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RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Approved by AICTE
Accredited by NBA
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Ranked 63rd among top 100 private engineering colleges in
India by higher education review magazine.

www.raghuenggcollege.com

DEPARTMENT OF Mechanical Engineering

II B.Tech II Semester
THERMAL ENGINEERING - 1

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III Year – I Semester

Unit-1
Thermal Engineering – II
(Use of steam tables and Mollier chart is allowed)

Course objectives:
This course is intended to provide basic knowledge of components being used in steam and gas power plant cycles and to
analyse the energy transfers and transformations in these components including individual performance evaluation.
BASIC CONCEPTS: Rankine cycle - schematic layout, thermodynamic analysis, concept of mean temperature of heat
addition, methods to improve cycle performance – regeneration & reheating. combustion: fuels and combustion, concepts
of heat of reaction, adiabatic flame temperature, stoichiometry, flue gas analysis.
Reference Text Books:
1. Thermodynamics and Heat Engines, Volume 2 - R.Yadav- Central book depot.
2. Gas Turbines – V.Ganesan /TMH
3. Heat Engineering – V.P Vasandani and D.S Kumar- Metropolitan
Book Company, New Delhi
References:
1. Gas Turbines and Propulsive Systems – P.Khajuria & S.P.Dubey - /Dhanpatrai
2. Gas Turbines / Cohen, Rogers and Saravana Muttoo / Addison Wesley – Longman
3. Thermal Engineering-R.S Khurmi/JS Gupta/S.Chand.
Reference video links for the topic:
Steam Power Plant
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ChvI2v85fsU
Vapors Power Cycle-I- Lec-20 - Prof.S.K. Som, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-BI22Wx4Pc
Rankine cycle
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3JxCjXQtNU
Rankine with Regeneration
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dG_jA5HOG1c
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kC3O0lPn1k
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kC3O0lPn1k
Comparison of Rankine and Carnot Cycles
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIMRqmaZa1Q
Rankine cycle with superheat and reheat
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0Ozk_qQNbQ
Rankine Reheat cycle
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D4sTvRrAVwA
Reheating Of Steam for Thermal Power Plants (Explanation)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VJzYG0Tc6I
Methods of Improving Efficiency of Rankine Cycle- Lec 05 -Dr. Manoj K. Moharana
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmzHrhZnerY
How can we increase the Rankine cycle efficiency?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyPtWgcfmtc

Analysis of Flue gases by Orsat method

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-CGggAM9Kc
Stoichiometry: What is Stoichiometry?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ln4DSfFGak
Stoichiometry | Chemical reactions and stoichiometry | Chemistry |
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjQG3rKSZUQ

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Day 1
Topics to be covered:
 Concept of Steam Formation, Introduction, Basic concepts, basic components of a Steam power plant, Rankine cycle,
Thermodynamic analysis, Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle, problems.
Concept of Steam Formation
Before discussing about the steam power plant, it is important to take a glance on the concept of steam formation as we have
discussed in the subject thermodynamics.
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power cycles because of its many desirable characteristics, such as:
(a) low cost,
(b) availability, and
(c) High enthalpy of vaporization.
Depending on the type of fuel used to make steam Steam power plants are commonly referred to as:
(a) coal plants,
(b) nuclear plants, or
(c) natural gas plants
Introduction
Thermal Engineering is mainly concerned with heat and work. Sometimes we convert heat energy into useful
mechanical work (Eg. I.C. engines, steam turbines etc.,) and sometimes we convert work into heat energy (Eg. Heat pump).
I.C.engines, steam turbines etc., are the devices through which conversion of one form of energy into another takes place.
We focus our attention on the conversion of heat energy into useful work output. This work output can be utilised
for different purposes – for running of locomotives, generation of electric power etc. One way to convert heat energy into
mechanical work and to obtain electric power from this mechanical work is steam power plant.

1. With neat sketch explain the process involved in formation of steam with neat T-s and T-H diagrams?

The process of formation of steam is discussed and detailed in the following: In Fig. 1(i), water at 0°C having a volume of V f is
contained in a cylinder with a piston arrangement. It is then heated at atmospheric pressure keeping the volume constant. This results
in temperature increase for water from 0°C to ts °C (saturation temperature of water at atm.pressure). This is given in Fig. 1(ii). Then
further heating after saturation temperature of water, results in conversion of water into steam at the constant temperature (t s °C ) and
pressure with increase in volume as shown in Fig.1(iii) from V f to Vg. The conversion of steam stops when the saturation point is
reached, which is called dry saturated steam (Fig. 1 (iv) where there is no water but only with dry steam. Further heating results in
increase in temperature (tsup) and volume of steam (Vsup) at constant pressure as indicated in Fig. 1(v). This steam at t sup is called super
heated steam.

Fig. 1: Sketch of experiment in which heat is added isobarically to water in a closed piston-cylinder arrangement.

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Fig. 2: T-s diagram Fig. 3: T− H diagram

2. Give the basic concept of Steam Power Plant? Explain the phases of energy transformation that take place in a steam
power plant?
The steam power plant has a combination of several components or devices whose objective is to convert heat energy of fuel into
mechanical work and then to obtain electric power.
 To have heat energy, we need certain source of energy. This source of heat energy is called - Fuel.
 By burning the fuel, the chemical energy of fuel gets converted into thermal or heat energy. This burning of fuel is known as -
combustion. The place where combustion of fuel takes place is called Boiler.
 After attaining required pressure, the high-pressure steam is allowed to flow through a passage called nozzle of moving blades
attached to a shaft. The unit which houses the shaft with blades (number of blades mounted circumferentially over a shaft) is called
-Turbine.
 The high-pressure steam while flowing through the nozzle increases its kinetic energy and then expands over the blades of
turbine. In this way, heat energy of fuel is converted into mechanical work.
 Now, the low pressure, expanded steam from turbine goes to atmosphere. This exhaust steam from turbine still contains enough
heat and can be used for different purposes - for process work, expansion in low-pressure turbines or for preheating feed water to the
boiler.
 To increase the work done from the turbine, a unit called condenser is placed after the turbine. In condenser, the exhaust steam
from turbine is cooled and then re-circulated as feed water to the boiler with help of feed pump.
These (Boiler, steam turbine, condenser, feed pump) are the important components in a steam power plant. To increase the
efficiency of the plant and to have satisfactory running of the plant, other components are also included in the plant.

The below figure 4, shows the phases of energy transformation that take place in a steam power plant.

Fig. 4: Phases of Energy Transformation in a Steam Power Plant

3. Draw the Layout of a Steam Power Plant which is used in coal fired steam power plant?
The purpose of a steam power plant is to generate electric power only or to generate steam for industrial purpose besides generation
of electric power.
Steam is extensively used in industries like Textile, Sugar, Paper, Refinery, and Chemical etc.
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The fig. 5, shows the layout of a coal fired steam power plant. All the major components of the plant are shown in the figure.

Fig. 5: Layout of a Coal Fired Steam Power Plant

4. What is Vapour Power Cycle?

Cycles which use vapour as the working substance are known as vapour power cycles. The most commonly used vapour is steam.
 In vapour power cycles, change of phase of working fluid takes place while in gas power cycles, the working fluid remains
in one phase throughout the cycle.
 In vapour power cycles, water is universally used as a working fluid as it is easy to change its phase, ease of handling and its
chemical stability.
 The vapour power cycle consists of a series of steady flow processes, each process carried out in a separate component
designed for that purpose.
 Each component in the cycle / plant constitutes an open system and as the working fluid passes through each component, it
passes through a cycle of mechanical and thermodynamic states.
 In the analysis of the cycles, all the processes are assumed to be reversible.

Day 2
1. What is a Rankine cycle? Describe the different processes of Rankine cycle. Show them on p-v, T-s and h-s diagrams.
A Rankine cycle is a basic cycle used for a simple steam power plant. It is a theoretical cycle upon which steam engine or steam
turbine works.

 It is a modified form of Carnot cycle and an ideal cycle for comparing the performance of steam power plants." Isentropic
expansion and isentropic (compression) pumping are common in both cycles, but reversible constant temperature heat
addition and heat rejection are changed to reversible constant pressure processes.
 Rankine cycle efficiency can be compared to Carnot cycle. Its efficiency is nearer to Carnot efficiency with reduced
superheat.

Rankine cycle is preferred to for large power generation in steam power plants because of its many advantages.
Pumping work is negligible because it deals with incompressible liquid water, where change in specific volume is negligible.Net
work done is higher because of low pumping work.
The basic components of Rankine cycle are:
 Boiler
 Turbine
 Condenser
 Pump
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Fig. 6: Different components of a Rankine cycle Fig. 7: Processes in Steam Power Plant

Working principle of Rankine Cycle: Heat is transferred to water in the boiler from an external source of heat (furnace, where
fuel is continuously burnt) to raise steam. The high pressure, high temperature steam leaving the boiler expands in the turbine to
produce shaft work. The steam leaving the turbine condenses into water in the condenser, rejecting heat ; the water is pumped
back to the boiler.

(a) P-v diagram (b) T-s diagram (c) h-s diagram

Fig. 8 (a) P - v, (b)T - s (c) h - s, diagrams of Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle comprises the following processes:
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion in the turbines (or steam engine)
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the feed pump
Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler
The condition of steam at the entry of the turbine may be wet, dry saturated or superheated.
In a steam power plant, supply of heat and rejection of heat are more easily performed at constant pressure than at constant
temperature. In the operation of the cycle, the work done in pumping feed water to the boiler is very small at low pressures and is
usually neglected.
Assumptions in the Working of Rankine Cycle
The following assumptions are made in the working of Rankine cycle:
1. The same working fluid is repeatedly circulated in a closed circuit;
2. Heat is added in boiler only and rejected in condenser only. Except boiler and condenser, there is no heat transfer between working
fluid and surroundings.
3. There is no pressure drop in the piping system.
4. Expansion in the prime mover occurs without friction or heat transfer i.e., expansion is isentropic in which case entropy of working
fluid entering and leaving the prime mover is same.
5. The working fluid is not under-cooled in the condenser i.e., the temperature of water leaving the condenser is same as saturation
temperature corresponding to the exhaust pressure.

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2. Give the Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle?

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
From the heat engine cycle: - we try to find out the efficiency of the Rankine cycle

In terms of the physical quantities

Where ,WT which is the turbine work that the cycle is doing, W pump is the pump work which has to be supplied from the outside to the
cycle, and Qboiler is the amount of thermal energy supplied to the working fluid in the boiler.
For the calculation of Wturbine, recalling from the First law of Thermodynamics, applied to the steady state process W T can be arrived
at. Here the pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser are steady-flow devices. Thus all four processes that make up the ideal Rankine
cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The process through a turbine is also a steady state process and in this case the
kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small and thus it can be neglected. If we take all these assumptions then
work done in the turbine, WT will be the change in enthalpy between the inlet and outlet that means the change in enthalpy of the
incoming steam and the outgoing steam.
Turbine work = Change in enthalpy

Thus the Steady-flow Energy Equation per unit mass of steam reduces to:

Energy Interactions
The boiler and condenser do not involve any work but both involve with heat interactions. (w = 0)
The pump and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic and both involve work interactions. (Q = 0)
From SFEE,

Boiler

Turbine

Condenser

Pump
3. Derive an expression for thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle.
A. Considering 1 kg of fluid and applying steady flow energy equation (SFEE) to boiler, turbine, condenser and pump, we get the
following equations.
From, Fig 9 - T-s diagram of Rankine cycle
The Steady-flow Energy Equation per unit mass of steam is given by

For boiler,

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For turbine,

For condenser,

For feed pump,

Fig.9: T-s diagram of Rankine cycle Fig. 10: T-s diagram with turbine and pump efficiencies

Efficiency of Rankine cycle is given by

The work required for feed pump (W P) is a small quantity in comparison with turbine work (W T) and is usually neglected
especially when boiler pressures are low.
Neglecting pump work we have,

Note: Feed pump work WP can be found from property relation

Feed pump handles liquid water which is incompressible and change in its specific volume are negligible, ν = constant.
Assuming pumping to be isentropic, ds=0

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Pump work is given by

Where p1 and p2 are in bar and v3 is in m3/kg.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. 1. Draw the schematic for an ideal Rankine cycle. Draw p-v, T-s and h-s diagrams for this cycle. (Set 4, Dec 2012 R10, 5M)
2. (a) Draw the layout, p-v and T-s diagrams of Rankine cycle and explain working in detail. (Set 2, May 2013 R10, 10M)
3. Explain Rankine cycle with neat schematic layout, what are the processes involved in it? (Set 1, Dec 2014 R10, 8M)

Day 3
1. Briefly explain how the performance of Rankine cycle is evaluated?

Performance of a steam power plant working on Rankine cycle can be evaluated with the help of the following parameters: thermal
efficiency, work ratio, specific steam consumption, specific power output, isentropic efficiency of turbine and pump.
1) Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle is defined as ratio of net work done to heat supplied.

Thermal efficiency

2) Work ratio is defined as the ratio of net work done to turbine work.

Where, is turbine work and is pump work.

3) Specific steam consumption is defined as the steam consumed per unit energy i.e., per kWh.

Specific steam consumption =

4) Specific power output is the power output per kg of steam flow.

5) Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbine and Pump:

The ideal processes in turbine and pump are isentropic, but the actual processes may involve increase in entropy. This is taken
into consideration by efficiencies of turbine and pump.
Definition of Turbine Efficiency
An efficiency for a real turbine, known as the isentropic efficiency, is defined as the ratio of the actual shaft work to the shaft
work for an isentropic expansion between the same inlet state and exit pressure level.(actual shaft work / shaft work for an
isentropic expansion )

Turbine Efficiency,

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Pump Efficiency,

Where,
1-2s is isentropic process, 1-2 is actual process, 3-4s is isentropic, 3-4 is actual process.

Class work:
1. Example Problem. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressures 28 bar and 0.06 bar, the initial condition of steam being dry
saturated. Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and specific steam consumption.
Ans. Cycle efficiency =33.57%, work ratio =0.997, specific steam consumption=4.049kg/kWh.

2. Example Problem. Steam at 20 bar, 360 o C is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.08 bar. It then enters a condenser, where it is
condensed to saturated liquid water. The pump feeds back the water into the boiler.

(a) Assuming ideal processes, find per kg of steam, the network and the cycle efficiency.
(b) If the turbine and the pump have each 80% efficiency, find the percentage reduction in the network and cycle efficiency.
Ans. (a) net work=969.61kJ/kg, cycle efficiency=32.5%
(b)% reduction in net work=20.1, cycle efficiency=25.97%.

Home work:
1. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressure of 30bar and 0.04bar, the initial conditions of steam being dry saturated. Calculate
the cycle efficiency, work ratio and specific steam consumption.
Ans. cycle efficiency=32%, work ratio = 0.9965, specific steam consumption =4.195 kg/kWh.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Define the terms: (i) ideal efficiency (ii) isentropic efficiency (iii) overall efficiency (iv) work ratio (v) specific fuel consumption.
(Set 4, May 2015 R10, 8M)
2. Why Rankine cycle is preferred for larger power generation? (Set 3, May 2015 R10, 7M)
3. A steam turbine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 25 bar. The exhaust takes place at 0.2 bar. For a flow rate of 8 kg/s,
calculate the (i) power required to drive the pump (ii) turbine power (iii) Rankine efficiency and quality of steam at the end of
expansion.(Set 3, May 2015 R10, 8M) Ans: (i) 20.2kW (ii)3138.4kW (iii) 15.8% , x2= 0.88
4. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressure of 30 bar and 0.04 bar, the initial condition of steam being dry saturated, calculate
the cycle efficiency, work ratio and specific steam consumption. (Set 2, May 2015 R10, 8M) Ans:23.7% , 0.995, 5.845kg/kWh
5. In a steam power cycle, the steam supply is at 15 bar and dry and saturated. The condenser pressure is 0.4 bar. Calculate the
rankine efficiencies of the cycle neglect pump work. (Set 1, Dec 2014 R10, 7M) Ans: 23.56%
6. The adiabatic enthalpy drop across the prime mover of the Rankine cycle is 840kJ/kg. The enthalpy of steam supplied is
2940 kJ/kg. If the back pressure is 0.1 bar find the specific steam consumption and thermal efficiency? (Set 2, Dec 2014
R10, 8M) Ans: 4.29 kg/kWh, 30.57%
7. In a Rankine cycle ,the steam at inlet to a turbine is dry saturated at a pressure of 35 bar and the exhaust pressure is 0.2 bar.
Calculate (i) Pump work , (ii) Turbine work, (iii) Rankine efficiency, and (iv) Condenser heat flow. Assume flow rate of 9.5
kg/s. (Set 3, Jan 2015 R07, 8M) Ans: (i) 33.62kW, (ii) 7486.8kW, (iii) 30.8%, (iv) 16.76kW
Day 4

Topics to be covered: Concept of mean temperature of heat addition and its importance, methods to increase mean temperature of
heat addition.

1: Explain the concept of mean temperature of heat addition?

In a Rankine cycle, heat is added reversibly at a constant pressure but at varying temperature. If T m1 is the mean temperature of heat
addition as shown in the figure so that the area under 4 and 1 is equal to area under 5 and 6, then heat added is given by

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Fig. 11: Mean Temperature of Heat Addition Fig. 12: Higher superheat temperature for Tm1

Q2 =
Q2 = Heat rejected

Where T2 is the temperature of heat of rejection. When T2 is lower or when Tm1 is higher, efficiency is higher. But the lowest
practicable temperature of heat rejection is the temperature of surroundings (T o). This being fixed,

2. Explain how mean temperature of heat addition is increased. What are their limitations?
Increase in mean temperature of heat addition results in increase in Rankine efficiency Tm1.
Tm1 can be increased by two important factors:

(i) By increasing the superheat temperature, the mean temperature of heat addition T m1 can be increased, but this maximum
temperature of steam that can be used is fixed from metallurgical considerations of materials used to manufacture the
components like superheaters, valves, pipe lines etc.

(ii) By increasing the boiler operating pressure: To improve the efficiency, Tm1 can be increased by increasing the boiler
operating pressure for a given maximum temperature.

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But when the turbine inlet pressure increases from p 1 to p2, the ideal expansion line shifts to the left and moisture content in the
turbine increases, which causes erosion of blades and other surfaces. From consideration of blade erosion, the maximum allowed
moisture content is 15%, i.e., dryness fraction (x2) should be atleast 0.85.
Therefore, with the maximum steam temperature at the turbine inlet, the minimum temperature of heat rejection and the minimum
steam pressure at the turbine inlet also gets fixed. The vertical line drawn from 2s fixed by T 2 and x2 intersects the Tmax line fixed by
the material at 1 which gives the maximum steam pressure at the turbine inlet. See figure 4: Limitation on boiler pressure

Fig. 13: Increased boiler pressure for increase in Tm1 Fig.14: Limitation on Boiler Pressure

3. Briefly explain the use of Mollier chart?

Enthalpy-entropy diagram for H2O is known as Mollier chart. Analysis of Rankine cycle can be done using T-s diagram and steam
tables. But this method involves a lot of calculations and reference to steam tables takes much time. Mollier chart allows to directly
read the values of enthalpy at inlet and exit conditions of the components of Boiler, Turbine, condenser so that net work done, heat
addition and thermal efficiency and other performance parameters can be determined easily. Constant pressure lines, constant specific
volume lines and constant dryness fraction lines are drawn on commercial Mollier chart which is available in SI units and MKS units.

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Fig. 15: Mollier chart

Class work
1. Example Problem: A cyclic steam power plant is to be designed for a steam temperature at turbine inlet at 360 o C and an exhaust
pressure of 0.08 bar. After isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine the moisture content at the turbine exhaust is not to exceed
15%. Determine the greatest allowable steam pressure at the turbine inlet and calculate the Rankine cycle efficiency for these steam
conditions. Estimate also the mean temperature of heat addition.
Ans: pmax=16.832bar, Tm1=187.51oC.

2. Example Problem: A steam turbine operating on Rankine cycle receives steam from the boiler at 3.5MN/m 2 and 350oC and
exhaust to the condenser at 10kN/m2. The condensate in them returned to the boiler by feed water pump. Determine the following
considering pump work also.

(i) The energy supplied in the steam generator

(ii) The dryness fraction of the steam entering the condenser
(iii) Rankine efficiency
Previous JNTUK Important Questions:
1. An adiabatic steam turbine receives dry saturated steam at 1.0 MN/m2 and discharges at 0.1 MN/m2. The steam flow rate is 3 kg/s
and the moisture at exit is negligible. If the ambient temperature is 300 K. Find the rate of entropy production and power lost. (Set 1,
Dec 2012 R10, 8M)
2. What are the advantages of using superheated steam in a steam power plant? (Set 3, Dec 2012 R10, 5M)
3. In a steam power plant operating on an ideal Rankine cycle, the steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 400ºC and it is exhausted at
10 kPa. Determine (i) thermal efficiency (ii) thermal efficiency, if the steam is superheated to 500ºC at 3 MPa, before it enters the
turbine (iii) Thermal efficiency, if steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 400ºC. (Set 3, Dec 2012 R10, 10M)
4. Explain the concept of mean temperature of heat addition.
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5. Steam at 28 bar and 50 deg. C superheat is passed through a turbine and expanded to a pressure where the steam is dry and
saturated. It is then heated at constant pressure to its original temperature and then expanded to the condenser pressure of 0.2 bar.
If the expansion is isentropic, find (i) work done per kg of steam (ii) thermal efficiency with and without reheat. (Set 1, May 2013
R10, 15M)
6. Explain the concept of Mean Temperature of Heat addition
7. In a Rankine cycle, the steam at inlet to turbine is saturated at a pressure of 35 bar and the exhaust pressure is 0.2 bar. Determine
(i) The pump work (ii) The turbine work (iii) The Rankine Efficiency (iv) the condenser heat flow (v) the dryness at the end of the
expansion. Assume flow rate of steam 9.5 kg/sec. (Set 1, Jun 2014 R10, 15M)
Day 5
Topics to be covered: Methods to improve Rankine cycle efficiency, Regeneration.

1. What are the methods to improve the performance or the efficiency of Rankine Cycle? Briefly explain the limitations on
higher superheat, higher boiler pressure and low condenser pressure.
A. The basic idea of increasing the efficiency of Rankine cycle is to get more power and saving from fuel requirement.
1. The Rankine cycle can be increased by increasing the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the
boiler, or decreasing the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. (i.e. the average fluid
should be as higher as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection.
2. If we take the representative values, of condenser pressure and representative values of the boiler pressure take the values of
enthalpies from the steam tables and calculate the efficiencies, we can observe that we are not getting high efficiencies, the efficiency
is quite low and we always try to have high efficiency from the heat engine cycle, so one can think of different ways, by which
Rankine cycle can be derived.
There are different methods to improve the efficiency of the Rankine cycle, they are:-
1. By Increasing the boiler pressure
2. By decreasing the condenser pressure
3. By superheating steam
4. Reheating
5. Regenerative Feed Heating
6. By using binary vapor cycle
(i) Increasing boiler pressure:
Efficiency of Rankine cycle is increased by increasing the boiler operating pressure. Actually we are increasing the boiler pressure,
i.e.. The pressure of the supply steam or pressure of the steam which is going to the turbine, so we are increasing the energy
content of the steam at high pressures, it will have larger enthalpy.
By increasing the boiler pressure, this automatically raises the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam and
increase efficiency. This is evident from the increased mean temperature of heat addition Tm1 with the increased boiler pressure.
Advantage: - As we are increasing the boiler pressure we get net work output more and efficiency also high.

Fig. 16: The Effect of Increasing the Boiler Pressure on the Ideal Rankine Cycle.
(ii)Superheating steam:
When the steam is used with higher degree of superheat with same working substance and the same equipment, and supplying it
to the turbine, the energy content of steam is higher and we can expect more work output and possibly a higher efficiency.(this can be
done without increasing the boiler pressure).
The efficiency of Rankine cycle is increased by increasing superheat temperature. This is also evident from the increase in mean
temperature of heat addition Tm1.
Limitation: - There is mechanical constraint as it is a steady flow device, the part of the boiler will always be exposed to a very high
temperature, the high steam is going to the turbine, so the turbine blading will be subjected to high temperature and metallurgical

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failure will take place. So from material point of view what maximum temperature can be associated with flowing steam is limited
as we cannot go up to or beyond that.
Drawback: It decreases the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit.
Advantages: Using maximum temperature, the dryness fraction is increased.

Fig.17: The Effect of superheating the steam to higher temperatures on the Ideal Rankine cycle.
(iii)Decreasing the condenser pressure:
Efficiency of Rankine cycle can be increased by reducing the condenser pressure. With decreased condenser pressure saturation
temperature in the condenser T2 also decreases.

With Rankine efficiency with decrease in T2, ηrankine increases.

But the lowest practicable temperature of heat rejection T 2 is limited to surrounding temperature T o. For effective heat rejection, T2
must be atleast 5 to 6oC more than To.

2. Explain with the help of a neat a regenerative cycle. State the advantages of regenerative cycle over simple Rankine cycle.
Or what is the effect of regeneration on efficiency and specific power output of a steam power plant? Show the cycle on T-s
chart.
A. Regenerative cycle: In a regenerative cycle the feed water from the condenser is heated by feed water heaters before entering the
boiler. This increases the mean temperature of heat addition and inturn the cycle efficiency. This heating is called Regenerative feed
heat and cycle is called Regenerative cycle. The principle of regeneration can be practically utilized by regenerative heaters. The
following figure shows a layout of a steam power plant which uses two feed water heaters and the cycle diagram of regenerative
cycle.

Fig. 18: Layout and T-s diagram of Regenerative cycle

Let m1 = mass of high pressure (HP) steam per kg of steam flow

m2 = mass of low pressure (LP) steam per kg of steam flow
(1 – m1 – m2) = mass of steam entering the condenser per kg of steam flow
Energy/heat balance equation for HP heater gives

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Energy/heat balance equation for LP heater

All enthalpies may be determined, therefore m1 and m2 may be found.

Neglecting pump work,

Heat supplied externally in the cycle Q1 = (h0-h6)
Isentropic work done,

Thermal efficiency of the regenerative cycle is given by

Work done is also determined by

Class work
1.Example Problem: In a single heater regenerative cycle, the steam enters the turbine at 30bar, 400 oC and exhaust pressure is
0.10bar. The feed water heater is a direct contact type which operates at 5 bar. Find(a)The efficiency and the steam rate of the cycle
and(b)Increase in mean temperature of heat addition, efficiency and steam rate as compared to the Rankine cycle(without
regeneration). Neglect pump work. Ans: a)35.36%,3.93kg/kWh b)27.4oC,1.18%,0.48
Home work
1. In a steam power plant, the condition of steam at inlet to the steam turbine is at 20bar and dry saturated and the condenser
pressure is 0.1bar. Two feed water heaters operate at optimum temperatures.
Determine
(a) quality of steam at turbine exhaust
(b) Net work per kg of steam
(c) Cycle efficiency
(d) Steam rate. Neglect pump work. Ans: a)0.816 b)797.48kJ/kg c)33.34% d)4.51kg/kWh
Previous JNTUK Important Questions:
1. What are the methods which can lead to increase in thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle? (Set 2, May 2015 R10, 7M)
2. What is regeneration? Draw the schematic and T-s diagram for an ideal regenerative cycle. (Set 1, Dec 2012 R10, 7M)
3. What are the methods to improve performance of Rankine cycle? Explain reheating in detail. (Set 3, May 2013 R10, 7M)
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4. A steam turbine consumes 9 kg/kW-hr when steam is supplied at a pressure of 10 bar and at 400 deg. C. The exhaust takes place at
0.1 bar. Compare the efficiency of the engine with Rankine efficiency. (Set 3, May 2013 R10, 7M)
5. A) Explain regeneration cycle with neat sketches of layout, p-v and T-s plots.
(b) Derive expressions for mass flow rates of bled steam considering 2-bleedings. (Set 4, May 2013 R10, 15M)
6a) Explain the method of Regeneration to improve the thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle with the T-s diagram.
b) A steam turbine is fed with steam having an enthalpy of 3100 kJ/Kg. It moves out of the turbine with an enthalpy of 2100 kJ/Kg.
Feed heating is done at a pressure of 3.2 bar with steam enthalpy of 2500 kJ/Kg. The condensate from the condenser with an enthalpy
of 125 kJ/kg enters into the feed water. The quantity of bled steam is 11200 kg/h. Find the power developed by the turbine. Assume
that the water leaving the feed water is saturated liquid at 3.2 bar and heater is direct mixing type. Neglect pump work. (Set 2, Jun
2014 R10, 15M)
7. What is regeneration? Draw schematic and T-S diagram for an ideal regenerative cycle. (Set 4, Jan 2015 R07, 8M)
Day 6
Topics covered: Reheat cycle - merits and limitations, Reciprocating Steam Engine – Modified Rankine Cycle.

1. Explain with the help of a diagram, working of reheat cycle and plot T-s and h-s graphs accordingly. State the advantages
and disadvantages of reheating.
A. Reheat cycle: In reheating steam initially superheated in the boiler, then it is sent to the turbine, in the turbine it expands not up to
the condenser pressure, up to some intermediate pressure, then this steam is taken to the boiler again, where it is again heated back, to
a high temperature and sent back to the lower stage of the turbine where it expands up to the condenser pressure.
So heating is done at two (2) stages, initially.
1. Initially the sub cooled water is heated to get superheated steam then
2. The low pressure steam is heated to get again superheated steam.
By using the same working material more work can be extracted.
The mechanical arrangement and the cycle diagram for a reheating arrangement is shown in the below figure 1.

Fig. 19: Layout of Reheat cycle Fig. 20: T-s and h-s diagrams of Reheat cycle

Reheating improves the cycle efficiency by about 5% and the cost of reheat equipment may be 5 to 10% more, Reheating is justified
on if gain in thermal efficiency is sufficient .
So calculation of efficiency of Reheat cycle from the diagram
For 1kg of steam,

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Advantages:
(i) There is an increase in specific power output of the turbine.
(ii) Erosion and corrosion problems in the steam turbine are eliminated.
(iii) With the same amount of the mass flow rate we will be able to extract more amount of work.
(iv) There is an important in the thermal efficiency of the turbine (slightly).
(v) Final dryness fraction of steam is improved.
(vi) There is an increase in nozzle and blade efficiency.
(vii) Specific team consumption reduces.
Disadvantages:
(i) Reheating requires more maintenance.
(ii) We have to pay more extra fuel and the complexity of the plant has increased piping etc.., that will increase and there
are the extra provisions to be made for the modification of the cycle.
(iii) Increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable in comparison to the expenditure incurred in reheating.

2. Derive an expression for thermal efficiency of a modified Rankine cycle.

A. Modified Rankine cycle is used for reciprocating steam engines because stroke length and the cylinder size are reduced with a
quite negligible amount of work done.
The fig.3 shows modified Rankine cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams neglecting pump work. It will be noted that p-v diagram is narrow
at the point 2 and the work obtained near 2 is very small. In fact the work is too inadequate to overcome friction (due to reciprocating
parts). The pressure decreases suddenly while the volume remains constant.
This operation is represented by the line 2-3. By this doing the stroke length is reduced. In other words the cylinder dimensions
reduce but at the expense of small loss of work area (2-3-2’) which is however negligibly small.

Fig. 21. Modified Rankine Cycle (p-v & T-s diagram)

Net work done during the cycle = area l-1-2-3-m,

The modified Rankine cycle efficiency is given by

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Class work
1. Example Problem: A steam power station uses the following cycle.
Steam at boiler outlet = 150bar, 550oC
Reheat at 40bar to 550oC
Condenser at 0.1bar
Using the Mollier chart and assuming ideal processes, find
(a) Quality at turbine exhaust
(b) Cycle efficiency
(c) Steam rate
A. a)0.88 b) 43.9% c)2.18 kg/kW
2. Example Problem: steam at a pressure of 15bar and 300oC is delivered to the throttle of an engine. The steam expands to 2bar
when release occurs. The steam exhaust takes place at 1.1bar. A performance test gave the result of the specific steam consumption of
12.8 kg/kWh and a mechanical efficiency of 80%. Determine:
(i) Ideal work or the modified Rankine work per kg.
(ii) Efficiency of the modified Rankine engine or ideal thermal efficiency
(iii) The indicated and brake work
(iv) Brake thermal efficiency
(v) Relative efficiency on the basis of indicated work and brake work
Ans: i)495.8kJ/kg ii)19.1% iii)281.25,225kJ/kg iv)8.6% v)56.7%,45.38%
Home work:
1. Superheated steam at a pressure of 10bar and 400 oC is supplied to a steam engine. Adiabatic expansion takes place to release point
at 0.9bar and it exhausts into a condenser at 0.3bar. Neglecting clearance, determine for a steam flow rate of 1.5kg/s:
(i) Quality of steam at the end of expansion and the end of constant volume operation
(ii) Power developed
(iii) Specific steam consumption
(iv) Modified Rankine efficiency Ans: i) 0.37 ii)971.1kW iii)5.56kg/kWh iv)21.7%

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Sketch the reheat cycle on Mollier chart. (Set 4, May 2015 R10, 7M)
2. A steam engine uses dry saturated steam at a pressure of 10 bar and back pressure is 0.7 bar. The pressure at release is 3.8 bar.
Assuming the pressure drop to take place at constant volume, find the efficiency of the modified Rankine cycle. Neglect clearance.
(Set 1, May 2016 R07, 7M)
3.What is reheating? What the advantages of reheat Rankine cycle? (Set 2, Dec 2012 R10, 5M)
4. Superheated steam at 10 bar abs. and 300ºC admitted into the cylinder of a steam engine expands isentropically to a pressure of 0.7
bar. The pressure then falls at constant volume to a back pressure of 0.28 bar. Determine (a) modified Rankine cycle efficiency (b)
steam consumption per kWhr (c) mean effective pressure (d) heat removed in the condenser per kg of steam (e) loss of work due to
incomplete expansion (f) if the cylinder diameter and stokes are 30 cm and 58 cm respectively, what would be the new stroke if the
steam is allowed to expand without any restriction upto the condenser pressure. (Set 2, Dec 2012 R10, 10M)
5. In a reheat cycle steam enters the H.P turbine at 100 bar and 500ºC. The expansion is continued to a pressure of 8.5 bar with
isentropic efficiency of 80%. There is a pressure drop of 1.5 bar in the reheater and then steam enters the L.P turbine at 7 bar and
500ºC in which expansion is continued to a back pressure of 0.04 bar with isentropic efficiency of 85%. Determine (i) thermal
efficiency (ii) specific steam consumption. (Set 4, Dec 2012 R10, 10M)
6.Explain the modified Rankine cycle with neat sketches of P-v &T-S diagrams(Set 4, Jun 2014 R10, 7M)
7. Explain modified Rankine cycle with P-V &T-S diagrams? (Set 2, Dec 2014 R10, 7M)

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8. A steam power plant operates on ideal reheat cycle. The steam enters the high pressure turbine at 150 bar and 600°C and after
expansion in two stages, is exhausted at 10 kPa. If the moisture content of the exhausted steam should not exceed 10.4 percent,
determine (i) the pressure at which the steam should be reheated (ii) thermal efficiency of the cycle. Assume the steam is reheated to
high pressure turbine inlet temperature. (b) Define (i) reactants , (ii) products, (iii) combustion, and (iv) ignition (Set 2 Jan 2015 R07,
16M)
9. What is the effect of reheating of steam on (i) Specific power output, (ii) Cycle efficiency, and (iii) Steam rate? (Set 1, Jan 2015
R07, 8M)
Day 7
Topics covered: Fuels, calorific values of fuels, heat of reaction, enthalpy of formation, enthalpy of reaction, adiabatic flame
temperature.

1. Write short notes on fuels. Give classification of fuels?

A. Fuels may be chemical or nuclear. In this section we consider only chemical fuels.
A chemical fuel is a substance which releases heat on combustion. The principal elements of each fuel are carbon and hydrogen.
Though sulphur is a combustible element, but its presence in the fuel is considered to be undesirable due to its corrosive nature.
Classification of fuels: Fuels may be classified in the following ways.
(i) Primary fuels and secondary fuels
Primary fuels are naturally available fuels Ex: wood, peat, lignite coal
Secondary fuels are prepared fuels Ex: coke, charcoal, briquettes
(ii) Solid liquid and gaseous fuels
Solid fuel Ex: coal, peat, bituminous coal, wood, charcoal
Liquid fuels Ex: petroleum products, alcohol
Natural gas, coal gas, coke-oven gas

2. What is combustion of fuels, define the terms HCV and LCV of a fuel?
A. Combustion of fuels: Combustion is an exothermic reaction between carbon, hydrogen of fuels with oxygen of air, which releases
heat of reaction. In combustion reaction reactants are initial constituents and products are final constituents which are formed by
chemical reaction.
Calorific value or heating value of fuels (CV): Calorific value or heating value of a fuel is defined as energy liberated by complete
oxidation of a unit volume of a fuel. It is expressed in kJ/kg for solid and liquid fuels and in kJ/m 3 for gases.
Fuels which contain hydrogen have two calorific values,
1. Higher or Gross Calorific Value (HCV).
2. Lower or Net Calorific Value (LCV).
1. Lower or Net Calorific Value
The lower calorific value is the heat liberated per kg of fuel after deducting the heat necessary to vaporize the steam formed
from hydrogen.
2. Higher or Gross Calorific Value
The higher or gross calorific value of the fuel is one indicated by a constant volume calorimeter in which the steam is
condensed and the heat of vapor is recovered.
The lower or net calorific value is obtained by subtracting latent heat of water vapour from the gross calorific value.
The relation between LCV and HCV can be expressed in the following way.
LCV = HCV – 2465 mw
Where, mw is the mass of water vapor produced by combustion of 1 kg of fuel and 2465 kJ/kg is the latent heat corresponding to
standard temperature (saturation) of 150C.

3. What is the formula used for determining the calorific values for solid and liquid fuels?
A. The calorific value of the fuels can be determined either from chemical analysis or in the laboratory.
Dulong’s formula:
To determine the solid and liquid fuels Dulong suggested a formula for the calculation of the calorific value (HCV) from their
chemical composition is given below:

Where C, H, O and S are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur quantities in 100kg of fuel (percentages).

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4. Give the formula for Calorific value of a blend of fuels?

A. Calorific value of a blend of fuels:
If a fuel is a blend of x % of fuel A, y % of fuel B, z % of a fuel C, …… by mass with calorific values of CVA, CVB, CVC,……
respectively, then

Class work
Example Problems:
1. The ultimate analysis of a sample of coal gave the following analysis by weight C= 65 percent, H2 = 6 percent, S = 15 percent ,
O2 = 18 percent. Find the calorific value of this coal by using Dulong’s formula? Ans: HCV=27509kJ/kg, LCV=26178 kJ/kg of coal.
2. Problem: A sample of coal has the following composition by mass: carbon 75%, hydrogen 6%, oxygen 8%, Nitrogen 2.5%,
sulphur 1.5%, ash 7%. Calculate its higher and lower calorific values per kg of coal. Ans: HCV=32689kJ/kg, LCV=31358.3kJ/kg.
3. Problem: A sample of fuel has the following percentage analysis by weight, carbon=82%, hydrogen=5%, oxygen=4%, the
remainder being inert material. Estimate the HCV and LCV of this fuel. The following heating values may be used,
carbon=32400kJ/kg, free hydrogen=137600kJ/kg. Assuming that each kg of steam produced during combustion absorbs 2332kJ.
Ans: HCV=32072kJ/kg, LCV=31022.6kJ/kg

Home Work
1. A composite by weight of a fuel is 65% hexane(C 6H14) having a net calorific value of 43080kJ/kg and 35% benzene(C 6H6) having a
net calorific value of 38900kJ/kg. Determine the calorific value of 1m3 of the blend at STP treating the fuels as gases. 1 kg-mol of
fuel has a volume of 22.42 m3 at STP. Ans: 185624kJ/m3.
Previous JNTUK Important Questions:
1. Enumerate the advantages of liquid and gaseous fuels over solid fuels. (Set 4, Jan 2015 R07, 8M)
Day 8
1. What is heat of reaction? When is positive and when is it negative?
A. Heat of reaction is the amount of heat that must be added or removed during a chemical reaction in order to keep all of the
substances present at the same temperature.
If the pressure in the vessel containing the reacting system is kept at a constant value, the measured heat of reaction also represents
the change in the thermodynamic quantity called enthalpy, or heat content, accompanying the process—i.e., the difference between
the enthalpy of the substances present at the end of the reaction and the enthalpy of the substances present at the start of the reaction.
Thus, the heat of reaction determined at constant pressure is also designated the enthalpy of reaction, represented by the symbol
ΔH.
If the heat of reaction is positive, the reaction is said to be endothermic;
if the heat of reaction is negative, the reaction is said to be exothermic.
Heat of reaction of a combustion process:
First law of thermodynamics can be applied to combustion process too, non- flow processes.
1. For a non flow, constant volume combustion:
When a unit mass of fuel undergoes complete combustion, the energy released depends on the temperature at which the process is
carried out. The energy released at one temperature is known, the energy released at another temperature can be found.
If the reactants are available at temperature T1 and products are at temperature T2 and T0, be a reference temperature between T1 and
T2, then

Where,
U represents internal energy and subscripts P and r denote products and reactants 0, 1, 2 represents at temperatures T0, T1 and T2

– is the change in internal energy of reactants from state 1 to state 2

– is the heat of constant volume combustion process at T0

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– is for the change of products from T0 to state 2.

is called internal energy of reaction or heat of reaction at constant volume.

Applying first law of thermodynamics, we have

and W = 0, for constant volume process heat reaction

2. For a flow process at constant pressure:

In such analysis, the changes in enthalpy (H) are important with the same notations, we have
Changes in enthalpy between reactants and products,

Where,

By first law of thermodynamics,

If and is neglected and no work is done, then

Where, is called ‘Enthalpy of combustion’ or ‘Enthalpy of reaction’ or ‘heat of reaction

at constant pressure’ at T0
The reference temperature T0 is taken as 25 0C for defining calorific value.

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Where, is the universal gas constant

are number of moles of products and reactants.

2. Explain in brief what is meant by enthalpy of formation?

A. In systems of fixed composition (no chemical reaction), thermodynamic properties can always be tabulated relative to some
arbitrary assumed value.
For example, in steam tables the enthalpy of saturated liquid at 0 0C is assumed to be zero. This procedure is inadequate when
dealing a chemical reaction, because the composition changes during the process.
 When chemical reactions are involved we calculate the enthalpy of reaction. However a chemical compound may undergo
chemical reaction with many substances and it is impractical to tabulate the enthalpies of all reactions’ of a chemical compound.
 Therefore, instead of enthalpy of reaction, Enthalpy of formation ‘hf 0’ is tabulated from compounds. The enthalpy of reaction

in any particular case can be easily calculated from the values ‘hf0’ of the substances taking part in the reaction.

 Enthalpy of formation of a chemical compound is defined as the increase in enthalpy when a compound is formed from its
constituent elements in their natural form and in standard state.
The standard state is where each of the reacting elements is at 1 atmosphere and 25 0C and the product is at 1 atmosphere state is zero.
 Enthalpy of formation is same as enthalpy of reaction in which the compound is the only product and reactants are only elements
in their datum states of zero enthalpy.
The advantage of enthalpy of formation is that the enthalpies of different substances can be added and subtracted from one another as
the base is common.
Values of Enthalpy of formation for some substances are given below:
Substance Enthalpy of formation‘hf0’,
kJ/kg-mole
Ammonia -46222
Carbon 0
CO2 -393522
Methane (CH4) -74813
Nitrogen 0
Acetylene (C2H2) 226731
H2O (liquid) -285838
H2O (gas) -241827

Negative sign (- ve), indicates the substance has an enthalpy less than its parent reactants. Zero enthalpy is for elements.

Enthalpy of reaction from Enthalpy of formation:

For example, the reaction of CH4 can be taken, the reaction is
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O (g)
Consider the reaction:
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C + 2H2 = CH4 + 74873 -------- 1.

C + O2 = CO2 + 393522 -------- 2.
H2 + ½ O2 = H2O (g) + 241827 -------- 3.
The arithmetic values on the RHS of the above equations are enthalpies of formation.
Adding equation 2 with twice of equation 3. And subtracting the sum from equation 1.
We get,
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O + 802303
Thus 802303 kJ/kg mole is the heat of reaction of CH4

= 802303 kJ/kg mole is also the LCV of methane

Will be the value of the HCV if hf0 for H2O (liquid) is used instead of hf0 for H2O (g)

3. What is adiabatic flame temperature? How is it calculated?

A. Adiabatic flame temperature:
Adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature of the products of a combustion reaction, that takes place adiabatically and with no
work or changes in kinetic or potential energies involved.
With the assumption of no work and no change in KE or PE, this is the maximum temperature that can be achieved for the given
reactants, because any heat transfer from the reacting substances would tend to lower the temperatures of the products.
Maximum temperature achieved depends on the
1. Type of reaction
2. Quantity of air supplied
3. Pressure and temperature of the reactants.
Maximum adiabatic flame temperature is achieved at stochiometric air-fuel ratio.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Define adiabatic flame temperature. (Set 4, May 2013 R10, 5M)
Day 9
Topics covered: stoichiometry, stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, excess air, analysis of coal, combustion reactions of carbon,
hydrogen, sulphur.

1. Write short notes on Stoichiometry?

A. Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reaction.
 In a balanced chemical reaction, the relations among quantities of reactants and products typically form a ratio of whole numbers.
 Stoichiometry can be used to find quantities such as amount of products (in mass, moles, volumes, etc.) that can be produced with
the given reactants.
 The analysis is done with the chemical equations. In a combustion process, air and fuel enter where the chemical reaction takes
place an then the combustion products pass to the exhaust.
 The total number of atom of each element concerned in the combustion remains constant, but the atoms are rearranged into groups
having different chemical properties.
 Oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmospheric air. It is usually taken air as 23.3 % Oxygen (O 2), 76.7 %
Nitrogen (N2) by mass and 21% O2 and 79% N2 by volume.
2. Explain Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio and give the formula for the Percentage of excess air?
A. Stoichiometric or chemically correct mixture of air and fuel is one that contains just sufficient oxygen for complete combustion of
the fuel. The minimum amount of air that supplies sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon, hydrogen and any
other elements in the fuel that may oxidize is called ‘Theoretical air’.
In practice it is found that complete combustion is not likely to be achieved unless the amount of air supplied is somewhat greater
than the theoretical amount. It is called ‘excess air’ and is represented in percentage.
A weak mixture is one which has an excess air. A rich mixture is one that has a deficiency of air.

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Oxygen required for combustion of each kg of fuel is the sum of air required for combustion of components of fuel such as hydrogen,
carbon and sulphur minus oxygen present in the fuel if any. Air required for the complete combustion is the quantity of air that
contains the oxygen required for combustion. Oxygen required for combustion of each constituent of fuel is calculated from
stoichiometric analysis of chemical equations of combustion reactions.
The combustion reaction equation for hydrogen in the fuel is given by

(1 mole of a substance is equal to its molecular weight kgs of mass)

We can conclude from the above equation that 1 kg of H 2 contained in a fuel requires 8kgs of O2 to give 9kgs of H2O. For that it
requires (8/0.233)kgs of air.
Similarly we conclude from the combustion equation of carbon that 1 kg of carbon contained in a fuel requires (8/3)kgs of O 2 to give
11/3 kgs of CO2.
For that it requires (8/(3x0.233))kgs of air. In this way we can write
Stoichiometric A/F ratio=(8*H+(8/3)*C+S-O)/0.233
Where H,C,S and O represent masses of hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and oxygen respectively per 1 kg of fuel.

3. What do you mean by analysis of composition of coal and give different types of analysis?
A. The analysis of composition of coal can be given in two ways
1. Proximate Analysis
2. Ultimate Analysis
Proximate Analysis: In this analysis, individual analysis are not determined. Only the percentages of moisture, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash is determined.
An example can be moisture 3 to 30 % volatile matter 3 to 50 %, fixed carbon 6 to 92 % and ash 2 to 30 %, Proximate analysis is
easier than ultimate analysis.
For example, proximate analysis of anthracite is, inherent moisture 2%, volatile matter 6%, and fixed carbon 92 %, low rank coal is a
poor quality coal and has proximate analysis, inherent moisture 10 %, volatile matter 42% and fixed carbon 48 %.
Ultimate Analysis: It is more precise chemical test for finding the chemical composition i.e. percentages of various elements. It is
very useful in combustion calculations, particularly in finding the composition of flue gases. The percentage of elements in coal may
vary as follows: Carbon 50 to 95%, hydrogen 2 to 50%, oxygen 2 to 40 %, nitrogen 0.5 to 3%, sulphur 0.5 to 7%, and ash 2 to 40 %.
Moisture is expressed as a separate item. With the ultimate analysis, the calorific value of fuel can be calculated.
Both the analysis, proximate and ultimate, may be done on fuel as obtained or on ‘dry fuel basis’.
4. What are the different types of flue gases? How to convert volumetric analysis to weight Analysis and vice versa?
A. Analysis of fuels or flue gases is of two types:
1. Weight analysis or gravimetric analysis
2. Volumetric Analysis or molar analysis
Usually these are expressed in percentages (%) by weight and volume or number of moles of various constituents of fuel or flue gas.
Volumetric analysis is given only for gaseous fuels and flue gases.
a) To convert volumetric analysis to weight analysis the following steps are followed:

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1. Multiply the volumes of each constituent by its molecular weight.

2. Add all these weights and then divide each weight by the total of all and express it as a percentage.
b) To convert weight analysis to volumetric analysis, the following steps are followed:
1. Divide the weight of each constituent by its molecular weight
2. Add up these volumes and divide each volume by the total of all and express it as a percentage.

5. Give the Chemical formula and atomic weights of important elements?

A.
Molecule Atom
Symbol Molecular Symbol Molecular
Weight weight
Hydrogen H2 2 H 1
Oxygen O2 32 O 16
Nitrogen N2 28 N 14
Carbon C 12 C 12
Sulphur S 32 S 32
Water H2O 18 --- ---
Carbon Monoxide CO 28 --- ---
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44 --- ---
Sulphur Dioxide SO2 64 --- ---
Methane CH4 16 --- ---
Ethylene C2H4 28 --- ---
Ethane C2H6 30 --- ---

6. Give combustion reactions for hydrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Methane for complete combustion and incomplete combustion?
A. Some important combustion reactions are as follows:
1. Combustion of hydrogen
Hydrogen burns with oxygen to give water as the product.

or

So there is a volumetric contraction on combustion reaction.

By mass: We have

From this, we can conclude that

For 1 kg of H2, 8 kgs of O2 is required to give 9 kg of H2O
Also for 1 kg of H2, 8 / 0.233 kgs of air is required
Since oxygen is accompanied by Nitrogen of air, Nitrogen being inert in the reaction, the equation becomes

(In 100 moles of air, there are 21 moles of oxygen and 79 moles of Nitrogen N2,

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For 1 mole of O2, there are moles of N2).

ii) Combustion of Carbon

In the presence of excess oxygen, there is complete combustion of carbon to CO2.
When there is insufficient supply of oxygen, there is incomplete combustion of carbon to CO.
a) For complete combustion of carbon into CO2:

Including Nitrogen, it is

The volume of carbon is written zero because volume of solid is negligible in comparison with that of a gas.
By mass,

For complete combustion of 1 kg of carbon, kg of is required to give

Kg of CO2.

b) Incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide:

Including Nitrogen, it is

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If further supply of oxygen is available, the combustion can continue to completion

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iii) Combustion of Sulphur

or

1 Kg of Sulphur requires 1 Kg of oxygen to give 2Kg of SO2

iv) Combustion of Methane:

The result of the above equations can be tabulated as follows:

Constituents (a) Oxygen required Kg/1Kg of Products of combustion, Kg /Kg of constituent
constituent (b) (c) = a + b

C 8/3 11/3 ----- -----

CO 4/7 11/7 ----- -----
8 ----- 9 -----

S 1 ----- ----- 2
CH4 4 11/4 9/4 -----

7. Give the combustion equation for any hydrocarbons?

A. Let a combustion equation for any hydrocarbons be required with complete combustion.

Equating C, H and O on the two sides of the equation

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Taking a=1, we get, e =11, d=10 and b=31/2

To avoid fraction take a = 2, then e = 22, d = 20, b = 31

Therefore the equations of combustion is then

Class work
1. Example Problem: A coal sample gave the following analysis by weight, carbon 85%, hydrogen 6%, oxygen 6%, the remainder
being incombustible. Determine minimum weight of air required per kg of coal for chemically correct composition. Ans: 11.7kg
2. Example Problem: Calculate the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for the combustion of a sample of dry anthracite of the following
composition by mass:
Carbon 88%, O2 3.5%, H2 4%, S 0.5%, ash 3%, N2 1%.
If 30% of excess air is supplied determine
(i) Air/fuel ratio
(ii) Wet and dry analysis of the products of combustion by volume. Ans: (i)14.7

Home work:
1. A sample of fuel has the following percentage composition:
Carbon 86%, Hydrogen 8%, Sulphur 3%, oxygen 2%, ash 1%.
For an air-fuel ratio of 12:1, calculate
(i) Mixture strength as a percentage rich or weak
(ii) Volumetric analysis of the dry products of combustion. Ans:(i) 106.5%

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1.Define (i) Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, (ii) Excess air, and (iii) Equivalence ratio. (Set 3, Jan 2015 R07, 8M)
2.Define minimum and excess air for combustion and air fuel ratio. (Set 1, Jan 2015 R07, 8M)
Day 10
Topics covered: Flue gas analysis, Orsat apparatus.

1. Describe the working of Orsat apparatus for determining the volumetric composition of dry flue gases with the help of neat
sketch.
Or
How is analysis of exhaust and flue gases carried out?
A. Flue gas analysis: The analysis of the product of combustion can be given on mass basis or volume basis. The product of
combustion in hot condition have water in the vaporized form. The analysis made taking water vapor into consideration into account
is called ‘wet analysis’.
If the analysis is made on the assumption that vapor has been condensed and removed it is called ‘dry analysis’.
Cooling of the products doesnot separate water vapor entirely. There will be some water vapor left at partial pressure corresponding
to the temperature of products after cooling. The water vapor can be however removed entirely by using drying agent.
Orsat Apparatus: The volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion from a boiler or an engine is done by means of Orsat
apparatus and by infrared gas analyzer.

Raghu Engineering College Dept.of MECH Thermal Engineering -1 Unit - 4

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Fig. 22: Orsat Apparatus

The most common method of analyzing flue gases is by dry Orsat apparatus. It consists of a graduated eudiometer tube connected to
an aspirator-bottle containing water and three double absorption flasks of CO 2, O2 and CO respectively. The front flasks are packed
with glass tubes to increase the wetted surface.
 The first flask next to eudiometer tube contains 40% KOH solution which would absorb twenty times its own volume of CO2.
 The second flask contains pyrogallic acid and KOH. This mixture may be made by mixing 5gm of powdered pyrogallic acid with
100cc of 40% KOH solution which would absorb twice its own volume of O2.
 The third flask contains a solution of 5gm of copper oxide in 100cc of commercial Hcl which would absorb CO equal to its own
volume.
Gas to be analyzed may be collected directly into eudiometer tube after removing air or it may be collected in jars on salt water(pure
water may absorb some gases).
After 100cc of gas is taken into eudiometer tube and it is forced into the first flask by raising the bottle where CO 2 is absorbed.
The liquid in the flask is then leveled back slowly lowering the aspirator bottle and the reading of eudiometer tube is taken. The
difference in reading gives percentages of CO2 by volume.
The process is repeated with second and third flasks to determine O2 and CO percentages.
Additional flasks may be provided for the determination of hydrocarbons and hydrogen. The balanced is assumed N 2. The flue gases
will have H2O vapor due to the presence of hydrogen in fuel.
But in Orsat apparatus only dry flue gas will be collected as H 2O vapor will condense at room temperature. Therefore the percentage
CO2 obtained by Orsat analysis will slightly be more than actual.

Class work:
1.Example Problem: The ultimate analysis of dry coal burnt in a boiler is C 84%, H2 9%, and incombustibles 7% by mass.
Determine the mass of dry flue gases per kg of coal burnt if the volumetric composition of the flue gas is CO 2 8.75%, CO 2.25%, O2
8% and N2 81%. Ans:19.1 kg
2. Example Problem: Orsat analysis of the products of combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel of unknown composition is as follows:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) = 8%, Carbon Monoxide (CO) = 0.5%, Oxygen (O2) = 6.3% , Nitrogen (N2) 85.2%.
Determine the following:
(i) Air-fuel ratio
(ii) Percent theoretical air required for combustion Ans: i) 23.1 kg of air/kg of fuel ii) 136.2%
(iii)

Home work
1. Percentage volumetric analysis of a sample of a coal fired boiler gave CO 2=10.4, CO=0.2, O2=7.8 and N2=81.6(by difference).
Gravimetric percentage analysis of coal was C=78, H2=6, O2=3 and incombustibles =13. Estimate
(i) Weight of dry flue gases per kg of coal
(ii) Weight of excess air per kg of fuel. Ans: i) 18.4kg ii)
6.56kg.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Explain the working of the Orsat apparatus with the help of neat sketch.
(Set 1, May 2016 R07, 8M)
2.Explain the orsat apparatus with neat sketch for the analysis of flue gases. (Set 4, Jun 2014 R10, 8M)

Raghu Engineering College Dept.of MECH Thermal Engineering -1 Unit - 4