Appendix A

Concept of Sinusoidal Distributed Windings

Electrical machines are designed in such a manner that the flux density distribution
in the airgap due to a single phase winding is approximately sinusoidal. This
appendix aims to make plausible the reason for this and the way in which this is
realized. In this context the so-called sinusoidally distributed winding concept will
be discussed.
Figure A.1 represents an ITF based transformer or IRTF based electrical machine
with a finite airgap g. A two-phase representation is shown with two n1 turn stator
phase windings . The windings which carry the currents i1’ and i1“ , respectively,
are shown symbolically. This implies that the winding symbol shown on the airgap
circumference represents the locations of the majority windings in each case, not
the actual distribution as will be discussed shortly. If we consider the “’” winding
initially, i.e., we only excite this winding with a current i1’ , then the aim is to arrange
the winding distribution of this phase in such a manner that the flux density in the
airgap can be represented as B1’ D BO’ cos . Similarly if we only excite the ““”
winding with a current i“ , a sinusoidal variation of the flux density should appear
which is of the form B1“ D BO“ sin . The relationship between phase currents and
peak flux density values is of the form B1’ D Ci1’ ; B1“ D Ci1“ where C is a
constant to be defined shortly. In space vector terms the following relationships hold

iE1 D i1’ C ji1“ (A.1a)

BE1 D BO1’ C jBO1“ (A.1b)

Given that the current and flux density components are linked by a constant C it is
important to ensure that the following relationship holds, namely:

BE1 D C Ei1 (A.2)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 331

A. Veltman et al., Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Power Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29409-4
332 A Concept of Sinusoidal Distributed Windings

Fig. A.1 Simplified ITF

model, with finite airgap, no
secondary winding shown

If, for example, the current is of the form Ei1 D Oi1 ej then the flux density should
be of the form BE1 D C Oi1 ej for any value of  and values of Oi1 which fall within
the linear operating range of the machine. The space vector components are in this
case of the form i1’ D Oi1 cos , i1“ D Oi1 sin . If we assume that the flux density
distributions are indeed sinusoidal then the resultant flux density Bres in the airgap
will be the sum of the contributions of both phases namely

Bres ./ D C Oi1 cos  cos  C C Oi1 sin  sin  (A.3)

„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
BO1’ BO1“

Expression (A.3) can also be written as Bres D C Oi1 cos .  / which means that the
resultant airgap flux density is again a sinusoidal waveform with its peak amplitude
(for this example) at  D , which is precisely the value which should appear
in the event that expression (A.2) is used directly. It is instructive to consider
the case where  D !s t, which implies that the currents i’ andi“ are sinusoidal
waveforms with a frequency of !s . Under these circumstances the location within
the airgap where the resultant flux density is at its maximum is equal to  D !s t.
A traveling wave exists in the airgap in this case, which has a rotational speed of
!s rad/s.
Having established the importance of realizing a sinusoidal flux distribution in
the airgap for each phase we will now examine how the distribution of the windings
affects this goal.
For this purpose it is instructive to consider the relationship between the flux
density in the airgap at locations ;  C  with the aid of Fig. A.2. If we consider
a loop formed by the two “contour” sections and the flux density values at locations
;  C , then it is instructive to examine the sum of the magnetic potentials along
A Concept of Sinusoidal Distributed Windings 333

Fig. A.2 Sectional view of phase winding and enlarged airgap

the loop and the corresponding MMF enclosed by this loop. The MMF enclosed
by the loop is taken to be of the form N i, where N represents all or part of the
“’” phase winding and i the phase current. The magnetic potentials in the “red”
contour part of the loop are zero because the magnetic material is assumed to
be magnetically ideal (zero magnetic potential). The remaining magnetic potential
contributions when we traverse the loop in the anti-clockwise direction must be
equal to the enclosed MMF which leads to
g g
B ./  B . C / D N i (A.4)
0 0

Expression (A.4) can also be rewritten in a more convenient form by introducing the
N
variable n D  which represents the phase winding distribution per radian. Use
of this variable with Eq. (A.4) gives

B . C /  B ./ 0
D n i (A.5)
 g

which can be further developed by imposing the condition  ! 0 which allows

Eq. (A.5) to be written as

dB ./ 0
D n i (A.6)
d g

The LHS of Eq. (A.6) represents the gradient of the flux density with respect to .
An important observation of Eq. (A.6) is that a change in flux density in the airgap is
linked to the presence of a non-zero n i term, hence we are able to construct the flux
density in the airgap if we know (or choose) the winding distribution n and phase
current. Vise versa we can determine the required winding distribution needed to
arrive at, for example, a sinusoidal flux density distribution.
334 A Concept of Sinusoidal Distributed Windings

Fig. A.3 Example: concentrated winding, N D N

A second condition must also be considered when constructing the flux density
plot around the entire airgap namely
Z 
B ./ d D 0 (A.7)


Equation (A.7) basically states that the flux density versus angle  distribution along
the entire airgap of the machine cannot contain a non-zero average component.
Two examples are considered below which demonstrates the use of Eqs. (A.6) and
(A.7). The first example as shown in Fig. A.3 shows the winding distribution n
which corresponds to the so-called concentrated winding. This means that the entire
number of “N” turns of the phase winding is concentrated in a single slot (per
winding half) with width , hence N D N. The corresponding flux density
distribution is in this case trapezoidal and not sinusoidal as required.
The second example given by Fig. A.4 shows a distributed phase winding as often
used in practical three-phase machines. In this case the phase winding is split into
three parts [and three slots (per winding half), spaced  rad apart] hence, N D N3 .
The total number of windings of the phase is again equal to N. The flux density
plot which corresponds with the distributed winding is a step forward in terms of
representing a sinusoidal function. The ideal case would according to Eq. (A.6)
require a n i representation of the form

g O
n i D B sin ./ (A.8)
0

in which BO represents the peak value of the desired flux density function
B ./ D BO cos ./. Equation (A.8) shows that the winding distribution needs to
be sinusoidal. The practical implementation of Eq. (A.8) would require a large
A Concept of Sinusoidal Distributed Windings 335

Fig. A.4 Example: distributed winding, N D N

3

number of slots with varying number of turns placed in each slot. This is not
realistic given the need to typically house three-phase windings, hence in practice
the three slot distribution shown in Fig. A.4 is normally used and provides a flux
density versus angle distribution which is sufficiently sinusoidal.
In conclusion it is important to consider the relationship between phase flux-
linkage and circuit flux values. The phase circuit flux (for the “’” phase) is of the
form
Z 
2
m’ D B ./ d (A.9)
 2

which for a concentrated winding corresponds to a flux-linkage value 1’ D Nm’ .

If a distributed winding is used then not all the circuit flux is linked with all the
distributed windings components in which case the flux-linkage is given as 1’ D
Neff m’ , where Neff represents the “effective” number of turns.
References

1. Boedefeld T, Sequenz H (1971) Elektrische Maschinen, 8th edn. Springer, Wien, New York.
http://www.abebooks.de/buch-suchen/isbn/3211809716/
2. De Doncker RW, Pulle DWJ, Veltman A (2011) Advanced electrical drives. Springer,
New York. https://books.google.de/books?id=_sEDx2lAKboC&pg=PR5&lpg=PR5&dq=978-
94-007-0179-3&source=bl&ots=IMrbVms-QA&sig=YQWrZ7f_Ju1nIVdylH0Ph-C-JQk&
hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE5pf21JjMAhVEOhoKHdlVAgwQ6AEIMDAD#v=onepage&
q=978-94-007-0179-3&f=false
3. FEMM Finite Element Software (2014). http://www.femm.info
4. Holmes D (1997) A generalised approach to modulation and control of hard switched con-
verters. PhD thesis, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Monash University,
Clayton
5. Hughes A, Drury B (2013) Electric motors and drives, 4th edn. Newnes, London
6. LaunchXL-F28069M (2015) Texas instruments: InstaSPIN-MOTION. http://www.ti.com/tool/
launchxl-f28069M
7. Leonhard W (2001) Control of electrical drives, 3rd edn. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. http://
www.springer.com/us/book/9783540418207
8. Miller TJE (1989) Brushless permanent-magnet and reluctance motor drives. Monographs in
electrical and electronic engineering, vol. 21. Oxford Science Publications, Oxford
9. PLEXIM R
Simulation Software (2010). http://www.plexim.com
10. Pulle DWJ, Darnell P, Veltman A (2015) Applied control of electrical drives. Springer,
New York
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12. Svensson T (1988) On modulation and control of electronic power converters. Tech. Rep. 186,
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© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 337

A. Veltman et al., Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Power Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29409-4
Index

A converter, 5, 6, 83, 85, 113, 175, 201, 204, 297,

actuators, 2, 34 300–304, 306, 308, 309, 311, 316, 320,
airgap, 17, 18, 22, 24, 52, 176, 184, 249 321, 323
alternative differentiator module, 163 converter switch, 302–304
Ampère, A. H., 279 Cumming, J. S., 279
amplitude invariant, 96, 97 current control, 297, 323
armature, 281 current density, 22
armature reaction, 284 current sensor, 298
asymmetrically sampled, 307
asynchronous, 175, 243, 248, 257, 280
average voltage per sample, 301, 302, 306 D
damper winding, 208
Davenport, T, 279
B delta connected, 87, 92, 102, 103, 105, 106,
bar magnet, 12, 13 112, 152, 153
bipolar, 298, 308, 310, 320, 323 discrete, 300, 314, 317
Blondel diagram, 210, 215, 217 displacement factor, 133
braking, 2 double edged, 308, 311
brushes, 203, 281 drives, 2–4, 6, 11, 201, 254, 280
brushless machines, 203 DSP, 5, 6, 298
building block, 9, 176, 299, 304 Dynamometer, 240

C E
Carter, 24 efficiency, 2, 5
cartesian, 161 electro-magnetic interaction, 29
classical, 4, 5, 175, 188 energy, 2, 5, 83, 130, 132, 133, 178, 179
commutator, 279, 281
comparator, 304, 317
compensation winding, 284 F
complex plane, 35, 36 falling edge, 302
control algorithm, 6, 313 Faraday, M., 279
convention, 7, 178, 211 feed forward, 316
conversion module, 194 field current, 203, 212, 228

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 339

A. Veltman et al., Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Power Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29409-4
340 Index

finite-element, 6 magnetic circuit, 13, 15, 19, 47, 48, 52

flux density, 12–15, 17, 20, 22
flux lines, 12, 14, 15, 24
flux-linkage, 19–21, 33, 49, 52, 66, 160, 161,
164, 177
four-quadrant, 2
fringing, 14, 16, 17, 24
full bridge converter, 311
G 306–309, 311, 313, 314, 316, 317, 319,
generator, 5, 175, 213, 218, 231, 254
generic model, 9, 297
grid, 5, 83
magnetic field, 12, 16, 22, 182, 204, 241, 279
magnetic poles, 181
magnetizing inductance, 52, 53
MATLAB, 6
maximum output power point, 217
micro-processor, 6, 298, 300
Miller, T. J. E., 22
model based current control, 326
modulator, 5, 6, 297, 300, 301, 303, 304,
320, 323
motoring, 213, 217, 243, 251
multi-pole, 182
mutual inductance, 65, 66

H
H-bridge, 310 N
half bridge converter, 308, 320 neutral, 84
Heyland diagram, 253–255, 257, 258 no-load, 2, 76, 243, 286
Holmes, G., 307 non-linear, 21, 29, 33, 39, 44
Hopkinson, 15, 19, 52 non-salient, 208, 211
Hughes, A., 11, 202

O
I Oersted, H. C., 279
idle mode, 299
imaginary power, 132
incremental flux, 31 P
inductance, 19, 20, 31, 33 permanent magnet, 203, 232, 280
induction machine, 241 permeability, 15, 16, 29, 47, 48, 52
inertia, 180, 221 phasor, 34, 35
iron losses, 76 polar, 161
IRTF, 176, 180, 206 pole-pair, 181
ITF, 47, 50, 51, 157 power factor, 133, 212, 213, 218, 254
power invariant, 96–98
power supply, 4, 5, 13, 203
K predictive dead-beat, 326
Kirchhoff, 85, 88 primary, 47–52
primary referred, 54, 66
proportional-integral, 315, 316
L pull out (stall) torque, 217
leakage inductance, 57, 58 pull-out slip, 252, 254
linear-motors, 22 PWM, 302, 303
load, 2, 3, 5, 221, 244, 286, 289, 298
load angle, 204, 211
load torque, 221 Q
logic signal, 299 quasi-steady-state, 188
Lorentz, 12, 180

R
M reactive power, 133, 135, 141, 142, 145, 228
m-file, 42, 71 real power, 132, 139, 140
machine sizing, 21, 22 reference average voltage per sample, 301
Index 341

reference incremental flux, 309 switching point, 302, 303

reference voltage per sample, 300 symbolic model, 31
regenerative, 2, 3 Synchronization, 232
reluctance, 15–17, 20, 52, 53, 184 synchronous, 175, 201, 202, 204, 206, 210,
rising edge, 301, 309, 311 211, 241, 281
robots, 1 synchronous speed, 221, 249
rotating flux vector, 187, 204
rotating reference frame, 189
rotor, 176, 177, 241 T
rotor angle, 180 Tesla, N, 241
rotor speed, 187, 204, 243 three inductance model, 59
three-phase, 83, 84, 93, 112, 129, 144, 157,
201, 204
S toroidal, 29, 47
sampling interval, 300–303, 309, 311, 313 torque, 179, 180, 184
saturation, 18, 20, 22, 33, 39 traction drives, 287
saw tooth, 304, 317 transformer, 47, 48, 51, 52, 157, 176
Schweigger, J. C. S., 279 triangular function, 307
secondary, 47–50, 160 two inductance model, 60, 64, 65
self inductance, 19, 66 two phase, 93
self-inductance, 29
sensors, 4–6
separately excited DC, 287 U
series wound DC, 287 uni-polar, 297, 298, 302, 303, 309
set-point, 313 universal DC machine, 288
shear-stress, 22 universal inductance model, 165
shoot-through mode, 299 universal machine, 281
shunt DC machine, 287
simplified model, 245, 251
sinusoidal, 33, 34, 55, 187, 210 V
sinusoidal distributed, 192, 331 V/f drive, 254
slip, 243, 249, 251, 252 Vector to RMS module, 144
slipring machine, 242
slipring/brush, 203, 281
space vector, 93 W
speed condition, 188 Westinghouse, 241
squirrel cage, 242 whye connected, 84
star connected, 84, 100, 111, 112, 117 winding ratio, 50, 68, 181
star point, 84
stationary reference frame, 189
stator, 176, 177, 184, 201, 202, 280 Z
steady-state, 286 zero sequence, 89, 98, 100, 102, 105–107,
Sturgeon, S, 279 113
supply voltage, 93, 109, 298, 304–306, 316 zero-order hold, 317