is used for non-magnetic
materials, usually metals.
Analyzing and documenting a non destructive failure mode can also be accomplished using
a high-speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected.
Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which
produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced
recording modes to capture some non-destructive failures.[4] After the failure the high-speed
camera will stop recording. The capture images can be played back in slow motion showing
precisely what happen before, during and after the non destructive event, image by image.
Some NDT testing are as follows:

1. Dye Penetrant Inspection:

Dye penetrant inspection (DP), also called liquid penetrate inspection (LPI) or penetrant
testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to check surface-
breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant
may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, although for ferrous
components magnetic-particle inspection is often used instead for its subsurface detection
capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline
cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

History:
The oil and whiting method used in the railroad industry in the early 1900s was the first
recognized use of the principles of penetrants to detect cracks. The oil and whiting method
used an oil solvent for cleaning followed by the application of a whiting or chalk coating,
which absorbed oil from the cracks revealing their locations. Soon a dye was added to the
liquid. By the 1940s, fluorescent or visible dye was added to the oil used to penetrate test
objects.
Experience showed that temperature and soak time were important. This started the practice
of written instructions to provide standard, uniform results. The use of written procedures has
evolved, giving the ability for design engineers and manufacturers to get the high standard
results from any properly trained and certified liquid penetrant testing technician.
Principle:
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and
dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by
dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess
penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of
the flaw so that an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is
performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or
nonfluorescent (visible).

16
Inspection Steps:
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could
either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning
methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting.
The end goal of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface,
dry, and free of contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small
discontinuities in the part, and an etching bath is recommended as a post-blasting treatment.
2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is usually
a brilliant coloured mobile fluid with high wetting capability.[1] The penetrant is allowed
"dwell time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly
depends upon the penetrant being used, material being tested and the size of flaws sought. As
expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature
one must be careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected
with a water-washable penetrant.
3. Excess Penetrant Removal:
The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by
the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable,
or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest
sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a
water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the
solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If
excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a
background in the developed area that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may
also produce false indications severely hindering the ability to do a proper inspection. Also,
the removal of excessive penetrant is done towards one direction either vertically or
horizontally as the case may be.
4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water-
suspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility
(one can't use water-soluble or -suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and
by inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder,
the sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are
applied with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in
aerosol spray cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a
combination of the two. Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the
surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can indicate the location, orientation
and possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and characterizing defects
from the indications found may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is
not the actual size of the defect].

17
5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is
typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000
micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less
than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface
should take place after 10- to 30-minute development time, and is dependent on the penetrant
and developer used. This time delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may
observe the sample for indication formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to
observe indications as they form because the characteristics of the bleed out are a significant
part of interpretation characterization of flaws.
6. Post Cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if post-
inspection coating processes are scheduled.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include
the detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth
clean surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed.
Conducting the test on rough surfaces, such as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to
remove any excessive penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable
penetrant should be considered here if no other option is available. Also, on certain surfaces a
great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the dye will stain the workpiece.[2]
Limited training is required for the operator — although experience is quite valuable. Proper
cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and any defects
present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test
sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be
necessary.[3]

2.Magnetic Particle Inspection:

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such
as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the
part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization
occurs when the electric current is passed through the test object and a magnetic field is
formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed
through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic
lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be
either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic
flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as metals.
To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to a part.
These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an indication, which
is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if any.

18
Type of electric current used:

There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle inspection. For a
proper current to be selected one needs to consider the part geometry, material, the type of
discontinuity one is seeking, and how far the magnetic field needs to penetrate into the part.
 Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities. Using AC to
detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known as the skin effect, where
the current runs along the surface of the part. Because the current alternates in polarity at
50 to 60 cycles per second it does not penetrate much past the surface of the test object.
This means the magnetic domains will only be aligned equal to the distance AC current
penetration into the part. The frequency of the alternating current determines how deep
the penetration.
 Full wave DC(FWDC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities where AC can not
penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth needed. The amount of magnetic
penetration depends on the amount of current through the part.[1] DC is also limited on
very large cross-sectional parts in terms of how effectively it will magnetize the part.
 Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but allows for
detection of surface breaking indications and has more magnetic penetration into the part
than FWDC. HWDC is advantageous for inspection process as it actually helps move the
magnetic particles during the bathing of the test object. The aid in particle mobility is
caused by the half-wave pulsating current waveform. In a typical mag pulse of 0.5
seconds there are 15 pulses of current using HWDC. This gives the particle more of an
opportunity to come in contact with areas of magnetic flux leakage.
An AC electromagnet is the preferred method for find surface breaking indication. The use of
an electromagnet to find subsurface indications is difficult. An AC electromagnet is a better
means to detect a surface indication than HWDC, DC, or permanent magnet, while some
form of DC is better for subsurface defects.

Equipments:

 A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production inspection
machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is placed to magnetize it.
In between the head and tail stock is typically an induction coil, which is used to change
the orientation of the magnetic field by 90° from the head stock. Most of the equipment is
built for a specific application.
 Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire wrapping
applications.
 Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field between two poles.
Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld inspection. The
draw back of magnetic yokes is that they only induce a magnetic field between the poles,
so large-scale inspections using the device can be time-consuming. For proper inspection
the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for every inspection area to detect horizontal and
vertical discontinuities. Subsurface detection using a yoke is limited. These systems used
dry magnetic powders, wet powders, or aerosols.

19
Demagnetising Parts:

After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This requires special
equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The magnetization is
normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a peak current very quickly and
instantaneously turns off leaving the part magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or
magnetic field needed has to be equal to or greater than the current or magnetic field used to
magnetize the part. The current or magnetic field is then slowly reduced to zero, leaving the
part demagnetized.

 AC demagnetizing:
o Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right are AC powered
devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly pulled through by
hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through and away from the coil's
magnetic field slows drops the magnetic field in the part. Note that many AC
demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several seconds so the part must be passed
through the coil and be several feet (meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle
finishes or the part will have residual magnetization.
o AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase MPI equipment.
During the process the part is subjected to an equal or greater AC current, after which
the current is reduced over a fixed period of time (typically 18 seconds) until zero
output current is reached. As AC is alternating from a positive to a negative polarity
this will leave the magnetic domains of the part randomized.
o AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag a part depending
on the geometry and the alloys used.

 Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing:

This is a demagnetizing method that must be built into the machine during
manufacturing. It is similar to AC decaying except the DC current is stopped at
intervals of half a second, during which the current is reduced by a quantity and its
direction is reversed. Then current is passed through the part again. The process of
stopping, reducing and reversing the current will leave the magnetic domains
randomized. This process is continued until zero current is passed through the part.
The normal reversing DC demag cycle on modern equipment should be 18 seconds or
longer. This method of demag was developed to overcome the limitations presented
by the AC demag method where part geometry and certain alloys prevented the AC
demag method from working.

 Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC):

This process is identical to full-wave DC demagnetization, except the waveform is
half-wave. This method of demagnetization is new to the industry and only available

20
 from a single manufacturer. It was developed to be a cost-effective method to
demagnetize without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply. This
method is only found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies. HWDC
demagnetization is just as effective as full-wave DC, without the extra cost and added
complexity. Of course, other limitations apply due to inductive losses when using
HWDC waveform on large-diameter parts. Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past
410 mm (16 in) diameter using a 12-volt power supply.

Magnetic Particle Powder:

A common particle used to detect cracks is iron oxide, for both dry and wet systems.
 Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 micrometres to 10 micrometres for
use with water or oil carriers. Particles used in wet systems have pigments applied that
fluoresce at 365 nm (ultraviolet A) requiring 1000 µW/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of
the part for proper inspection. If the particles do not have the correct light applied in
a darkroom the particles cannot be detected/seen. It is industry practice to use UV
goggles/glasses to filter the UV light and amplify the visible light spectrum (normally
green and yellow) created by the fluorescing particles. Green and yellow fluorescence
was chosen, because the human eye reacts best to these colors.
After applying wet magnetic particles, a U.S. navy technician examines a bolt for cracks
under ultraviolet light.

 Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed to be seen in
white light conditions. The particles are not designed to be used in wet environments. Dry
powders are normally applied using hand operated air powder applicators.
 Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed aerosol cans
similar to hair spray

Magnetic particle carriers:

It is common industry practice to use specifically designed oil and water-based carriers for
magnetic particles. Deodorized kerosene and mineral spirits have not been commonly used in
the industry for 40 years. It is dangerous to use kerosene or mineral spirits as a carrier due to
the risk of fire.

Inspection:

The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:
1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants.
2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to magnetize the
part. Refer ASTM E1444/E1444M for formulas.
3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds, during which the operator washes
the part with the particle, stopping before the magnetic pulse is completed. Failure to
stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse will wash away indications.
4. UV light is applied while the operator looks for indications of defects that are 0 to ±45
degrees from path the current flowed through the part. Indications only appear 45 to

21
 90 degrees of the magnetic field applied. The easiest way to quickly figure out which
way the magnetic field is running is grab the part with either hand between the head
stocks laying your thumb against the part (do not wrap your thumb around the part)
this is called either left or right thumb rule or right hand grip rule. The direction the
thumb points tell us the direction current is flowing, the magnetic field will be
running 90 degrees from the current path. On complex geometry, like a crankshaft,
the operator needs to visualize the changing direction of the current and magnetic
field created. The current starts at 0 degrees then 45 degrees to 90 degree back to 45
degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and this is repeated for each crankpin. Thus, it
can be time consuming to find indications that are only 45 to 90 degrees from the
magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected, based on pre-defined criteria.
6. The part is demagnetized.
7. Depending on requirements, the orientation of the magnetic field may need to be
changed 90 degrees to inspect for indications that cannot be detected from steps 3 to
5. The most common way to change magnetic field orientation is to use a "coil shot".
In Fig 1 a 36 inch coil can be seen then steps 4, 5, and 6 are repeated.

1. Eddy Current Testing:

Eddy-current testing (also commonly seen as eddy current testing and ECT) is one of
many electromagnetic testing methods used in non destructive testing (NDT) making use
of electromagnetic induction to detect and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws
in conductive materials.

History:
observed by Francois Arago in 1824, but French physicist Léon Foucault is credited with
discovering them in 1855. ECT began largely as a result of the English scientist Michael
Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831. Faraday discovered that when
there is a closed path through which current can circulate and a time-varying magnetic field
passes through a conductor (or vice versa), an electric current flows through this conductor.
In 1879, another English-born scientist, David Edward Hughes, demonstrated how the
properties of a coil change when placed in contact with metals of different conductivity and
permeability, which was applied to metallurgical sorting tests.[1]
Much of the development of ECT as a non destructive testing technique for industrial
applications was carried out during World War II in Germany. Professor Friedrich
Förster while working for the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute (now the Kaiser Wilhelm Society)
adapted eddy current technology to industrial use, developing instruments measuring
conductivity and sorting mixed ferrous components. After the war, in 1948, Förster founded a
company, now called the Foerster Group where he made great strides in developing practical
ECT instruments and marketing them.[2]
Eddy current testing is now a widely used and well understood inspection technique for flaw
detection, as well as thickness and conductivity measurements.

22
Frost and Sullivan analysis in the global NDT equipment market in 2012 estimated the
magnetic and electromagnetic NDT equipment market at $220 million, which includes
conventional eddy current, magnetic particle inspection, eddy current array, and remote-field
testing. This market is projected to grow at 7.5% compounded annual growth rate to
approximately $315 million by 2016.

ECT Principle:
In its most basic form — the single-element ECT probe — a coil of conductive wire is
excited with an alternating electrical current. This wire coil produces an alternating magnetic
field around itself. The magnetic field oscillates at the same frequency as the current running
through the coil. When the coil approaches a conductive material, currents opposed to the
ones in the coil are induced in the material — eddy currents.
Variations in the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the test object, and the
presence of defects causes a change in eddy current and a corresponding change in phase and
amplitude that can be detected by measuring the impedance changes in the coil, which is a
telltale sign of the presence of defects. This is the basis of standard (pancake coil) ECT. NDT
kits can be used in the eddy current testing process.
ECT has a very wide range of applications. Since ECT is electrical in nature, it is limited to
conductive material. There are also physical limits to generating eddy currents and depth of
penetration (skin depth).
Application:
The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing
inspections. Surface inspection is used extensively in the aerospace industry, but also in
the petrochemical industry. The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks.
Surface inspection can be performed both on ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as
conventional eddy current testing. Conventional ECT is used for inspecting steam generator
tubing in nuclear plants and heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries.
The technique is very sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall loss or corrosion can be detected
but sizing is not accurate.
A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation ECT. In
this technique, permeability variations are suppressed by applying a magnetic field. The
saturation probes contain conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This inspection is
used on partially ferromagnetic materials such as nickel alloys, duplex alloys, and thin-
ferromagnetic materials such as ferritic chromium molybdenum stainless steel. The
application of a saturation eddy current technique depends on the permeability of the
material, tube thickness, and diameter.
A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This method is
sensitive to general wall loss and not sensitive to small pits and cracks.

ECT on Surfaces:
When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection technique depends
greatly on the specific conditions — mostly the types of materials and defects, but also surface
conditions, etc. However, in most situations, the following are true:

23
 Effective on coatings/paint: yes
 Computerized record keeping: partial
 3D/Advanced imaging: none
 User dependence: high
 Speed: low
 Post-inspection analysis: none
 Requires chemicals/consumables: no

Other applications:
ECT is also useful in making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements,
among others.

Other eddy current testing techniques:

To circumvent some of the shortcomings of conventional ECT, other eddy current testing
techniques were developed with various successes.
Pulsed eddy current:
Conventional ECT uses sinusoidal alternating current of a particular frequency to excite the
probe. Pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The
advantage of using a step function voltage is that such a voltage contains a range of
frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be
measured with just a single step.
Since depth of penetration depends on the excitation frequency, information from a range of
depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time domain (that is, by
looking at the strength of the signal as a function of time), indications produced by defects
and other features near the inspection coil can be seen first and more distant features will be
seen later in time.
When comparing PEC testing with the conventional ECT, ECT must be regarded as a
continuous-wave method where propagation takes place at a single frequency or, more
precisely, over a very narrow-frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are
excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely with the pulse length; this
allows multi-frequency operation. The total amount of energy dissipated within a given
period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous waves of the same
intensity, thus allowing higher input voltages to be applied to the exciting coil for PEC than
conventional ECT.
One of the advantage of this type of testing is that there is no need for direct contact with the
tested object. Testing can be performed through coatings, sheathings, corrosion products
and insulation materials.[11] This way even high-temperature inspections are possible.
Eddy current array:
Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles.
ECA technology provides the ability to electronically drive an array of coils ( multiple coils)
arranged in specific pattern called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile suited to the
target defects. Data acquisition is achieved by multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to
avoid mutual inductance between the individual coils. The benefits of ECA are:[12]

24
 Faster inspections
 Wider coverage
 Less operator dependence — array probes yield more consistent results compared to
manual raster scans
 Better detection capabilities
 Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns
 Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data
 Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making
hard-to-reach areas easier to inspect
ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during
inspections.[13] ECA inspection in carbon steel welds is regulated by ASTM standard E3052.

Lorentz force eddy current testing:

A different, albeit physically closely related challenge is the detection of deeply lying flaws
and inhomogeneities in electrically conducting solid materials.

Fig. 1 : LET working principle. Adapted from

In the traditional version of eddy current testing an alternating (AC) magnetic field is used to
induce eddy currents inside the material to be investigated. If the material contains a crack or
flaw which make the spatial distribution of the electrical conductivity nonuniform, the path of
the eddy currents is perturbed and the impedance of the coil which generates the AC
magnetic field is modified. By measuring the impedance of this coil, a crack can hence be
detected. Since the eddy currents are generated by an AC magnetic field, their penetration
into the subsurface region of the material is limited by the skin effect. The applicability of the
traditional version of eddy current testing is therefore limited to the analysis of the immediate
vicinity of the surface of a material, usually of the order of one milimeter. Attempts to
overcome this fundamental limitation using low frequency coils and superconducting
magnetic field sensors have not led to widespread applications.
A recent technique, referred to as Lorentz force eddy current testing (LET), exploits the
advantages of applying DC magnetic fields and relative motion providing deep and relatively
fast testing of electrically conducting materials. In principle, LET represents a modification
of the traditional eddy current testing from which it differs in two aspects, namely (i) how
eddy currents are induced and (ii) how their perturbation is detected. In LET eddy currents
are generated by providing the relative motion between the conductor under test and a
permanent magnet(see figure). If the magnet is passing by a defect, the Lorentz force acting
on it shows a distortion whose detection is the key for the LET working principle. If the
object is free of defects, the resulting Lorentz force remains constant.

25
1. Ultrasonic Testing:
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testingtechniques based on the
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT
applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-
15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal
flaws or to characterize materials. A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement,
which tests the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also
be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many
industries including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.

History:
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr. Floyd Firestone of the University of Michigan applies
for a U.S. invention patent for the first practical ultrasonic testing method. The patent is
granted on April 21, 1942 as U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device and
Measuring Instrument". Extracts from the first two paragraphs of the patent for this entirely
new nondestructive testing method succinctly describe the basics of such ultrasonic testing.
"My invention pertains to a device for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density
or elasticity in materials. For instance if a casting has a hole or a crack within it, my device
allows the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though the flaw
lies entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the surface. ... The general
principle of my device consists of sending high frequency vibrations into the part to be
inspected, and the determination of the time intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected
vibrations at one or more stations on the surface of the part."
James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) of Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo,
California, an early improver of the many foibles and limits of this and other nondestructive
testing methods, teaches in further detail on ultrasonic testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105
(application filed December 21, 1962, granted July 12, 1966, titled ―Ultrasonic Testing
Apparatus and Method‖) that ―Basically ultrasonic testing is performed by applying to a
piezoelectric crystal transducer periodic electrical pulses of ultrasonic frequency. The crystal
vibrates at the ultrasonic frequency and is mechanically coupled to the surface of the
specimen to be tested. This coupling may be effected by immersion of both the transducer

26
and the specimen in a body of liquid or by actual contact through a thin film of liquid such as
oil. The ultrasonic vibrations pass through the specimen and are reflected by any
discontinuities which may be encountered. The echo pulses that are reflected are received by
the same or by a different transducer and are converted into electrical signals which indicate
the presence of the defect.‖ To characterize micro-structural features in the early stages of
fatigue or creep damage, more advanced nonlinear ultrasonic tests should be employed.
These nonlinear methods are based on the fact that an intensive ultrasonic wave is getting
distorted as it faces micro damages in the material.[1] The intensity of distortion is correlated
with the level of damage. This intensity can be quantified by acoustic non-linearity parameter
(β). β is related to first and second harmonic amplitudes. These amplitudes can be measured
by harmonic decomposition of the ultrasonic signal through fast Fourier transformation or
wavelet transformation.[2]

How it works:

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased
array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with magnetic wheels, holds the
probe in contact with the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that allows
the sound to pass into the pipe wall.

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed
over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing
is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is
not required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving

27
of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound
comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within
the object. The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with
an amplituderepresenting the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing
the arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter
sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has
reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other
conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound
transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the
process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the
surfaces.

Features:
Advantages:

1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of
internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with different
acoustic properties
7. Non-hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment
and materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages:

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The

transducers alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of
other specimens (both termed ―noise‖) and to faults therein severe enough to
compromise specimen integrity. These signals must be distinguished by a skilled
technician, possibly requiring follow up with other nondestructive testing methods.[3]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although
paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-
contact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers
(EMAT).

28
2.Industrial radiography:
Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of
manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of
the specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays or gamma
rays. Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation. The difference between various forms of
electromagnetic energy is related to the wavelength. X and gamma rays have the shortest
wavelength and this property leads to the ability to penetrate, travel through, and exit various
materials such as carbon steel and other metals.

History:
Radiography started in 1895 with the discovery of X-rays (later also called Röntgen rays after
the man who first described their properties in detail), a type of electromagnetic radiation.
Soon after the discovery of X-rays, radioactivity was discovered. By using radioactive
sources such as radium, far higher photon energies could be obtained than those
from normal X-ray generators. Soon these found various applications, with one of the
earliest users being Loughborough College. X-rays and gamma rays were put to use very
early, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered. After World War II new
isotopes such as caesium-137, iridium-192 and cobalt-60 became available for industrial
radiography, and the use of radium and radon decreased.
Applications:

Inspection of products:

29
A portable wireless controlled battery powered X-ray generator for use in non-destructive
testing and security.
Gamma radiation sources, most commonly iridium-192 and cobalt-60, are used to inspect a
variety of materials. The vast majority of radiography concerns the testing and grading of
welds on pressurized piping, pressure vessels, high-capacity storage containers, pipelines, and
some structural welds. Other tested materials include concrete (locating rebar or conduit),
welder's test coupons, machined parts, plate metal, or pipewall (locating anomalies due to
corrosion or mechanical damage). Non-metal components such as ceramics used in the
aerospace industries are also regularly tested. Theoretically, industrial radiographers could
radiograph any solid, flat material (walls, ceilings, floors, square or rectangular containers) or
any hollow cylindrical or spherical object.
Inspection of welding:
The beam of radiation must be directed to the middle of the section under examination and
must be normal to the material surface at that point, except in special techniques where
known defects are best revealed by a different alignment of the beam. The length
of weld under examination for each exposure shall be such that the thickness of the material
at the diagnostic extremities, measured in the direction of the incident beam, does not exceed
the actual thickness at that point by more than 6%. The specimen to be inspected is placed
between the source of radiation and the detecting device, usually the film in a light tight
holder or cassette, and the radiation is allowed to penetrate the part for the required length of
time to be adequately recorded.
The result is a two-dimensional projection of the part onto the film, producing a latent image
of varying densities according to the amount of radiation reaching each area. It is known as a
radio graph, as distinct from a photograph produced by light. Because film is cumulative in
its response (the exposure increasing as it absorbs more radiation), relatively weak radiation
can be detected by prolonging the exposure until the film can record an image that will be
visible after development. The radiograph is examined as a negative, without printing as a
positive as in photography. This is because, in printing, some of the detail is always lost and
no useful purpose is served.
Before commencing a radiographic examination, it is always advisable to examine the
component with one's own eyes, to eliminate any possible external defects. If the surface of a
weld is too irregular, it may be desirable to grind it to obtain a smooth finish, but this is likely
to be limited to those cases in which the surface irregularities (which will be visible on the
radio graph) may make detecting internal defects difficult.
After this visual examination, the operator will have a clear idea of the possibilities of access
to the two faces of the weld, which is important both for the setting up of the equipment and
for the choice of the most appropriate technique.
Defects such as delaminations and planar cracks are difficult to detect using radiography,
particularly to the untrained eye.
Without overlooking the negatives of radiographic inspection, Radiography does hold many
significant benefits over ultrasonics, particularly insomuch that as a 'picture' is produced
keeping a semi permanent record for the life cycle of the film, more accurate identification of
the defect can be made, and by more interpreters. Very important as most construction
standards permit some level of defect acceptance, depending on the type and size of the
defect.

30
To the trained Radiographer, subtle variations in visible film density provide the technician
the ability to not only accurately locate a defect, but identify its type, size and location; an
interpretation that can be physically reviewed and confirmed by others, possibly eliminating
the need for expensive and unnecessary repairs.
For purposes of inspection, including weld inspection, there exist several exposure
arrangements.
First, there is the panoramic, one of the four single-wall exposure/single-wall view
(SWE/SWV) arrangements. This exposure is created when the radiographer places the source
of radiation at the center of a sphere, cone, or cylinder (including tanks, vessels, and piping).
Depending upon client requirements, the radiographer would then place film cassettes on the
outside of the surface to be examined. This exposure arrangement is nearly ideal – when
properly arranged and exposed, all portions of all exposed film will be of the same
approximate density. It also has the advantage of taking less time than other arrangements
since the source must only penetrate the total wall thickness (WT) once and must only travel
the radius of the inspection item, not its full diameter. The major disadvantage of the
panoramic is that it may be impractical to reach the center of the item (enclosed pipe) or the
source may be too weak to perform in this arrangement (large vessels or tanks).
The second SWE/SWV arrangement is an interior placement of the source in an enclosed
inspection item without having the source centered up. The source does not come in direct
contact with the item, but is placed a distance away, depending on client requirements. The
third is an exterior placement with similar characteristics. The fourth is reserved for flat
objects, such as plate metal, and is also radiographed without the source coming in direct
contact with the item. In each case, the radiographic film is located on the opposite side of the
inspection item from the source. In all four cases, only one wall is exposed, and only one wall
is viewed on the radiograph.
Of the other exposure arrangements, only the contact shot has the source located on the
inspection item. This type of radiograph exposes both walls, but only resolves the image on
the wall nearest the film. This exposure arrangement takes more time than a panoramic, as
the source must first penetrate the WT twice and travel the entire outside diameter of the pipe
or vessel to reach the film on the opposite side. This is a double wall exposure/single wall
view DWE/SWV arrangement. Another is the superimposure (wherein the source is placed
on one side of the item, not in direct contact with it, with the film on the opposite side). This
arrangement is usually reserved for very small diameter piping or parts. The last DWE/SWV
exposure arrangement is the elliptical, in which the source is offset from the plane of the
inspection item (usually a weld in pipe) and the elliptical image of the weld furthest from the
source is cast onto the film.
Airport security:
Both hold luggage and carry-on hand luggage are normally examined by X-ray
machines using X-ray radiography. See airport security for more details.
Non-intrusive cargo scanning:

31
Gamma-ray image of intermodal cargo container with stowaways

Gamma radiography and high-energy X-ray radiography are currently used to

scan intermodal freight cargo containers in US and other countries. Also research is being
done on adapting other types of radiography like dual-energy X-ray radiography or muon
radiography for scanning intermodal cargo containers.

Sources:
A high-energy X-ray machine or a radioactive source, like Ir-192, Co-60, or in rarer cases Cs-
137 are used in an X-ray computed tomography machine as a source of photons. Penetrating
radiations are those restricted to that part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less
than about 10 nanometres. Radioisotope sources have the advantage that they do not need a
supply of electrical power to function, but they can not be turned off. Also it is difficult using
radioactivity to create a small and compact source that offers the photon flux possible with a
normal sealed X-ray tube.
It might be possible to use caesium-137 as a photon source for radiography but this isotope is
always diluted with inactive caesium isotopes. This makes it difficult to get a physically
small source, and a large volume of the source makes it impossible to capture fine details in a
radiographic examination.
Both cobalt-60 and caesium-137 have only a few gamma energies, which makes them close
to monochromatic. The photon energy of cobalt-60 is higher than that of caesium-137, which
allows cobalt sources to be used to examine thicker sections of metals than those that could
be examined with Cs-137. Iridium-192 has a lower photon energy than cobalt-60 and its
gamma spectrum is complex (many lines of very different energies), but this can be an
advantage as this can give better contrast for the final photographs.
It has been known for many years that an inactive iridium or cobalt metal object can be
machined to size. In the case of cobalt it is common to alloy it with nickel to improve the
mechanical properties. In the case of iridium a thin wire or rod could be used. These
precursor materials can then be placed in stainless steel containers that have been leak tested
before being converted into radioactive sources. These objects can be processed by neutron
activation to form gamma-emitting radioisotopes. The stainless steel has only a small ability
to be activated and the small activity due to 55Fe and 63Ni are unlikely to pose a problem in
the final application because these isotopes are beta emitters, which have very weak gamma
emission. The 59Fe isotope which might form has a short half-life, so by allowing a cobalt
source to stand for a year much of this isotope will decay away.
The source is often a very small object, which must be transported to the work site in a
shielded container. It is normal to place the film in industrial radiography, clear the area
where the work is to be done, add shielding (collimators) to reduce the size of the controlled
area before exposing the radioactive source. A series of different designs have been
developed for radiographic "cameras". Rather than the "camera" being a device that accepts
photons to record a picture, the "camera" in industrial radiography is the radioactive photon
source.
Neutrons:
In some rare cases, radiography is done with neutrons. This type of radiography is
called neutron radiography (NR, Nray, N-ray) or neutron imaging. Neutron radiography
provides different images than X-rays, because neutrons can pass with ease through lead and
steel but are stopped by plastics, water and oils. Neutron sources include radioactive

32
(241Am/Be and Cf) sources, electrically driven D-T reactions in vacuum tubes and
conventional critical nuclear reactors. It might be possible to use a neutron amplifier to
increase the neutron flux.
Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected
and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine
thickness or composition of material. Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of
the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less than about 20 nanometers.

Radiographic cameras:
Most industries are moving from film based radiography to a digital sensor based
radiography much the same way that traditional photography has made this move.[3] Since the
amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and
measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness
or composition of material.
Torch design:
One design is best thought of as being like a torch. The radioactive source is placed inside a
shielded box, a hinge allows part of the shielding to be opened exposing the source, allowing
photons to exit the radiography camera.

This torch-type camera uses a hinge. The radioactive source is in red, the shielding is blue/green, and the gamma
rays are yellow.

Another design for a torch is where the source is placed in a metal wheel, which can turn
inside the camera to move between the expose and storage positions.

This torch-type camera uses a wheel design. The radioactive source is in red, and the gamma rays are yellow.

Cable-based design:
One group of designs use a radioactive source, which connects to a drive cable contained
shielded exposure device. In one design of equipment the source is stored in a block
of lead or depleted uranium shielding that has an S-shaped tube-like hole through the block.
In the safe position the source is in the center of the block and is attached to a metal wire that
extends in both directions, to use the source a guide tube is attached to one side of the device
while a drive cable is attached to the other end of the short cable. Using a hand-operated

33
winch the source is then pushed out of the shield and along the source guide tube to the tip of
the tube to expose the film, then cranked back into its fully shielded position.

A diagram of the S-shaped hole through a metal block; the source is stored at point A and is driven out on a
cable through a hole to point B. It often goes a long way along a guide tube to where it is needed.

Contrast agents:
Defects such as delaminations and planar cracks are difficult to detect using radiography,
which is why penetrants are often used to enhance the contrast in the detection of such
defects. Penetrants used include silver nitrate, zinc iodide, chloroform and diiodomethane.
Choice of the penetrant is determined by the ease with which it can penetrate the cracks and
also with which it can be removed. Diiodomethane has the advantages of high opacity, ease
of penetration, and ease of removal because it evaporates relatively quickly. However, it can
cause skin burns.

Safety:
Industrial radiographers are in many locations required by governing authorities to use certain
types of safety equipment and to work in pairs. Depending on location industrial
radiographers may have been required to obtain permits, licenses and/or undertake special
training. Prior to conducting any testing the nearby area should always first be cleared of all
other persons and measures taken to ensure that people do not accidentally enter into an area
that may expose them to a large dose of radiation.
The safety equipment usually includes four basic items: a radiation survey meter (such as a
Geiger/Mueller counter), an alarming dosimeter or rate meter, a gas-charged dosimeter, and a
film badge or thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD). The easiest way to remember what each
of these items does is to compare them to gauges on an automobile.
The survey meter could be compared to the speedometer, as it measures the speed, or rate, at
which radiation is being picked up. When properly calibrated, used, and maintained, it allows
the radiographer to see the current exposure to radiation at the meter. It can usually be set for
different intensities, and is used to prevent the radiographer from being overexposed to the
radioactive source, as well as for verifying the boundary that radiographers are required to
maintain around the exposed source during radiographic operations.
The alarming dosimeter could be most closely compared with the tachometer, as it alarms
when the radiographer "redlines" or is exposed to too much radiation. When properly
calibrated, activated, and worn on the radiographer's person, it will emit an alarm when the
meter measures a radiation level in excess of a preset threshold. This device is intended to
prevent the radiographer from inadvertently walking up on an exposed source.
The gas-charged dosimeter is like a trip meter in that it measures the total radiation received,
but can be reset. It is designed to help the radiographer measure his/her total periodic dose of

34
radiation. When properly calibrated, recharged, and worn on the radiographer's person, it can
tell the radiographer at a glance how much radiation to which the device has been exposed
since it was last recharged. Radiographers in many states are required to log their radiation
exposures and generate an exposure report. In many countries personal dosimeters are not
required to be used by radiographers as the dose rates they show are not always correctly
recorded.
The film badge or TLD is more like a car's odometer. It is actually a specialized piece of
radiographic film in a rugged container. It is meant to measure the radiographer's total
exposure over time (usually a month) and is used by regulating authorities to monitor the
total exposure of certified radiographers in a certain jurisdiction. At the end of the month, the
film badge is turned in and is processed. A report of the radiographer's total dose is generated
and is kept on file.
When these safety devices are properly calibrated, maintained, and used, it is virtually
impossible for a radiographer to be injured by a radioactive overexposure. Sadly, the
elimination of just one of these devices can jeopardize the safety of the radiographer and all
those who are nearby. Without the survey meter, the radiation received may be just below the
threshold of the rate alarm, and it may be several hours before the radiographer checks the
dosimeter, and up to a month or more before the film badge is developed to detect a low
intensity overexposure. Without the rate alarm, one radiographer may inadvertently walk up
on the source exposed by the other radiographer. Without the dosimeter, the radiographer
may be unaware of an overexposure, or even a radiation burn, which may take weeks to result
in noticeable injury. And without the film badge, the radiographer is deprived of an important
tool designed to protect him or her from the effects of a long-term overexposure to
occupationally obtained radiation, and thus may suffer long-term health problems as a result.
There are three ways a radiographer will ensure they are not exposed to higher than required
levels of radiation, time, distance, shielding. The less time that a person is exposed to
radiation the lower their dose will be. The further a person is from a radioactive source the
lower the level of radiation they receive, this is largely due to the inverse square law. Lastly
the more a radioactive source is shielded by either better or greater amounts of shielding the
lower the levels of radiation that will escape from the testing area. The most commonly used
shielding materials in use are sand, lead (sheets or shot), steel, spent (non-radioactive
uranium) tungsten and in suitable situations water.
Industrial radiography appears to have one of the worst safety profiles of the radiation
professions, possibly because there are many operators using strong gamma sources (> 2 Ci)
in remote sites with little supervision when compared with workers within the nuclear
industry or within hospitals.[4] Due to the levels of radiation present whilst they are working
many radiographers are also required to work late at night when there are few other people
present as most industrial radiography is carried out 'in the open' rather than in purpose built
exposure booths or rooms. Fatigue, carelessness and lack of proper training are the three most
common factors attributed to industrial radiography accidents. Many of the "lost source"
accidents commented on by the International Atomic Energy Agency involve radiography
equipment. Lost source accidents have the potential to cause a considerable loss of human
life. One scenario is that a passerby finds the radiography source and not knowing what it is,
takes it home.[5] The person shortly afterwards becomes ill and dies as a result of the radiation
dose. The source remains in their home where it continues to irradiate other members of the
household.[6] Such an event occurred in March 1984 in Casablanca, Morocco. This is related
to the more famous Goiania accident, where a related chain of events caused members of the
public to be exposed to radiation sources.

35
Microsecond X-ray pulses:
It is possible using a particle accelerator to generate a short pulse of high energy electrons,
these electrons are used to create X-rays by braking radiation. The X-rays are detected using
a semiconductor detector, which is an array of silicon diodes. Such equipment has been used
for the X-ray version of high speed flash photography. For example, diesel fuel that has been
doped with cerium has been used to investigate the operation of fuel injectors in a diesel
engine.
As an alternative high energy pulsed proton beams can be used for the high speed
examination of objects.

1. Boroscopic testing:
A boroscope (occasionally called a boroscope, though this spelling is nonstandard) is an
optical device consisting of a rigid or flexible tube with an eyepiece or display on one end,
an objective lens or camera on the other linked together by an optical or electrical system in
between. The optical system in some instances is surrounded by optical fibers used for
illumination of the remote object. An internal image of the illuminated object is formed by
the objective lens and magnified by the eyepiece which presents it to the viewer's eye.
Rigid or flexible boroscopes may be fitted with an imaging or video device. For medical use,
similar instruments are called endoscopes.

Uses:
Boroscopes are used for visual inspection work where the area to be inspected is inaccessible
by other means, or where accessibility may require destructive, time consuming and/or
expensive dismounting activities. Similar devices for use inside the human body are referred
to as endoscopes. Boroscopes are mostly used in non destructive testing techniques for
recognizing defects or imperfections.
Boroscopes are commonly used in the visual inspection of aircraft engines, aeroderivative
industrial gas turbines, steam turbines, diesel engines, and automotive and truck engines. Gas
and steam turbines require particular attention because of safety and maintenance
requirements. Boroscope inspection of engines can be used to prevent unnecessary
maintenance, which can become extremely costly for large turbines. They are also used in
manufacturing of machined or cast parts to inspect critical interior surfaces for burrs, surface
finish or complete through-holes. Other common uses include forensic applications in law
enforcement and building inspection, and in gun smithing for inspecting the interior bore of
a firearm. In World War II, primitive rigid boroscopes were used to examine the interior
bores (hence "bore" scope) of large guns for defects.[2]

36
Flexible boroscopes:
The traditional flexible boroscope includes a bundle of optical fibers which divide the image
into pixels. It is also known as a fiber scope and can be used to access cavities which are
around a bend, such as a combustion chamber or "burner can", in order to view the condition
of the compressed air inlets, turbine blades and seals without disassembling the engine.
Traditional flexible boroscopes suffer from pixelation and pixel crosstalk due to the fiber
image guide. Image quality varies widely among different models of flexible boroscopes
depending on the number of fibers and construction used in the fiber image guide. Some high
end boroscopes offer a "visual grid" on image captures to assist in evaluating the size of any
area with a problem. For flexible boroscopes, articulation mechanism components, range of
articulation, field of view and angles of view of the objective lens are also important. Fiber
content in the flexible relay is also critical to provide the highest possible resolution to the
viewer. Minimal quantity is 10,000 pixels while the best images are obtained with higher
numbers of fibers in the 15,000 to 22,000 range for the larger diameter borescopes. The
ability to control the light at the end of the insertion tube allows the borescope user to make
adjustments that can greatly improve the clarity of video or still images.

Video boreoscopes:

Camera head of an inexpensive ($15) hobby video boroscope camera. It contains six small LEDs for
illumination. The other end is connected to the computer's USB socket.

A video boroscope used to inspect the jet engine of an F/A-18E fighter

A video boroscope or "inspection camera" is similar to the flexible boroscope but uses a
miniature video camera at the end of the flexible tube. The end of the insertion tube includes
a light which makes it possible to capture video or still images deep within equipment,
engines and other dark spaces. As a tool for remote visual inspection the ability to capture
video or still images for later inspection is a huge benefit. A display at the other end shows

37
the camera view, and in some models the viewing position can be changed via a joystick or
similar control. Because a complex fiber optic waveguide in a traditional boroscope is
replaced with an inexpensive electrical cable, video boroscopes can be much less costly and
potentially better resolution (depending on the specifications of the camera). Costs for high
end video boroscopes can range from about $8,000 to $50,000 depending upon manufacturer,
options and specifications. Easy-to-use, battery-powered video boroscopes, with 3" LCD
displays of 320x240 pixels or better, became available circa 2012 from several manufacturers
for prices between $100 and $400 and are adequate for some applications. On many of these
models, the video camera and flexible tube is submersible. Later models offered improved
features, such as lower cost, better resolution, adjustable illumination or replacing the built-in
display with a computer connection, such as a USB cable. Hobbyist models of this type are
now available starting at around $10.

Rigid boroscopes:
Rigid boroscopes are similar to fiberscopes but generally provide a superior image at lower
cost compared to a flexible boroscope. Rigid boroscopes have the limitation that access to
what is to be viewed must be in a straight line. Rigid boroscopes are therefore better suited to
certain tasks such as inspecting automotive cylinders, fuel injectors and hydraulic manifold
bodies, and gunsmithing.
Criteria for selecting a boroscope are usually image clarity and access. For similar-quality
instruments, the largest rigid boroscope that will fit the hole gives the best image. Optical
systems in rigid boroscopes can be of 3 basic types: Harold Hopkins rod lenses, achromatic
doublets and gradient index rod lenses. For large diameter boroscopes (over 12mm), the
achromatic doublet relays work quite well, but as the diameter of the boroscope tube gets
smaller the Hopkins rod lens and gradient index rod lens designs provide superior images.
For very small rigid boroscopes (under 3mm), the gradient index lens relays are better.

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2.Destructive Testing (Mechanical Testing):

Structures and machines, or their components, fail because of fracture or

excessive deformation. In attempting to prevent such failure, the designer estimates how
much stress (load per unit area) can be anticipated, and specifies materials that can withstand
expected stresses. A stress analysis, accomplished either experimentally or by means of
a mathematical model, indicates expected areas of high stress in a machine or structure.
Mechanical property tests, carried out experimentally, indicate which materials may safely be
employed.
Static Tension and Compression Test:
When subjected to tension (pulling apart), a material elongates and eventually breaks. A
simple static tension test determines the breaking point of the material and its elongation,
designated as strain (change in length per unit length). If a 100-millimetre steel bar elongates
1 millimetre under a given load, for example, strain is (101–100)/100 = 1/100 = 1 percent.
A static tension test requires (1) a test piece, usually cylindrical, or with a middle section of
smaller diameter than the ends; (2) a test machine that applies, measures, and records various
loads; and (3) an appropriate set of grips to grasp the test piece. In the static tension test, the
test machine uniformly stretches a small part (the test section) of the test piece. The length of
the test section (called the gauge length) is measured at different loads with a device called
an extensometer; these measurements are used to compute strain.

Conventional testing machines are of the constant load, constant load-rate, and constant
displacement-rate types. Constant load types employ weights directly both to apply load and
to measure it. Constant load-rate test machines employ separate load and measurement units;
loads are generally applied by means of a hydraulic ram into which oil is pumped at a
constant rate. Constant displacement-rate testing machines are generally driven by gear-
screws.
Test machine grips are designed to transfer load smoothly into the test piece without
producing local stress concentrations. The ends of the test piece are often slightly enlarged so
that if slight concentrations of stress are present these will be directed to the gauge section,
and failures will occur only where measurements are being taken. Clamps, pins, threading, or
bonding are employed to hold the test piece. Eccentric (non uniform) loading causes bending
of the sample in addition to tension, which means that stress in the sample will not be
uniform. To avoid this, most gripping devices incorporate one or two swivel joints in the
linkage that carries the load to the test piece. Air bearings help to correct horizontal
misalignment, which can be troublesome with such brittle materials as ceramics.
Static compression tests determine a material‘s response to crushing, or support-type loading
(such as in the beams of a house). Testing machines and extensometers for compression
tests resemble those used for tension tests. Specimens are generally simpler, however,
because gripping is not usually a problem. Furthermore, specimens may have a constant
cross-sectional area throughout their full length. The gauge length of a sample in a
compression test is its full length. A serious problem in compression testing is the possibility
that the sample or load chain may buckle (form bulges or bend) prior to material failure. To
prevent this, specimens are kept short and stubby.

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Static shear and bending tests:
Inplane shear tests indicate the deformation response of a material to forces applied
tangentially. These tests are applied primarily to thin sheet materials, either metals or
composites, such as fibreglass reinforced plastic.
A homogeneous material such as untreated steel casting reacts in a different way
under stress than does a grained material such as wood or an adhesively bonded joint. These
anisotropic materials are said to have preferential planes of weakness; they resist stress better
in some planes than in others, and consequently must undergo a different type of shear test.
Shear strength of rivets and other fasteners also can be measured. Though the state of stress
of such items is generally quite complicated, a simple shear test, providing only limited
information, is adequate for most purposes.
Tensile testing is difficult to perform directly upon certain brittle materials such as glass and
ceramics. In such cases, a measure of the tensile strength of the material may be obtained by
performing a bend test, in which tensile (stretching) stresses develop on one side of the bent
member and corresponding compressive stresses develop on the opposite side. If the material
is substantially stronger in compression than tension, failure initiates on the tensile side of the
member and, hence, provides the required information on the material tensile strength.
Because it is necessary to know the exact magnitude of the tensile stress at failure in order to
establish the strength of the material, however, the bending test method is applicable to only a
very restricted class of materials and conditions.

Measures of ductility:
Ductility is the capacity of a material to deform permanently in response to stress. Most
common steels, for example, are quite ductile and hence can accommodate local stress
concentrations. Brittle materials, such as glass, cannot accommodate concentrations of stress
because they lack ductility; they, therefore, fracture rather easily.
When a material specimen is stressed, it deforms elastically (i.e., recoverably) at first;
thereafter, deformation becomes permanent. A cylinder of steel, for example, may ―neck‖
(assume an hourglass shape) in response to stress. If the material is ductile, this local
deformation is permanent, and the test piece does not assume its former shape if the stress is
removed. With sufficiently high stress, fracture occurs.
Ductility can be expressed as strain, reduction in area, or toughness. Strain, or change in
length per unit length, was explained earlier. Reduction in area (change in area per unit area)
may be measured, for example, in the test section of a steel bar that necks when stressed.
Toughness measures the amount of energy required to deform a piece of material
permanently. Toughness is a desirable material property in that it permits a component to
deform plastically, rather than crack and perhaps fracture.

Hardness testing:
Based on the idea that a material‘s response to a load placed at one small point is related to its
ability to deform permanently (yield), the hardness test is performed by pressing a hardened
steel ball (Brinell test) or a steel or diamond cone (Rockwell test) into the surface of the test
piece. Most hardness tests are performed on commercial machines that register arbitrary
values in inverse relation to the depth of penetration of the ball or cone. Similar indentation
tests are performed on wood. Hardness tests of materials such as rubber or plasticdo not have
the same connotation as those performed on metals. Penetration is measured, of course, but
deformation caused by testing such materials may be entirely temporary.

40
Some hardness tests, particularly those designed to provide a measure of wear or abrasion,
are performed dynamically with a weight of given magnitude that falls from a prescribed
height. Sometimes a hammer is used, falling vertically on the test piece or in a pendulum
motion.

Impact test:
Many materials, sensitive to the presence of flaws, cracks, and notches, fail suddenly under
impact. The most common impact tests (Charpy and Izod) employ a swinging pendulum to
strike a notched bar; heights before and after impact are used to compute the energy required
to fracture the bar and, consequently, the bar‘s impact strength. In the Charpy test, the test
piece is held horizontally between two vertical bars, much like the lintel over a door. In
the Izod test, the specimen stands erect, like a fence post. Shape and size of the specimen,
mode of support, notch shape and geometry, and velocities at impact are all varied to produce
specific test conditions. Nonmetals such as wood may be tested as supported beams, similar
to the Charpy test. In nonmetal tests, however, the striking hammer falls vertically in a guide
column, and the test is repeated from increasing heights until failure occurs.
Some materials vary in impact strength at different temperatures, becoming very brittle when
cold. Tests have shown that the decrease in material strength and elasticity is often quite
abrupt at a certain temperature, which is called the transition temperature for that material.
Designers always specify a material that possesses a transition temperature well below the
range of heat and cold to which the structure or machine is exposed. Thus, even a building in
the tropics, which will doubtless never be exposed to freezing weather, employs materials
with transition temperatures slightly below freezing.

Fracture toughness tests:

The stringent materials-reliability requirements of the space programs undertaken since the
early 1960s brought about substantial changes in design philosophy. Designers asked
materials engineers to devise quantitative tests capable of measuring the propensity of a
material to propagate a crack. Conventional methods of stress analysis and materials-property
tests were retained, but interpretation of results changed. The criterion for failure became
sudden propagation of a crack rather than fracture. Tests have shown that cracks occur by
opening, when two pieces of material part in vertical plane, one piece going up, the other
down; by edge sliding, where the material splits in horizontal plane, one piece moving left,
the other right; and by tearing, where the material splits with one piece moving diagonally
upward to the left, the other moving diagonally downward to the right.

Creep test:
Creep is the slow change in the dimensions of a material due to prolonged stress; most
common metals exhibit creep behaviour. In the creep test, loads below those necessary to
cause instantaneous fracture are applied to the material, and the deformation over a period of
time (creep strain) under constant load is measured, usually with an extensometer or strain
gauge. In the same test, time to failure is also measured against level of stress; the resulting
curve is called stress rupture or creep rupture. Once creep strain versus time is plotted, a
variety of mathematical techniques is available for extrapolating creep behaviour of materials
beyond the test times so that designers can utilize thousand-hour test data, for example, to
predict ten-thousand-hour behaviour.
A material that yields continually under stress and then returns to its original shape when the
stress is released is said to be viscoelastic; this type of response is measured by the stress-
relaxation test. A prescribed displacement or strain is induced in the specimen and the load
drop-off as a function of time is measured. Various viscoelastic theories are available that

41
permit the translation of stress-relaxation test data into predictions about the creep behaviour
of the material.

Fatigue:
Materials that survive a single application of stress frequently fail when stressed repeatedly.
This phenomenon, known as fatigue, is measured by mechanical tests that involve repeated
application of different stresses varying in a regular cycle from maximum to minimum value.
Most fatigue-testing machines employ a rotating eccentric weight to produce this cyclically
varying load. A material is generally considered to suffer from low-cycle fatigue if it fails in
10,000 cycles or less.
The stresses acting upon a material in the real world are usually random in nature rather than
cyclic. Consequently, several cumulative fatigue-damage theories have been developed to
enable investigators to extrapolate from cyclic test data a prediction of material behaviour
under random stresses. Because these theories are not applicable to most materials, a
relatively new technique, which involves mechanical application of random fatigue stresses,
statistically matched to real-life conditions, is now employed in most materials test
laboratories.
Material fatigue involves a number of phenomena, among which are atomic slip (in which the
upper plane of a metal crystal moves or slips in relation to the lower plane, in response to a
shearing stress), crack initiation, and crack propagation. Thus, a fatigue test may measure the
number of cycles required to initiate a crack, as well as the number of cycles to failure.
A cautious designer always bears the statistical nature of fatigue in mind, for the lives of
material specimens tested at a common stress level always range above and below some
average value. Statistical theory tells the designer how many samples of a material must be
tested in order to provide adequate data; it is not uncommon to test several hundred
specimens before drawing firm conclusions

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 FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
The science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the forces acting on bodies
moving relative to the air. When you study aerodynamics, you are learning about why and
how an airplane flies. Although aerodynamics is a complex subject, exploring the
fundamental principles which govern flight can be an exciting and rewarding experience. The
challenge to understand what makes an airplane fly begins with learning the four forces of
flight.
During flight, the four forces acting an the airplane are lift , weight , thrust and drag.
2. Lift is the upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and
under the wing. The airplane is supported in flight by lift.
3. Weight which opposes lift, is caused by the downward pull of gravity.
4. Thrust is the forward force which propels the airplane through the air. It
varies with the amount of engine power being used.
5. Opposing thrust is drag, which is a backward or retarding, force which limits
the speed of the airplane. In un-accelerated flight, the four forces are in
equilibrium. Un-accelerated flight means that the airplane is maintaining a
constant airspeed and is neither accelerating nor decelerating.
In straight and-level , un-accelerated flight, lift is equal to the directly opposite weight and
thrust is equal to and directly opposite drag. Notice that the arrows which represent the
opposing forces are equal in length, but all four arrows are not the same length. This indicates
that all four forces are not equal but that the opposing forces are equal to each other.

Fig1. Four forces of flight

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 BASICS OF FLIGHT

The miracle of flight exists because man has the technology to oppose natural forces that
keep all objects on the ground. Four forces affect an aircraft — two assist flight (thrust and
lift), and two resist flight (gravity and drag). The important thing to note here is that when an
aircraft is flying straight and level, all four of these forces are balanced, or in equilibrium.

Thrust: Thrust is created by the engines. As propeller blades push air through the engine (or
as jet fuel is combusted to accomplish the same end), the aircraft moves forward. As the
wings cut through the air in front of the aircraft, lift is created. This is the force that pushes an
aircraft up into the air.

Lift: Lift occurs because air flows both over and under the surface of the wing. The wing is
designed so that the top surface is "longer" than the bottom surface in any given crosssection.
In other words, the distance between points A to B is greater along the top of the wing than
under it. The air moving over the wing must travel from A to B in the same amount of time.
Therefore, the air is moving faster along the top of the wing.

This creates a difference in air pressure above and below—a phenomenon called the
Bernoulli effect. The pressure pushing up is greater than the downward pressure, and lift is
created. If you're banking, lift occurs in a slightly sideways direction. If you're inverted, lift
actually pulls you downward toward the ground. Note that lift occurs perpendicular to a line
drawn parallel to the centerline of the wing and occurs at a slightly backward angle.

Several factors determine how much lift is created. First, consider the angle at which the
wing hits the air. This is called the angle of attack, which is independent of the aircraft's flight
path vector. The steeper this angle, the more lift occurs. At angles steeper than 30° or so,
however, airflow is disrupted, and an aircraft stall occurs. During a stall, no lift is created.
The aircraft falls into a dive and can recover lift only after gaining airspeed.

Drag: Drag opposes thrust. Although it mainly occurs because of air resistance as air flows
around the wing, several different types of drag exist. Drag is mainly created by simple skin
friction as air molecules "stick" to the wing's surface. Smoother surfaces incur less drag,
while bulky structures create additional drag.

Some drag has nothing to do with air resistance and is actually a secondary result of lift.
Because lift angles backward slightly, it is has both an upward, vertical force and a
horizontal, rearward force. The rearward component is drag. Another type of drag is induced
at speeds near Mach 1, when a pressure differential starts building up between the front and
rear surface of the airfoil. The pressure in front of the wing is greater than the pressure behind
the wing, which creates a net force that opposes thrust. In WW II aircraft, this last type of
drag occurred only during prolonged dives.

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Gravity: Gravity is actually a force of acceleration on an object. The Earth exerts this natural
force on all objects. Being a constant force, it always acts in the same direction: downward.
Thrust creates lift to counteract gravity. In order for an aircraft to take off, enough lift must
be created to overcome the force of gravity pushing down on the aircraft.

Related to gravity are G-forces—artificially created forces that are measured in units
equivalent to the force of gravity.

G-Force: A "G" is a measurement of force that is equal to the force of gravity pushing down
on a stationary object on the earth's surface. Gravitational force actually refers to an object's
weight (Force equals Mass times Acceleration, or F = ma.). An aircraft flying level at low
altitudes experiences 1G. Extra G-forces in any direction can be artificially created by sudden
changes in velocity or in the direction of motion. Good examples are a takeoff, a tight turn in
an aircraft at moderate to high speed or a loop maneuver. G-forces can be either positive or
negative. Positive Gs make you feel heavier because they act in a relative downward
direction. They push you back into your seat and primarily occur during sharp turns or steep
climbs. Negative Gs make you feel lighter because they're pulling in a relative upward
direction. When you're in a steep dive, they pull you out of your seat. The direction of G-
forces is always relative to the position of the aircraft—if you're flying upside-down, upward
Gs actually pull in a downward direction.

Apparent Weight: Apparent weight refers to how heavy something seems considering the
current direction and magnitude of G-forces acting on it. In level flight, 1G is acting on the
aircraft and the pilot—both weigh the same as they do when stationary. If the pilot makes a
steep climb, the positive G-force temporarily acts on both the pilot and the aircraft, making
them in essence heavier throughout the climb. Any sudden increase or decrease in
acceleration brings about a change in apparent weight of an object.

Physical Effects of G-Forces: Human bodies can withstand approximately 9 or 10 positive

Gs or 2 to 3 three negative Gs for several seconds at a time. Exceeding positive G limits for
longer than that causes blood to collect in the lower part of the body and torso. The brain and
retinas receive less blood, and therefore less oxygen. Eventually, vision turns gray, followed
by tunnel vision and pilot blackout. Excessive negative Gs have a similar effect, except that
blood pools in the brain and upper torso. This causes the small capillaries in the eyes to swell,
creating a redout effect.

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 BASIC PARTS OF AIRCRAFT

 The engine. The engine is a major component that allows the aircraft to move. Every type
of aircraft is created with a special type of engine that is made in accordance to its size.
During the earlier years, aircraft owners used propeller-driven engines. These are traditional
engines that are no longer being used. Planes that are developed today are using jet engines.
With this, it is safe to say that even modern aircraft use engines for them to be able to work.
There are different types of jet engines but the two types that are widely used are turbofan
and turbojet.

 The wing. This is an important part because it works to help in balancing and improving
the aircraft‗s stability when flying. This is the part that allows the plane to go up. There are
two wings that are joined by a fuselage. The shape of the wings is designed that way in order
to help it fly.

 The horizontal stabilizer. This part of the aircraft is also called the horizontal stabilizer.
The main reason why this is included in the aircraft is to help in maintaining its stability
when flying. The wing will not be able to do it alone without the help of this part. This is
providing a counteracting force that helps when the aircraft faces disturbances while flying.

 The fuselage. This part is connected to the wing of the aircraft. This part actually comes in
two different shapes; it may come in rectangular shapes or in cylindrical tubes. This serves as
a connecting point for all the parts of the aircraft. This is where you will find the passengers
and cargo.

 The rudder. This serves as a hinge that allows the plane to turn left. This helps in
controlling the direction of the aircraft.

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Fig2. Basis parts of aircraft

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