Geophysical Monograph Series

Including

IUGG Volumes

Maurice Ewing Volumes

Mineral Physics
 GEOPHYSICAL MONOGRAPH SERIES

GeophysicalMonographVolumes 22 Derivation,Meaning,and Useof Geomagnetic

Indices P. N. Mayaud
1 Antarcticain the International Geophysical 23 The Tectonicand GeologicEvolutionof Southeast
Year A. P. Crary,L. M. Gould,E. O. Hulburt, AsianSeasand Islands DennisE. Hayes(Ed.)
HughOdishaw, andWaldoE. Smith(Eds.) 24 Mechanical Behavior of Crustal Rocks: The Handin
2 Geophysicsand the IGY HughOdishawand Volume N. L. Carter,
M. Friedman,
J.M. Logan,
and
StanleyRuttenberg (Eds.) D. W. Steams(Eds.)
3 AtmosphericChemistryof Chlorine and Sulfur 25 Physics
of AuroralArcFormation S.-I.Akasofu
and
Compounds JamesP. Lodge,Jr. (Ed.) J.R. Kan(Eds.)
4 ContemporaryGeodesy Charles A. Whittenand 26 HeterogeneousAtmospheric Chemistry
Kenneth H. Drummond (Eds.) DavidR. Schryer
(Ed.)
5 Physicsof Precipitation HelmutWeickmann
(Ed.) 27 The Tectonicand GeologicEvolutionof Southeast
6 The Crust of the Pacific Basin
AsianSeasandIslands:Part2 DennisE. Hayes(Ed.)
Gordon A. Macdonald and Hisashi Kuno (Eds.) 28 Magnetospheric Currents ?• A. Potemra(Ed.)
7 Antarctic Research: The Matthew Fontaine
29 ClimateProcessesand ClimateSensitivity
Maury Memorial Symposium H. Wexler,M. J. (MauriceEwingVolume5) James E. Hansenand
Rubin,andJ. E. Caskey,
Jr. (Eds.) Taro Takahashi(Eds.)
8 Terrestrial Heat Flow William H. K. Lee (Ed.) :30MagneticReconnection
in Spaceand Laboratory
9 Gravity Anomalies:UnsurveyedAreas Hyman Plasmas EdwardW. Hones,J7:(Ed.)
Orlin (Ed.) 31 PointDefectsin Minerals(MineralPhysics
10 The Earth Beneath the Continents: A Volume of Volume 1) RobertN. Schock(Ed.)
GeophysicalStudiesin Honor of Merle A. 52 The CarbonCycleandAtmospheric CO2:Natural
Tuve JohnS. SteinhartandT. Jefferson
Smith(Eds.) VariationsArcheanto Present E.T. Sundquist
and
11 Isotope Techniquesin the Hydrologic Cycle W. S. Broecker(Eds.)
Glenn E. Stout (Ed.) 33 GreenlandIce Core•.Geophysics,Geochemistry,
12 The Crust and Upper Mantle of the PacificArea and the Environment C. C. Langway,Jr.,
LeonKnopo•,CharlesL. Drake,and H. Oeschger,
andW. Dansgaard (Eds.)
PembrokeJ. Hart (Eds.) 34 Collisionless
Shocksin the Heliosphere:A Tutorial
13 The Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle Review RobertG. Stoneand BruceT. Tsurutani (Eds.)
Pembroke J. Hart (Ed.) 35 Collisionless
Shocksin the Heliosphere:.
Reviewsof
14 The Structureand PhysicalPropertiesof the Current Research Bruce T. 7•urutani and
Earth's Crust JohnG. Heacock(Ed.) RobertG. Stone(Eds.)
15 The Use of Artificial Satellitesfor Geodesy • 6 Mineral and RockDeformation:LaboratoryStudies
Soren W. Henricksen,Armando Mancini, and --The Paterson Volume B. œ.Hobbs and
Bernard H. Chovitz (Eds.) H. C. Heard (Eds.)
16 Flow and Fracture of Rocks H.C. Heard, 37 EarthquakeSourceMechanics(MauriceEwing
L Y. Borg,N. L. Carter,andC. B. Raleigh(Eds.) Volume6) Shamita Das,JohnBoatum•ht,and
17 Man-Made Lakes: Their Problems and Christopher
H. Scholz (Eds.)
Environmental Effects William C. Ackermann, •8 Ion Acceleration
in the Magnetosphere and
GilbertF. White,andE. B. Worthington (Eds.) IonosphereTornChang (Ed.)
18 The Upper Atmospherein Motion: A Selection 39 High PressureResearch in Mineral Physics
of PapersWith Annotation C.O. Hinesand (MineralPhysics Volume2) MurliH. Manghnani and
Colleagues Yasuhiko
Syono (Eds.)
19 The Geophysicsof the PacificOceanBasinand 40 GondwanaSix:Structure, Tectonics,
and Geophysics
Its Margin: A Volume in Honor of George P. GaryD. McKenzie (Ed.)
Woollard George H. Sutton,Murli H. Manghnani, 41 GondwanaSix:Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and
andRalphMoberly(Eds.) PaleontologyGarryD. McKenzie (Ed.)
20 The Earth's Crust: Its Nature and Physical 42 FlowandTransportThroughUnsaturated Fractured
Properties JohnC. Heacock (Ed.) Rock DanielD. EvansandThomas
J.Nicholson
(Eds.)
21 Quantitative Modeling of Magnetospheric 43 Seamounts,Islands,andAtolls Barbara
H. Keating,
Processes W. P. Olson (Ed.) Patffcia
Fryer,Rtxtey
Batiza,
andGeorge
W. Boehlert
44 ModelingMagnetospheric
Plasma T. E.MooreandJ. 67 High-PressureResearch:Applicationto Earthand
H. Waite,Jr. (Eds.) PlanetarySciences
(MineralPhysicsVolume3)
45 Perovskite: A Structure of Great Interest to Yasuhiko
Syono andMurli H. Manghnani(Eds.)
Geophysics and MaterialsScience 68 MicrowaveRemoteSensingof SeaIce
AlexandraNavrotsky
andDonald J.Weidner
(Eds.) FrankCarsey,
RogerBarry,Josefino
Comiso, D. Andrew
46 Structureand Dynamicsof Earth'sDeep Interior Rothrock,
Robert Shuchman,W. TerryTucker,
Wilford
(IUGG Volume 1) D. E. Smylie and Weeks,and Dale Winebrenner
Raymond Hide(Eds.) 69 SeaLevelChanges:Determinationand Effects
47 HydrologicalRegimesandTheir Subsurface (IUGG Volume11) P. L. Woodworth, D. T. Pugh,
Thermal Effects(IUGG Volume 2) Alan E. Beck, J. G. DeRonde,
R. G. Warrick,andJ.Hannah
GrantGaroen,andLajosStegena(Eds.) 70 Synthesis of Resultsfrom Scientific
Drilling in the
48 Origin and Evolutionof Sedimentary Basins Indian Ocean RobertA. Duncan,David K. Rea,
and Their Energyand Mineral Resources Robert
B.Kidd,UlrichvonRad,andJeffrey
K. Weissel
(Eds.)
(IUGG Volume3) Raymond A. Price(Ed.) 71 Manfie Flow and Melt Generation at Mid-Ocean
49 Slow Deformation and Transmission of Stress
Ridges Jason
Phipps
Morgan,
DonnaK. Blackman,
in the Earth (IUGG Volume 4) StevenC. Cohenand andJohnM. Sinton(Eds.)
Petr Vanf•ek (Eds.)
72 Dynamicsof Earth'sDeepInteriorand Earth
50 Deep StructureandPastKinematicsof Accreted Rotation(IUGG Volume 12) Jean-Louis
LeMou•l, D.E.
Terranes(IUGG Volume 5) JohnW. Hillhouse(Ed.) Smylie,
andThomas
Herring(Eds.)
51 Propertiesand Processes
of Earth'sLowerCrust 73 EnvironmentalEffectson Spacecraft
Positioningand
(IUGG Volume6) Robert
F. Mereu,Stephan
Mueller, Trajectories(IUGG Volume 13)
and David M. Fountain (Eds.)
A. Vallance
]ones(Ed.)
52 UnderstandingClimateChange(IUGG Volume7) 74 Evolution of the Earth and Planets (IUGG
AndreL. Berger,
Robert
E. Dickinson,
andJ.Kidson
(Eds.) Volume14) E. Takahashi,
Raymond
Jeanloz,
and
53 Plasma Waves and Instabilities at Comets and in
David Rubie (Eds.)
MagnetospheresBruce
T. Tsurutani
andHiroshi
Oya 75 Interactions
BetweenGlobalClimateSubsystems:
(Eds.)
The Legacyof Hann (IUGG Volume 15)
54 SolarSystemPlasmaPhysics J.H. Waite,Jr., G. A. McBean and M. Hantel (Eds.)
J.L. Burch,andR. L. Moore(Eds.)
76 RelatingGeophysical
Structures
and Processes:
The
55 Aspectsof ClimateVariabilityin the Pacificand
Western Americas David H. Peterson(Ed.)
Jeffreys
Volume(IUGG Volume16) K. A/a'and
R. Dmowska(Eds.)
56 The Brittle-Ductile Transition in Rocks A.G. Duba,
77 The MesozoicPacific:Geology,Tectonics,
and
W. B. Durham,J.W. Handin,andH. F. Wang(Eds.)
Volcanism--AVolumein Memoryof Sy Schlanger
57 Evolutionof Mid OceanRidges(IUGG Volume8)
JohnM. Sinton(Ed.) MalcolmS.Pringle,
WilliamW. Sager,
WilliamV. Sliter,
and SethStein (Eds.)
58 Physicsof MagneticFluxRopes C T. Russall,
E. R. Priest,and L. C. Lee(Eds.) 78 ClimateChangein ContinentalIsotopicRecords
59 Variations in Earth Rotation (IUGG Volume 9) P. K. Swart,K. C. Lohmann,
J.McKenzie,andS. Savin
(Eds.)
DennisD. McCarthy
andWilliamsE. Carter(Eds.)
60 Quo VadimusGeophysics for the Next Generation 79 The Tornado:Its Structure,Dynamics,Prediction,and
(IUGG Volume10) George D. Garland and Hazards C Church, D. Burgess,
C. Doswell,
JohnR. Apel(Eds.) R. Davies-Jones
(Eds.)
61 CometaryPlasmaProcesses AlanD. Johnstone(Ed.) 80 AuroralPlasmaDynamics R. L. Lysak(Ed.)
62 ModelingMagnetosphericPlasmaProcesses 81 SolarWind Sources of MagNetosphericUltra-Low
GordonR. Wilson (Ed.) Frequency Waves M. J.E•zgebretson,K. Takahashi,
and
63 Marine Particles:
Analysisand Characterization M. Scholer(Eds.)
DavidC. HurdandDerekW. Spencer(Eds.) 82 Gravimetryand SpaceTechniquesApplied to
64 Magnetospheric SubstormsJoseph R. Kan, Geodynamics and OceanDynamics(IUGG Volume
ThomasA. Potemra,SusumuKokubun,and 17) BobE. Schutz,AllenAntlerson,ClaudeFroidevaux,
Takesi
Iijima(Eds.) and Michael Parke(Eds.)
65 ExplosionSourcePhenomenologySteven
R. Taylor, 83 NonlinearDynamicsand Predictability
of
HowardJ.Patton,andPaulG. Richards
(Eds.) Geophysical
Phenomena(IUGG Volume 18) William
66 Venusand Mars:Atmospheres,
Ionospheres,
and I. Neum•n, AndreiGabrielov,
and DonaldL. Turcotte(Eds.)
SolarWind Interactions JanetG. Luhmann,Mariella 84 SolarSystemPlasmasin Spaceand Time J.Burch,J.
Tatrallyay,
andRobert
O. Pepin(Eds.) H. Waite,Jr.
85 The PolarOceans
andTheirRolein Shapingthe 2 Hydrological
Regimesand TheirSubsurface
Global Environment ¸. M. Johannessen,
R. D. Muench, Thermal Effects AlanE. Beck,GrantGarven,and
andf. E. (Zerland(Eds.) Lajos
Stegena
(Eds.)
86 SpacePlasmas:
CouplingBetweenSmalland 3 OriginandEvolution
of Sedimentary
Basins
and
Medium ScaleProcessesMahaAshour-Abdalla,
Tom Their EnergyandMineral Resources
Chang,
andPaulDusenbery
(Eds.) Raymond A. Price(Ed.)
87 The UpperMesosphereandLowerThermospher•.A 4 Slow Deformation and Transmission of Stress
Reviewof Experiment
andTheory R. M. Johnson
and in the Earth StevenC. CohenandPetrVanf•ek(Eds.)
T. L. Killeen (Eds.) 5 Deep Structureand PastKinematicsof Accreted
88 ActiveMarginsandMarginalBasinsof theWestem Terrances JohnW. Hillhouse(Ed.)
Pacific BrianTaylor
andJamesNatland
(Eds.) 6 Propertiesand Processesof Earth'sLower Crust
89 NaturalandAnthropogenic Influences
in Fluvial Robert
F.Mereu,Stephan
Mueller,
andDavidM. Fountain
GeomorphologyJohnE. Costa, Andrew J.Miller, (Eds.)
KennethW. Potter,and PeterR. Wilcock(Eds.) 7 Understanding
ClimateChangeAndre
L.Berger,
90 Physics
of theMagnetopause
PaulSong,
B.U.(•. Robert
E. Eh'ckinson,
andJ.Kidson(Eds.)
Sonnerup,
andM.F. Thomsen
(Eds.) 8 Evolutionof Mid OceanRidges John M. Sinton
(Ed.)
91 Seafloor
Hydrothermal Systems:Physical,
Chemical, 9 Variationsin EarthRotation Dennis D. McCarthy
Biological,
and Geological
InteractionsSusanE. and William E. Carter (Eds.)
Humphifs,
Robert
A. Zierenberg,
taurenS.Mullineaux,
and 10 QuoVadimusGeophysics for the Next Generation
RichardE. Thomson(Eds.) George
D. Garland
andJohnR.Apel(Eds.)
92 MaunaLoaRevealed:Structure, Composition, 11 SeaLevelChanges:Determinations and Effects
History,and Hazards J.M. Rhodes
andJohnP. Philip
L. Woodworth,
DavidT.Pugh,
John
G.DeRonde,
Lockwood
(Eds.) Richard
G. Warrick,
andJohnHannah(Eds.)
93 Cross-Scale
Couplingin SpacePlasmas James L. 12 Dynamicsof Earth'sDeepInteriorand EarthRotation
Honvitz,Nagendra
Singh,andJamesL. Burch(Eds.) Jean-Louis
LeMou•l,D.E.Smylie,
and
94 Double-Diffusive
ConvectionAlanBrandt andH.J.S. ThomasHerring(Eds.)
Fernando(Eds.)
13 Environmental
Effects
on Spacecraft
Positioning
and
95 EarthProcesses:
ReadingtheIsotopicCode As/sh Trajectories A. Vallance
Jones
(Ed.)
Basuand Stan Hart (Eds.) 14 Evolutionof the Earthand Planets E. Takahashi,
Raymond Jeanloz,
andDavidRuble(Eds.)
MauriceEwingVolumes 15 Interactions
BetweenGlobalClimateSubsystems:
The Legacyof Hann G.A. McBean
and
1 IslandArcs,DeepSeaTrenches,
andBack-Arc M. Hahtel (Eds.)
Basins Manik Talwaniand WalterC. PitmanIII (Eds.)
16 RelatingGeophysical
Structures
andProcesses:
2 Deep Drilling Resultsin the AtlanticOcean: TheJeffreys
Volume K. AJa'
andR. Dmowska(Eds.)
OceanCrust MamTc Tatwani,Christopher
G.Harrison, 17 GravimetryandSpaceTechniquesAppliedto
andDennis E. Hayes(Eds.) Geedynamics andOceanDynamics BobE. Schutz,
3 Deep Drilling Resultsin the AtlanticOcean: AllenAnderson,
ClaudeFroidevaux,
andMichaelParke
ContinentalMarginsand Paleoenvironment (Eds.)
ManikTaIwani, WilliamHay,andWilliam B.F.Ryan(Eds.) 18 NonlinearDynamics
andPredictability
of
4 EarthquakePrediction--AnIntemationalReview
Geophysical
Phenomena WilliamL Newman,
Andrei
DavidW. Simpson
andPaulG.Richards
(Eds.) Gabrielov,
and DonaldL. Turc•tte(Eds.)
5 ClimateProcesses
andClimateSensitivity
JamesE. Hansenand TaroTakahashi
(Eds.) MineralPhysics
Volumes
6 EarthquakeSourceMechanics Shamita
Das,John
Boatwright,
andChristopher
H. Scholz
(Eds.) 1 Point Defectsin Minerals RobertN. Schock
(Ed.)
2 HighPressure Research
in MineralPhysics
IUGG Volumes MurliH. Manghnani
andYasuhikoSyona (Eds.)
3 High PressureResearch:
Applicationto Earthand
1 Structure
andDynamics of Earth'sDeepInterior PlanetarySciencesYasuhi•o
Syono and
D. E. SmyIie
andRaymond
Hide(Eds.) MurliH. Manghnani
GeophysicalMonograph96

Subduction
Top to Bottom
Gray E. Bebout
David W. Scholl
Stephen H. Kirby
John P. Platt
Editors

American
Geophysical
Publishedunder the aegisof the AGU BooksBoard

Cover illustrationbasedon the gravitymap "Marine GravityAnomalyFrom SatelliteAltimetry"

by David T. Sandwell and Walter H. F. Smith.

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Subductiontop to bottom/ Gray E. Bebout... [et al.], editors.
p. cm. -- (Geophysicalmonograph;96)
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN 0-87590-078-X
1. Subductionzones. I. Bebout,Gray E., 1958-. II. Series.
QE511.46.S83 1996
551.1 ' 36--dc20 96-35932
CIP
ISBN 0-87590-078-X
ISSN 0065-8448

Copyright1996by the AmericanGeophysical

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Printed in the United States of

 CONTENTS

Preface
Gray E. Bebout,David IF. Scholl,StephenH. Kirby, andJohnP. Platt xi

What Goes In

Thermo-mechanicalEvolution of OceanicLithosphere:Implications for the Subduction

Processand Deep Earthquakes (Overview)
Seth Stein and Carol A. Stein 1

GeochemicalFluxesDuring SeafloorAlteration of the BasalticUpper Oceanic

Crust: DSDP Sites417 and 418 (Overview)
Hubert Staudigel,Terry Plank, Bill White,and Hans-Ulrich Schmincke 19

The First Squeeze

Accretionary MechanicsWith PropertiesThat Vary in Spaceand Time (Overview)

DanM. Davis 39

Mountain Building in Taiwan and the Critical Wedge Model

Chi-Yuen Wang,Adam Ellwood,Francis Wu,Ruey-JuinRau, and Horng-Yuan Yen 49

Sediment Pore-Fluid Overpressuringand Its Effect on Deformation at the Toe of the Cascadia
Accretionary Prism From SeismicVelocities
GuyR. Cochrane,J. CaseyMoore, and HornaJ. Lee 57

Oblique Strike-Slip Faulting of the CascadiaSubmarine Forearc:

The Daisy Bank Fault Zone off Central Oregon
Chris Goldfinger,LaVerneD. Kulm, RobertS. Yeats,CherylHummon,Gary J. Hufiile,
Alan R. Niem, and Lisa C. McNeill 65

Fabrics and Veins in the Forearc: A Record of Cyclic Fluid Flow at Depths of < 15 km (Overview)
Donald M. Fisher 75

Large Earthquakes in SubductionZones: SegmentInteraction and RecurrenceTimes (Overview)

Larry J. Ruff 91

What Controls the SeismogenicPlate Interface in SubductionZones?

Larry J. Ruff and Bart IF. Tichelaar 105

DisplacementPartitioning and Arc-Parallel Extension: Example From the

SoutheasternCaribbean Plate Margin
Hans G. Avd Lallemant 113

The Big Squeeze:Back From the PressureCooker

Thermal and PetrologicStructure of SubductionZones (Overview)
Simon M. Peacock 119

Contrasting P-T-t Histories for BlueschistsFrom the Western Baja Terrane and the Aegean:
Effects of SynsubductionExhumation and Backarc Extension
Suzanne L. Baldwin
CONTENTS

Tectonic
UpliftandExhumation
of Blueschist
BeltsAlongTranspressional
Strike-Slip
FaultZones
Paul Mann and Mark B. Gordon 143

Syn-Subduction
ForearcExtensionandBlueschist
Exhumationin Baja California,M6xico
Richard L. Sedlock 155

Slip-Historyof theVincentThrust:Roleof DenudationDuringShallowSubduction

Marty Grove and OscarM. Lovera 163

A ThermotectonicModel for Preservationof Ultrahigh-Pressure

Phases
in MetamorphosedContinental Crust
W G. Ernst and Simon M. Peacock 171

VolatileTransferandRecycling
at Convergent
Margins:Mass-Balance
andInsights
From High-P/T MetamorphicRocks(Overview)
Gray E. Bebout 179

The Big Squeeze:From Beneaththe Arc

Intermediate-Depth
IntraslabEarthquakes
andArcVolcanism
asPhysical
Expressions
of CrustalandUppermost
Mantle Metamorphismin SubductingSlabs(Overview)
StephenKirby,E. RobertEngdahl,andRogerDenlinger 195

Subdueted
Lithospheric
SlabVelocityStructure:Observations
andMineralogical
Inferences
GeorgeHelfj•ich 215

Plate Structure and the Origin of Double SeismicZones

Geofj?eyA. Abers 223

PhaseEquilibria Constraintson Modelsof SubductionZoneMagmatism(Overview)

damesD. Myers and A. Dana dohnston 229

DecipheringMantle and CrustalSignaturesin SubductionZoneMagmatism(Overview)

don P. Davidson 251

DescribingChemicalFluxesin SubductionZones:InsightsFrom
"Depth-Profiling" Studiesof Arc and Forearc Rocks
deffRyan,Julie Morris, Gray Bebout,and Bill Leeman 263

Boron and Other Fluid-Mobile Elements in Volcanic Arc Lavas:

Implications for Subduction Processes
William P. Leeman 269

Effect of Sedimentson AqueousSilicaTransport in SubductionZones

Craig E. Manning 277

DoesFractureZone SubductionIncreaseSedimentFlux and Mantle Meltingin SubductionZones?

Trace Element Evidence From Aleutian Arc Basalt
BradleyS. Singer,WilliamP. Leeman,
MatthewF. Thirlwall,andNicholasW Rogers285

Experimental Melting of Pelagic Sediment,ConstraintsRelevant to Subduction

Geofj•eyT. Nichols,Peterd. Wyllie,and CharlesR. Stern
 CONTENTS

The Influence of Dehydration and Partial Melting Reactionson the Seismicity

and Deformation in Warm SubductingCrust
TracyRushmet 299

Contrasting Stylesof Mantle MetasomatismAbove SubductionZones:

Constraints From U!tramafic Xenoliths in Kamchatka
Pavel Kepezhinskas
and Marc d. Derant 307

SuprasubductionMineralization: Metal!o-TectonicTerranes of the SouthernmostAndes (Overview)

Eric P. Nelson 315

Hazards and Climatic Impact of Subduction-ZoneVolcanism:A Global and Historical Perspective

Robertl. Tilling 331

The Biggest Squeeze:Slab Structure and Deep-FocusEarthquakes

Eclogite Formation and the Rheology, Buoyancy, Seismicity,and H20 Content of Oceanic Crust
BradleyR. Hacker 337

Double SeismicZones, CompressionalDeep Trench-Outer Rise Events,and Superplumes

Tetsuzo $eno and Yoshiko Yamanaka 347

Characteristics of Multiple Ruptures During Large Deep-FocusEarthquakes

Wang-PingChen,Li-Ru Wu,andMary Ann Glennon 357

Imaging Cold Rock at the Baseof the Mantle: The SometimesFate of Slabs?(Overview)
Michael E. Wysession
 PREFACE
Perhapsno other plate tectonicsettinghas attractedas
diversemultidisciplinaryattentionas convergentmargins.
This has in part been spurredby the extremelytangible
hazardsimposedby subduction,particularlyin the form of
earthquakesand tsunamisand arc volcanism.Concern
regardingthesehazardsis heightenedby the tendencyof
convergent marginsto be heavilypopulatedcoastalregions.
There has also been great interestin convergentmargin
settingsfor their potential(anddemonstrated capability)of
producingeconomically importantoil andgasreservoirsand
ore deposits. The cycling of materials (e.g., COO at
convergentmargins has been recognizedas potentially
significantly effecting changes in our environment,in
particular, impacting evolution of the hydrosphereand
atmosphere.It is widely acceptedthat convergentmargin
accretionand arc magmatismhavebeenlargelyresponsible
for continentalcrustformationover longperiodsof Earth's
history.
It is criticalthatwe be ableto fathomthe incredibleglobal
diversityin the geologicaland geophysical expressions of
subductionzones, a diversity that is incompatiblewith
generic models of plate boundaryinteractionsinvolving
simple thermal, structural,kinematic, or mineralogical
approaches alone.In our opinion,furtherprogressdepends
critically upon improved interdisciplinarystudiesof the
subduction process. In this spirit, we organized a
conference/workshop---SUBCON CSubductionFromTopto
Bottom Conference")•to encourageEarth scientistsfrom
diversebackgrounds and intereststo considersubduction as
an interactiveandevolutionary process thatdepends uponthe
prior historyof lithospherein the oceanbasinsand on the
specificcharacteristics (propertiesandsettings)of individual
sectors(e.g., depthintervals)of convergentmargins.Our
goal was to bring scientific specialiststo a forum where
virtually all earth-scienceobservationsrelevant to the
progressivestagesof subductionare considered,from the
surfaceand shallowsubsurfaceenvironmentof the outerrise,
trenchandaccretionary
wedgeto themantle'stransitionzone
and below where deepearthquakesoccurand slabmelting
and assimilation occur.
Participants
in SUBCON(heldin Avalon,California,June
1994) were selectedfor the significanceof their recent
contributionsto our understandingof convergentmargin
xi
processes,but alsobasedon their demonstrated abilitiesto
considerdiverse observationsin novel multidisciplinary
studies,that is, to listen to othersapproachingthe same
problem from a differentperspectiveand usingdifferent
techniques.The choiceof the SantaCatalinaIslandvenue
was guided by its locationwithin a complexlyevolving
convergentmargin regime (i.e., largely reflecting Late
Cretaceous accretion and Late Tertiary extensional
processes).Our brief field trip to examineexposures of the
CatalinaSchistsubduction-zone metamorphiccomplexnot
only servedas a welcomebreakfrom the lengthyoral and
postersessions, but alsofocussedthe groupfurtheron the
complexity of the rock record and the need for multi-
disciplinaryinteractions to copewith this complexity.The
papers in this volume, written mainly by SUBCON
participants,
conveythemultidisciplinary spiritof SUBCON
andwill key readersto thecriticaladditionalconstraints that
are lacking and the most exciting directionsfor future
research.Authorshaveattemptedto "puta differentspin"on
theirdiscussionsandpresentation of datato reflectthemulti-
disciplinary
flavorof SUBCON.However,thesepaperswill
also stand on their own as fundamental advancements in their
respectivesubdisciplines. The papersin this volume are
organizedlargelyby thedepthstheyconsiderin an idealized
subduction zone,butthe organizationis alsoconceptualand
reflects in part our biasesregardingareas of potential
researchsynergy.As an example,in the section"The Big
Squeeze:From Beneaththe Arc," papersrangefrom those
consideringthe geodynamicsof the mantle wedge and
slab-mantleinterface [Helfpich] and the effect on arcs of
varyingthermalevolution[Kirby et al.], to thoseexamining
ourstateof knowledgeregardingthepetrologyof meltingin
the slabandmantlewedge [Myersand Johnston;Nicholset
al.] andthe geochemistry of arcsreflectingprocesses in the
subducting slab,themantlewedge,andtheoverlyingoceanic
or continentalcrust[Ryanet al.; Davidson;Leeman;Singer
et al.; KepezhinskasandDefant].We hopethatthereaders
will examine all papersin these groupingsrather than
skippingdirectlyto the paperin their specificdiscipline.
We have included papers that fall into two format
categories.Somepapers,labeledas "Overview"in thetable
of contents,containa greatercomponentof literaturereview
andsynthesis of recentinvestigation,andto a greater
direct the reader to areasof remaininguncertaintyand
potentiallyfruitful futureresearch.Otherpapers,whichare
ontheaverageshorter,aremoretopicalin content,providing
"case studies"directedtoward the understandingof key
dynamicaspects of subduction.An attempthasbeenmadeby
all authorsto reducethe amountof scientificjargonin their
papersandmakethepaperstechnicallyaccessible to diverse
readership.Thus, we have endeavoredto f'md "common
denominators" in ourunderstanding andapproaches with the
hopeof fuelingfutureinterdisciplinary collaboration.
Severaldominantthemesemergefromthiscollectionof 35
papers (and in the SUBCON abstractsvolume, which
contains over 100 abstracts). As alluded to above, a
particularlyprominentthemethat emergesfrom theseand
otherrecentpapersconsidering subduction processes is that
of comparative"subductology" (usingthe phraseof Seiya
Uyeda)or the comparison amongsubduction zonesof critical
parameters affectingtheirdynamicsandrockandearthquake
manifestationsat individual subductionzones [see, for
example,SteinandStein;Peacock;Kirby et at.; Ryanet at.;
Leeman;Bebout].Numerouspapersin thisvolumeshowcase
the spectacular recentadvancesin geophysical methods,in
boththeacquisition andthe interpretation
of the diversedata
[Kirby et al.; HelJ)•ich; Abers; Chen et at.; Seno and
Yamanaka;Wysession]. Earthquakes areconsidered from the
standpoint of societalhazard[Tilling]but alsoasrecordsof
deep slabrheologyand mineralogicaltransitions[Kirby et
at.; Hacker; Abers]. Also highlightedrepeatedlyare the
criticalconstraints on convergent marginprocesses provided
by the Deep SeaDrilling Program/Ocean Drilling Program
[Staudigelet at.; Bebout;Hacker]. Unfortunately,several
invitedparticipants wereunableto attendSUBCON because
of their involvementin an ODP drilling leg in the Barbados
accretionaryprism.
Many of the papersin this volume considerthe general
theme of the evolving(and modem) structural/mechanical
stateof subduction zones,utilizingresultsrangingfromthe
shallowand deepearthquakerecords[Kirby et at.; Hacker;
Ruff,'RuffandTichelaar;
Chenetal.] to4øAr/39Ar
[Groveand
Lovera; Baldwin], field structural[Davis; Wanget at.; Ave
Lattemant; $edtock] and petrologic constraintson the
pressure-temperature-timeand strain histories of
subduction-related metamorphicrocks representingdeep
accretionarycomplexevolution.Includedin this groupare
papers consideringthe makeup and evolution of the
seismogenicinterface and the depths and mechanical
significanceof seismiccouplingin subductionzones[Ruff'
Ruff and Tichelaar;HelJ•ich]. Severalpapersreporton the
recordof subduction-zone dynamicswhichresultfrom plate
interactions deviating from the simplified SUBCON
depth-profile of a ocean-continentsubductionzone, in
particular,in settingsinvolving continentalcollisionand
oblique subduction[e.g., Ernst and Peacock;Mann and
Gordon; Ave Lallemant]. The unique mechanicsin these
scenariosmay be necessaryto afford the rapid uplift and
surficial exposureof some deeply subductedmaterials,
including those containing coesite and diamond (i.e.,
reflectingmetamorphism at depthsof greaterthan 100 km
[Ernstand Peacock;Hacker]).
Anotherthemewhichemergesin thisvolumeconcerns the
"Top to Bottom" considerationof the fluxes (inputsand
outputs)of energyandmatterduringsubduction, first("What
GoesIn" and"TheFirstSqueeze") with attempts to constrain
thesefluxesthroughstudyof the geochemical, lithological,
mineralogical, thermal, and mechanical state of the
subductingslab and sedimentsoutboardof trenches(i.e.,
beforetheir subduction[Steinand Stein;Staudigelet al.])
and structuraland fluid historiesin very shallowpartsof
accretionary complexes [Davis; Wang et al.; Fisher;
Cochraneet al.; Goldfingeret al.]. Includedin the section
"The Big Squeeze:Back from the PressureCooker"is an
assessment of our state of knowledge,from a modeling
approach, regardingthecomplex,varyingthermalevolution
(heat flux) in subductionzones [Peacock],and the use of
high-P/T metamorphic suites to reconstruct the
paleo-mechanics, thermal evolution,and geochemistryof
convergent margins[Baldwin;GroveandLovera;Mann and
Gordon; Sedlock;Ernst and Peacock;Bebout].Includedin
the section"The Big Squeeze:From Beneaththe Arc" are
papersfocussingon the presentconstraints on the evolving
slab and sedimentsduringprogressivesubductionand the
processesof mineral reactions,fluid releaseand transport,
metasomatism, deformation,andmelting,particularlythose
processesleading to convergentmargin magmatic and
metasomatic flux [Kirby et al.; Helj•ich; Manning;Nichols
et al.; Leeman; Ryan et al.; Davidson; Singer et al.;
Rushruer;Kepezhinskas and Derant].Also includedin this
sectionarea synthesis, usingtheAndesasan example,of the
oredeposits producedin continental magmaticarcs[Netson],
and an assessment of the hazardsand climaticimpact(i.e.,
flux of volcanic gases) of subduction-zonevolcanism (Earth Sciences Division, Tectonics Program; EAR-
[Tilling].Laterpapers(in thesection,"TheBiggestSqueeze: 9406056). We also extend special thanks to the Santa
Slab Structureand Deep-FocusEarthquakes") considerthe CatalinaIslandConservancy, whoselogisticalsupportand
structureof deeply subducingslabs [Hacker; $eno and patienceaffordedus accessto the exposures of the Catalina
Yarnanaka;Abers; Chen et al.], and the ultimate fate of Schist.A hearty thanksis due SusanKalb of the USGS,
subductingslabs,many of which are likely storedin the without whoselogisticalframework,managingskills,and
deepestpartsof the mantle[Wysession]. We would like to patienceour idea would certainlyhave fizzled. Finally, we
enthusiasticallythankthoseorganizations who providedthe thank the many who reviewed manuscriptsultimately
fundingthatenabledusto followthroughwith ourambitious publishedin this volumefor their effortstowardensuring
project, in particular to attract the high-calibre,highly high-qualitycontributions
in-linewiththeoriginalSUBCON
internationalcrowd of participantsandto hold the meeting themeof multidisciplinarity.
on SantaCatalinaIsland.This fundingwas largelyprovided
by the United StatesGeologicalSurvey, specificallythe Gray E. Bebout
Office of the Chief Geologist,the National Earthquakeand David W. Scholl
Volcano HazardsPrograms,the Deep ContinentalStudies StephenH. Kirby
Program,andthe Office of EnergyandMarineGeology,and John P. Platt
JOI-USSAC, with some supportalso coming from NSF Editors
 Thermo-mechanicalEvolution of Oceanic Lithosphere'
Implicationsfor the SubductionProcessand Deep Earthquakes
Seth Stein

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,NorthwesternUniversity,EvanstonIL

Carol A. Stein

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,Universityof Illinois at Chicago,Chicago,IL

Becausesubductioninvolves the return of cold oceaniclithosphereto the warmer mantle,

much of our thinking about subductionreflectsmodels of temperaturesin subductingslabs.
These models, in ram, rely on thermalmodelsof the oceaniclithospherebefore it subducts,
developedusing variationsin oceandepth and heat flow with age. Such models predict that
subductingslabs are colder, denser,and strongerthan the surroundingmantle, in accordwith
evidencefrom seismicvelocitiesand earthquakedepths. Although the simple models describe
the basicobservablephenomenawhich reflect thermal structure,the variationin depth and heat
flow between and amongplates before they subduct,and in velocity structureand distribution
of seismicitywhen they subduct,illustratesthe needfor improvedmodels.

INTRODUCTION them. The negative thermal buoyancy of slabs should

Subductionzones are downgoinglimbs of the mantle
convection system, where slabs of cold oceanic litho-
sphereformed at midoceanridgesreturnto the deepman-
tle. As discussed in this volume and reviewed elsewhere
[e.g., Kincaid, 1995; Kirby, 1995; Kirby et al., 1996a],
many features of subductionreflect subductingslabs
being much colder than surroundingmantle. Because
slabs subduct rapidly compared to the time needed for
heat conductedfrom the surroundingmantle to warm
them up, they remain colder, denser,and mechanically
stronger than the surroundingmantle. Consequently,
slabs transmit seismic waves faster and with less attenua-
tion than the surroundingmantle, making it possibleto
map slabsand to show that deep earthquakesoccurwithin
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright
1996by theAmerican
Geophysical
Union
providea majorsourceof stress
withindowngoing
slabs
and appearsto be the primary force driving plate motions.
The cold slab should be mechanically strongerthan its
surroundings, and thus sustainhigher stresses. This addi-
tional strength,and the fact that mineral reactionsoccur
more slowly at lower temperatures,have been suggested
as factorspermittingearthquakeswithin slabsto occurto
almost 700 km depth, far deeperthan in the surrounding
hotter mantle. Interactionbetweenthe slab and overlying
mantle wedge gives rise to arc volcanism,apparentlyvia
metamorphismand dehydrationof slab tops and partial
melting and flow of the wedge.
As a result, considerable attention has been directed
toward estimatingtemperaturein subducting slabs. The
temperature depends primarily on the temperaturein
plates when they enter the trench,and how the plates
warm up as they descend.The temperatures, in turn, con-
trol the propertiesand behaviorof slabs.Here, we review
somebasic observations and conceptsthat influenceour
thinking about these factors, and consider some of their
implicationsfor the subduction
2 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

THE OCEANIC LITHOSPHE• dary layers, in part becausestrengthas a function of

depth is not directly measurable,and in part because
Recognition of seafloor spreadingled rapidly to the strength is temperature controlled. Thus the "thickness"
view of plates of stronglithospheremoving over softer of "the" lithospheredependson the property(tempera-
asthenosphere[e.g., Elsasset, 1971]. This rheological ture, strength,chemistry)underconsideration, and thuson
stratification reflects the thermal evolution of oceanic the criterion or set of observations used to infer its varia-
lithosphere,which cools as it spreadsaway from mido- tion with depth. The mechanicalthicknessinferredfrom
cean ridges and reheatsupon subductioninto the deep the responseto appliedloadscan also be strain-rate-and
mantle. In this view, which relies heavily on a set of time-dependent[e.g. Turcotte,1979; Kirby, 1983; Stein
observationsreviewed next, oceanic lithosphere is the et al., 1989].
relatively thin and cold upperboundarylayer of the man- It is worthbearingin mind that althoughmanytectonic
tle convectivesystem(Plate 1), the primary mode of heat discussions focuson the lithosphere,it is the upperboun-
transfer from the earth's interior [e.g., Parsons and dary layer of the convectivesystem.Hencealthoughden-
Richter, 1981; Jarvis and Peltlet, 1989; Pollack et al., sity and strength variations largely reflect contrasts
1993]. The lithospherecools such that when it reaches between the lithosphereand the remainderof the convec-
most subductionzones, it is thoughtto be about 100 km tive system,the total variationsof each quantitydue to
thick with a basal temperatureexceeding1000øC.Below convectiondrive plate motionsand control the style of
the lithosphere,temperaturesare thoughtto increasemore plate tectonics[e.g., Verhoogen,1980].
slowly, rising to only about 1500øCin the mantletransi-
tion zone (400-700 km depth) [e.g., lto and Katsura, THERMO-MECHANICAL STRUCTURE
1989]. Hence in the lithosphere,where heat transfer OF OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE
occursprimarily by conduction,temperaturegradientsare
much higher (about 10øC/km)than below it, where lower Data
(about 0.3øC/kin) adiabatic temperaturegradients are
expected. Becauseof heat loss at the sea floor, subduct- Temperaturesin subductingslabs are inferred from
ing slabsare much colderthanthe surrounding mantle. thermalmodelsof the oceaniclithospherebeforeit sub-
This temperature structure has major consequences. ducts. Becausetemperaturesat depth are not directly
Because rock strength decreaseswith temperature,the measurable,simple models are used, which attempt to
oceanic lithosphereis also a mechanicalboundarylayer, provide a generaldescriptionof averagethermalstructure
which is stronger, i.e. can sustain greater stress,than as a function of age. The primary surfaceobservables
material below (Figure 1). It arises because strength constrainingthesemodelsare variationsin seafloordepth
increaseswith pressureat shallow depths, where rocks and heat flow with lithosphericage (Table 1). Subsidence
fail by fracture,and decreaseswith temperatureat greater relative to the ridge crest, and hence seafloordepth,
depths, where rocks deform by temperature-dependent dependson temperature integratedwith depthin the litho-
creep. Hence once temperature reaches about 800øC, sphere,whereasheat flow dependson the temperature
lithosphere should be too weak to support significant gradientjust below the seafloor.A third observableis the
stress[Kirby, 1977, 1983; Goetzeand Evans,1979; Brace variationwith lithosphericage of the geoid,an equipoten-
and Kohlstedt, 1980]. As we will see, this idea is con- tial of the gravity field, which reflectsa depth-weighted
sistent with observationsof quantitiesreflecting strength integralof the densitydistribution,and henceprovidesa
at depth. The stronglithosphereover a weaker astheno- third constrainton the geotherm.
sphereallows the lithosphereto act as a stressguide for The observation that depthand heatflow varyapproxi-
horizontal forces [Elsasset, 1969] and to sustain vertical mately with the squareroot of lithosphericage (Figure2)
loads[e.g., Turcotte,1979], giving rise to familiar aspects led to the view that younglithosphereactslargelyas the
of plate tectonicsand plate boundaryprocesses. upperboundarylayer of a coolinghalfspace[Turcotteand
In additionto forming a thermaland mechanicalboun- Oxburgh,1967]. However,for agesolderthanabout70
_

dary layer, differentiationat spreadingcenterscausesthe Myr, average depth and heat flow "flatten", varying
crust and uppermostmantle to form a chemicalboundary more slowlywith age than for a halfspace.It is thusoften
layer [Oxburgh and Parmentier, 1977]. As a result, assumedthat halfspace cooling stops for older ages
different definitionsof "the" lithosphereare used for because heat added from below balances heat lost at the
different purposes. Although the term strictly refers to seafloor,causingthe geothermto approachsteadystate
material strength,it is often appliedto the differentboun- and thus the depthsand heat flow to flatten.The
 STEIN AND STEIN 3

THERMAL EVOLUTION OF OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE

100 Myr 0 Myr

_
200
400
600

2000 4000

DISTANCE (KM)

500 1000 1500

TEMPERATURE (C)

GDH1 PLATE MODEL

lOO
100 75 50 25 0

AGE (Myr)

o 500 lOOO

TEMPERATURE (C)

Plate1. Top:Schematic
illustration
oftheoceaniclithosphere
asa thermalboundarylayer,
which cools
asit moves
away frommidoceanridgesandreheatsasit subducts.
Lithospheric
temperaturesarefortheGDH1thermal model
[Stein
andStein,
1992]anda half-spreading
rateof4 cm/yr.
Slabtemperatures
arefroma finite
difference
calculation
fora convergence
rateof 8 cm/yr.Onlylithospheric
temperatures
arecalculated,
sosublithospheric
temperatures
are
shown asfollowing
anadiabatic gradient.
Bottom:Thermalstructure
of theoceanic
lithosphere
fortheGDH1plate
4 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE AS model, a simple descriptionof this perturbation,usesan

BOUNDARY LAYER isothermalbase of the lithosphereto model its thermal
equilibrafion(Plate 1, Figure 3) [Langsethet al., 1966;
THERMAL MECHANICAL CHEMICAL
McKenzie, 1967]. The plate model fits the datareasonably
' 0
--•N CRUST well, but does not directly describehow heat is added
BASALT 3.0
cycm
3 [e.g., Crough, 1977; Parsons and McKenzie, 1978;
Fleitout and Doin, 1994]. Althoughplate and halfspace
50 DUNfiE/ 3.3g/cm
3 modelsare the same for young ages,they differ for ages

I.1 / UEGITE
DEPLETEDMANT1J5
old enough that the basal condition has an effect. In
plate models the lithosphere tends to an equilibrium
i \LHœRZOIJTE 3.4. 3 geotherm,whereasin halfspacemodelscoolingcontinues
g/cm
o 5oo ;ooo ;5oo -•ooo o •ooo
1,oo
2000
for all ages.

TEMPEP,
ATUREpC) STRENGTH(MPa) Thermal Models

Fig. 1. The oceaniclithosphereforms a boundarylayer, due to
its thermal evolution. Left: The cooling plate forms a thermal
boundarylayer, illustratedby the asymptotictemperaturestruc-
ture for the GDH1 thermal model for lithosphereolder than 70
Myr. The temperaturestructurecontrolsthe variationsin depth,
heat flow, gravity, seismic velocity and attenuationwith age,
and gives rise to the density variationscausingplate driving
forces. Center: The thermal boundary layer gives rise to a
mechanical boundarylayer, illustratedby a strengthprofile for
old lithosphere,computedfor a dry olivine flow law [Braceand
Kohlstedt, 1980]. At shallow depthstrengthis controlledby brit-
fie fracture, whereas at greater depth the ductile flow at high
temperaturespredictsrapid weakening.The strengthprofile con-
trols flexure by vertical loads, horizontal stresstransmission,
plate boundaryinteractions,and maximum earthquakedepths.
Right: The crustal differentiationprocessat midoceanridges
yields a chemicalboundarylayer, differentin compositionand
density from the sublithospheric mantle [Oxburghand Parmen-
tier, 1977]. Becausethe three boundarylayers differ in thick-
ness, the "lithosphericthickness"dependson the property in
question.
TABLE 1. Constraintson thermal models T(z,t)
OBSERVABLE PROPORTIONAL TO
Thermal models are solutionsto the inverseproblemof
finding the temperature T as a function of age t and
depthz that best fits the variation in depthand heat flow
with age. The data are used to estimate the primary
parameters(plate thicknessa, basaltemperatureT•, ther-
mal expansioncoefficiento•, and thermalconductivityk)
characterizinghalfspaceand plate models. (A halfspace
can be consideredan infinitelythick plate.) Otherparam-
eters (densities,specificheat, and ridge depth) are gen-
erally specifieda priori. For simplicity,conductivityand
coefficient of thermal expansionare usually treated as
depth-independent. An a priori value for conductivityis
often used, becausethe improved fit from estimatingit
from the data is not meaningfullybetter [Steinand Stein,
1992].
As shownin Table 1, depth,heat flow, and geoidslope
are nonlinear functions of the model parameters.The
models have two parameters(plate thicknessand basal
temperature)reflectingthermalstructure,and two parame-
ters (conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion)
reflecting average physical propertiesof the lithosphere.
The latter two are scale factors which map the thermal
REFLECTS parametersinto the primary observablefeaturesof the

Young
Ocean
Depth
I T(z,t
)dz k 112{xT. It is useful to consider limiting features of the data
which models seek to match. The first, the slope of the
Old
Ocean
Depth
I T(z
•)dz aT. a depthsin young lithosphereversussquareroot of age, is
proportional
to kl/2ctrm
. Because
thesedepths
canbe
OldOcean
Heat
Flow i}T(z,t)
I•_-o kT. l a equally well fit assuminga cooling halfspace,they are
insensitiveto plate thickness.In contrast,the predicted
kaT, exp(-kt/a2) behavior at old ages dependson plate thickness.The
Geoid
Slope • zT(z,t
) dz asymptoticdepth for old oceanis proportionalto CtTma,
the heat lost as the plate cools. Similarly, the asymptotic
temperature
depth age heat flow for old ocean, k Tin/a, is proportionalto the
plate thickness basaltemperature asymptoticlinear geotherm.Hence in a plate modeldepth
thermalexpansioncoefficient thermalconductivity and heat flow tend to asymptoticvalues depending
 STEIN AND STEIN 5

0 HALF
SPACE
MODEL .[Tz)OoC
DEPTH
GDH
1 •:2 •' ..i••-':?:.
'•'..••'
........
'•.•-
'•"'''''*'
....
".....
ß'...
' ß.•.1
•'•
PSM
400øC • ':i;%:.::.-......'....:."
'•_•.•.•.•. ,_'......."•_'"•"•"•:'•
50:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:.•i::::;:::::::•.?'•--
'...'-:•....=...-.%:i•i•:-.:.-':-:,::.-::.;.:•.'..'..•;';"'
•'e-"'""•
'•"•
•• ••••• :•+:+.•....•
.....
•800øC
........:..................................:.............:•+:•+:+:.:.:•+:.:•

15o1• r,ow i • _ o ...............:rOOC

\ ,I I
III7"••'•• 0
•50
s ::::::::::::::::::::
o.
c•1 """
"'
"'"
""ø"""'"
:_.....:
/ 8000
1400øC
10 0 GDH1
PLATE
MODEL
6 •' '??--':•.:::;..:.;.'..'..'."'
½••t,'-..,-.,.
_•_•,.•"•,.•
;.:".•i.•,.•-2-• 4øøøc
4 • so •00oc

0 50 1 O0 150
o2 •
c• 10, •200øc
1400øC

AGE(MYR) MISFIT 15e

0 50 1 O0 150

Fig. 2. Data used to constrainthermal models of the oceanic AGE(Myr)

lithosphere. Comparisonwith the predictionsof the three ther-
mal models,which were not derivedusingthesedata, showsthe
generalpatternthat at older agesthe datadiffer from the predic-
tions of a cooling halfspace,and are better fit by plate models.
Global depthdata excludehotspotswells[Kido and Seno,1994].
Global heat flow are from Stein and Stein [ 1992], who used only
North Pacific and Northwest Atlantic values to derive
GDH1. Geoid slopesacrossfracturezonesare from Richardson
et al. [1995]. The misfit values (right panels) show that the
thin-plateGDH1 model fits better than either a halfspace(HS)
or the thick-lithospherePSM model.
plate thicknessand basal temperature,whereasin a
halfspacemodel they continueto changewith age. The
derivativeof the geoid with age (geoidslope)is alsosen-
sitive to the difference between models. It is constant for
a halfspacemodel. For a platemodel,the predictedslope
is the same as for a halfspaceat young ages,but "rolls
off" at older ages at a rate dependinginverselyon plate
thickness [Cazenave, 1984]. Like the "flattening" of
depth and heat flow, this predicted deviation from
halfspacebehavior reflects the lithosphereapproaching
equilibriumthicknessat older ages.
Figure 4 illustrates estimation of model parameters
from data. The joint fit to depth and heat flow is shown
as a function of assumedplate thicknessand basal tem-
perature.The best-fittingmodel,termedGDH1 (Hate 1,
Table 2) [Stein and Stein, 1992], fits significantlybetter
Fig. 3. Isothermspredictedby three thermalmodels.The litho-
sphere continuescooling for all ages for a halfspacemodel,
reachesequilibriumfor approximately125 Myr old lithosphere
in the thick-lithosphere(125 km) PSM model, and equilibrates
for lithosphereabout 70 Myr old in the thin (95 km) plate
GDH1 model.
model
than either a halfspace(HS) model or a plate model with
the parametersused by Parsons and Sclater [1977]
(PSM). (The halfspaceshownhas parametersfrom Cad-
son and Johnson [1994] but the results would not differ
significantlyfor other proposedparameters.)In particular,
GDH1 reducesthe systematicmisfit to the depthand heat
flow in older (>70 Myr) lithosphere(Figure 2), where
PSM or a halfspacepredict depthsdeeper and heat flow
lower than generallyobserved.
The improved fit occurs because relative to PSM,
GDH1 has thinner lithospherewith a higher basal tem-
perature,and hencea steepergeotherm,higherheat flow,
and shallower depths. An F-ratio test indicates the
improved fit is significantat 99.9%. The improved fit
going from PSM to GDH1 is comparableto that of PSM
relative to a halfspace.Of the models,GDH1 fits geoid
slopedata best, thoughno model fits well.
The processof reestimatingmodel parametersis con-
ceptuallythe sameas for global seismicvelocity structure
or relative plate motions. The goals are the same: to pro-
vide a better averagedescriptionof the data and the
6 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

DEPTH AND HEAT FLOW DATA TABLE 2. GDH1 modelparameters

a plate thickness 95 km
Tm basal temperature 1450 øC
tt thermalexpansion
coefficient 3.1x10-5 øC-•
k thermalconductivity 3.138W m -I øC-I
Cp specific
heat 1.171kJkg-I øC-I
DE mantledensity 3330kgm-3
Pw waterdensity 1000kgm-3
dr ridge depth 2600 m

14
7O
old lithosphere[Stein and Stein, 1993]. This situationis
GDH1 8O reminiscentof the mythical town of Lake Wobegonin the
9O
radio show Prairie Home Companion,"whereall children
areaboveaverage".*

Assessment
of Models
120

1250 1300 Several points about such models are worth noting.
1350
1400
1450
15001550
130
Althoughthe modelsfit data reasonablywell, clearmisfits
Basal
Temperature
(øC) remain, which presumablyreflect both processes actingin
addition to those incorporated in the simple thermal
Fig. 4. Fitting processused for thermalmodel parameters.The models, and variability between and within plates. For
misfit surfacefor the depth and heat flow data as a functionof example, heat flow for ages youngerthan about 65 Myr is
plate thermal thicknessand basaltemperatureis shown,with the lower than predicted,presumablydue to hydrothermalcir-
positionsof the GDH1 and PSM models. Valuesare normalized culation [e.g., Wolery and Sleep, 1976; Stein and Stein,
to the GDH1 misfit, and the contour interval is 0.5. The misfit 1994a] (The extent to which this circulation affects tem-
for PSM is five times that for GDH1. The surfaceis plottedforperaturesis unknown,but may not be significantexcept
the GDH1 coefficientof thermal expansion,so PSM which has a
very close to the ridge axis, [e.g., Steinet al., 1995], so it
different value plots slightly above the surface.The data and
is assumedto not affect depthssignificantly).The misfit
fitting functionare discussedin Steinand Stein[1992].
to geoid slope data for young agesmay reflect the geoid
offset acrossfracturezonesincorporatingeffectsin addi-
tion to that purely of the thermal age contrast,such as
cesscausingit, and facilitate studyof regionsstill poorly
flexure, thermal stresses,or local asthenosphericflow
fit by the new, better-fitting,model. The improvements
[Sandwell,1984; Parmentierand Haxby, 1986; Robinson
can be significant;GDH1 fits aboutfive timesbetterthan
et al., 1988; Wesseland Haxby, 1990]. Moreover,the
PSM, comparedto the plate motioncasewhere the recent
thermal models describeonly averagetemperaturestruc-
NUVEL-1 model [DeMets et al., 1990] givesa factor of
ture as a function of age, using a few depth- and age-
three improvementover the earlier RM2 model [Minster
and Jordan, 1978].
independentparameters.Hence these models are simple
representations of a complex thermal structurewhich do
The resultingmodel shouldbetter describethe average
not addressthe variationsin depth,heat flow, and geoid
thermal state of oceaniclithosphere.In addition,because
the model better fits the data, it makes it easier to assess
slopeas functionsof age betweenand within plates[e.g.,
Calcagnoand Cazenave,1994] which may reflect both
which regionsare "anomalous",in that their depthsand
variationsin temperatureand other perturbationssuch as
heat flow differ from most lithosphereof that age. A
those due to intraplate volcanism,crustal thickness,or
difficulty with using a halfspaceor a thick plate as refer-
asthenospheric flow.
ence models is that because they systematically
Becausethesemodels are solutionsto an inverseprob-
mispredictdepth and heat flow for old lithosphere,almost
lem, we can assesshow they fit data, but have no direct
any old lithosphereappears "anomalous" relative to
thesemodels,althoughit is normalfor old lithosphere.It *Similarly,
S.Peacock
pointed
outtousinhisreview
that90%of
is thus harder to assesswhich areas differ from average motoristsare said to considerthemselves
above-average
 STEIN AND STEIN 7

way of telling how well they describetemperaturein the Johnson, 1994]. Although the most straightforward
earth. Some insight can be derived by using modelsto interpretationof the depth, heat flow, and geoid data is in
predict data not used in deriving them. For example, terms of a plate model [Richardsonet al., 1995], other
GDH1 fits depthand heat flow datathat were not inverted interpretationsare possible. In particular, explanations
in deriving it (Figure 2) better than PSM or a halfspace other than thermal equilibration have been offered for
model [Johnson and Carlson, 1992; Stein and Stein, flattening of the depth curve. In one, flatteningis analo-
1993; Shoberget al., 1993; Kido and Seno,1994]. Simi- gous to that associatedwith seafloor traces of mantle
laxly GDH1, derived by inverting depth and heat flow plumes [e.g., tteestancland Crough, 1981; Davies and
data, predicts geoid data better than the other models. Pribac, 1993], and so is due largely to dynamicpressure
Nonetheless,GDH1 or any simple model doesnot fully of plumes,with someheatingof the lithosphere.Another
describethe thermal structure,as illustratedby the misfit possibilityis that apparentflatteningresultsfrom excess
to the geoid data at youngagesor the variationsin depth, volcanismmaskingcontinuedsubsidence due to halfspace
heat flow, and geoid slope as functionsof age between cooling. A third possibilityis that depthsare perturbed
and within plates. by pressure differences driving asthenosphericflow
Estimation of thermal structureof the lithospherethus [Schubert and Turcotte, 1972; Schubert et al., 1978;
faces difficulties common to inverse problems. The PhippsMorgan and Smith,1992, 1994; Steinand Stein,
models are oversimplificationsof the real situation,and 1994b]. Moreover, even if flatteningis a theruraleffect,
even for a given model, the parametersestimateddepend the physical processof heat addition has yet to be satis-
on the choice of data and fitting function, and are factorily explained. These questionsremain unresolved
nonunique[Stein and Stein, 1992, 1993]. The usualques- becauseall proposedperturbationsare at least qualita-
tion ariseswhen more complicatedmodelsbetter fit data, tively consistentwith the observedflattening,becauseit is
whetherthe improvedfit exceedsthat expectedpurely by difficult to isolate the effects of possible different
chance from the model's having more free parameters mechanisms, and because flattening differs enough in
[Stein and Stein, 1992, 1993, 1994b]. Similarly, there is different locations [Calcagno and Cazenave, 1994] that
the issue of how best to incorporateother infomarion. multiple mechanismsmay operate.
For example, should parameters like the average
coefficient of thermal expansion be determined from Implications
for Subduction
Zone ThermalStructure
inversion,specifieda priori from extrapolationof labora-
Fortunately,for many subructionzoneapplications, the
tory results,or estimatedby combiningtheseapproaches?
choiceof temperaturemodel is not crucial.For example,
This question is illustrated by the observationthat the
the model predictionsin Figure3 are similar,especially
GDH1 basal temperatureis slightly (7%) higher than the
at shallow depths(considerthe 400øC isotherm). The
approximately1350øCoften inferredfor the temperature
differences between models axe, however, of possible
of midocean ridges from the thicknessof oceanic crest
significance for the commoncaseof the subduction of old
[e.g., Sleep and Windley, 1982; McKenzieand Bickle,
lithosphere.As discussed shortly,varioussubructionzone
1988]. However, the improvedfit of GDH1 over a model
phenomenaseem vary with the age of the subducting
with basal temperaturefixed at 1350øCis significantas
plate, and hence presumablyits temperaturestructure.
measuredby F-ratio test [Steinand Stein, 1993]. If the
Thus whereold lithospheresubducts, it matterssomewhat
ridge temperatureis known to sufficientprecision(a ques-
whetherwe considera plate model (in which all litho-
tion beyond our scopehere), the discrepancycould have
sphereolderthanabout70 Myr is similar)or a halfspace
severalcauses.For example,althoughthe thermalmodel
model (in which temperatures still vary with age for old
usesa single basal temperaturefor all ages,the estimate
lithosphere). The choiceof modelmatterslargelyfor the
of this parameter (rather than its product with the
deepestportionsof the lithosphere.
coefficientof thermal expansion)dependslargely on data
for old ages.Hence the discrepancymay reflectheat addi- Mechanical Structure
tion to old lithosphereby a processanalogousto mantle
plumes,which are thoughtto be severalhundreddegrees The mechanical structure of the oceanic lithosphere
hotterthanridges[Sleep,1992]. before it subducts alsohasimplicationsfor the subduction
Investigationof the thermalevolutionof oceaniclitho- process.The primarydeterminant of mechanical struc-
sphereremains an active researcharea. Even the basic ture(Figure1) is variationin strength withdepthandage
questionof whether old lithosphereapproachesthermal restfiring fromthe temperature andpressure. A secondary
equilibriumis still underdiscussion [e.g., Carlsonand factoris the presence of structural
8 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

m EFFECTIVE ELASTIC THICKNESSES [Wiens and Stein, 1983; Chen and Moltmr, 1983]. Simi-
laxly, the depth to the low velocity zone inferred from
z-- --_ I seismicsurfacewave dispersionincreaseswith age [e.g.,
'" - - _. 4ooool
Nishimuraand Forsyth, 1989]. Althoughtheseobserva-
•- 4 tions appearto reflect lithosphericcooling,usingthem to
u• 6 I•E•S ELL ................ 800 discrimimte between thermal models is difficult, as it
:5 , requires rheological models, assumptionsabout the
,,, 0 50 1 O0
AGEOF PLATEAT LOADING
(MYR) strengthrequired to supportspecific loads, and assump-
tionsaboutthe variation in seismicvelocity with tempera-
OCEANIC
INTRAPLATE
EARTHQUAKE
DEPTHS ture. For subductionzone considerations, however,they
jointly indicate that the upper portion of the slab should
--_ ooøc be strongest,and that the geometryof this strongregion
should be temperature-and pressure-controlledas the
* slab subducts.

"" 6 ..... 800ø In addition to the oceanic lithospherebeing weak at

I I I ........ -I depth, tectonic features may cause weak zones. Oceanic
LITHOSPHERIC
AOE YR) intraplate seismicity occurs preferentiallyon no-longer-
active tectonicfeatures,such as fossil spreadingridges
SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY C
0 , and hotspottracks,suggestingthat thesezonesare weaker
0-4 4-20 20'--52 52-110 > 110 than normal lithosphereand move easily in responseto
,..• 2o intraplatestress[e.g., Stein and Okal, 1978; Stein, 1979;
. -• 800øC,,5.9 4.5 4.7 Bergmanand Solomon,1980;Geller et al., 1983;Wyses-
sion et al., 1991, 1995]. Similarly, unusualseismicity
"-. - occurs where seafloor tectonic features enter trenches

• 100(•;•"-......
I
' i
[e.g., Vogtet al., 1976; Chungand Kanamori,1978;Stein
et al., 1982]. In addition,earthquakes,
someof whichare
large, occur in the subductingplate as it approachesthe
LITHOSPHERIC
AGE YR) trench [e.g., Kanamori, 1971; Chapple and Forsyth,
1979], perhapsdue to plate bending.Thus preexisting
Fig. 5. Other data types whose variation with age is consistent
with cooling of the lithosphere,as illustratedby isothermsfor faults, also includingthose remainingfrom near-ridge
two thermal models.Except for the oldestlithosphere,the isoth- processes, may surviveas weak zonesonce the plate sub-
erms correspondingto the effective elasticthicknessdata [Ca/- ductsandbe the loci of intermediate[Kirbyet al., 1996b]
mant et al., 1990] (a) and deepestintraplateseismicity[Wiens and deep earthquakes[Silver et al., 1995]. It thusseems
and Stein, 1983] (b) are similar for the two models. The that someof the variationin seismicityalongsubduction
difference between the temperaturesfor the low velocity zone zones dependson weaknessin the lithospherebefore it
(c) is greater. The vertical line for the velocity structure subducts.
[Nishimuraand Forsyth,1989] in eachagerange(e.g., 0-4 Ma)
corresponds
to 4.5 km s-•. THE•• STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTING SLABS

Models
The predicted weakening of the lithospherebelow a
temperature-controlleddepth is consistentwith several Predicting temperaturesin subductingslabs is more
observations (Figure 5). Effective elastic thickness challengingthan in lithospherebeforeit subducts, because
inferred from loads on the lithosphere,a measureof the temperaturesare not only unconstrainedby direct obser-
depthto whichthe lithosphere is strongenoughto support vations,but lesseasily inferredindirectly. Hencecaveats
significantstress,increaseswith age approximatelyas the raised earlier about thermal models of the lithosphere
400øC isotherm[e.g., Bodine et al., 1981; Calmantet al., apply even more strongly.Fortunately,the basic ideas
1990]. The maximum depth of intraplateseismicity, aboutslabtemperatures
from simplemodelsaxerelatively
which presumablyreflects the depth to which the litho- insensitive to the details of the model.
sphereis strongenoughto supportseismogenic stresses, A simpleanalyticalmodel, basedon the time required
increaseswith age approximatelyas the 700øC isotherm for a slab to heat up by conductionas it subductsinto
 STEIN AND STEIN 9

hotter isothermal mantle [McKenzie, 1969], illustrates SLAB EQUILIBRATION

several ideas. Isotherms in the slab extend downward, 1 I I I I

such that the maximum depth reachedby a isothermis

proportionalto the product of the vertical descentrate
(trench-normalconvergencerate timesthe sineof the dip)
and the squareof plate thickness.Hence for a halfspace 0.8
thermalmodel, in which the thicknessof the subducting • ,-,CMB
lithosphereis proportionalto the squareroot of its age at
the trench, the depth reachedby an isotherm is propor-
tional to the productof the verticaldescentrate and age, 0.6
a quantityknown as the thermalparameter.
Similar restfitsemergefrom numericalthermalmodels. ,-,670 KM
Plate 2 shows thermal models from a program derived
from one by N.H. Sleep, basedon a finite difference 0.4
algorithm [ToksiSzet al., 1971] widely usedin slab ther-
mal modeling [e.g.,Sleep,1973;Hsui and ToksOz,1979] I I I I
The temperaturestructureof the lithospherebeforeit sub- 0 20 40 60 80 1 O0
ducts and the thermal diffusivity are from GDH1. In TIME SINCESUBDUCTION
(MYR)
such cooling plate models, temperaturesapproachsteady
state at about 70 Myr, such that all older lithospherehas Fig. 6. Minimum temperaturewithin a slab as a fraction of the
about the same geotherm.Hence the geothermin subduct- mantle temperature,as a function of the time since subduction,
ing lithosphere does not vary directly with thermal computed using the analytic model of McKenzie [1969] for a
parameter, as would be true for a halfspace thermal slab with GDH1 modelparameters. The coldestportionreaches
half the mantletemperature in about10 Myr, by whicha typical
model. For simplicity, lithosphereentering the trench is
slab is approximatelyat 670 km depth,and 80% in 40 Myr, by
assumedto be of constantage. Models are computedby
which a slabwhich continueddescending at the samerate would
allowing subductionto go on long enoughthat a stable reachthe core-mantleboundary.Slabscan thusremainthermally
temperaturestructureresults.The modelsshownare for a distinctfor long periodsof time.
relatively younger and slower-subducting
slab (thermal
parameterabout 2500 kin), approximatingthe Aleutian
arc, and an older and faster-subductingslab (thermal Moreover, because the time required for subducted
parameterapproximately 17,000 kin), approximatingthe material to reach 670 km depth is far less than that
Tonga arc. As expected, the slab with higher thermal required for thermal equilibration with the surroundings,
parameter warms up more slowly, and is thus colder. the restrictionof seismicityto depthsshallowerthan 670
These predicted temperaturedistributionsare typical of km doesnot indicate that the slab is no longer a discrete
slab thermal models, thoughthe depthto individualisoth- thermal, and thus mechanical, entity. Hence from a
erms vary, as shown by comparisonof various models, thermo-rheologicalstandpoint,there is no reasonfor slabs
including those listed by Helffrich et al. [1989] and a not to penetrate into the lower mantle, in accord with
more recentstudy[Daviesand Stevenson, 1992]. seismologicalobservationsand convectionmodeting,dis-
The thermal models also give insight into the rate at cussedshortly. In fact, if a slab descendedthrough the
which slabsshouldequilibratewith the mantle. Figure 6 lower mantle at the same rate, it would retain a
shows the predictedminimum temperaturewithin a slab significantthermal anomalyat the core-mantleboundary.
as a function of time since subduction. The coldestpor- As a result, cold slab remnants in the lower mantle are
tion reacheshalf the mantle temperaturein about 10 Myr, thoughtto give rise to thermal and thus densityhetero-
and 80% in about 40 Myr. Hence becausemost subduc- geneity[e.g.,Richardsand Engebretson, 1992].
tion zones have been active far longer than the time Such thermal models are used to predict approximate
(about 10 Myr) requiredfor the slabto first reach670 km temperatureswithin slabs. Clearly the geometryassumed
[e.g., Engebretsonet al., 1992], the maximumdepthof is simplifiedand the uniform thermal diffusivity adopted
earthquakesin each subductionzone does not simply is an approximation.As the model shown only allows
indicate the maximum depth that the slab has reached,a slab heating by conductionfrom the surroundingmanfie
possibilitysuggestedby lsacks et al. [1968] before an and doesnot include shearor radiogenicheatingor latent
adequate magnetic anomaly record became available. heat release,the predictedtemperaturesare lower
10 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

YOUNGER, SLOWER, HOTTER, SLAB

o 18oo

1500

-20O
rtl
DEEPEST SEISMICITY 1200
rrl
m

EQUILIBRIUM 900
-400 -
.... ::

33-
..

...

.,

600
o

-600
30O

0 200 400 600 800 1000

DISTANCE (KM)

OLDER, FASTER, COLDER, SLAB

1800

I500

Ill
1200 •'
rn

900 3>
-400 - .E.Q.U_I.LI.B_R_t.U.M.,....-
....
BOUNDARY

600 m
o

-600- .. ETASTABLE WEDGE

ß- 300
D.EEPEST SEISMICITY

200 4O0 6OO

DISTANCE (KM)
Plate 2. Comparisonof thermalstructureand predictedregionsof metastabilityfor a relativelyyoungerand slower-
subductingslab (thermalparameterabout2500 km), which approximates the Aleutianarc, and an older and faster-
subducting slab(thermalparameterabout17,000km) whichapproximates the Tongaarc. As expected,the slabwith
higherthermalparameterwarmsup more slowly,and is thuscolder. A metastable wedgeformsonly for old and
fast-subducting
slabswhich are sufficientlycold that kinetichindrancepreventsphasetransformations from keeping
pacewith the descentrate. For themodelparameters used,themetastable wedgeis bounded on its sidesandbottom
by the 600øC isotherm,in thoseslabscold enoughfor it to form. Deep earthquakes are presumedto occur by
transformationalfaulting in the metastable
 STEIN AND STEIN 11

Hence these (or other) models' predictedtemperaturesare cold interior of slabs. Moreover, it is unclear whether the
probablynot accurateto better than about 200øC. The hydratedmineralscouldsurviveto thesedepthsJUlrueret
fact that the temperaturesfrom such models predict al., 1994].
seismic velocities similar to those inferred from observa- In the third hypothesis,deep earthquakesresult from
tions (Plate 3) suggeststhat the modelsare at least rea- solid statephasechanges,primarily that in which olivine
sonableapproximations.As a result,it seemsplausibleto transforms to a denser spinel structure [Kirby, 1987;
use suchmodelsto explore subductionzone processes. Green and Burnley, 1989; Kirby et al., 1991]. Thus deep
seismicityoccursonly in the depth range of the mantle
Implicationsfor Deep Earthquakes transition zone, where phase changesshould occur in
downgoingslabs.Becausethe rate of the phasetransfor-
As papersin this volumeillustrate,thermalmodelsof mation dependsexponentiallyon temperature,then in
subductingslabsare usedto studyaspectsof the subduc- fast-subducting cold slabsthe transformation cannotkeep
tion process[e.g. Kirby et al., 1996b; Peacock,1996]. pacewith the descent,and metastable olivineshouldper-
The models are used in studies which characterize sub- sist below the equilibrium phase boundary[Sung and
duction zones by various parameters,suchas the conver- Burns, 1976ab; Ruble and Ross, 1994; Kirby et al.,
gence rate and age of the subductinglithosphere,and 1996a] (Plate 2). Deep earthquakesare assumedto occur
investigatehow processes vary amongsubduction zones in the metastablematerial by a shearinstability,known as
[e.g., Jarrard, 1986; Peacock,1992;Daviesand Steven- transformational faulting, observedin 'theiabomtorywhen
son, 1992]. One strikingexampleis the variationin the metastablematerialsunder stressundergostronglyexoth-
maximumdepth of deep earthquakes (thosebelow 325 ermic reactions that isochemicallytransformone phase
km) as a function of thermal parameter (Figure 7). into a denser form. This mechanismresolvesthe objec-
Althoughearthquakes are restrictedto depthsshallower tion traditionallyraised to phase-change modelsfor deep
than about 680 km, the maximum depth increaseswith earthquakes, becausethe resultingmotionwouldbe slip
thermalparameter. This observationarguesfor the max- on a fault rather than an implosion, in accord with
imum depth of earthquakesbeing controlled by a seismological observations [Kawakatsu,1991].
temperature-dependent mechanism. The metastabilityhypothesis makesseveralpredictions
No consensus,however, exists about what the thermal generallyconsistent with variousobservations. The idea
control mechanismmay be. One possibilityis that that deep earthquakesoccur by a failure mechanism
seismicityis limited by a thermally-controlled strength, different from that for shallow and intermediate earth-
such that at higher temperaturesthe slab is too weak to quakesis tempting,becauseseismicityas a functionof
supportseismicfailure [Molnar et al., 1979; Wortel, depth has a minimum at about 350 km and then
1982; Wortel and Vlaar, 1988]. A difficulty, however,is increases,suggestingdeep earthquakes form a distinct
that laboratoryresultspredictthat slabsshouldbe strong population.The idea of deep earthquakes due to phase
well below the deepestearthquakes [Brodholtand Stein, changesexplainswhy theseearthquakes coincidewith the
1988]. 400-700 depth range of the transitionzone, where these
A secondpossibilityis that faulting occursby brittle phasechangesare expected.In particular,it explainswhy
fractureas for shallowearthquakes. Althoughhigh pres- deepearthquakes ceaseat the baseof the transitionzone,
sures would normally suppressfracture, it may occur becausephasechangesassociated with formationof the
once slabs become hot enoughthat water releasedby lower mantle mineral assemblageare endothermicand
decompositionof hydrousminerals reduceseffective thusshouldnot causetransformational faulting. This idea
stresson fossil faults formed before subduction[Raleigh, is significantfor mantle dynamics,in that althoughthe
1967; Meade and Jeanloz, 1991; Silver et al., 1995]. simplestexplanationfor the cessation of seismicitynear
Becauseshallowearthquakes in oceaniclithosphereonly 670 km is that slabs do not descend into the lower man-
occur where the temperatureis less than approximately tle, seismological observationsare interpretedas indicat-
800øC [Wiens and Stein, 1983; Chen and Molnar, 1983], ing thatsomedo [e.g.,Fischeret al., 1988;VanderHilst
similartemperature controlwouldbe expectedin 'theslab et al., 1991; Fukao et al., 1992; Van der Hilst, 1995].
[Stein, 1995]. A possibleproblemwith this dehydration Suchslabpenetration is alsopredictedby mantleconvec-
embrittlement model is that hydrothermalcirculation tionmodeling[e.g.,Christensen and Yuen,1984].
would not be expectedto bring water to depthsof more Metastabilitymay explain the observation (Figure 7)
than a few km in oceanicplates[e.g., Steinet al., 1995], that deep seismicityoccursonly for slabswith thermal
whereaslarge earthquakeswould require water in the parameter greaterthan5000 km. Rapiddeepening is
12 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE

15 ' ' TI R I. ll C,

u 600
:z: . O0
' i000
•200 ß

!t&Om ...............
I RGE •' XR
........
U '

2O0
s:: O0
u 600
:r: 800
• I000
I200 •
I•oo
e 1 "00 •" • ' 100 •000

Plate3. Comparison of seismic(P-wave)tomographic imageof thesubducting Kurileslabobtained frominversion of

International
Seismological Centerdelaytimedata(centerleft)to theimage(lowerleft)predicted for a slabthermal
model.The seismic velocityanomalypredicted by thethermalmodel(lowerright)is imagedby a simulated tomo-
graphicstudywith thesameseismic ray pathsampling asusedfor thedata.Theray pathsampling is shownby the
hit count(centerright),thenumber of rayssampling eachcellusedin theinversion. Whitedotsindicate earthquake
hypocenters.As a resultof ray geometry andnoiseaddedto thesynthetic data,theexactmodelof theslabgivesa
somewhat distortedimage(lowerleft),showing howthemodelwouldappear in sucha tomographic study.The fact
thattheimageof theslabmodelandthetomographic result(centerleft)aresimilarsuggeststhattheslabmodelis a
reasonabledescriptionof themajorfeatures of theactualslab.A similarconclusion emerges fromtheobservation that
thetomographic resultalsoresembles partsof themodelimagewhichareresolution artifacts
notpresent in theorigi-
nal model. Theseartifacts, generallyof low amplitude, causetheslabto appearto broaden, shallowin dip, or
"finger". [Spakmanet al., 1989].

to explainif seismicityis controlleddirectlyby tempera- faster-subducting

slabis cold enoughthatphaseWansfor-
ture, becausetemperatures vary smoothlyas a functionof marioncannotkeep pacewith subduction,
a distinctmcta-
thermal parameter.It is easier to explain as a conse- stablewedgeforms,and deepearthquakes are expected.
quence of metastability,as illustratedby the wedge- For the modelparameters used,the wedgeis boundedon
shapedregionof predictedmetastabilityin Plate 2. This its sides and bottom by the 600øC isotherm, so the
region is delineatedabove by the equilibriumboundary occurrenceof deep earthquakesis temperature-controlled
for the olivine • spinel transition,which is elevatedin in slabscoldenoughfor a metastablewedgeto form.
the cold slab, and below by the 99% transformationcon-
tour where almost all metastable olivine has transformed. Problem:a Fault too big?
The younger,slower-subducting,and hencewarmerslab
is hot enoughthat phasetransformationkeepspace with Recentlarge deep earthquakes illustratea potential
subduction, essentially no metastable wedge forms, difficultywith all threehypotheses
for deepearthquakes.
transformationalfaulting should not occur, and deep In thesehypo•e•s, earthquakes shouldbe restrictedto
earthquakesare not expected. In contrast, the older the portionof the slab coolerthan 600-800øC,which
 STEIN AND STEIN 13

Thermal Parameter vs Maximum Earthquake Depth

1oo • ß ' Deepest

Earthquake

200 .

300
' ••oo.•ø
ß
¸ o
eee ß
Izu-Bonin
0
N
ß
ß

ß SE ß
400 .- Sumatra
ß

500 ß

ß Izu-Bonin S

L S.America
S
ß

6O0

700
ß
-
½,America
. N • ;• •b 0
Java 4•
• O
ß
Tonga
•
ß , , , , I ,W , , • I • , • , , I , , , ,
0 5000 10000 15000 20000

Thermal Parameter Phi, km

Fig. 7. Plot of earthquakedepthsfor differentsubductionzones[Kirby et al., 1996a]. The plot is a functionof ther-
mal parameter,the product of vertical descentrate and lithosphericage. For simple thermal models, the maximum
depth to an isotherm should vary with the thermal parameter. Hence if deep earthquakeswere directly temperature
limited, their maximum depth shouldbe a smoothfunctionof thermalparameter. Instead,the maximum depthsseem
divided into a group with thermal parameterless than about 5000 km, which do not have deep earthquakes,and a
groupwith greaterthermalparametersthat do. This abruptchangeis consistentwith the predictionsof the thermo-
kinetic model in Plate 2 where deepearthquakesresultfrom phasechangesin roetastableolivine, and so occuronly in
slabswhere significantmetastabilityis expected.

mal models predict shouldbe a wedgenarrowingto less
than about 10 km at depths greater than 600 km. The
fault areas of recent deep earthquakes,however, exceed
the predictedwedge dimensions.A magnitude7.6 earth-
quake beneathTonga in 1994 had an usuallylarge aft-
ershocksequence,which defineda 50 x 65 km fault zone
[Wienset al., 1994]. Only a few monthslater, the largest
deepearthquakeinstrumentallyrecordedoccurredbeneath
Bolivia. Analysesof data for this earthquakeindicate a
near-horizontal fault area 30-50 km on a side [Kikuchi
and Kanamori, 1994; Silver et al., 1995]. Hencealthough
this interpretationis non-unique[Chen, 1995], large fault
zonesappearto cut acrossthe predictednarrow wedgeof
material below 600-800øC.
The idea of a temperature-controlled processis hard to
abandon,however,becausedeep earthquakesoccuronly
in those slabswhich are relatively colder. Thus the fault
areasmay indicate slab temperaturestructuresmore com-
plicated than the simple models of essentiallyparallel
isothermsin uncleformed slabs. The high seismicenergy
release below about 600 km [e.g., Richter, 1979],
earthquakemechanisms[Lundgrenand Giardini, 1994],
imagesof slabsfrom seismictomography[e.g., Van der
Hilst et al., 1991], and convectionmodels[e.g.,Kincaid
and Olson,1987; Tao and O'Connell,1993]suggest
that
slabs deform due to interaction with the 670 km discon-
tinuity, presumablybecausea major changein physical
propertiesoccursat the baseof the transitionzone.
Kirby et al. [1995] hencesuggestthat the slabin the
regionof the Bolivian earthquakehas a complexthermal
structurebecauseof variationsin the age of the subduct-
ing plate over time and thickeningdue to slab deforma-
tion, causinga widenedcold "pod".Large deep earth-
quakescould occur in this region,either due to
14 THERMO-MECHANICAL EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE
bility or anothertemperature-controlled
process.The real
geometry is presumablymore complicatedand varies
within and among slabs. For the Tonga earthquake,
characterizedby many more aftershocksthan usual for
deepearthquakes, a differentmechanismseemsrequired,
suchas aftershocksby ductile faultingin the relatively
cold spinel-richregion outsidethe wedge,perhapstrig-
geredby a large transformational-faulting main shockin
the wedge [Kirby et al., 1996a].
Complex and variabledeep slab thermalstructureis
plausiblefor several reasons.Althoughsimple thermal
modelsvary only slowly along strike for a given slab,
deepseismicityis quitevariable.Deep seismicity hasdis-
tinct clustersand gapswhere later large earthquakes can
occur (as for the Bolivian earthquake)[Kirby et al.,
1995]. Tomographic imagesof deep slabsvary along
strike and show more complexity[Van der Hilst et al.,
1991; Fukao et al., 1992; Engdahlet al., 1995; Van der
Hilst, 1995] thansimplethermalmodelspredict[Spakmart
et al., 1989]. As noted earlier, someof this complexity
may result from deformationat the 670 km discontinuity.
Moreover, in additionto mechanicalperturbations to the
slab, some of this variability may reflect metastability,
becauselatent heat releasewould perturbthermal struc-
ture [Daessler and Yuen, 1993; Kirby et al., 1996a].
These variationsin both temperatureand metastability
would cause complex density variations,and thus affect
slab stressesand driving forces [Kirby et al., 1996a]. If
wedgeswere large and continuousenough,their buoy-
ancy might deflect the slab toward the horizontal [Silver
et al., 1995], as observed in some cases.
PROSPECTS
Ideas about the thermal structure of the oceanic litho-
spherebefore it subducts,and the resultingthermalstruc-
ture of slabs,seempoisedfor refinement.Both have been
based on fairly simple models, as reviewed here. The
modelsare surprisinglysuccessful at describingthe basic
observedphenomenawith a small numberof parameters.
This generalsuccessis striking,given that the modelsare
two dimensional, include only the simplest thermal
effects, and use temperature-, depth-, and pressure-
independentphysicalproperties.
The challenge is less how to pose more complex
models, than to test and constrainthem. Many featuresof
the data illustrate the need for improvedmodels.In par-
ticular, variations in ocean depth and heat flow about
their mean values as functionsof age, and the misfit to
geoiddata at fracturezones,illustratethe needfor models
in which depth and heat flow dependon more than age-
dependentthermal structure. For this application,a best-
fitting age-dependentthermal model can be used as a
reference model to identify regions differing from the
averageat that age, and thus estimatethe magnitudeof
the perturbing process [Stein and Stein, 1993]. Much
needsto be done to characterizeaveragelithosphere,and
to investigatevariationsabout the average. Our senseis
that the primary deviationsfrom halfspacecooling are
thermal, and hence describedon average by a plate
model, whereassecondaryregionaldeviationsreflecttem-
perature and pressure variations, perhaps due to both
asthenosphericflow and local temperaturevariations.An
important issue is the causeof variationsin ridge crest
depth[e.g., Calcagnoand Cazenave,1994] whichprovide
differing initial conditions. We expect that models will
continueto be posed and tested,hopefullyby explicit
numericalcomparisonto data [Steinand Stein,1994b].
Similarly, the variation along subducfionzones in
phenomena including velocity structure and seismicity
distribution illustrate the need for better thermal models.
Because these variations can be attributed to effects not
included in current models, such as three-dimensional
slab geometry,slab mineralogy,and the variationof pro-
pertieslike thermal diffusivity with temperatureand pres-
sure, improvedmodelsare being suggested and it will be
interestingto see which provemost successful.
Acknowledgements. We have benefitedfrom discussionsover the
years with S. Kirby on aspectsof the thermal evolutionof the
lithosphere.We thank him, S. Peacock, M. Wysession,and an
anonymousreviewer for helpful comments.We benefitedfrom
the hospitalityand supportof the Laboratoryfor TerrestrialPhy-
sics, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, where much of this
researchwas done. Additionalsupportcame from NASA grant
NAG 5-2003 and NSF grant EAR-9022476.
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 GeochemicalFluxesDuring SeafloorAlterationof the
BasalticUpperOceanicCrust'DSDP Sites4 !7 and418

HubertStaudigel
•, TerryPlank
2,Bill White3,Hans- Ulrich Schmincke
4
Seaflooralterationof the basalticupperoceaniccrustprovidesone of the major geochemical
pathwaysbetweenthe mantle, the ocean/atmosphere and subductionzone regimes. Yet, no re-
liable massbalancesare available,in largepart becauseof the extremely heterogeneousdistri-
bution of altered materials in the oceanic crust but also becauseof the limited availability of
high recoverydrill cores. In this paper, we documentthe feasibility of determiningthe bulk al-
tered and fresh compositionof the oceaniccrust on a !0-500 m length scale, from a region in
the westernAtlantic Ocean (DSDP/ODP Sites 417-418). Unaltered compositionswere obtained
from glassand phenocrystdata and alteredcompositionswere determinedthrough analysis of
compositesamples. Most of the alteration-relatedchemicalinventoryresidespreferentially in
the upperoceaniccrustand in highly permeablevolcaniclastics.Most major elements(Si, A1,
Mg, Ca, and Na) and many traceelements(Sr, Ba, LREE's) experiencesubstantiallarge scalere-
distribution,but fluxes are relatively low. Overall, 12 wt % are addedto the crust,mostly H20,
CO2, and K, but the distributionvarieswidely. High field strengthelements,Th, Ti and Fe re-
main essentiallyimmobile during low temperaturealteration,while most other elementsare af-
fectedto somedegree.While the total fluxes are relatively small, the re-distribution of altera-
tion - sensitive elements in the ocean crust is much larger, even on length scales exceeding
100m. The bulk compositionof the upper 500m at Sites 417/418 can be usedto constrain the
impact of oceancrustsubductionon elementrecyclingto volcanicarcs. Flux balancesindicate
that the altereddomainswithin the upperbasalticcrust may contribute a very large proportion
of someelementfluxesrecycledto the arc (H20, CO2, K, Rb, U), while other elementfluxes re-
quire additionalcontributions from sedimentsand deeperoceaniccrust.

1. INTRODUCTION whereby
approximately
5 x 1()•6grmnsof basaltm'egener-
atedand recycledper yem'. This cycle providesa pathway
Generation,alterationmidrecyclingof oceaniccrust rep- for •nanflecomlx)nents
into the hydrosphere,
andlbr seawa-
resentsthe lm'gestchemicalcycle in the dynmnicsolid e,-u'th ter derived elements into subduction zones ,and the mm•tle.
Chemical fluxes in fl•esepafl•ways,'u'eextremelypoorly
constrained,
including
theextentof high te•nperature
altera-'
•Facultyof EarthSciences,Free UniversityAmsterdam,Ban- tion at ridges,as well as off-axis low temperaturechemic,'d
sterdam, Netherlands exchange. This lack of &xtaprovidesa major stumbling
2Depattlnentof Geology,University
of Kansas,
Lawrence,Kan- blockin our understranding of earthchemic,-d
dynamics.
sas
The alteration or' the ocemfic crust on the se•dloor, ,-redits
3Dept.GeologicalSciences,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,New
York subsequent met,'unorphismm•dchemicallossesduring sub-
4Abteilung VulkanologieundPetrologie,GeomarForschungs- duction have a major impacton the loci ,'redcompositionof
zentrum, Kiel, Germany arc magmatism. Sever,'drecentstudieshave pointedto the
alteredb•salfic crust specificsally
a,sa major sourceof ele-
ments recycledto volcanic arcs during subduc-fion(e.g.
H20 [Peacock,1990; Ph-mk,1994]; B [Ishikawam•dNaka-
Subduction:Top to Bottom
Geophysical
Monograph96 mura, 1993]; Pb [Miller et ,'d, 1992; Peucker-Ehrenbrincket
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union aL, 1995]). Despitethe recognitionof the ,alteredoceanic
20 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

crest as an importantplayerin subductionzone recycling, 2. METHODS AND ANALYTICAL TECH-

the lack of detailedstudiesof the bulk compositionof dif- NIQUES
ferent basementsectionsha• thw,-u'texl efforts to quantita-
tively mass bal,-mcefluxes through subductionzones. Estimationof large - scalechemicaland isotopiccomposi-
Thus,a majorgoalof the currentstudyis to providea com- tions requiresa det•dledgeologicalanalysislbr representa-
prehensivegeochemcialdataset for an upper ocemficcrust tive s}unplingas well as an analyticallaboratoryeffort, and
sectionto usein subductionrecyclingstudies. A few gen- both of them have their own characteristic uncertainties.
eral implicationsof the compositionaleffectsof seaflooral- We usedcompositesin orOerto characterize the large-sc,-de
terationon the subductedsourcesof arc magmasis discussed compositionof the oceanicextrasivesm DSDP/ODP Sites
in the final sectionof this paper. 417A, 417D and418A. For this, we targeteda seriesof
The bulk effectsof seawater-oceancrustexchangemay be representative, evenlydistributedcore sectionswith particu-
detenninedin two ways, throughdirectmonitoring of hy- larly favourablerecoveryrates(80-100%) and the occtmence
drothermalactivity on the oceanfloor, or througha com- of all •najor lithological types. In thesecoresections,we
parisonof alteredandfreshoceaniccrust. In this study,we selectedtypicalsamplesfrom massiveIlows, pillow lavas,
are following the latter approachand attempt to determine and volcaniclasticrocks, in a rangeof characteristic ,altera-
the bulk compositionof the oceaniccrustusing cotnposite tionconditions.For eachs,-unple we estimatedits character-
samplesthat were combinedto be representativeon scale istic abundancein the core, using our own analysis,'red,-uzl
lengthsrangingfrom tensto hundredsof meters.This scale publishedpetrogmphic descriptions of the(entire)drill cores
length is manageablegeochemicallyand it representsa [Donnelly et ,'fl., 1979]. In theseestimates,we balanced
lower size limit for distinct compositionaldom,tins that representative typesof volcmficlastics, and to took into ac-
may imparta chemicalimprint on partiermelts or metaso- count the typical size variationsof pillows and •nassive
matic fluids. 11ows. The latter is particularlyimportantfor the volume
We carriedout this investigationat Deep Sea Drilling fi•tction of the typic•dly highly altered pillow •nargins
Sites 417A, 417D m•d 418A, near Bermuda Rise in the whichv•ies significantlywith pillow tube diameter. Spe-
West-CentralAtlantic, becausethey are uniquelysuitedfor cial carewasalsotakento includevein materials,inter-pil-
this type of investigation: low hyaloch'cstites, pillow tYagmentbreccias,massivetlow
-Up to 500m penetration into the basaltic basement, materials, and pillow interiorsand•narginsin their average
amongstthreeclosely spacedsites providesa detailedand proportions at these sites and in other submarineextrusive
representative view of oceancrustin thisregion. rocks. These estimates were usedin determiningthe mix-
- The high crustalage (magneticAno•nalyMO, 118 Ma) ing proportions of individual s,'unples for the volc,'miclastic
suggeststhat all major hydrothermaland low temperature (VCL) ,and subm•ine extmsive (FLO) composites
exchangeprocesses havebeenco•npleted. (Appendix 1). These "lithology" composites were prep,'ued
- The abundance of freshgl•s allowsfor an estimateof the for three depth interv,'ds including 20% of samples i¾om
un,-fltered rock comlx•sition Site 417A ,and 40 % each from Sites 417D and 418A. In
- High recoveryrates(70%) allow qu•titative •sess•nent addition to these lithology composites, we also prepared
of the alterationinventory that is distributedvery hetero- compositesto representthe depth-relatedchemicalv,-u'ia-
geneously,and tions. In tl•esecompositeswe kept the fractionsof dillbr-
- A representativespreadin alterationbehaviourcan be ent lithologies constant (volc•miclastics,6%, massive
found at tl•esesites,includingextremelyoxidative alteration flows, 20% andpillows, 74%; following Robinsonet al.
in ,anabyssalhill at Site 417A ,aswell as •nore mcxlemteal- [1979]), giving us an estimateof downholechemicalwtria-
teration at Sites 417D ,and 4! 8A. This allows tbr an •s- tion that is insensitiveto lithology vm'iations.
sessmentof diversity,aswell •s consistency in the composi- Smnplepowderswereprepreed tbr eachindividmdsample
tion of altered oceanic crust. using cleerolaboratorytechniques. Surthceswere cleaned
In this study,we wish to demonstratethe tbasibilityof de, with SiC sandpaper, s,'unples washedin distilledwater,and
terminingbulk compositionof the oceaniccrust, its large all subsequent stunpie contact was limited to materialsthat
scalediversity,as well as fluxes betweenseawaterand ba- were cleaned prior to use. These materindsincludeagate
salt. However, this is possibleonly throughintegrationof grinding vessels, polyethylene, and Teflon labware. Itow-
structuralandchemic•dtechniques, andit requiresdeepocean ever, it has to be pointed out that such cleaningpnx:edures
drill holeswith high recoveryrates. Given the fact that the cannot remove pervasive cont,'unination as it may be intro-
requiredrot,-u'ydrilling techniqueshave been available liar duced, e.g., from drilling fluids into porous coresor through
decades,it is disappointinghow few of suchholesexist. sorption to clays. Individuals,'unple powdemwere
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 21

Table 1 Composites
Major ElementData

samplenumber depth SiO, TiO, A!20• Fe2Os FeO lVtnO MgO CaO NaO: K•O P:Os H•O CO• sum

417/418 super -289.30 45.80 1.18 15.53 5.60 3.98 0.17 6.66 12.88 2.07 0.56 0.11 2.68 2.95 100.17
417A 24 118.33 45.20 1.49 16.21 10.96 1.13 0.48 3.47 7.67 1.42 4.38 0.22 4.93 3.41 100.97
417A 32 45.66 45.90 1.45 16.56 8.13 3.05 0.16 5.32 9.82 2.35 1.63 0.14 4.48 1.54 100.53
417A 44-46 -63.48 41.60 1.08 14.53 5.46 3.05 0.16 5.53 14.38 2.71 1.09 0.16 3.98 6.47 100.20
417D 22 -17.84 43.10 1.18 13.92 5.28 3.54 0.21 5.82 15.46 1.85 0.76 0.10 2.11 6.07 99.40
417D 39 -124.85 45.10 1.29 15.74 6.04 3.41 0.13 5.66 13.23 1.80 0.83 O.lO 2.69 3.89 99.91
417D 59 -288.20 46.50 1.21 16.57 5.36 4.43 0.18 5.99 13.78 1.97 0.30 0.11 1.44 2.29 100.13
418A 15 -5.09 42.20 0.97 14.63 5.03 2.80 0.19 6.51 15.55 2.10 0.61 0.09 2.24 6.70 99.62
418A 40 -187.04 45.20 0.96 16.93 5.00 3.34 0.13 5.94 12.04 2.99 0.84 0.07 3.85 2.44 99.73
418A 73-75 -463.51 48.10 1.21 15.32 6.03 4.58 0.15 8.14 10.98 1.92 0.17 0.10 2.73 0.35 99.78
418A 86 -541.93 47.40 1.22 15.57 5.25 4.55 0.17 7.92 12.35 2.01 0.13 0.10 2.23 1.36 100.26
VCL top -17.67 27.20 0.64 8.28 6.63 0.52 0.50 3.61 26.57 0.90 1.82 0.07 3.41 19.73 99.88
VCL 100 -190.52 43.80 1.00 13.99 7.60 Z26 0.10 6.39 10.43 2.38 2.06 0.08 4.78 4.84 99.71
VCL 300 -518.54 48.30 1.17 15.42 8.10 2.30 0.09 9.20 8.88 2.09 0.49 0.09 3.73 0.70 100.56
FLO top -18.82 43.90 1.18 15.01 6.04 3.10 0.19 5.89 13.28 2.05 1.11 0.11 2.87 4.71 99.44
FLO 100 -189.92 43.10 1.08 15.29 5.07 3.40 0.15 5.45 14.41 2.65 0.78 0.12 3.32 5.03 99.85
FLO 300 -511.89 48.10 1.20 15.33 5.54 4.48 O.17 8.00 12.08 1.89 O.11 0.10 1.97 1.03 100.0

ChemicalAnalyses doneby H Niephaus at the RuhrUniversityBochumusingtechniques by Floweret at., [1979]. Notethat someof thesedata werepreviously
reported
with sometypographic
errorsfor CaO and CO• abundances by Staudigelet al [1989] and Spivackand Staudigel[1994](note that the calculationsand
conclusions
in thesepapersare not affectedby theseerrors).

Table 2 Trace Elementsof CompositeSamples[in ppm]

Sample# Y Zr Nb Cs Ba l.a Ce Pr bld Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy tto F_x Yb l_u tlf Ta Th U

SUPER 26.9 66.5 1.22 0.153 22.6 1.84 6.01 1 17 6.62 2.50 0.91 3.65 0.713 4.40 0.98 2.77 2.69 0.425 1.92 0.097 0.070 0.300
417A-24 37.5 90.1 1.54 0.788 109.3 3.69 8.55 I 78 9.71 3.44 1.22 4.97 0.957 5.94 1.28 3.61 3.45 0.540 2.47 0.125 0.084 0.259
417A-32 32.2 86.8 1.48 0.441 46.7 2.24 7.37 I 40 7.86 2.92 1.07 4.32 0.859 5.30 1.16 3.34 3.28 0.496 2.35 0.109 0.085 0.149
417A-44 26.9 63.3 1.08 0.345 14.1 2.30 6.12 I 28 7.11 2.56 0.94 3.78 0.739 4.56 0.99 2.81 2.74 0.423 1.67 0.078 0.099 0.102
417D-22 28.1 72.9 1.24 0.199 14.7 1.95 6.33 I 26 6.98 2.64 0.98 3.89 0.764 4.71 1.02 2.91 2.85 0.440 1.92 0.092 0.071 0.91
417D-39 27.1 75.9 1.25 0.340 10.2 1.86 6.02 I 15 6.50 2.45 0.87 3.55 0.711 4.40 0.97 2.77 2.80 0.444 2.10 0.108 0.068 0.462
417D-59 28.0 73.4 1.09 0.120 80.1 1.84 6.00 I 20 6.73 2.60 0.98 3.91 0.766 4.81 1.05 3.04 2.94 0.458 1.95 0.088 0.103 0.089
418A-15 22.2 53.2 1.18 0.059 20.6 1.51 4.98 0.97 5.46 2.04 0.84 3.15 0.623 3.76 0.82 2.33 2.31 0.359 1.50 0.091 0.058 0.611
418A-40 24.6 52.9 0.74 0.188 5.3 1.29 4.49 0.90 5.26 2.08 0.81 3.20 0.628 3.94 0.87 2.50 2.45 0.383 1.48 0.062 0.042 0.233
418A-73 25.5 66.8 1.32 0.069 16.4 1.84 6.36 1.22 6.86 2.51 0.95 3.75 0.745 4.58 1.00 2.81 2.73 0.433 1.91 0.105 0.071 0.182
418A-86 28.2 63.4 1.30 0.036 28.3 1.84 6.36 1.22 6.58 2.51 0.94 3.72 0.733 4.61 1.01 2.88 2.87 0.441 1.91 0.101 0.069 0.304
VCL-top 19.1 39.8 0.66 0.455 16.6 1.55 4.29 0.79 4.13 1.50 0.54 2.23 0.433 2.73 0.62 1.78 1.88 0.301 1.07 0.055 0.038 0.659
VCL-100 22.0 57.1 0.98 0.599 16.9 1.85 4.97 0.99 5.40 2.00 0.72 2.98 0.583 3.66 0.79 2.28 2.34 0.369 1.64 0.079 0.064 0.536
VCL-300 22.6 63.6 1.34 0.082 25.0 1.67 5.69 1.11 6.13 2.31 0.88 3.45 0.681 4.17 0.92 2.61 2.62 0.403 1.85 0.103 0.070 0.292
FLO-Top 28.0 70.3 1.32 0.219 31.5 2.05 6.46 1.26 7.05 2.61 0.98 3.87 0.767 4.73 1.04 2.95 2.87 0.444 1.98 0.097 0.079 0.635
FLO-100 27.5 64.4 1.01 0.247 12.1 1.90 5.71 1.16 6.52 2.45 0.90 3.66 0.735 4.49 0.99 2.84 2.77 0.433 1.76 0.075 0.084 0.197
FLO-300 27.6 67.6 1.30 0.037 25.7 1.81 6.28 1.19 6.82 2.51 0.93 3.73 0.730 4.59 0.99 2.81 2.77 0.440 1.95 0.107 0.070 0.204

Analysesby ICPMS by T. Plank at Cornell University

and mixed into compositesusingthe proportionsin Appen- Cornell Universityusing techniques

dix 1. Eachcomposites,'unple witshomogenizedin onelast
grindingstep.
Compositesampleswereanalyzedfor their major element
compositionusinga combinationof X-ray fluorescence
rapid wet chemicaltechniquesat the Ruhr University Bo-
chum(Table 1 and 4; ,analystH. Niephaususing techniques
of Flower et al. [1979].). A subsetof these•tta werepre-
viouslyreported[Spivackand Staudigel,1994; Smudigelet
al., 1995]. Traceelementsweredetermined by ICP-MS at
of [Cheath,-un
et al.,
1992] (Table 2. and 3). These thetaincludere-determination
of earlierICP-MS data [Staudigelet al., 1995] (REE, U,
Th) and XRF datat¾omBochum(Rb, Sr). Agree•nentbe-
tweenthe ditt•rent generationICP-MS datais very good,
even though we prefer the newer data set becauseof better
instrumentperformance,asthe result of an upgradedinter-
face. Significantdiscrepancies were Ibund only between
ICP-MS andXRF Rb ,andSr data(Table 3), resultingin
significant
differences
in our calculation
of initial
22 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

Table 3 IsotopicCompositionof CompositeSamples

Composite B 15•B 15•3C15•80 Rb Sr mSrfl6Sr 143Nd/mNd

[ppm] [ppm] [ppm]

417/418 super 26.2 0.8 1.06 9.96 9.58 115 0.704575 0.513077
417A 24 104 1.6 0.07 18.05 57.51 96 0.707212 0.513006
417A 32 52 0.6 2.24 13.2 26.65 135 0.705879 0.513081
417A 44-46 69 2.4 1.81 13.65 19.06 141 0.705793 0.513002
417D 22 26 -1.7 1.32 11.21 16.28 104 0.704697 0.513061
417D 39 40 3.1 1.94 11.72 17.68 113 0.705058 0.513078
417D 59 25 -2.5 n.d. 7.87 7.61 104 0.704689 0.513005
418A 15 30 2.3 1.01 11.3 6.99 116 0.704359 0.513078
418A 40 23 3.8 0.66 10.69 10.38 176 0.705554 0.513082
418A 73-75 11.8 1.2 n.d. 8.8 3.25 111 0.703987 0.513101
418A 86 7.2 0.4 n.d. 8.27 2.21 102 0.703744 0.513087
VCL top 59 0.3 1.6 19.17 35.27 89 0.707437 0.513023
VCL 100 64 2.6 1.14 15.35 34.29 166 0.70681 0.513027
VCL 300 16 5.4 n.d. 11.6 5.30 118 0.70476 0.513083
FLO top 40 2 0.98 12 16.29 113 0.704873 0.513072
FLO 100 34 1.6 1.7 10.7 13.52 141 0.705336 0.513043
FLO 300 10.2 0.5 n.d. 7.72 2.20 108 0.703636 0.513069*

' from Staudigelet al. [1995]; Smithet al.. [1995]

Table 4 Major Elementsof VolcaniclasticsFrom DSDP Sites417 and 418A [individualsamples,wt %]

samplenumber SiO2 TiO2 AI203 Fe203 FeO MnO MgO CaO NaO2 I•O P2Os H20 CO2 sum

417A 24-2 52-54 42.10 0.98 13.21 9.67 0.43 1.66 3.07 10.29 1.24 3.64 0.03 5.03 9.39 100.74
417A 24-2 80-82 41.60 1.45 13.91 11.74 0.48 0.41 2.29 9.37 0.96 5.81 0.10 5.00 7.64 100.76
417A 32-4 114-116 49.30 1.45 18.07 11.67 0.57 0.05 4.09 2.11 1.47 4.26 0.01 7.30 0.37 100.72
417A 32-2 48-50 48.60 1.29 16.76 11.440.55 0.05 5.63 1.97 1.29 3.97 0.02 8.72 0.60 100.89
417A 46-2 15-17 38.40 1.09 14.18 7.25 1.83 0.18 4.12 13.87 3.31 1.66 0.16 5.75 8.85 100.65
417D 22-1 5-7 15.80 0.03 2.42 3.80 1.27 2.04 2.02 35.90 0.32 1.97 0.01 2.07 32.05 99.70
417D 26-1 9-12 40.30 0.82 10.07 7.39 3.18 0.20 9.00 13.80 1.77 1.07 0.13 3.23 8.51 99.47
417D 27-4 76-79 36.30 0.90 11.46 5.34 2.32 0.13 4.60 20.27 1.58 1.21 0.08 3.10 13.53 100.82
417D 39-1 30-40 47.80 1.31 15.86 8.01 2.47 0.08 6.61 8.22 1.87 1.47 0.05 4.80 2.05 100.60
417D 59-3 51-53 42.50 1.02 11.81 9.25 1.82 0.07 6.14 13.51 1.51 1.87 0.07 3.58 7.69 100.84
417D 60-5 97-100 41.10 1.05 13.10 7.11 1.87 0.12 6.74 16.16 1.61 0.53 0.07 3.38 8.03 100.87
418A 15-2 140-144 (A) 19.10 0.39 5.66 3.95 1.17 0.37 2.93 34.5 5 1.02 0.95 0.07 1.79 27.84 99.79
418A 15-2 140-144 (B) 19.00 0.39 5.62 3.87 1.19 0.36 2.94 32.93 1.02 0.94 0.07 1.68 29.16 99.17
418A 40-2 15-17 48.00 1.17 16.42 6.84 3.51 0.06 6.62 2.93 4.06 3.37 0.10 6.40 0.48 99.96
418A 40-2 52-56 47.10 1.05 15.54 5.71 3.44 0.12 5.12 9.93 3.14 2.50 0.11 3.21 2.25 99.22
418A 41-2 20-24 45.40 0.81 15.28 7.24 2.64 0.07 9.45 5.93 2.24 2.70 0.04 6.47 2.63 100.90
418A 41-2 92-96 48.30 0.89 16.29 6.18 3.57 0.12 6.93 9.67 2.78 1.52 0.07 3.57 0.89 100.78
418A 41-2 131-136 37.00 0.60 10.27 6.16 2.22 0.10 5.53 17.44 1.76 2.84 0.07 3.48 11.95 99.42
418A 42-1 50-54 46.60 0.75 13.26 9.33 2.36 0.08 7.48 7.10 2.95 2.66 0.06 4.88 3.20 100.71
418A 75-2 68-70 47.80 1.14 14.66 9.24 3.46 0.11 10.34 7.93 1.64 0.25 0.09 3.60 0.58 100.84
418A 75-5 42-45 47.70 1.19 14.49 8.40 3.87 0.12 9.38 7.98 1.52 0.46 0.07 4.87 0.57 100.62
418A 86-1 99-102 50.30 1.09 13.78 7.02 3.03 0.07 10.85 7.22 2.87 0.78 0.09 3.04 0.72 100.86
418A 86-1 43-45 50.00 1.10 13.68 6.98 3.05 0.07 10.84 7.18 2.85 0.78 0.09 3.38 0.72 100.72
418A 86-3 27-30 48.80 1.10 17.33 5.53 3.32 0.09 7.71 10.98 2.08 0.22 0.08 2.68 0.41
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 23

+ 100m 417A

418A 417D

- 500m

- 70001

- 80001

Fig. 1. Hypthetical
lithologicalsectionthrough theoceaniccrustat DSDPSites417A, 417D, and418A to illus-
tratethe extremelyunevendistribution of lithologieswith distinctalterationcharacteristics.Volcaniccycles
typicallybeginwith the deposition of massivflows("v" pattern),followedby pillowsof decreasing diameter
(pillow-shapedpattern).Towardsthetopof thepillowunits,thenumberof brecciated particlesincreases,andthe
capsof pillowvolcanoes areofteentirelymadeof volcaniclastics (blackpattern).Hyaloclastites oftenfill the
pillow interstices
(not shown).,4anagmatic extensionresultsin the formationof listric faults.Exposedfault
scarps oftenalsoresultin debrisaccumulations at theirbase.Notethathighlyaltered volcaniclasticsaredistrib-
utedextremelyirregularandthey are slightlymorecommonin abyssalhills.

ratios, and, thus,the mixing proportionsbetweenseawater distribution of alteration. Oceanic crust is build in cha,•c-
andbasaltSr relativeto Staudigelet al. [1995]. The newer teristicwflcanic- tectoniccycles(e.g. [Sclunincke andBed-
ICP-MS analysesalsoprovidedamfor Ba, Cs, Nb, Hf, Zr n•u'z, 1990; Robinson et al., 1979; Staudigel ,xr•d
and Ta. Schmincke,1985]). Eachvolcaniccycle beginswith mas-
siveflowsor very thickpillows (20%), continueswith pil-
3. GEOCHEMICAL ALTERATiON AS A FUNCTION low lavasof decreasil•gdi•uneter (74%), andendswith vol-
OF DEPTH caniclastics
(6%). This overall lithologicalvariationis also
characteristic
for ophiolites
andotherdeepwaterpillow lava
The distribution of the sea water-derived chemical inven- sequences. After a relativelyshort-livedvolcanicperiod,
tory in the oceaniccrustis largely controlledby porosity theremaybeanextended periodof se,•lcx•ralterationof the
andpermeability a.•it is formedduringvolcanicandtectonic volcanic SUl•aceand in zonesof hy6c•thermalupwelling.
processes. For thisreason,we havereviewedthe lithologi- Tectonicactivity during amagma-ticspreadingfragments
ca logspublished for thesesites[Donnellyet al., 1979a] andtilts the oceaniccrustalonglistriofaults [e.g. Ka'son,
andprovidedone possiblestructuralscemu'io (Figure 1). 1987;Varga,_1991], wl•ichmaycauseadditional
pe•xneabil-
Eventhoughourstructuralinterpretation in Figure 1 is not ity alongthe faultitselfandalongtectonically
brecciated
unique,it doesserveto illustratehow the volcanictectonic zones. Furthermore,the surt•ace expressionof extensional
evolution of mid-oceanridge volcanoesc,-minfluence the tectonicscausesfault scarlpthat ,alsoa'e commonly
24 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

atedwith breccias. Subsequent to such a phaseof mnag- wherebywaterdecreases

ti'omabout2-7 mole%in the upper
matic spreading,a new volc,'micpulse may begin another 400m to 1-5 mole% water in the lowermost 418A section.
cycle. Site 417D includesalmost three completecycles, Thesesamplesprovidea minimum baselinefor the extent
while 418A includesfour completecyclesand the top of a of pervasivealteration. However, it has to be noted that
fifth (Figure1). Overall, thisdiscussionshowsthat perme- most of the analysesusedin Figures 1 a4 were taken from
ability is very unevenlydislxibuted,andenhanced in breccia petrogeneticstudieswherean attemptis madeto analyze
zones, fissuresand possibly along listtic fault systems. only the le•[st,-d•'ed samples.(e.g. [Flower et ,'fl., 1979]).
This causesa similarlycomplex,three-dimensional distribu- Thus, a linear averageof the lower rangein CO2 and H20
tion of seawater-derived componentsin the upper oceanic probablygivesa goodesthnateof the minimumdegreeof
crustand it greatlycomplicates large-scMechemical,analysis perv•[,;ivealteration, without the addition of obvious vein
and mass balance considerations. For these reasons, drill materials.
hole data from the oceaniccrust cannotbe simply extrapo- As it mightbe expectedfrom the composite recipes,they
lated in a horizontallycontinuousgeometry,not for distinct showhigherCO2 ,andH20 inventories thanthe minimally
lithologies,nor for fortnationpropertiessuchas permeabil- alteredsamples(Figure2 a, b), confirmingthe composites
ity. as mixtures of less altered bulk rocks with the addition of
The se,-ffloor-alteration
relatedche•nicalinventory in the veinmaterials.The CO: c{mtents of the depthcomposites
oce,-miccrust is • in the form of vein and vug fillings showa rathersystematic decreasewith depth,whilethe H20
andas replacementof igneousphases. The most common displaysmuch more scauer. The uppermost417D ,aid
secondarymineralphasesin the upperoceanicextrasives,are 418A composites areactuallylowerin H20 thansmnples at
clays,carbonates, andzeolites. Additionof thesephasesto greaterdepth. The lowermostcompositeat Site 417D (-
mid-oceanridge bas,'dtsis che•nicallyco•relatedwith en- 59) displaysexU'emelylow watercontentswhile the inter-
hancedabun'dances
of H•_OandCO2 andincreases in õ180 mediate418A - 40 hasratherhigh watercontents. These
,-red
87Sr/a6Srinit
isotopic
ratiosof bulk rtxzkchemical
data. systematicscorrelate with rather minor triterationin the
In orderto studythe distributionof alterationeffect,;in the deeperpillows andmassiveflows at the bottom of 417D,
oceaniccmst,we havereviewedpreviouslypublishedxnajor andbrecciazonesat 150 and 180 m depfl•at 417D ,and
elementbulk rock data from the Initial Reportsof Deep Sea 418A, respectively. It is interestingto note that this
Drilling Legs 51-53 [Donnellyet al., 1979a; Donnelly et lithologicaldifferenceis not app,'u'ent in the down-hole
al., 1979b], and cornpinedthem to our dam in a seriesof variationof CO:. Overall, H20 in 417A extenc[,• the 417D
downholeplots(Figure2 a-d). •md418A downholetrend,displayinga very high degreeof
The CO2 andH20 abundances of individuals,'unples vary hydrafion,while the CO: at this highly alteredsite is rela-
substantially, whereby.thehighestvaluesare tbundgener- tively low whencomparedto the top of 417D and 418A.
ally in the upper300m of the tx:e:miccrust(Figm'e2 a and Thus, the highly oxidizingalterationenvironmentat 417A
b, up to 28 mole% H20* alld 38 mole% CO: (someof the is characterized by only minorcm'lxmate precipitation.
highestthreevaluesof Table 2 ,arenot showntbr illustra- The addition of vein xninerals to the oceanic crust as re-
tive purposes).The latter carlx)natecontentindicatesabout 11ected in the elevatedCO: andH20 abund,'mces may also
75% modal carbonate. Such mixtures of cm'b(mates and ba- be seenin theSiO2,andMgO abundances (Figure2 c andd).
salt are commonly tbundin ophi{fiites(i.e. "ophicalcite"), The uppercrustdisplaysscatteriowarots lower Si contents
even though they genendlyare not very abundm•t(<<5%). which is consistent with a dilution fi'om the addition of
The total rangeof observedCO2 and H20 abund:mces in cm'bonates ,'redhydroussecon&u'y phases(Figure2b). Over-
highly alteredrocksdecreases with depth. Due to the negli- all, theMgO of bulkrocksd{yes not showverylargevm•a-
gible CO2 and H20 inventoryin IYeshMORB, their abun- tion. In the upperportion of the oce,-mic crust, a large
dancesin tx:eancrustalrocks,'u'eessentially,ill derivedfrom numberof s,'unples havevery low MgO, andthediversityis
sea water and, thus, their abundancein rocks cumulatively relativelyhigh. Compositesalsodisplaylow MgO nearthe
indicates the extent of seatltx)r alteration. The maxitnum top ,andshow,anincreasewith depth,they clusterto the left
extentof ,alterationappearsto decrease with depth,without of the bulk of the individmdrock datain the upperportion
any apparentrelationshipto the individualvolcaniccycles. while theyplot to the right in the lower crust. This possi-
Despitethe very largescatterof CO: ,andH20 in highly bly indicatesadditionof Mg-poor second,'u•phasesin the
alteredsamples,there is a very large number of individual upperportion,while addingMg-bearingphtu•es in the lower
samples that tbnn a relatively narrow b,'mdof samples. part of Site 418A.
This group of minimally }altered s,'unples displays•- Isotopic U'acersof txze•mfloor •dterationalso show some
proximately0-3 tnole % CO2 throughoutthe drill hole,' systematic down-hole trends,in particular for
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 25

+ ind. rock • 417D /• VCL ¸ 417A • 418A A FLO Super

I I I I I I I I I
200 • •
be Cm +
am +

+
** * 0+$++++
%* +%0
,--, •+0 +
+ +
+ +
+
++%
++
++.%0
+++ +
4F+
.+. ++
6-•++•+•1•
,,..,++• + +, + ++
+
+ + + •" + + + +•
0_
A• +
+
+A + +n+ +
+
+
+ ¸ -.-+ + +

O + 0+•+
+
+ ++
+ +
:+ +

-200 /•

++

-400 +

_F-t-
+ •+ +

+++

-600 I I I I I I
15
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10
C02 H2 0 SiO2 MgO
Fig.
2.CO
2(a),H20
(b),SiO
2(c)and
MgO
(d),inmole%,
versus
elevation
forcomposite
samples
and
individual
samplesfromtheInitialReports
ofDeep SeaDilling[Donnelly
etal1979a,b]. Symbols areexplainedabove
panels
aandb;elevationisgiven
inmetersabove
orbelow theabyssal
plain
at417Dand418A,analagoustothe
scale
in Figure1.Compositesampledepths
arecalculated
asweighted
depths
ofallcontributing
samples.
The
tight
clusterofindividual
rocksamples
atlowCO:and H.,Ocontents
indicates
thepervasiveminimumalteration,
whereascmnposites
indicate
thebulkcrustal
composition
including
veinsandvesicle
fillings.
SiO•andMgOof
cc•mposites
display
lowerabundances
consistent
withtheaddition
ofh•wMgclays,
andcarbonates.

and8•sOisotopic ratios(Figure di- composites

3 a-c).Thes?Sr/S68rinit andthedifferences between
VCL'stu•dFLO's,
rectlyreflects
a mixingratiobetween • seawaterSr butthe dtunimmtfeature
is a steady
dec'mase
in •5•sOwith
(S?$r/S6Srinit
= 0.70735)andremainingbasaltSr (0.70295). depth.This decrease
w•e;expl,-dned
by dec're,xsh•g
intensity
Quitesimilar to thevariation
in H20,theS?Sr/S6Sr•, of ofalteration
withdepth
aswellasanincremse in alteration
-
417D ,and418A depthcomposites displaysrehttivelylow temperature[Staudigel
et al., 1995].Thedown-hole u'end
valuesnearthe very top, increasing highervalues observed
towtu:c[s in thesedatais consistent
with the trendsobserved
nearthemgiorbrecciazonesin 417D and418A, andthen in the Ibm Section of the O•nanOphiolite[Gregorytad
decreasing
withdepthto thelowermost valuesin thedeepest Taylor, 1981],even though this,
more detaileds,-unple
setis
portions
of418A. Theoverallshnilarity
between
417Dand slightly
off-set
towards
lower
values.
Therather
syste•natic
418A composites suggests ,-merepresenta- variationof 8•80 showsthat the estimatefor the Super
that thesetrencLs
tive fi•r this region. 417A ,'udVCL composites display Composite isrelatively
robust,,andit allowsforextrapola-
relatively
highS7Sr/S6Srinit
values, whiletheFLO compos- tionto greaterdepth.
itesaregenerally
relatively
littlealtered
andtheVCL'shave The variationof 8•B is xnuchlesssystematic thanother
substantially
higher"7Sr/•6Sr•,•t.The dill•rence
between alteration
par,-uneters
[Smith,et. al., in press].
The upper
VCL's ,andFLO'sdecreases partof thecrust
with depth. It is interestingto displays
scatter,
volcaniclastics
systemati-
callyincrea•se
notethatthe watercontentof the top VCL's andFLO's is in8•lBwithdepth,
whileflowsshowa steady
nearly
identical,
whereas
thes'7Sr/S6Sr•,•t
displays
largediffer- decreasewithdepth.
S,-unples
tYtun
417D indicate
•B deple-
ences.Bothrocktypesmay haveinteracted with similar tion,whilemostothersmnples showenrich•nents.
Overall,
quantities
of water,but the waterin the lesspermeable it appears
that
8•lBdisplays
a modestinc're•u;e
duringzdtera-
FLO's•nusthavealreadycarriedSr witha signfi- tion,although
submtu'ine thereisclearly
nosimpledepthv,-u'iation.
cant b•,;alfic component. Thedistribution
ofH20,CO2, S?$r/S6Srinu,
•]sOand
The;5•Oshows
manysimilarpatterns suggests
astheS7Sr/86Srinit, thatalteration
in theuppermost
300mof the{re-
between417D and 418A depth anic crust is enhancedand more
suchas the consistency
26 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

200 I I I I I I I I I I•,ß mentsduringnearlycompleteloss of Na andCa, andlarge

o scaleremoval of Si, AI, mid Mg (e.g. [Hay and Iijima,
E• 0 0 1968; StaudigelandHart, 1983]). The precipitationof clays

õo oa
• •oo o
alsoinvolvesuptakeof H20, K, Rb andCs in si•nilarpro-
portionsas in [Staudigelet al., 1981a, 1981b;].Precipi-
tation of the calcium-carbonates
is most obviouslyindicated
by incre,x,•esin CO2, but not necessarilyin CaO because

-200
&
l,A•IA ßA
[]
muchof theh-Ca is derivedfrom b,xsalt(e.g. [Staudigelet
©4.
al., 1979]).
-400 in Figure4, we presentcorrelationdiagramsbetween the
alteration
sensitive
isotopictracers
(•7Sr/•*Sr,
15•sO,
õ•B)
[] A[] andelementalabundances
of H20, Rb andB. Go(xl cx)rre-
.oo i

0.704
i

0.705 0.706 10
i

15 20 -2
ß
0 2 4 6
lationsbetween
H20 andRb with õ•80 ,'redS7Sr/S*Sr
in
composites,'unplesindicatethat the extentof Sr exchange
87Sr/86Sr
init (•18
0 (•11
B with sea water is probablydomixmted by palagonitization
Fig. 3. Down-holevariationin initial S7Sl'fftSrinit(a),
•lSO (b) andthe precipitationof clays(Figure 4). It is surprising
samples. The top 200 in of the oceanic thatõ•]Bshowsonly a verypoorpositivecorrelation
•5'•B(c) of composite with
crustis characterizedby the largestextent of seaflooralteration
water, and none with Rb and B. B abundancescorrelatewell
with •5•80 within the VCL and within the rest of the
and diversity in isotopiccolnposition. Symbols andelevation
scaleas in Figure 2. s,'unples
as a group([Smith et al., 1995], ,andFig. 4) and
lessstronglywith •7Sr/•Sr. Thus, B uptakeis cmdely
correlated with the extent of overall alteration, but the
VCL's tend to be more altered than FLO's. This behavior
process of B isotopicfractionation is not simply controlled
wasexpl,-finedwith an enhm•ced watertransport,in p,'u'ticu-
by additionof clays.
lar in the shallow brecci•[sand VCL's [Smudigelet al.,
The dominatingcontrolof seaflooralterationby clays and
1995]. Despitethe unevendistributionof the alteration-
palagoniteis also supportedby the generally pretbrm-d
relatedoceancrustinventory,the Super compositedefines
uptakeof Cs overRb ,andK, with characteristic K/Rb and
an acceptablemeanfor the top 500m of the oceaniccrustat
these sites.
Rb/Cs ratios of 510 ,and 65, respectively. However, even
thoughthe bulk of the crusthas relativelyconsistentlylow
K/Rb and Rb/Cs ratios, there ,am some compositional
4. DISCUSSION domains that display deviationsfrom this behaviour,
indicatingthat locallyothercontrolsmay be active. This
4.1 Processes of BulkSea. floor Alteration behavior is displayed in particularby the uppercomposite
from 418A with K/Rb and Rb/Cs ratios of 725 and 120,
include respectively.SuchelevatedK/Rb andRb/Cs ratiosmay
The most hnportantseallooralterationprocesses
indicate that some of the alkalis were • from seawater
the breakdown,anddissolutionof primary igneousph,x•s
,andthedepositionof secondaryph,xsesin voids,andin frac- withoutfractionation(K/Rbsw= 3300; Rb/Cs•,•= 410 ).
tures. Secondaryphasesare alkxl to the crustbut they de- U is highlyenrichedin composites from theupperportion
rive much of their chemical inventory from the breakdown of themoderatelyaltered417D and418A, whileU uptakeis
of basalticmaterial,in particularfrom glassbut alsoolivine minor at Site 417A ([Staudigelet al., 1995]; Table 2).
andplagioclase.Clinopyroxene is the only major phasein Thisbehaviorwasexph-dned by the high solubilityof U in
MORB that tendsto be relatively stable during low tem- theoxidizingconditions at 417A anditsprecipitationin the
peraturebasalt alteration. The most common .•condary reducingchemicalenvironmentsat 417D and 418A
phaseat low temperatures arepalagonite,clays,carbonates [Staudigelet al., 1995]. The dominantcontrol on U
andzeolites,in orderof typicalabundances [Alt et al., 1992; abun•tnces,however,appearsto be calcium carbonate,as
Altet al., 1986;Andrews,1977; HmnphrisandTh(unpson, thereis a gcxxlcon'elation
betweenU andCO2 (Figure5).
19781. Sucha con'elationmay be causedby pretbrred
partitioning
The alterationof b•salticgl•ss to palagoniteinvolvesup- of U into carbonates,or by a secondU-bearingphasethat
take of H20 andthe alkalis K, Rb, Cs, with characteristi- precipitatedsimultaneouslywith carbonate.
cally low K/Rb and Rb/Cs ratios [Staudigeland Hart, Surprisingly,Na is the only elementthat con'elates
well
1983]. Palagonitep•ssively accumulates Ti and HFS ele- with Sr abundances(R value > 0.6; Figure 6). The
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 27

0.75 -

l
o 0.5 --
• 15
oo

0.706

0 I I I
0.704
0 5 10 15 20

CO2
1 2 3 4 0 20 40 0 25 50 75 100 125
H20 Rb (ppm) B [ppm]
Fig. 5. Correlation of U content (in ppm)of cmnposites and
CO2 (in wt. %), suggestingthat the reinoval of U froln seawater
Fig. 4. Crosscon'elationdiagrmnbetweenthe alteration sensi-
is linked to the precipitationof carbonatesin the oceaniccrust.
tiveisotoperatiosof 8?Srff•S•i.at,
•SlsOand/5'•BandabundancesSymbolsas in Figure 2.
of H20, Rb, andB. Best correlationsare displayedbetweenof
S?Sr/8tSr•,
•5•0 andandH20,Rb. Thisis consistent
withthe
dominanceof clay precipitation. Symbolsas in Figure2.

NegativeCe anomalies,area chm•tcteristic of sea water,

trenddefinedby the composites, however,doesnot include whereCe is depletedrelativeto the other REE due to the
the(only)fi'eshgl,-rss
an,-dysis
frownthesesites. Most data oxidationof Ce3* to more insolubleCe4* [Elderfieldaxd
cluster at 1.7-2.2 wt. % Na20, less than the observed Greaves,1982]. These REE systematicstogetherc,-mbe
rangeof Na20 in tYeshglasses(2.2-2.4 wt. %; [Byerlyand takenas strongevidencefor the uptakeof sea water REE
Sinton,1979]). Thus,this trendcannotbe explainedby the into the ocemficcrust. However, due to the extremely low
additionor removalof a singlecomponent to andfrom fresh concentrationsof REE in sea water, unreastmablyhigh
rock. Loss of Sr m•d Na is co•nmonly observedduring waterrockratios(i.e.> 10'•)wouldbe necessary
to explain
alterationof volcanicglass [Staudigeland Hart, 1983], the deviationsin REE isotopeand abundance characteristics
whilegainof Na is probablycaused by the additionof Na - by seawateraddition[Staudigelet al., 1995]. It is more
bearing-secondary minerals,suchas analciteandnatrolite, likely that REE's are akledto the crestin the form of hy-
commonNa-bearingmineralsat thesesites(seeanalysesby drothermalFe-Mn oxideparticles.Suchparticlesare a natu-
[Pritchard,1979]. Increasesin Sr may be causedby a large ral fallout of hydrothermaleffluent, may be strongly en-
numberof processes, oneof whichis -alsothe additionof richedin REE, ,andoftenshowlargenegativeCe anomalies
secondary phases. Sr concenu'ations in analcite,however, [BarrettandJarvis,1988]. Thus,our REE dataprobablydo
are low [Smudigelet al., 1986]. Thus, althoughthe not providevery meaningfulwater- rockratios,but they do
correlationbetweenSr abun•tncesm•d Na20 is useful tbr indicatethata significantt•actionof the seawaterREE in-
characterizatitm
of the bulk compositionof the crust,it is ventoryis addedto theoceaniccrest.
probablynot controlledby a singleprocesses. The highfield strengthelements(HFSE: Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr)
Eventhough theREEand•43N•44Ndo ,areoftenconsidereddisplaylinear correlationswith eachotheras well as with
immobileduringalteration,our composites displaya gotxl TiO2 and Th (not shown),,andtheir abundance ratiosretnain
correlationbetweenK20 ,andLa/Sm,,anda weakinversecor- nearlyconstant. The HFSE changein abundance only by
relationbetweenK20 •md•43Nd?44Nd ([Staudigelet al., igneousprocesses or by simple dilution/accumulattion due
1995]. In Figure7, we showthat the Ce anmnalyof the to the mobility of other elements,and, thus, are comerveal
composites also correlates quitewell with •43Nd/•44Nd.duringalterationof theoceanic
28 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

2OO I I I I
I I I I

175 _
l

0.51310 -
• 150 - =

'- 125 - =

0.51305 -
=

100 _ .

75 0.51300
I I I I
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00

NaeO Ce/Ce*

Fig. 6. Sr content(in ppm) of compositescorrelateswell with
NazO abundances.Symbols as in Figure 2, diamond indicates
fresh glass composition. Note that the only fresh glass falls
off this trend, suggesting that the correlation is not causedb y
asimple mixing relationship.
Fig. 7. The isotopicratio of 143Nd/lnnNd t in composites
correlateswell with the Ce anomaly(Ce/Ce'), suggestingthe
large fraction of hydrogenous REE in the highly altered
composites
(Ce' is the hypotheticalCe abundance,
basedon a
linear extrapolationbetween La and Pt). Symbols are given in
Figure 2

4.2. Chemical Fluxes between sea water and the oceanic
crust.
Alteredoceaniccrust, as it is represented by the co•n-
positesanalyzedhere,contains,anintegratedchemical•econl
of all chemicalexchangewith sea water that occurredin its
118 Ma history.A comp,'u'isonof compositedata with their
respectiveunaltered"MORB" composition can providebulk
chemical fluxes between sea water and basalt. For this, we
haveestimatedfreshrock compositionsfor all our comIx•S-
ites from compiledpublishedgl`assand phenocryst•nicro-
probeanalyses[Byefly,andSinton, 1979; Sinton and By-
efly 1979]andphenocryst abund,'mce
data. Sucha pnx:edure
generallyresultsin bulk rock compositionsthat agreewell tYeshrock estimates(Table 5) and the alteredcompositions
basedon thoseamdyzedby Sinton and Byerly [1979]. The
abundances of phenocrystswere determinedon the basisof
our own ,andpublishedthin sectiondescr]puons ,andIx)int-
countdata [Donnelly et al. 1979 a; 1979b].
The errorsin this procedure,arelargely conU'olled
by un-
certtdntiesin phenocrystabundm)ces. The chemistryof
glassesand phenocrystsat thesesites is rather systematic,
andIraownwith high confidence.For this reason,we m,ile
two estimates that reflect end members of the maximum
rangein the potentialphenocrystIx)pulationin a given sec-
tion. For our fresh-rock estimate, we used the me,-mof these
endmembersand theerrorgivestheirrange(Table 5).
Before we c,-m calculate fluxes from the diftbrence in the
,

with measuredbulk rock compositions[Staudigel ,'red (Table 1), a cormnonreferencesyste•nhasto be established.

Bryan, 1981]. This is 1,'u'gely
due to the fact that seallooralterationoccurs
In our procedureof estimatingthe unalteredcomposition in an open che[nical syste[n, whereby basaltic material is
of our compositesmnples,we first determinedthe freshrock dissolved ,andU'ansI•rredt() the oce,-ms,andlower crust, and
compositionof eachindividuals,'unple.Then, we co[nbined seawater-derivedcomponents,'u'etfi.•d to the crust in void
thesetYeshrockestimates into "freshcomposites" by using spaces.For this reason,one has to find monitorsfor the to-
the "recipes"in Appendix1. To calculatethe unaltered ttd qu,-mtityof basalt dissolution,as well ,asthe mount of
composition for eachindividuals,'unple,we combinedglass vesicleinfill. One conunonapproachis to use elements
m•dfreshphenocrystcompositionsin the proportionsindi- that are considered irmnobile, such as Fe or Ti, as these
catedby the stunpies. Glass co•np()sitionswere esthnated elements,arep,assivelyaccumulatedduring dissolution of
I¾omthe downholevariationof glassdatapublishedby By- basaltand dilutedduringthe additionof vein •ninerals.In
erly andSinton [1979], andphenocryst compositionswere the following, we shall focus on Ti, becauseof the
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 29

Table5 FreshRockComposition
CalculatedFrom FreshGlassCompositions
andPhenocryst
Abundances
andCompositions

sample SiO: TiO: AI:O• Fe:O• FeO MnO MgO CaO NaO: K:O P:Os H:O CO:

SUPER 50.14+0.18 1.32+0.07 15.47+0.37 0.79+003 9.41+0.30 0.19+0.01 7.66+0.19 12.29+0.10 2.17+0.05 0.09 0.12 0.2 0.05
417A24 49.63+0.10 1.43+0.05 15.56+0.24 0.80+0 02 9.59+0.19 0.20+0.01 7.33+0.15 12.34+0.02 2.36+0.03 0.09 0.11 0.2 0.05
417A32 49.30+0.16 1.30+0.06 14.99+0.04 0.80+001 9.62+0.16 0.18+0.01 9.24+0.48 12.12+0.04 2.14+0.06 0.09 0.10 0.2 0.05
417A44 49.52+0.13 1.54+0.06 15.23+0.39 0.82+002 9.79+0.25 0.19+0.01 7.20+0.05 12.62+0.09 2.24+0.04 0.09 0.11 0.2 0.05
417D22-27 49.93+0.22 1.32+0.10 16.54+0.67 0.76+004 9.12+0.46 0.18+0.01 7.16+0.15 12.19+0.12 2.22+0.05 0.08 0.12 0.2 0.05
417D39 50.48+0.14 1.44+0.10 15.38+0.62 0.82+0 04 9.77+0.51 0.18+0.01 7.14+0.01 12.40+0.25 2.19+0.05 0.09 0.12 0.2 0.05
417D59 49.88+0.28 1.43+0.12 14.98+0.60 0.83+0 04 9.96+0.51 0.18+0.01 8.21+0.24 12.01+0.27 2.08+0.10 0.07 0.12 0.2 0.05
418A15 50.91+0.11 1.20+0.02 15.02+0.17 0.77+001 9.23+0.11 0.20+0.00 7.59+0.12 12.47+0.02 2.18+0.02 0.10 0.10 0.2 0.05
418A40 50.57+0.24 1.20+0.07 16.19+0.58 0.74+003 8.82+0.33 0.19+0.01 7.34+0.10 12.44+0.04 2.21+0.04 0.07 0.10 0.2 0.05
418A73 50.49+0.19 1.38+0.05 15.40+0.36 0.81+002 9.69+0.26 0.19+0.01 7.29+0.13 12.28+0.12 2.18+0.06 0.10 0.12 0.2 0.05
418A86 49.82+0.14 1.13+0.04 15.54+0.03 0.73+0.01 8.74+0.14 0.20+0.00 8.26+0.41 12.27+0.02 2.13+0.05 0.09 0.12 0.2 0.05
¾CL-Top 50.41+0.13 1.28+0.05 15.37+0.26 0.78+0.02 9.32+0.19 0.20+0.01 7.54+0.17 12.38+0.01 2.22+0.03 0.09 0.11 0.2 0.05
VCL-100m 50.08+0.35 1.36+0.07 15.52+0.39 0.79+0.03 9.44+0.32 0.19+0.01 7.21+0.10 12.18+0.03 2.21+0.05 0.08 0.11 0.2 0.05
VCL-300m 50.11+0.09 1.18+0.04 15.74+0.28 0.73+0.02 8.76+0.23 0.19+0.01 7.69+0.06 12.59+0.12 2.12+0.04 0.09 0.12 0.2 0.05
FLO-top 50.21+0.15 1.28+0.06 15.72+0.38 0.77+0.02 9.25+0.27 0.19+0.01 7.50+0.15 12.31+0.05 2.22+0.03 0.09 0.11 0.2 0.05
FLO-100m 49.97+0.16 1.44+0.08 15.37+0.49 0.81+0.03 9.64+0.36 0.19+0.01 7.36+0.08 12.47+0.14 2.20+0.05 0.08 0.11 0.2 0.05
FLO-300m 49.99+0.15 1.21+0.04 15.36+0.08 0.76+0.01 9.10+0.14 0.19+0.00 8.13+0.36 12.24+0.01 2.13+0.05 0.09 0.12 0.2 0.05

d,anceof Fe bearingsecondary ph,-cses

(e.g.nontxonitic
clays) Spivack,andStaudigel[1994] to evaluatethe impacton the
in veins suggestsat le•[stsome•nobility, while Ti-bearing alkalinity budgetof the oceans.
secondary phasesare much rarer. The argmnentsabove To illustrate the effects of removal or addition of chemical
the coherency in the HFSE as a group also suggeststhat componentsto differentrock types we have plotted flux
they(h•cludingTiOz) ,areconservative.However,betbrewe datafrom Table 6 in a seriesof down-holeplots(Figure8 a-
shall usethis assumption,we wish to evaluateits validity. i). Due to the minimal inventoriesof K20, H20 alld CO2
Using the density estimatesof ti'eshand alteredbasalt, as in t¾eshMORB, thereis no significanterrorm the fluxes
well as the density of ,secondary phases,andtheir •nod,• from errorsin initial rock comIx•sition
(Figure8 a- c). CO2
abundancedata,we c,anmake ,anindependentesthnateof the fluxes are by far the largestwherebyaveragecrust has ac-
total gain or loss to a given referencevolume. This pre- quired3.26 wt%, followedby water(2.81 wt%). It may be
dictedgain or loss canbe comparedto the apptu'entdilution pointedoutherethatthiswaterflux is b,'csed
only on H2O+,
or passiveaccumulationof Ti. Characteristicvoid-free the stmcturallyboundwater (i.e. water that remainsin a
densities tbr h'esh mid altered basalts ,'u'e2,95 tud 2.914 rockpowder,•ter it was heatedto 110øC). Not includedis
g/cm3,respectively
[Hyndmm• ,andDrury,1977] ,and2.71 looselyboundwaterandIbrmationwater that fills the open
g/cm3and2.35g/ccm3 for themajorsecondary
phases, car- crackand void spacein the crust (= 5 vol. %, Johnson,
bonateand s•nectite,respectively[Tr0ger, 1979]. The void- 1979). UsinganalyticaldamincludingH20+ andH20' as a
spaceat 418A includes7.5 vol. % for smectiteveins,5 vol. guide([Drmnellyet al., 1979a]) and the openca,'ack
volrunes
% for carbonateveins and6 vol. % open space[Johnson, of [Johnson,1979], we estimate that the total water uptake
1979]. Assumingthat the total porosity stayedconstant, in theocemliccrustc,anquiteeasilyexceed 6 wt%. It may
we can calculatethe total weight of material in an initial to be notedherethat the low molecularweight of H20 re-
reference volme before ,and ,alter alteration. From this we suitsin a muchlargerfractionon a molar basis. Water up-
calculatea net weightadditionof 10.3 gramsto each100 g takebroadlydecre,xses with depth,eventhoughthereis sub-
of original crust. If one includesthe water that probably stantial scatter. Although downwardextrapolationsappear
filled the void spaces,the total additionwould be closerto poorlyconstrained, theyallow for signific,ant
hydrationwith
15.3 gr,-unsper 100 grmns.The additionof 10.3 grams of depth.Fluxesof K20 and CO2 in Depth Compositest¾om
sea water-derived materials to the crust would lead to a net 417D and418A are quite consistent,decre,•sh•g with depth,
dilution in TiO2 I¾om 1.32 wt% (ti'esh) to 1.19 wt% wherebythe top of the crusttakesup about0.9 g of K20
(altered), which is within em'•r of the measuredvalue of per 100g ,andabout5 g of CO2 (Fig. 8 a, c)
1.18 wt. %. B,'csed on thiscalculation,the assumption that Fluxes of SiO2, A1203,FeO, MgO, CaO and Na20 are
Ti is con,served appearsreasonable,mid we have calculated quite variable, including addition or removal at diflbrent
accordingly•dl chemicalfluxeswith respectto a constantTi depthsin the core(Figure 8 d- i). While thereis signifi-
(Table 6). Some of thesedata were used previouslyby cantvariationsin the fluxesof differentcompositetypes
30 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

Table 6 Huxes of Oxides (in Grams Addedper 100 Grams of Rock)

total
SiO: AI:O3 FeOa MnO MgO CaO NaOa K20 1t20 CO2 gain/loss

SUPER 1.18 1.94 -0.01 0.00 -0.19 2.14 0.15 0.54 2.81 3.26 12.37
417A 24 -6.17 0.03 0.26 0.26 -4.00 -4.98 -1.00 4.13 4.56 3.24 -2.59
417A 32 -8.07 -0.12 -1.03 -0.04 -4.45 -3.30 -0.03 1.38 3.82 1.33 -9.83
417A44 9.68 5.46 0.80 0.04 0.66 7.87 1.62 1.47 5.48 9.19 43.09
417D 22-27 -1.89 -1.02 -0.56 0.05 -0.67 5.05 -0.16 0.77 2.16 6.73 10.96
417D 39 -0.16 2.17 -0.63 -0.04 -0.82 2.36 -0.18 0.84 2.79 4.28 11.18
417D 59 5.07 4.60 0.22 0.03 -1.13 4.28 0.25 0.28 1.50 2.66 18.33
418 A 15 1.35 3.10 -0.85 0.03 0.47 6.79 0.42 0.66 2.57 8.25 23.34
418A 40 5.90 4.96 0.31 -0.03 0.08 2.59 1.53 0.98 4.60 2.99 24.45
418A 73 4.49 2.10 1.01 -0.02 2.01 0.27 0.01 0.10 2.91 0.35 13.84
418A 86 -6.01 -1.14 -0.83 -0.04 -0.94 -0.85 -0.28 0.03 1.88 1.22 -6.57
TopVCL 3.93 1.17 2.94 0.80 -0.32 40.73 -0.42 3.55 6.62 39.39 99.66
100mVCL 9.69 3.58 2.27 -0.06 1.51 2.05 1.04 2.75 6.35 6.59 36.73
300mvcl -1.56 -0.24 0.22 -0.10 1.56 -3.68 -0.02 0.41 3.57 0.66 1.53
top FLO -2.45 0.61 -0.66 0.01 -1.10 2.14 0.01 1.12 2.92 5.08 8.28
100mFLO 7.58 5.05 0.26 0.01 -0.08 6.77 1.34 0.96 4.24 6.67 33.45
300mFLO -1.37 0.14 -0.21 -0.02 -0.04 -0.03 -0.22 0.02 1.80 1.00 1.52

Globalflux,usinganoceancrustproduction
rateof 3.606x 10• g/year,in l0 n g/y
SUPER 42.59 69.9477-0.28 -0.02 -6.99 77.27 5.394 19.54 0.23 101.2 117.54

depths,the total fluxes of these elementsin the Super
Composite,arecloseto zero, exceptli•r AI and Ca which
eachshowa net uptakeof about2 g/100g. En'orsare par-
ticularlyhigh for Mg, Fe and AI, becauseof uncertaintiesin
modal abm•dm•ces of olivine m•d plagioclle;e,respectively.
Individu,alcomposites displayratherhigh fluxesin SiO2(-8
to +9.6 wt%), MgO (-4..5 - +2 wt%), ,'redCaO ( 5.0- +
40.7 wt%). This showsthat while most elementsdisplay
significantremovalor additi{min difti•rentportionsof the
oceanicca'ust,the net changeis small.
Downhole viu'iationsin SiO2, AI20.•, FeO, and Na20
suggestrelatively high dissolutionratesnear the top of the
core,maximumadditionat mid-levels,and increasingdisso-
lution at the bottom of 418A. Thus, much of the Mteration
at 150-200mdepthsin 417D and418A is b,-csed
on materi,al isotopic
ratio. Llnaltered
addition,
whereas
thetopand-the
bi[,;e
of thesection
mm- an •7Sr/86Sr
of 0.70295 [Staudigelet al., 1979] and the
lyzed altersmostlyby dissolutionprocesses.
Ca andMg fluxesbetweentheoceaniccrustandseawater
arerelatively s•nall (with the exceptionof the Top VCL
with 19.8 mole% additionof CaO), slightly negativefor
Mg andpositive for Ca. Overall, thereis a slight increase
in theMg flux down- sectionwhile Ca fluxesappearto
crease.Molar fluxesof CaO are generMlylessthanthe CO2
fluxes(Table 6) indicatingthatthe carbonateis not raided
a simpleCaCO3precipitationt¾omseawater.This is con-
sistentwith the common assumptionthat the oceaniccrust
generMlytakesup Mg fromtheoceansandCa is controlled
by additicmof CaCO3 andremov,alfrom leaching. Thus,
theCa in thealteredrockis probablya mixtureof ea I¾om
seawaterandresiduidCa I¾ombasMt.More Ca is exchanged
between seawater and b•,•alt than the the net fluxes indicate.
However,in absenceof an isotopicmtcerfor Ca, this ex-
changebalancecannotuniquelybe determined.
For Sr, however, the net fluxes in and out of a rock can be
determined because b•[salt and ,seawater Sr have a distinct
basaltfromSites417 and418 h•,•
87Sd86Srof Cretaceousseawltter is 0.70735 [Hesset al.,
1986]. IntermediateSr isotopiccompositionsprovidea
mixingratiobetweenthesetwo endmembers.This mixing
ratio, in combination with the totld Sr abundtmceallows de-
termination of the concentrations of b•,•alt Sr and .seawater
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 31

200
Sr in any seaflooralteredbasalt. Ditl•mnces ii) bz•salt-Sr
i

0 concentrationof fresh and ,alteredbasalt can directly be in-

39.39
0
g/100g
terpretedin termsof basalticandseawaterSr-fluxes.
ß[]A A Aß [] While the inventoryof the ,alteredrock ctu) simply be
O o
measured,we have to estimatethe Sr inventoryof the ti'esh
ß
rock. For this, we useda similarapproachas for the ]najor
-200 A[] [] A
elements. The fresh rock Sr abundances can be determined

ß t¾omthe Sr inventoryin freshglass(89.5 ppm; [Staudigel

andHart, 1983]) andthephenocryst proportionsusedfor the
-400 abovefresh-rockestimates.From this, ,andpublishedparti-
tion coefficients [Rollinson, 1993], we estimatedoriginal
Sr compositions(e.g., 93 ppm for the Supercomposite,
-600 and90-94 ppm for all rem•dningco[nposites). Betbrewe
0 1' • :• '• • lb 1•5 20 can c,-dculatethe final fluxes, however, we first l)ave to
K20 flux [g/100g] H20 flux [molar] CO2 flux [molar]
200 • i i i i i I i I I i
"adjust"thealteredSr abundance
to a construct
TiO2, si[nilar
½. to the calculationsfroin the major elesnentfluxes. Alter
O
thesecalculationswe can estimatefor eachcomposite the
o
total amountof seawaterSr gained,andthe ,'unountof ba-
[]
ß A•

o
saltSr thathasto be gainedor lost to balancewith the fresh
ß o
rock composition.In Figure 9, we have plottedtheseval-
[]A A i
ues versusdepth.All sampleshavelost basalticSr except
-200
sampleFLO 300 thathasgainedonly insignificm]tly(i.e. 1
4, ß 4, 0
ppm). Most lossesare displayedby the uppermostvolcani-
clasticsthat showa very systematicrelationshipwith depth.
-400
Depth andFLO compositesdo not lose •s ]nuch Sr, but
.

A• the lossesalso becomeless significantwith depth. Sr up-

take from seawateris also most significantnear the top of
-600
-10 -5 0 5 -2 the crust, with the enhancement in the volcaniclastic rich
SiO2 flux [g/100g] AI20 3 flux [g/100g] FeOtot flux[g/100g] sectionsat about150-200 m depth. Thus, the increases
in
200 I I I i i i i i I i i i i
87Sr/8•Sr
at middepth(Figure 3) is largelycontrolled
by
g,
o uptakeof Sr from seawater. This gain is not acco[npanied
o o
by a contemporaneous loss of basaltic Sr. Overall, the
A4• [] downholedecreasing lossof b,'k,;,'dt-
Sr andgainof seawater
o o Sr is consistentwith a downholeincreasinglyexchanged
ß ß hydrothermalfluid.
-200
From the fluxes between fresh and ,alteredbasalts, we can
calculatethe "global"fluxes. Llsing an average(xzeancrust
productionrateof 3 km2/yearweestimate a volumeprtMuc-
-400
tionrateof 1.5x 10•'•cm3/year
(upper500m of cmstonly).
[] [] [] An average densityof freshbasaitof 2.95 g/cm3 ([Hyndman
[] lB []
andDrury, 1977]) and an open void volume of 18.5%, we
-600 determinethe annum weight productionrate of 3.606 x
-6 -• -•) b 5 -5 6 ,• 1•)1•-1.5-'•-0• • 0:5 i 1.5 10•'•g/year.
Usingthisrateandthe fluxesfor the Super
UgOflux[g/100g] CaOflux[g/100g] Na•Oflux[g/100g] composite,we estimatethe annual fluxes of major elements
(all in 10•2g/year):SiOa= 42.6; AI203= 69.9. FeOtot=
0.8, MnO =-0.242; MgO =-6.99, CaO= 77.3, Na20=:
Fig. 8. Fluxesof K20 (a), H20 (b), CO2 (c), SiO2 (d) AI203 (e)
5.39 K20 = 19.5, P205=0.230, H20 = 101; CO2 =
FeO tot (f), MgO (g), CaO (h), Na20 (i), versusdepth. These 118., wherepositivenumbersindicateuptakeand negative
fluxeswere calculatedon the basisof our compositedata (Table numberssuggestreleasefrom the crust. Aanongstthese,
1), fresh rock estimates (Table 5), assuming Ti to remain only the fluxes of Si and A1 are significantwhen co[npared
constant.Symbols as in Figure 2 to hydrothermaland fiver fluxes (e.g. [van Dmnm et.
32 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

260
4.3 The Bulk Compositionof the UpperOceaniccrustand
Implications
for Subduction
Recyclingto Volcanicarcs

o
Correlationdiagnunsanddownholeplots in Figures2-7
may ,alsobe usedto estimatethe robustnessof our esti-
mates of large-scalecompositionaldomains. It is clear
I¾omthepreviousdiscussion thatcompositesshowan over-
[] A
all lower variancethan individualsamplesandthat the Su-
-200 -
per compositegenerallyfalls amongstthe compositesof
m{xleratelyalteredcompositional domains.Most alteration-
©
sensitiveparameters
(except/5•B)agreewell betweenthe
similarlyalteredSites417D and418A, suggestingthat our
-400 -
estimatesare at leastinternally consistent. Overall, we be-
[] [] lieve that theseestimatesare very closeto an accuraterepre-
sentationof the upper ocemficcrustat thesesites, whereby
[]
thescatterbetween417D and418A composites reflectsthe
I I I I I i I I I I
uncertaintyof this estimate. However, we cautionthat the
-60 -50 -4o -30 -20 -•0 0 10 25 50 75 100 125
deepdrill sitesstudiedherearetheonly oneswith sufficient
Basalt Sr lost [ ppm] s•awate r $r gained [ppm]
recoveryto allow for suchan estimate.
However, the crusttd section studied was drilled in normal
Fig. 9. Sr fluxes in composites versus depth. Most
oce,'miccrustthatmay be subducted
into the mantle. These
composites lost some basaltic Sr and gained seawater Sr.
compositions are re,xsonable
bulk compositionsof the cre-
Lossesand gainsbecomeless significantwith depth. Symbols
anic crust, but it is uncertain at this time, how v,-u'iablethe
as in Figure 2
crustmight be. Similar flux estimateswere :dso madeat
1988; Martin and Meybeck, 1979]). The lluxes of A1 may the Trtx,dos ophiolite [Bedn,-uz,'red Schmincke, 1989],
be too high due to the uncertaintiesin our fresh rock esti- whererelatively lm'gefluxes were expltdnedby the rather
mate (A1 is particularlysensitiveto errorsin plagiocl:tse high porosity ,-redpermeabilityof ocelmiccrust/¾oma su-
abundances). pra-subductionzonetectonicsetting. In absenceof otheres-
Due to relatively low inventoriesin umdleredbasalt, the timates on normal oce,'miccrust, our &tta should be consid-
uptakeof Rb, Cs ,-redtl can be detenninedwith relatively eredthe bestapproximationlbr upperoce,'mcrustco•nposi-
high confidence.As freshrock coinpositionwe have cho- titns for the purposeof subductionzonemodeling,-red,xsa
sen the Rb = 0.67 pp[n ,-redCs =0.0096 pp•n, frownthe starting compositionfor experimentsto simulate subduc-
tYeshestglassanalyzedby [StaudigelandHm't, 1983]. For tion zoneprocesses.
U, we chose0.05 pp•n,the lower interceptof the LI-K cor- The bulk ,alteredoce,'mcrustalcompositionis quitediffer-
relationI?om[Staudigelet al., 1995]. From this, we ob- ent fi'omunalterednormalMORB. The biggestdifli•rences
tltinannualfluxesfor Rb = 3.21 x 10•øg/y,for Cs x 5.16 x ,arein the ratherhigh H20 ,'redCO2 contents,in combina-
10• g/y andfor U 9.01 x 10• g/y. Frown a comparison of tion with loc•dlyelevatedK20 m•dNa20. In mm•y comlx•-
the fresh,andurnalteredSr abundancesandisotopicratios •uxl sitional domains, these additions mnount to •nore than 20
the isotopicratio of CretaceousSea water, we estimatethat mole % of the rock, not including "/¾ee"water in void
10 ppm of basalticSr are re•novedfi'om the basalttu•d32 spaces(5% by volrune;[Johnson,1979])and loosely lx•und
ppm of seawater are addedto the crust. This translatesinto water ("H20'", i. e, waterexpelledat < 110øC). Additionof
a flux of 1.15 x 10•' g/y seawaterSr into the crustlaxl these elements to the ocean crust will make it ,'m eflisctive
3.61 x 10•øg/y basalticSr into the deeper crustor the sourceof volatiles during dehych•tionevents, ,-redlower its
oceaus. The flux of Sr into the ca'ustaccountsapproxi- melting point. The highly Idteredcompositionald{unains
mately Ibr 10% of the global flux of Sr into the crust in- will play an important role in the generationof metaso-
l•n'edby Raymo et al. [1988], slightly •norethan the vol- matic fluids ,andmelts. It is probablethat thosefluids ,-uxl
ume fraction of the total ocean crust antdyzed here melts may be slightly em-ichedin the alteration-related
(500m/6km). Our studysuggestsa •ninor hnbalanceof Sr chemicalinventory of the oceaniccrust. However, since
fluxes, wherebythe oceancrust is a sink for Sr, but less thesemelts and fluids will at least pm'tiallyexch,-mge with
than0.1% of theglobalSr exchange betweenseaater,'redthe the oce,'mcrust,it is unlikely that they removethe entire Id-
crust [Raymo et al., 1988]. terationrelatedchemicalinventoryli'om the oceanic
 STAUDIGEL ET AL. 33

The bulk ,-riteredcrust also h`asdr,'unaticallydifferenttrace Although some domainswithin the altered oceanic crust
elementandisotopiccompositionsfrom unalteredMORB. reachB•ffLaof 20-30, most of the compositesandhave ra-
The most noteworthygeochemicalef/•cts are the great en- tios < 20, and the Superco•nlx•siteis 12 (Table 2). Thus
richmentin alkali elements(K, Rb andCs) andU, generally ag•dn,,alterationprocesses,alonecannotexplain one of the
more than ten times higher than original igneous abun- uniquegeochemicaltbaturesof arc basalts,and a combina-
dances[Hart,andSmudigel,1989]. On the otherhand, tion of sedimentsources,andt?actionationprocessescreate
line earthelements(Ba and St) are only a factorof two or so the distinctiveBa/La in arc magm:[s.
enrichedover unaltered MORB, while the REE and Th We can also demonstrate that seafl{x)r alteration fluxes me
addedto an evenlesserdegree. Thesedistinctivegeochemi- in mostcasesinsufficientto btd,'mce
,arcoutputfluxes. Arc
cal signatures
characterize
the ,altered
seatlooras it subducts magmatic
fluxes,are~ 30 km3/Ma/km ,arclength[Reymer
into the mantle. The enrichment of Rb over Sr, and the and Schubert, 1984], which is of the stoneorder as sealloor
decouplingof theseelementsduringseafloor,alteration mean massfluxesto the trenchIbr the upper500 tn (0.5 kin x an
that Sr isotopes ,are decoupledt¾omSr concentrations average convergence velocityof 70 km/Ma/km arclength).
[Staudigelet al., 1995]. Sr isotopesfollow Rb (paren0 Thus, we can determinefl•e flux b:fl,'mceshnply from com-
abundances (Fig. 4), which dependon the extent of palago- p,'u'ing alterationenrichments with ,arcenrichments.Altera-
nitization,clay mineralformation,andhydration,while Sr tion enrichmentsmay be estimatedby subtractingthe pris-
abun•tncesare mostly mmll•ctedby these processes, tine igneouscornpositionat 417-418 [Hart ,andStaudigel,
may vary subtlywith Na20 andNa-bearingphasessuch,at 1989] I¾omthe Supercomposite(Tables1-3, 5). Arc en-
zeolites (Fig. 6). Thus, characterizingthe Sr isotopic richmentsmay be estimatedby subu'actingm• averageN-
budgetin the subductedb•[salticimput dependson the com- MORB co•nposition [Sun andMcDonough,1989] frownan
bination of processes that •l•ct both Rb and Sr budgets. average,arcb,xsalcomposition;PlankmidLangmuir[1993]
Another important geochemictdeffect of alterationis the providesuchdatafor 8 arcs. In roundnumbers,the ,altera-
strongdecouplingof U andTh. U is em'iched in cartx)nate- tion flux into the upper500m of the seallooris ~ 70% of
rich zones(Fig. 5) which largely dilute Th, thus leadingto the arc enrichment flux tbr K, Rb and U. Thus the altera-
a virtually antitheticrelationship. U is elu'ichedmore than tion fluxesare highly significantwith respectto crustal•e-
ten times in the bulk crust, while Th is basically conserved. cyclingto the arc tbr theseelements,andmay evenbe suffi-
Thus sealloor alteration may incre•seU/Th ten fold or cient to explainthe totedbudgetat somearcs. For the other
more,andleadtohighz•r•"h/232Th in subducted inputs. elements, however, the alteration fluxes into the upper
Strongdecouplingalso occursbetweenalkaline earths 500m ,'u'einsufficient to accountfor much of the recycled
and alkali elements, such as Ba and Rb. The composite budget:35% of the Cs, ---5% of the Ba, Sr andLa, ,'red1%
smnplesgenerallyhaveBtffRb< 5 (Table 2 and 3), in stark of the Th. For theseelements,additionalinputsare required
contr,ast to MORB and ocean island b`asalts which have a frmn 1) alterationcomponentsin the deeperoceaniccrust,
virtually constantratio of 11-13 [Hofinann ,'ud White, 2) MORB comIx•nentsin the oceaniccrust,and/or3) sedi-
1983]. Interestingly,this low Ba/Rb is not simply im- mentarycomponents.This is no real surprisegiven the •e-
partedto arcb,asalts, many of which havehigh ratios> 13 quirement of subducted sediments to explain•øBeandBa
([PhankandL,'mgtnuir,1993]). This h•dicatesthatthefluids variationsin some,arcs[PhankandLangmuir, 1993; Tera et
that ,are driven out of the oceanic crust in subduction zones al., 1986], and the requh'ement of MORB componentsto
may not simply tr,'msportthe alterationche•nistryof the explainPb isotopesin others[Miller et al., 1994]. The
oceaniccrust to the arc, but •nay isnposetheir own parti- point hereis not that the alterationflux into the {x:e,'mic
tioning behaviour. Vm'iablesubductedsedhnentarypack- crustis the whole picture, but that it is possibly a large
ages will also conu'ibuteBa •md Rb in difti•fing ratios contributorto the total budget of sotne elementsin :uc
[PhankandL,angmuir,1993]). Mm'inesedixnents conunonly •nag•n,as (alktdis,U). It may actuallybe the predominant
showan oppositesenseof enfich•nentto the ocemficcrust: sourceof recycledH20 to arcvolcanoes[Planket al., 1994].
very high concenU'ations of Ba (in siliceoustx,zes) ,andSr Setdlooralterationis thus a major part of subductionrecy-
(in carbonates)relativeto alkalis (in ten'igenousclays) [Ben cling, and thereis a greatneedto explorethe phenomenon
Othman et al., 1989; Plank and Lang•nuir, 1993]. Thus, in otherlocalesin onlerto developsomepredictivem{xlels
the ditl•rent sourcesof ele•nents,andU'ansport processes in for its distributionon the subductingseatloor.
the subductionzone will combine to determinethe compo- Obtainingg{x•destimatesof crustalinputs is the neces-
sition of arc magm•[s. sm'yfirst step in attemptingto m•xlel the subductionproc-
Arc basalts,are,alsonotablyenrichedin Ba over La, gener- ess geochemically. We have a fidfly g{x)dh,andleon sedi-
ally with Ba/La higherthan 20 [Morris and Hart, 1983]. •nent inputsto sevendtrenchesabout the globe [Plyink
34 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

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Plank, T., and C.H. Langmuir, Tracing trace eleinents froin
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36 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

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550, 1986.
 STAUDIGEL ET AL.

Appendix 1 CompositeRecipes.

Sample# % in super depth Top 100m 300m Top 100m 300m

H_.O FLO FLO VCL VCL VCL
417A
1 24-4 104-108 0.51 24.97 3.55
2 24-2 52-54 0.08 4.03 5.15
3 24-1 135.137 0.43 21.02 3.55
4 24-2 110-118 0.43 21.04 3.63
5 24-2 25-28 0.52 25 1.07
6 24-2 80-82 0.08 3.94 5.28

1 32-2 84-86 0.61 29.9

2 32-3 40+45 0.10 5.02 1.11
3 32-4 114-116 0.05 2.5 5.15
4 32-4 49-51 0.61 30.06 3.75
5 32-5 48-50 0.05 2.56 5.94
6 32-1 88-91 0.61 29.97 3.64

1 44-3 109-111 2.05 27.03 11.51

2 46-1 75-77 1.44 19.01 11.58
3 46-1 99-101 1.36 17.99 11.57
4 46-1 106-108 0.83 11.02 1.12
5 46-2 15-17 0.45 5.98 11.47 9.18
6 46-2 52+55 1.44 18.97

417D
1 22-1 5-7 0.16 2.01 7.86
2 22-158-62 1.13 14.18 5.9
3 22-5 17-19 0.35 4.42 1.52
4 22-5 41-43 0.96 12.06 5.96
5 26-1 9-12 0.16 2.04 7.86
6 26-1 106-108 0.27 3.34 1.77
7 26-1 112-115 0.27 3.34 1.6
8 26-1 126-127 1.13 14.12 6.25
9 27-1 79-82 1.13 14.16 5.89
1027-4 45-49 1.13 14.09 5.99
1127-4 76-79 0.16 1.99 7.84
1227-4 121-122 1.14 14.27 6.02

1 39-1 30-40 0.83 8.33 0 15.44

2 39-1 115-117 0.83 8.35 1.01
3 39-1 121-125 0.83 8.35 1 .O6
4 39-2 47-51 3.49 35.02 11.6
5 39-4 22-27 3.99 39.95 11.62

1 59-3 51-53 0.60 4.03 0 15.46

2 59-4 40-42 13.76 92.01 11.55
3 60-5 97-100 0.59 3.96 0 9.11

418 A
1 15-1 23-25 1.30 16.33 5.93
2 15-1 123-125 0.27 3.39 1.61
3 15-2 40-42 0.27 3.37 5.9
4 15-2 58-60 0.27 3.36 1.59
38 GEOCHEMICAL FLUXES DURING SEAFLOOR ALTERATION

5 15-2 88-89 1.31 16.41 5.94

6 15-2 140-144 0.64 8.01
7 15-3 71-73 1.31 16.37 5.92
8 15-4 8-10 1.31 16.36 5.99
9 16-1 120-123 1.31 16.4 5.91

1 40-2 15-17 0.10 1.31 9.01

2 40-2 52-56 0.10 1.35 9.09
3 41-2 113-118 1.90 25.37 1.15
4 41-2 20-24 0.10 1.33 9.04
5A 41-2 92-96 1.89 25.32
5B 41-2 92-96 0.00 0 5.48
6 41-2 131-136 0.10 1.29 9
7 42-1 17-21 0.43 5.78 1.13
8 42-1 50-54 0.10 1.36 9.16
9 42-3 5-9 0.43 5.77 1.07
1042-3 57-60 0.43 5.76 1.1
1142-2 103 1.89 25.36 11.46

1 73-4 38-42 0.42 2.08 2.4

2 74-1 33-37 3.39 16.95 2.44
3 75-1 50-53 3.40 17 2.45
4 75-1 121-122 1.26 6.287 14.55
5 75-2 68-70 1.19 5.97 15.04
6 75-3 75-78 3.38 16.9 14.9
7 75-4 106-109 1.20 5.98
8 75-5 42-45 0.40 2.02 15.09
9 77-5 100-105 5.37 26.88

1 85-6 115-118 2.69 13.49 14.69

2 85-7 42-46 2.70 13.52 14.57
4 86-1 99-102 0.39 1.94 23.21
5 86-1 43-45 0.40 2.01 23.22
6 86-2 46-49 1.70 8.5 2.41
7 86-2 141-146 4.99 25.01 14.43
8 86-3 27 -30 0.41 2.05
9 86-5 20-24 1.70 8.52 2.5
1086-5 45-48 4.98 24.96 14.65
 AccretionaryMechanicswith
Propertiesthat Vary in Spaceand Time
Dan M. Davis

Departmentof Earth and SpaceSciences,SUNY- StonyBrook, StonyBrook,NY

Sedimentsin accretionarywedgesundergoa seriesof physical and chemical changesthat

eventuallyyield rocks whosemechanicalbehaviorhas changedgreatly since the time of their
accretion. These transitions in the shear localization, yielding, and seismic behavior of
accreted sedimentsare all part of the evolution of a sedimentarypacket from its initial
accretionto its burial to the deeperparts of the accretionaryforearc. The loss of fluid from
pore spacesand the developmentof high fluid pressuresappear to be the common factors
linking severaldistinct aspectsof the tectonicsof forearcs. These factors appearto control
the initial ability of strainto becomeconcentratedon discretefaults. The transitionto fully
shear-localized,dilatant behavior is a necessary(but not sufficient) condition for the onset of
seismic slip and is a prerequisitefor the thrust-rampgeometry of the shorteningin many
accretionary wedges. Some other important factors, such as dewatering reactions and
cementationare also intimately tied to the flow of fluids within the forearc. In addition,the
variations of yield strength created by these same fluid-related processesof compaction,
cementation,and failure mode evolutionall exert importantcontrolson the overall shapeof
and strain distributionwithin the forearc, as well as on the magnitudes,vergences,and loci of
large-slip thrusts. Sharp lateral contrastsin strength, whatever their origin, lead to the
formation of backstopsdifferent from thosemade by arc basement,which can dominate the
structuralgeologyof a forearc.

INTRODUCTION particularly frontal accretion)is well recordedin the

Seismicreflectionstudieshavediscovered,andlaboratory
modelshavereproduced,a wide varietyof tectonicstylesat
trenches.Marginshavebeenfoundto be accretionary, with
materialaddedboth frontallyand at depthalongthe baseof
the overlying plate, and to undergoerosionof the upper
plate both along the trenchaxis and at depth. A relatively
small fraction of modem subduction zones can be described
accuratelyas purely accretionary,and even their accretion
and erosion histories may be neither simple nor easily
determined. Nonetheless, becauseit can leave an enormous
massof sedimentary
material(sometimes
manyhundredsof
km3perkmoftrench)
atandnearthesurface,
accretion
(and important properties,such as porosity, yield strength,
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union
geologicrecord. Simplemechanicalmodelsthat balance
forces above the plate-boundaryd6collementhave been
developed in order to understandthe shape of the
accretionary wedgeandthegeneralgeometryof deformation
within it [e.g., Chapple, 1978, Davis et al., 1983; Willett,
1992]. Despite their simplicity, suchmodelshave been
shownto be capableof explainingmuchaboutthe growth
of accretionary wedges.However,recentwork emphasizes
that it can be a mistake to view accretionarymarginsas
simplein eitherspaceor time.
Evensteady-state wedgesthathavehadextremelysimple
growthhistorieshavesignificantgradients
in mechanically
failure mode, and fluid pressure[e.g., Bangset al., 1990;
Cochrane et al., 1994]. Furthermore, some processes
relatedto compactionand lithificationare neithersteady-
state nor simply linear in their effects. For example,
subductionof basementtopography,suchas seamountsor
40 ACCRETION MECHANICS WITH VARYING PROPERTIES

seismicridges,andclimaticvariationthataffectsthe ratesof Even when an accretionarywedge behavesin the most

erosion and sedimentation,can producenon-steady-state idealized of ways, its responseto small perturbationsin
accretion.This canleadto propertiesacrossthe forearcthat propertiesandboundaryconditionsmay be disproportionate.
vary in a complicated,stepwisemanner. Even if the rate of Dahlen [1984] pointedout that for a given setof sediment
accretion has been steady-stateand the lithology of the strengthsand degrees of overpressuring,there exists a
accretedmaterialhasbeenconstantthroughtime, properties stability field (in dtcollement dip-surface slope space)
may vary discontinuously acrossthe wedge. In thispaper,I within which a stablewedge can exist. The extentof this
examine some ways in which even relatively simple field for typical modern accretionarywedgeshas been
accretion can lead to the existence of distinct structural and mappedoutby Lallernandet al. [1994]. Wedgesthathavea
tectonicboundaries within an accretionmyforearc. surfaceslopeanglesmallerthanthat of the lower endof the
A transition from non-localized to localized shear is stability field will shorten by thrust faulting when
required for the formation of discrete faults, and compressed horizontally,while thosesteeperthanthe upper
experimentalevidencesuggeststhat this transitionoccurs end of the stable field will extend, generally by normal
over a smallrangeof properties,suchas effectiveconfining faulting. The size of the stabilityfield separating thosetwo
pressure,andporosity,that vary acrossa forearc. The same types of deformationshrinksas fluid pressuresincreases.
is probablytrue of the transition,generallymuchdeeper,to Thrusting in an accretionarywedge can be affected by
seismic (as opposed to aseismic) frictional slip. An stratigraphicallyor structurallyinducedperturbationsin
importantcontrolon all aspectsof forearcmechanicsis the fluid pressures,or by changesin the geometry of the
distributionof elevatedporefluid pressures.Overpressuring dtcollementdueto underplating[e.g.,Platt, 1986] or by the
is complicatedby boththe kineticsof dehydrationreactions, underthrustingof basementrelief such as a ridge or a
which can producean extremelyunevenrate of production seamount.However, if the wedgeis highly overpressured,
of new pore water acrossthe forearc,and by the formation the wedgemay be weak enoughandits stabilityfield small
of discrete faults, which can cause highly anisotropic enoughthat even smallchangesin the locationof strength
permeability and high overpressuresnear the toe of the of the dtcollement may causea contractionalwedge to
accretionary wedge. undergoextensionby normalfaulting. Suchextensionhas
been proposedfor part of the BarbadosRidge wedgeby
LIMITS OF SIMPLE MODELS
Brown et al. [1990]. Equally importantmay be the ability
of small perturbationsin the boundaryconditionsof an
overpressuredwedge to cause the wedge to change
In light of the variety and complexity of natural
temporarilyfrom accretingto non-accreting,andto change
accretionary wedges,it is remarkablethatsimplemechanical
the balance between frontally accreting and subducting
models tell us anything at all. Even under the least sediments.
complicatedof conditions,the porosityof an accretionary
The size of the subductionchannel [e.g., Cloos and
wedgewill generallydecreasewith bothdepthanddistance
Schreve, 1988] can have a huge impact upon the type of
from the toe of the wedge [e.g., Bray and Karig, 1985;
tectonicsfoundin a forearc,alteringthe styleof accretionor
Bangset al., 1990; Cochraneet al., 1994], as the accreted
makingthe margin entirelynon-accretionary.Kukowskiet
materials are compacted and begin to be lithified. In
al. [1994] havedemonstrated the importanceof therelative
addition to having zonesof sharpstrengthcontrastalong
sizesof the pile of sedimentsenteringat the trenchandthe
any lithologicboundariesor faultsthat influencehydraulic
'subductiongate' at depth, demonstratingexperimentally
properties,the accretingmass will generally increasein
how that sediment balance can affect accretion and erosion,
frictional strength downward and landward of the
deformation front because the sediments are better
whichin somecasescan occursimultaneously.
compactedand lithified there. Such'steady-state' gradients
in porosity, density, and yield strengthcan explain the MAJOR DISCRETE MECHANICAL CONTRASTS
usuallyconcavecross-sectional shapeof the frontalregions (BACKSTOPS)
of most accretionarywedges[Zhao et al., 1986; Breen and
Orange, 1992]. Great progresshas been made in using Both 'sandbox'and numerical modeling [Malavielle,
seismictechniquesto estimatepropertiesaway from drill 1984; Byrne et al., 1988, 1993; Willett, 1992; Wang and
holes [e.g., Bangset al., 1990], but the absolutevaluesof Davis, 1996a,b]indicatethat a sharpkinematicboundaryat
suchparametersas yield strengthand pore fluid pressure the front of the stableupperplatein a forearcdominatedby
remain only roughly known acrossmuch of even the best friction can causea pair of opposite-facing thruststo form
studied forearcs. on either side of an outer-arc high above the
 DAVIS 41

boundary.Landward-vergent thrustsdevelopmoststrongly
when the top of sucha buttressor backstopis horizontal,
and they fail to form if it hasa'large seawarddip. Similar
results,along with extensionnear the surfaceof the high,
are found in a viscous model [Buck and Sokoutis, 1994]. mylar
sheet
gatec• • •.
./ • • -• • • •
•.

The material landward of sucha kinematic discontinuity,

----
!¾?:[
E •• .....
.I, ..•...•• •:•'
! spøøI
:,..,•c•:••{{:•.
b•ks•p I
which remains essentially fixed to the overlying plate
instead of moving with the downgoingplate or with the
accreting or underthrusting sediments, is called the
/• .... - .....
•';:•:•:l• ..',:•:•
•'•":•'•::;:•:'•n*:•::•:;•:•..
' •

backstop. Fig. l a. Schematic diagram illustrating how a sandbox

The horizontal strain rate, integrated across a path model createsa model forearc. A Mylar sheetis pulled onto a
connectinga point seawardof the subductionzone on the spool at right, beneatha rigid, flat 'backstop'. A clear side wall
allows us to see the model as it deforms.
downgoingplate and anotherpoint away from deformation
on the overlying plate, must equal the plate convergence
velocity. However, strainrate may be distributedacross
that pathin any of an infinite numberof possibleways. If
thedistribution
is roughly
uniform,
withnosharp
contrasts
in strain rate, then there is nothing that can properly be
called a backstop. However, if there is a transitionover a
•"11111111
relativelyshortdistancebetweenrapidlystrainingsediments Fig. lb. Line drawing showing the thrusts faults in the
and much slower deformingmaterialjust landwardof it, model shown above. The flattest active faults are indicated by
thenthatlessrapidlydeformingmaterialmay be actingasa thicker lines, and arrows indicate the thrust motion along them.
backstop(or buttress)for the sedimentsseawardof it. The Earlier faults are steepened and transported 'arcward' by
subsequent
deformation. Wangand Davis [1995].
imprecisioninherentin any definitionof a backstop(for
example, what is a 'relatively short' distance?)makesit
difficult to define what is and is not a backstop. Natural
backstops appear in a number of forms, including
continental or volcanic arc basement, accreted terranes, or
eventhe relativelydewateredremainsof an olderprismafter
ridge subduction.Thereis a differencebetweena backstop
as describedhere and a buttressas describedby von Huene
and Scholl [1991]. I use the term backstopto mean only
the strongermaterial, at whatever depth, that supportsa
disproportionately large part of the compressional force in
the forearc. However, any weaker material above the
backstopthat is protectedfrom deformationby it might be
describedaspart of the buttress. Fig. l c. A photograph of a sandboxmodelforearc. The
Our modeling showsthat the presenceof any distinct growthof a broadaccretionary
wedge(to theleft) anda narrower
inner deformation belt (to the right of the 'outer-arc high')
landwardincreasein yield strengthat depthin a forearccan
follow inevitably from the presenceof a low-angle backstop
produce such a contrast in strain rate and hence the that providesa goodkinematicdiscontinuity.
developmentof a backstop.This thenleadsto a reversalin
thrust vergence and the growth of a structurally and
topographically elevated'pop-up'zone. Dependinguponthe structuresproduced
there.An 'activebuttress'
asdescribed
strength and geometry of the backstop, that pop-up by vonHueneand Scholl[1991] (asopposed to their 'core
ultimatelydevelopsinto a structuralhigh boundedby an buttress', or main backstop) is such as incomplete
asymmetricpair of contractionalwedges(Figure 1). In kinematicboundary.
nature,backstopsare neitherperfectlyrigid nor perfectly There are two obvious way in which such an active
horizontal,so the particularmodel shownhere is an end- buttressmay form. It may result from a marginally
member case. A deforming backstop complicatesthe strongerpartof thewedgesupporting
muchof the stress(a
structuresthat form aboveit, and a seawarddip at the top of weak backstop). Conversely,it may be the result of
the backstop reduces the number of arcward-vergent extremelyweak material,suchas underplated
42 ACCRETION MECHANICS WITH VARYING PROPERTIES
beneaththe wedgehavingreducedplateboundaryfrictional
couplingenoughto haverenderedthewedgeaboveit locally
supercritical(sufficiently fatt in taper so that it does not
undergobrittle deformationin compression).In eithercase,
the affectedpartof thewedgecouldactasan activebuttress
for therestof the wedgetrenchwardof it.
Modelingwith differenttypesof backstops indicatesthat
abovea sufficientlystrongbackstopthe developmentof an
outer-archigh and a relatively undeformedforearc basin
behind it are inevitable [Byrne et al., 1993; Wang and
Davis, 1996a]. However,the appearance of thesefeatures
may be alteredor maskedby either a dearthor an extreme
excessof sediment,particularlyif the sourceis terrigenous.
Some similar, but lessdramatic,structuralfeaturesmay
be producedin the wedgewherea strengthcontrastdevelops.
Bangs et al. [1990] imaged two relatively sharp seismic
velocity gradientsin the forearcof the LesserAntilles. By
far the more importantof theseis the upper and seaward
surfaceof arc basement,whichactsasthe backstopbeneath
an outer-archigh (the BarbadosRidge) and the (Tobago)
forearcbasin. The otherzoneof velocitycontrastis located
within the accretionarywedgeitself,beneathan inflectionin
the surfaceslopeandjust behinda majorbackthrust, bothof
which 'sandbox'and numericalmodeling[e.g.,Byrneet al.,
1993] predict to form over a minor seaward-dipping
backstop. This minor zone of relatively low strainrate (a
weaker backstop)may be a resultof a non-uniformhistory
of accretion. Becauseof the slownessof porositylossand
lithification, a hiatus, slowdown, or lithologic change in
accretionat sometime in the past can causethere to exist
today a region of lower porosity,greaterlithification,and
higherstrengththatcan act as a backstop.
Along with the chemical processes involved in
lithification, porosity loss is one of the most important
actorscontrollingthe yield strengthof sediments.Strength
contrastslarge enough to produce significant structural
effects can result from porosity contrastsof only a few
percent[e.g.,Hoshinoet al., 1972]. Non-uniformporosity
and overpressures canhavevery importanteffectsuponthe
overall mechanicsof an accretionarywedge. It is logical
thereforeto ask abouthow porositylossand overpressuring
affect the way in which that deformation occurs - by
distributed strain or as discrete faults, as well as either
seismicallyor aseismically.
INITIATION OF LOCALIZED SLIP
In order to understand what controls the ability of
sediments to start to form discrete faults we must
investigatethemodesof failureof sediments
undertherange
of conditions found at and near a trench. A transition
between non-localized, non-dilatant, 'ductile' (strain
hardening) deformation andshear-localized,
dilatant'brittle'
(strainweakening) failurein poroussediments
wasmapped
as a functionof two parametersknown to vary rapidly
acrossaccretionary wedges:porosityandeffectivepressure
[Zhanget al., 1993a, b]. To producesamplesat a varietyof
initial porosities,we first compactedthemisotropically.
This wasdoneslowlyenoughto allowwaterto drainfrom
the shrinking pore spaces and to avoid significant
overpressuring.We then removedthe load from the
samples,allowing them to attain the desiredeffective
combinationof confiningpressureandinitial porosity.We
thendeformedthemunderdifferentialstress(c•1>c•2=c•3)
and
noted whether their deformation was macroscopically
'brittle' or 'ductile'. When combined with data from other
studies,this allowedus to map a 'failuremode'boundary
between localized/dilatant and non-localized/non-dilatant
behavior(e.g.,Figure2a). The formationof discretefaults
occursat relatively low valuesof porosityand effective
pressure,and non-localized shear is found at higher
porositiesandeffectivepressures.
Similar conclusionshave been drawn by Hill and
Marsters [1990] usinga differentconceptualframework.
Theyusecriticalstatesoilmechanics [Schofield andWroth,
1968] to postulatethe existenceof a critical stateline
separatingdilative and contractive behavior in void
ratio/effectivestressspace.Brandon[ 1984]pointedoutthat
the stresspath of a sedimentduring deformationis a
functionof its densityrelativeto its criticalstateasdefined
by Schofieldand Wroth[1968]. Hill andMarsterssuggest
that small-scalefaulting and scalycleavagemay represent
oppositesidesof the criticalstateline. In particular,they
suggestthat a sedimentwith a stronggrain framework
allowsthereto be only a small dropin porosityas pressure
increases,with the result that at greater depth there is
contractive, non-localized deformation, such as scaly
cleavage. Presumably,the oppositecould be true for a
sedimentwith a weakgrainframeworkfor whichporosityis
a strongfunctionof confiningpressure.
Sedimentsfrom ODP leg 131 in the toe region of the
Nankai accretionarywedge were foundexperimentallyto
undergothis transitionat porositiesof 40% to perhaps
20%, dependingupon the effective confining pressure
[Zhang et al., 1993b]. At the high porositiestypically
found near the toe of an accretionarywedge [e.g., Karig,
1986; Bangs et al., 1990; Cochrane et al., 1994] the
behavioris non-localizing,which meansthat the initial
deformationshouldnot be expectedto be in the form of
faults. Instead,the sedimentsarecapableof strainin a less
strain-localizingform as they compact.Theseresults
 DAVIS 43

\ non-localizing,
400 -- \ non-dilatant

•
• •• 0O 'ductile'
O
200
O• OO 'ductile'
localizing• ß x• 0
dilatant
'brittle' • • <•>• • •,e ß ß

10 12 14 16 18 20
''''• _d6collement ß
ß. ß-. ß
ß
- .. .
INITIAL POROSITY, %

ß ... •:.,.'••,,. • ßß
!•.$..•:.,..•,•r.-. '.. ß

Fig. 2a. A 'brittle'-'ductile' transition map for Kayenta . ß '. !.o.:..;.,.-,, . .

sandstone, separating the domain of localized faulting with 'brittle' , ee: : I' ::..'.i.•.o.•.
ß e•e
.
dilatancy and that of non-localized, non-dilatant shear in terms
of effective pressureand initial porosity [Zhang et al., 1993a]. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Circles are the data of Zhang et al. [1993a] and diamondsare
POROSITY, %
data from Jones [1980]. Solid shapesindicate samplesthat
deformed in a macroscopically brittle manner, with shear
localization. Open shapesindicate samplesthat showed non- Fig.2b. A failuremodetransition
mapforODPsamples
localized shear, and the circles with crosses correspond to from the Nankai trough. The large solid circle indicates a
samplesthat deformed in an intermediatemanner. The curved samplethat produceda localized'brittle' fault. The large open
line is the surmisedboundarybetweenthe two failure modes. circles representexperimentswith non-localizingcompactive
shear. The two circles with crosses in them indicate
intermediatebehavior and thereforemap out part of the failure
summarized in Figure 2b, which shows porosities of mode transition.. The small dots indicate porositiesmeasured
on boardthe drilling shipfrom drillingat Site 808 [Taira et al.,
samplestakenfrom depthsgreaterthan 200m (at shallower 1992]. Their effective pressuresare plottedassumingthat the
depths,drilling disruptedthe poorly compactedsamples bulkdensity
is 2 g/cm3andthatporepressures
areeverywhere
enoughto give inconsistent scatteredresults). hydrostatic[Zhang et al., 1993b]. Data from depthslessthan
Each of the five large circlesin Figure2b represents the 200m below sea floor are omitted because those samples are
initial porosityand effective confiningpressurefor one of badly disruptedby drilling and show a great deal of scatterin
their measuredporosities. The depthsof the dtcollementand
our Nankai samples. The solid circle indicates that the frontal thrust are indicatedby horizontalarrows.
deformationat 30% porosity and an effective confining
pressureof 5 MPa producesa localized'brittle'fault. The
opencirclesrepresentthe experiments at higherporosityand The primary exception is the basal dtcollement, which
effective pressureat which the deformationwas 'ductile' corresponds to the obviousoffsetin porosityplottedat an
(non-localizingcompactiveshear). The two circleswith effective pressureof about 9.5 MPa in Figure 2b. Those
crosses in them indicate intermediate behavior and therefore pointsfall clearlyon the shear-localizing'brittle'sideof the
map out part of the failure modetransition.The smalldots failuremodeboundary.However,the dtcollementappears
correspond to the measuredporositiesfrom the sameNankai to be overpressured [Taira et al., 1992], sothe datafrom the
drilling hole at Site 808 [Taira et al., 1992]. Thesedataare dtcollementshouldplot at lower effectivestresses, deeper
plotted in terms of effective pressurescalculated by into the 'brittle'regime within which it mustbe in orderto
integratingthe overburdento the samplerecoverydepth, undergodiscretefaulting. The sameis probablytrue to
assuming
thatthebulkdensity
of thesediment
is 2 g/cm
3 some degree of the frontal thrust of the accretionary
and that pore pressuresare everywherehydrostatic. This complex,data from which plot at about3.6 MPa and show
latter oversimplifiedassumptionwill comeinto play later. an offset similar to but smaller than that for the basal
The separationof the data in Figure 2a into distinctfailure dtcollement.
modessuggeststhat the way in which a sedimentfails in These results suggestthat localization of shear at the
compression at any giveneffectivepressuredependslargely front of accretionary
wedgesmay be a complicated process
uponits porosity. involving fluid loss and overpressuring,somewhatof a
Taken at face value,Figure2b suggests that deformation chicken-and-eggproblem. Discretefaulting is aided by
in the Nankai toe shouldbe essentiallyall non-localized. overpressures,but it is the faults themselvesthat
44 ACCRETION MECHANICS WITH VARYING PROPERTIES

responsiblefor a 1-argepart of the overpressuringby
increasingthe'overburden
andby reta/rding
fluidflownormal
to thefaultplane. Evenif thesedimentsaretooporousfor
the formation of discrete faults, then some sort of less
localizedcompactiveshearcan still lead to kink bandsand
relativelybroadshearbandsthat developasprotothrusts
limited net displacement. As compactioncontinuesand
theseprotothrustsdevelop and alter the hydrologyof the
apparentlyhighly overpressured.In fact, Taira et al. [1992]
give a valueof 28ø for the frontalthrust.
However,noneof this is true of broadcompactiveshear
zones seawardof the frontal thrust,becausethey are not
truly brittle. If the Nankai basald6collementis truly weak,
of thenseawardvergent(landward-dipping) shearzoneswould
be expected to have mean dips near 45ø (somewhat
shallowerif the anisotropyin sedimentstrengthis largeand
_

front of the wedge by making the permeability tensor somewhatsteeperif there has been significantpost-slip
increasingly anisotropic, there will eventually occur subhorizontal compactiveshortening).Over a weak,nearly
transitorylocalizedincreasesin fluid pressuresufficientto horizontald6collement, theideallypreferredshearzonedips
reducethe effectivepressureenoughto allow a transitional, in bothdirections aresimilar,andseaward-dipping zonesare
partial localization of shear. That in turn will affect the not heavily disfavoredand thus may appearalong with
permeabilitytensorsufficientlyto allow the formationof landward-dippingones. Pairs of seaward-and landward-
localized shear zones and discrete faults. vergentthrustshave beendescribedfor the Kodiakmargin
Cochrane et al. [1994] show that seismic velocities by Davis and von Huene [1986] andfor the Nankaimargin
increaserapidly landward in the protothrustzone of the by Lallemandet al. [1994]. Steeply-dipping, discontinuous
Oregonwedge. At the seawardendof theprotothrust zone, shear zones are observed in seismic reflection lines in the
they showporositiesrangingfrom about40% nearthe top protothrustzonejust seawardof the frontal thrustin at least
of the protothrustshear bands about 200m below the sea someaccretionarywedges,includingthoseat the Oregon
floor to about20% nearthe bottomof thebands,just above [Cochran•et al., 1994]andNankai[Mooreet al., 1990]
the proto-d6collement.The protothrusts
are foundlandward margins. Once a thrustfault has developed,it commonly
to a point below the top of the frontal thrust, where thickens into a shear zone meters wide. However, it still
Cochraneet al. [1994] estimateporositiesto be as low as remainsdistinctfrom a bandof compactiveshearin several
18%. Small-scale faults are found in Nankai site 808 ways. In particular,it becomesandremainsweakerthanthe
samplesat all depths,but deformationbandsare visiblein surroundingsediments,so it is the locusof ongoingstrain
drilling samplesonly to a depthof about560m [Maltmanet concentration.In a thrustfault, that strainis accompanied
al., 1992]. Drilling disturbancesandporosityreboundare by local dilatation.In addition,slip thereoccursaccording
likely to bias sampleporositiesupward, so the in situ to a frictionalyielding criterionthat increasesin strength
porosityat any given depthis mostlikely to be near the with confiningpressure.
bottom of the range of the shipboardsampleporosity The fact that protothrustsare found wherefailure mode
measurements [Taira et al., 1992] nearthatdepth. Virtually analysissuggeststhat non-brittle, largely non-localized,
all of the data pointsin Figure 2b from outsidethe fault steeply-dipping shearzoneswouldbe expectedto belocated
zonesfall well aboveand to the right of the failure mode leadsto a remarkableconclusion.In the regionextending
boundary,intothemacroscopically 'ductile'field, assuming several kilometers either side of the deformation front in
hydrostaticfluid pressure.However,thereis likely to be many accretionarywedges, there appearsto be laid out
some amount of excess pore fluid pressures,and even beforeus a mapto the failuremodesof sediments at low-to-
modestoverpressures (a modifiedHubbert-Rubey normalized moderateporosities.The sediments from the seawardedge
fluid pressureratio )• [Hubbertand Rubey,1959;Davis et of the protothrustzoneto well landwardof thetrenchare all
al., 1983]of )•=0.7)will reducethe effectivepressure by actively deforming. However, largely becauseof the
enoughthat manyof the othersediments may actuallyfall landward gradient in porosity, we see a range of
on the 'brittle' sideof our estimatedfailuremodeboundary deformationalstylesstartingwith non-localizedshearand
[Zhanget al., 1993b]. endingin discretefaulting. A similartransitionprobably
The faults that ultimatelyform are true brittle/frictional occursin many basins,but in a verticaldirection,andover a
faultsfor whichthe sheartractionrequiredfor slipincreases shorterdistance,makingits effectsmoredifficultto image
with increasingnormaltraction. In otherwords,theyhave seismically.
a non-zerointernalfrictionangleandarethereforelikely to Wang et al. [1994] calculatedstressesin the footwall of a
form with landwarddipsof substantially lessthan45ø, even frontal thrust,at a variety of fluid pressures.They found
if there is very little sheartractionalong the baseof the thatthe widthof the stressed zone(likely to be a protothrust
accretionarywedge [Hafner, 1951; Davis and yon Huene, zone) increasesas the pore fluid pressureapproached
1987], as in the Nankai basal d6collement which is lithostaticand that preferredfailure is on steeply

zonesseawardof the frontal thrustscarp. Shi and Wang
[1985] and Wang et al. [1990] assumeddeformationin the
wedgeandcalculatedthe porefluid pressures thatarelikely
to developasa result,producingresultsthatlendcredenceto
the idea that elevatedpore fluid pressuresshoulddevelop
nearthetoe of an accretionarywedge.
The creationof faultsandthe generationof overpressures
are closelycoupledphenomenain submarineaccretionary
wedges. To evaluatethis coupling,we have developeda
cyclicallyalternatingundrainedloading-diffusion modelto
simulate the mechanical processesof loading and fluid
drainingin naturalforearcs. This cyclic loading-diffusion
processapproaches steadystatefor time stepsthatare small
enoughto producenegligible loading [Wang and Davis,
1996b]. Eachundraineddeformationstepis thenfollowed
by a drainedstep.
A detailedreviewof thepermeabilityof forearcmaterials
wasgivenby Wanget al. (1990). In producingFigure3 we
haveusedthe samepropertiesasin their study. We assume
that the preferredorientationof a fault zonein the yielded
elementis describedby Mohr-Coulombcriterion.Figure3a
showsthe initial geometryof the model. Figure3b is the
resultof a run in whichtherewasdiffusive,as opposedto
fracture-dominateddirectedfluid flow. As Wang et al.
[1990] did in their modeling, we assigneda hydraulic
conductivityto the fault zonethat is higherthanthat of the
surrounding
rocksor sediments
(by a factorof 103)in
creating Figure 3c. Our preliminary resultsfor induced
overpressuring in andin front of the deformingwedgebear
considerableresemblance to thoseof Wanget al. [1990]. In
our coupled models with frictionally-controlledwedge
mechanics,tectonic stressesbegin to have a significant
effect on porefluid pressures evenat a very early stagein
the accretion process (Figure 3b), particularly at and
immediatelyin front of the toe of the wedgewhen fluid
flow is dominatedby faults. We find that from the earliest
stagesof deformationin numericalmodels that take into
account the dominant effect of faults on fluid flow,
overpressures startto concentrate nearthe toe of the wedge,
instead of in front of the backstop. The generationof
overpressures near andjust in front of the frontal thrustis
important to the continueddevelopmentof the wedge,
because that is precisely where the dtcollement is
propagatingfartherseawardandundercompacted sediments
are deformedby protothrusts.The influenceof the tectonics
uponporefluidsinevitablyhascorresponding effectsupon
both the generationof new thrust slices and upon the
processesof diagenesis,strengthening, and the changesin
failure modethat the sedimentsundergoduringthe process
of accretionandwedge-building.
The sediments in the frontalpartof an accretionarywedge
are capable of producingthrust ramp-flat structureslike
DAVIS 45
those in subaerial fold-and-thrust belts, albeit with much
more ongoing volume loss. However, over a very large
distance from the deformation front, many accretionary
wedgesappearto be aseismic[Byrneet al., 1988]. Within
this region deformation is frictional and localized.
However, that frictional slip apparentlyoccurseither by
frictionalcreepor by very smallepisodicslipeventsthatdo
not releaseany significantelasticstrainenergy. At some
depth,there mustbe anothertransitionin failure modeto
one that allows for stick-slipseismicfailure. The location
of that transitionto seismicallycapablefailure is called the
seismic front.
SEISMIC FRONT
The main plate-boundary thrustat subduction zoneshas
produced many of the largest and most damaging of
earthquakes,including the 1960 Chile and 1964 Alaska
events. Simple scalinglaws suggestthat the maximum
momentfor an earthquakeat mostmarginsis approximately
proportionalto the cube of the seismogeniczone width
[e.g., Byrne et al., 1988], so an appreciationof the factors
controllingthatwidthis importantin understanding seismic
risk.
The role of the high-temperature transitionfrom seismic
to aseismicslip at the deepend of the seismogeniczone at
plate boundariesis well appreciated, but the natureof the
shallow, trenchwardlimit to seismicityis less clear. The
prevalenceof aseismicityin sediment-richaccretionary
wedgesaroundtheworldsuggests thattheaseismicbehavior
of the frontal regionsof forearcsis relatedto the physical
state of the sediments common to that setting. The
associationof aseismicbehaviorwith porousandrelatively
weak sediments is reinforced by the observation that
backstops capableof producingpronounced outer-archighs
and forearcbasinsare usuallyseismicwhile the seismically
slowerand more poroussedimentstrenchwardof them are
invariablyaseismic[Byrneet al, 1988].
Great plate-boundarythrustearthquakes cannotoccurif
the down-dip width of the seismogeniczone is small: in
sucha casethereis simply not enoughplate contactareato
producea largeseismicmoment. This wouldbe the casein
a subductionzone where the slab dips steeplyand where
there is little or no sedimentto increasethe plate contact
areaat shallowdepths,suchastheMarianas.
Even if the platecontactareais large,a greatthrustevent
is impossibleif mostof that contactis incapableof storing
elastic strain energy. Friction is not necessarily
accompanied by stick-slip behavior: the stability or
instability of slip depends upon both the frictional
propertiesof the fault and the elastic propertiesof
46 ACCRETION MECHANICS WITH VARYING PROPERTIES

backsto•
outer-arc
high
..........................................
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•,<•:.•.,'.
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............
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ß:<•:.
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....... :....... .--:.::-:.:..- ...•..J.:.::::-.:::-- -:--:::-:::::.:.:..i;-[.:
........ '- :-.-:-'.-
'..:'.' -.'......:'-.'-

Fig. 3a. The finite element grid used in the numerical calculations. The dark triangular region at left is the
relatively rigid backstop. The weak dtcollement along the bottom of the model is lightly shaded. There is a 2x
vertical exaggeration.

b)

Fig. 3b. Shadingindicatesrelative excesspore fluid pressurein an early stageof deformationin a coupled
mechanical/hydrologicalfinite element model in which we assumesthat fluid flow is diffusive, with isotropic
permeability. Overpressuresinitially concentratenear the backstop[Wang, 1994].

Fig. 3c. The resultsof a finite elementmodelthatwasidenticalto theoneabove,exceptthatwe assumed that

faultswouldform in the ideal orientations for the stateof stress,andthat thosefaultswouldintroducehighly
anisotropicpermeability,with fluid flow 1000 times easieralong the faults that acrossthem. Note that in this
case,overpressuresstartto formnearthe toeof the wedge,facilitatingthe forwardgrowthof the wedge.

surrounding rock that loads the fault elastically. must be small if most of that boundary consists of
Compilationsof depthdistributionsof crustalearthquakes relativelyrecentlyaccreted,
poroussediments.Thisappears
aroundthe world [e.g., Meissner and Strehlau, 1982] are to be the case at the Makran margin, where much of the
consistent with the idea that the seismogenicrealm is broadaccretionarywedgeseawardof the coastlinemay be
generallyboundedby the onsetof crystallineplasticityat aseismic[Byrneet al., 1992].
depth, but some other factor must be at work, keeping The mostfavorableconditionfor the generationof great
earthquakes from being nucleated within the top few plate-boundaryearthquakes is thatin whichthereis a huge
kilometers. One factor could be how the elastic stiffness bodyof accretedmaterialthatcauses theplatecontactareato
required for stick-slipbehaviordependsupon the normal be verylarge,butin whichmostof thoseaccreted sediments
stressat shallowdepths,but earthquakes occurat extremely have been accretedfor a sufficientlylong time as to have
shallowdepthsin hard rock so there must be other issues become dewatered and lithified. In such a case, the
involved [e.g., Marone and Scholz, 1988]. Instead, the sediments can act as stick-slip, velocity-weakening
seismicity or aseismicity of faults at shallow depths is seismicallycapablerock and a greatplate-boundary
thrust
likely to be stronglyrelatedto the degreeof consolidationof earthquakecan occur [Zhang et al., 1993a]. A prime
the material in which the faulting occurs. Even when exampleof thissituationwouldbe theAlaskanmargin.
accretedsedimentsare sufficientlywell consolidatedto be
able to form discretefaults,they are likely to be velocity- SUMMARY
strengthening: velocity-weakening behavioris necessaryfor
fault instabilityandseismic,stick-slipbehavior.Therefore, The lossof fluid from pore spacesandthe development
evenif the platecontactareais large,the seismogenic zone of high fluid pressuresappearto be the common

linking severaldistinctaspectsof the tectonicsof forearcs. Byrne, D., D. M. Davis, and L. Sykes:Loci and maximumsize
Thesefactorsappearto controltheinitialabilityof strainto
become concentrated on discrete faults. The transition to
dilatantbehaviorexplainsthecontrast Byrne, D. E., L. R. Sykes, and D. M. Davis: Great thrust
fully shear-localized,
in structuralstylebetweenthe protothrust zonesobserved
seawardof someaccretionary wedgesandthedominance of
faulting as a shorteningmechanismin the wedge.
Localizedslip on faultsis a necessary (but not sufficient)
conditionfor the onsetof seismicslip. Someotherfactors
that may contributeto causingthat transition, such as Chapple, W. M., Mechanics of thin-skinned fold-and-thrust
dewatering reactions
andcementation arealsointimately tied
to the flow of fluids within the forearc. Finally, the Cloos, M., and R. L. Schreve, Subduction-channel model of
variationsof yield strengthcreatedby thesesamefluid-
controlledprocessesof compaction andcementation aswell
as by lithologic contacts (e.g., the front of arc or
continentalbasement)exert an importantcontrol on the
overall shapeof and strain distributionwithin the forearc
andonthemagnitudes
andvergences
of sliponthrusts.
Acknowledgments. This researchwas supported
by NSF
grant OCE9402008. Various partsof the work describedhere
was done in collaborationwith Wei-Hau Wang, Teng-fong
Wong, and JiaxiangZhang. Nathan Bangs,SergeLallemand,
and Don Reedprovidedcarefuland very helpfulreviews,all of
which are appreciated.
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DAVIS 47
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thrust belts and accretionarywedges:CohesiveCoulomb
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Davis, D. M., J. Suppe,and F. A. Dahlen, Mechanicsof fold-
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Davis, D. M., and R. von Huene, Inferences on sediment
strength and fault friction from structuresat the Aleutian
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Hafner, W., Stressdistributionsand faulting, Geol. Soc.Am.
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Proceedingsof the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific
Results, Vol. 112, 623-632, 1990.
Bull., 62, 373-398, 1951.
Hoshino, K. H. Koide, K. Inami, S. Iwamura, and S. Mitsui,
Mechanicalpropertiesof JapaneseTertiary sedimentary
rocksunder high confiningpressure,Rep. 244, 200 pp.,
Geol. Surv. Japan,Kawasaki, 1972
Hubbert,M. K., andW. W. Rubey,Roleof fluid pressure in the
mechanicsof overthrustfaulting, Bull. Geol. Soc.Am., 70,
115-166, 1959.
Jones,L. M., Cyclicloadingof simulatefault gougeto large
strains, J. Geophys.Res., 85, 1826-1832, 1980.
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accretedsediments in the NankaiTrough,Southwest Japan
Arc,in StructuralFabricsin Deep-Sea
DrillingProjectCores
From Forearcs,Mem. 166, editedby J. C. Moore,pp. 117-
133, GeologicalSocietyof America, Boulder,Colo.,
48 ACCRETION MECHANICS WITH VARYING PROPERTIF,S
Kukowski , N., R. von Huene, J. Malavielle, and S. E.
Lallemand, Sediment accretion against a buttressbeneath
the Peruvian continentalmargin as simulatedwith sandbox
modeling,GeologischeRundschau,83, 822-831, 1994.
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applied to accretionary and nonaccretionary wedges:
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accretion, J. Geophys.Res., 99, 12,033-12,055, 1994.
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chevauchementsimbriqu•s: Application aux chaines de
mountagnes,Bull. $oc. Geol. France, 7, 129-138, 1984.
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Shipboard Party, Structural and geological evidence from
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Meissner, R., and J. Strehlau, Limits of stressesin continental
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Kuramoto, H. Tokuyama, and K. Suyehiro,Structureof the
Nankai Trough accretionaryzone from multichannelseismic
reflection data, J. Geophys.Res., 95, 8753-8765, 1990.
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Shi, Y., C.-Y. Wang, High Pore Pressure Generation in
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Taira, A. and 18 others, Sediment deformation and
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von Huene, R. and D. W. Scholl, Observationsat convergent
margins concerning sediment subduction, subduction
erosion, and the growth of continental crust, Reviews o?
Geophysics, 29, 279-316, 1991.
Wang, C.-Y., Y. Shi, W.-T. Hwang, and H. Chen,
Hydrogeologic Processes in the Oregon-Washington
Accretionary Complex, J. Geophys.Res., 95, 9009-9023,
1990.
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dewatering and the mechanics of protothrust zones:
Example from the Cascadia accretionary margin, J.
Geophys. Res., 99, 20,043-20,050, 1994.
Wang, W.-H., Mechanical and hydrologic processesin the
growth of forearcs, Ph.D. dissertation, 202 pp., State
University of New York at Stony Brook, May 1994.
Wang, W.-H., and D. M. Davis. Sandboxmodel simulationof
forearcevolutionand non-criticalwedgesJ. Geophys.Res.,
101, 11,329-11,339, 1996a.
Wang, W.-H., and D. M. Davis, Numerical Modeling of
CoupledFluid-MechanicalControlson the Developmentof
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Willett, S. D., Dynamic and kinematicgrowthand changeof a
Coulomb wedge, in Thrust Tectonics, edi:ed by K. R.
McClay, pp. 19-32, Chapman& Hall, New York, 1992.
Zhang, J., D. M. Davis, and T.-f. Wong' Brittle-ductile
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Zhang, J., D. M. Davis, and T.-f. Wong: Failure modesof tuff
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Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results,Vol. 131, 275-
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D. M. Davis, Deparnnemof Earth and SpaceSciences,SUNY -
Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY
 Mountain-buildingin Taiwan and the Critical Wedge Model
Chi-YuenWangandAdamEllwood

Department
of GeologyandGeophysics,
University
of California,Berkeley,CA94720

FrancisWu andRuey-JuinRau

Department
of GeologicalSciences,
StateUniversity
of NewYork,Binghamton,
NY 13902

Homg-Yuan Yen

Instituteof Earth Sciences,

AcademiaSinica,Taipei,Taiwan,ROC

Recentlyaccumulated
geophysical
datafor Taiwanhaveprovidedan opportunity
to examinethe
deepstructure
andtheconstruction
of an activefold-and-thrust
mountain
belt.Analysesof gravity
anomalies
andseismictomography
showtheoccurrence
of high-density
andhigh-velocity
rocks
beneaththeCentralRangesextending fromnearthesurfaceto depthsof 40-70 km. Togetherwith
surfacegeology,fission-trackdata and radiometricdata, the resultsshow that large-scaled,
autochthonousupliftof basementrocksfromdepthsbeneaththeCentralRangesmayhaveoccurred
sincethelast1 Ma. Theseresultsarein contrast
withthemodelof thin-skinned growthof a critical
wedge,thatwasthoughtto occuracrosstheentireTaiwanorogen.

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGIC MODELS

The critical wedgemodel has beenwidely takenas the
paradigmfor understanding the making of accretionary
wedgesand fold-thrustmountainbelts. Specifically,the
Taiwan orogenhasbeenconsidered as a type-example for
this model(e.g., Davieset al., 1983; Dahlenand Suppe,
1988). Lack of geophysicaldata for this orogen,however,
has prevented an in-depth understandingof its deep
structuresand processes.
Recently,a suiteof geophysical
data for the Taiwan Orogen have been accumulated;an
opportunitythus presentsitself for understandingthe
mountain-buildingprocesses.Becauseof its youth, the
Taiwan Orogenpreservesmuchgeologicand geophysical
signature in mountain-building,
andis thusidealfor testing
the hypothesesthat have been advancedto explain these
processes.Here we integratethe new resultsof gravity
anomalyand seismictomographyin an effort to examine
the processes andhypotheses.
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union
The Taiwan fold-and-thrustbelt was formed by the
collision betweenthe Eurasianplate and the Luzon arc
systemon the PhilippineSea plate since5 Ma (Figure l a,
Chi et al., 1981; Teng, 1990). East of Taiwan, the
Philippine Sea plate subductsnorthwestwardbeneaththe
Ryukyuarc-trenchsystem(Tsai, 1978;Teng, 1990). South
of Taiwan, the plate boundary changesfrom active
collisional to active subduction where the oceanic crust of
the South China Sea subducts eastward beneath the
PhilippineSeaplateat theLuzonarc(Angelier,1986).
The continentalmarginpart of the island of Taiwan is
made up by four NNE-SSW trending structuralbelts
(Figure lb): the Coastal Plain, Western Foothills,
HsuehshanRange (western Central Ranges), and the
BackboneRange(easternCentralRanges)(Ho, 1988). The
Taiwan Strait is floored by a pre-Tertiary block-faulted
basementand drapedby flat-lying Cenozoicsedimentary
sequences (Liou and Hsu, 1988; Tang, 1977; Teng 1992;
Sun, 1982; Yuan et al., 1985). In eastern Taiwan, the
convergentplate boundary is marked by the Taitong
LongitudinalValley, with the deformedLuzon arc system
representedby the CoastalRange(Ho, 1988).
50 MOUNTAIN BUILDING IN TAIWAN AND CRITICAL WEDGE MODEL

EurasianPlate • i •.

South ,g'/ •'i.:.

•
C_hina
Sea
•]' ,••.:.•.'•,
• Philippine
Sea
Plate
!l i::.:.:'-
(a)

..............200m Isobath
....
.....
::ii:i:: Volcanic
Arc

P!iocene-Quaternary
Sediments

• Miocene
Shales

Miocene
Slates
BASIN

---'"'- Upper PaleogeneShales

• and Slates
!

Lower
Paleogene
Slates
NANAO

Pre-Tertiary
Crystalline Basement
c
^[• Naogene
Voicanics
BOUNDARY FAULTS

(•) HSINGCHUANG
(b)
(•) CHUCHIH
(•} LISHAN
(• LONGrrUDINAL
VALLEY 0 80 km
I I t I ß

Figure 1. (a) Plate tectonicsettingof Taiwan.The LuzonArc on the northwest-moving

PhilippineSea plate
encountersthe Asiaticcontinentalmarginalongthe Taiwan segment.Northeastof this collisionboundaryis the
Ryukyutrench,with the Philippineplate subducting towardsthe north.Extendingsouthward, this boundary
changesfromcollisionto activeeastward
subduction
of theSouthChinaSeaplatebeneath thePhilippineSeaplate
alongtheManilaTrench.(b) TheTaiwanislandwiththemajorstructural unitsof theTaiwanfold-and-thrust
belt.
The A-A' andC-C' linesshowthegeographicpositions
of Suppe's(1980, 1981)geologiccross-sections
andtheB-
B' line showsthegeographic
positionof Teng's(1992) geologic

Two geologiccross-sectional modelsacrossthe northern
Taiwan are presented in Figure 2; their positions are
marked in Figure l a. These include Suppe's (1980)
retrodeformable cross section along A-A', and Teng's
(1992) cross section based on sedimentology and
stratigraphyalongB-B'. Suppe's(1980) model(Figure2a)
assumed initially flat-lying sedimentary units over a
continuous basal decollement, uniaxial and continuous
compression, and a limited amount of basement
involvement; the retrodeformable constraint further
required all autochthonous
continentalbasementto exist
below the basal decollement. On the other hand, Teng's
(1992) model (Figure 2b) takes into account the pre-
orogenic,rifted nature of the Chinesecontinentalmargin
which consistedof block-faultedpre-Tertiary crystalline
basementwith grabensfilled with thick Paleogenesyn-rift
deposits and covered by Neogene-Quaternarypost-rift
deposits(Liou and Hsu, 1988; Tang, 1977; Sun, 1982;
Yuan et al., 1985; Teng, 1992). This model differs from
Suppe's model in involving reactivatednormal faults
deeply rooted in the basement,thus allowing uplift of
basementinto the orogen.A regionaltectoniccross-section
(Figure2c) alongC-C' (Figure1b) by Suppe(1981) is also
includedin the presentgravityanalysis;it is awayfrom the
tips of the Taiwan islandand thusmore suitablefor two-
dimensionalmodeling. It featuresa double-sidedwedge
underlainby two decollements, one westwarddippingand
the othereastwarddipping.
Suppe'scross-sections (Figure2a and 2c) werethe basis
for modelingthe Taiwan orogenas a critical wedge(e.g.,
Davies et al., 1983), where the developmentof the orogen
was assumedto resemblethe thin-skinnedgrowth of a
wedgeof soil pushedin front of a movingbulldozerover a
basaldetachment;the materialin the wedgedeformsuntil a
criticaltaperis attained,after whichit maintainsthis shape
by continuedinternaladjustment(e.g., Davis et al., 1983;
DahlenandSuppe,1988).Basicto thismodelis a minimal
involvement of the basement.
GRAVITY EVIDENCE
A gravity survey of Taiwan was made by Yen (1992),
with a total of 603 measurements, mainly at geodetic
stations,at an average spacingof 7 km. Using Bouguer
anomaliesYen (1992) modeledthe configurationof the
Moho. Becauseof the extremetopographyof the island,
the large amplitudeof Bougueranomaliestendsto mask
the lower-amplitude anomalies caused by density
variationsin the crust. The point of departurehere is the
useof the free-air anomaly,by whichvariationsin the crust
can be better delineated.A notablefeature is a regional
high gravity anomaly (Figure 2) which extendsalong the
entirelengthof the CentralRanges(Yen, 1992).
WANG ET AL. 51
A two-dimensionaltechnique(Talwani et al., 1959),
implemented in an interactive computer program
(GRVMOD), was usedin computingthe gravity anomaly
for the geologiccross-sections. The three geologiccross-
sections(A-A', B-B' and C-C') were first digitized and
input to the computerprogram.Average densities,based
on rock types, were assignedto the major structuralunits
(Figure 2). Sincethe emphasisof the presentstudyis the
variations in the crustal density, inhomogeneitiesin the
deeperregionmay be neglected.The calculatedanomalies
are shown above their respectivegeologic cross-sections
andcomparedwith observedanomalies.
As shownin Figure 2a and c, the calculatedgravity for
cross-sections A-A' and C-C' deviatessignificantlyfrom
the observed gravity. Attempts to improve the "fit" by
changingthe assigneddensitieswithin reasonableranges
(as shownin Figure2a and c by varyingthe densityof the
Miocene slatesand/or the densityof the Paleogeneshales,
or by varying the density of the accretedrocks in the
southernmodel) failed to significantlyimprovethe fit. On
the other hand, the calculatedgravity for Teng's (1992)
model agrees much better with the observed gravity
(Figure2b). In makingthis calculation,we includedin the
eastern end of the cross section a block of accreted
sedimentscorresponding
to the accretionarywedgeat the
Ryukyu trenchas imagedby seismictomographyof this
region(Rau andWu, 1995).
SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY EVIDENCE
Detailed tomographywas made possibleby the recent
expansionof a telemeterednetwork on Taiwan and its
neighboringislands (Figure 3). A datasetconsistingof
seismograms recordedfor three and a half yearswas used
for tomographicallyimagingthe deep structureunder the
Taiwan area. Seismogramsfrom 1197 eventswere chosen
for this study.These eventswere recordedat more than 8
stations,with the largestazimuthalgap of lessthan 180ø
between stations (this criterion is relaxed for the deep
eventsin the subductionzone immediatelynortheastof the
island in order to increase the number of events).
Tomographicinversionas formulatedby Thurber (1983,
1993) was performedto determinethe P-wavevelocitiesat
grid points in a three-dimensional
space.Various grid
orientations were used; more details can be found in Rau
and Wu (1995).
Two velocity cross-sections and their corresponding
spread functions(Menke, 1989; Toomey and Foulger,
1989) are shownin Figure 4. The hypocenters have been
relocatedduring the iterative tomographicinversion.The
most prominentfeature in these sections(profiles A-A'
throughB-B') is the significantthickeningof the
52 MOUNTAIN BUILDING IN TAIWAN AND CRITICAL WEDGE MODEL

OBSERVED •.• • 100

MODEL
1
/....... ....."-
' •_• •- - - -:-- - •-'.••L••.7
'"• .....'.:_::->' 0
---".:•
--'"o. m
MODEL
2
gal MOD
MODEL
2a
-100

•_.:.•Piiocene-Quaternary
Sediments2.30 gm/cc A aisiagch•aag C•aUCulh•
h Lishaa
• iocene
Shales
2.40 gm/cc

i• Miocene
Slates
2.40 to 2.60 gm/cc
PaleogeneShales
•.... and Slates
2.50 to 2.60 gm/cc

• Pre-Tertiary
Crystalline
Basement2.675 gm/cc

• Oil
Well 0 10

No
Vertical
Exaggeration
(a)

Pliocene-Quaternary

lOO
OBSERVED

•• 0 mgal
Sediments2.30 gm/cc

Miocene Shales
2.40 gm/cc MODEL 4a

B Hisingchaung Chuchich *SODEL

4
Miocene Slates
2.40 to 2.60 gm/cc Fault x• Fault•.
•
Lishan
Fault%,
_ B ' -100

Upper Paleogene
Shales
and Slates2.50 gm/cc

Lower
2.50 Paleogene
gm/cc Shales
Lower
Paleogene
Slates
2.60 gm/cc
15_1 0 10 km
Pre-Tertiary
Crystalline
Basement2.677 gm/cc
I I
(b)

I
Undifferentiated
"-i:.."•
Pliocene-
Quaternary,
Mi......Paleogene
and Volcanic Accreted Rocks
2.40 to 2.60 gm/cc

Philippine
2.677 Sea
Plate [
gm/cc of
Lishan
Fault
'• .... ............. C
t200
0 mgal

i t ..200
i-Ti Pre-Tertiary Crystalline
3; ..... ..............
Basement
2.677
gm/cc l0 . 50
. I
km
• '• x x x
ASIAN
x x
PLATE
x x x x x x 'YPHILIPPINE
SEA
PLATE
'Y'Y'YX ,y,yX X ((2)
No Vertical Exaggeration

Figure 2. Three geologiccrosssectionsand the corresponding gravityanomalies;the locationsof the sectionsare

shownin Figurelb. (a) Suppe's(1980) geologiccrosssectionalongA-A'. Measuredfree-airgravityanomalyalong
this transect(thick solidline) is comparedwith the calculatedanomalyfor Suppe's section,in thin solidanddashed
lines.A density
of 2500kg/m
3 hasbeenassignedto thePaleogenerocks,whiletheassigneddensity
of the
Miocene Slates
isvaried
from2400(thindashed
line)to2600(thinsolidline)kg/m
3.(b)Teng's
(1992)geologic
crosssectionalongthe line B-B'. Measuredfree-airgravityanomalyis comparedwith the calculatedanomalyfor
Teng's(1992) model,in thin solid and dashedline. The densityof the MioceneSlatesis variedfrom 2400 (thin
dashed
line)to 2600(thinsolidline)kg/m
3 . (c) Suppe's
(1981)regional
cross-section
alongthelineC-C'.
Measuredfree-airgravityanomaly(thick solidline) is comparedwith the calculatedanomaly;the assigneddensity
oftheaccreted
rocks
isvaried
from2400(thindashed
line)to2600(thinsolidline)kg/m
3.
under the higher elevationsof the Central Ranges. This betweenthemis quite steep.Also consistently seenin these
thickeningis much more pronouncedin the north where profiles is the rise of the 5.5 km/s contoursbeneaththe
low velocity materialsextendto a depth of about75 km. Central Ranges.On the other hand, low-velocitymaterials
This low velocity featurewas alsoobservedto someextent (<5 km/s) are imagedto a depth of 7-10 km beneaththe
by Roecker et al. (1987), but due to the larger block size Foothillsand the CoastalPlain. The earthquakesshownin
used in their work, the velocity contrasts are much thesesectionsoccur mostly in the upper40 km under the
attenuated. The high velocitiesbelow about 20 km in the Western Foothills and in the top 40-70 km under the
easternpart of the A-A' and B-B' profiles are in sharp easternCentralRanges,beingdeepertowardthe north.The
contrast to the low velocities in the west; the contact middlepart of the CentralRangesis nearly

120' 121' 122'
25' 25'
24 ø 24'
23'
• oo 23'
22 ø 22'
120' 121' 122'
Figure 3. Map view of the grid configurations used in 3-D
tomographicinversions. The grid systemis setup with the
horizontalorthogonaldirectionsparallel(N20øE-S20øW) and
perpendicular(S70øE-N70øW) to the strikeof the islandin the
area of interest. Solid trianglesare the CWBSN and TI'SN
seismicstations. The earthquakelocationsusedin each system
are shownas opencircles.The nodes(the pointswherethe grid
lines crossed)are shownas soliddots.A-A' and B-B' indicatethe
positionsof the tomographic profilesshownin Figure5.
DISCUSSION
The distincthigh density(Figure 2b) and high velocity
(Figure4) in the upper10-15 km underthe CentralRanges
are important.Furthermore,the uppercrustalhigh velocity
underthe Central Rangesis seento be continuouswith the
lower crustal layer, which generally thickensto form a
"root" under the high elevationsof the Central Ranges.
Thus the formationof the Central Rangesappearsto be a
result of uplift of the Pre-Tertiary basement,consistent
with Teng's (1992) model (Figure 2b), as well as
downwarpingof the lower crust.Furthermore,the upper
crustalhigh velocity in Figure 4a is seento extendto the
WANG ET AL. 53
surface on the eastern end of the profile, where Pre-
Tertiaryhighgrademetamorphic rockscropout.The high
velocity(>7.5 km/s)underthe easternCentralRangesare
somewhatintriguing.The fact thatthey startas shallowas
20 km and are next to the PhilippineSea plate make us
suspectthey are part of the oceaniclithosphere.The
seismicityin this zone is also notablyhigherthan in its
neighboring area to the west. In profilesA-A' and B-B'
(Figure4) the crustalvelocityroot is quitedeep,with the
7.5 km/s contour at around 55-65 km.
The crustbeneaththemiddlepartof the CentralRangesis
mostlyaseismic,whichmay be surprising in view of the
activeandrapiduplift in the area.The presentstudygives
a natural explanationof this phenomenon. Given that
faultingin the CentralRangesoccurson steep,reactivated
normalfaults,uplift of the basementcancreatelocallyhigh
geothermal gradient. Thus temperatureson the faults
beneath the Central Ranges can exceed the boundary
betweenthermally inducedstable-unstable slidingin rocks
(Stesky et al., 1974) at relatively shallow depths.
Seismicitywould be totally absentif this depth becomes
shallowerthan that for the upper,pressure-inducedstable-
unstable transition (Marone and Scholz, 1988). Thus the
lack of seismicitybeneaththe Central Rangesmay be a
consequence of the steepuplift of the basement.
Also of interestis the occurrenceof a strike-parallelbelt
of low-grade metamorphicrocks in the Central Ranges
(Chen, 1979, 1981; Chen et al., 1983; Hsieh, 1990), which,
in map view, is bound by rocks of higher metamorphic
gradeson both sides.Crespi(1991) and Crespiand Chen
(1992) suggestedthat normalfaulting on the LishanFault
may have preservedthis low-grademetamorphicbelt. The
present model provides an alternative explanation:If
erosionalrate is slope-dependent,thejuxtapositionof low-
grade and high-grade metamorphicrocks across major
thrustfaults may be expectedas a naturalconsequence of
discreteand sequentialthrustfaulting.
The presentmodelis consistent with the studiesof fission
track ages of zircon and apatite (Liu, 1982) and Rb-Sr
biotite ages(Lan et al., 1990) acrossthe Central Ranges,
which show that since -1 Ma the hinterland in the Taiwan
orogenhas upliftedat an accelerated
rate up to 10 mrn/y,
comparedto -1 mm/y duringthe period from the upper
Miocene throughPliocene.Even throughtheserates may
be affectedby an assumedconstantgeothermalgradient,
the basic conclusion that accelerated exhumation of
basementin the CentralRangeshasoccurredin the last Ma
remains sound.
In conclusion,recentlyavailablegeophyscialdata show
strongly that mountain-buildingin Taiwan may have
involved the autochthonous uplift of a great amountof
basementrocks from depthsbeneaththe Central
54 MOUNTAIN BUILDING IN TAIWAN AND CRITICAL WEDGE MODEL

CER

Spread Function
m

........................... ::=-------_
_ _ _ _ _ _-:-:----__•--_-:e:•=

-8O -80 , • ..........................

......................... :_:•_:_:•_:••

40 8O 0 40 80

Distance (km) Distance(km)

M=2 3 4 5
o o 0 0
CER

m
o

• -40

............
•••:_
........... -_•:_-_:_:•_:-:

-80 -80 •
0 40 80 0 40 80
Distance (km) Distance(km)

Vp(km/s)
I I I I .... I
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 0 2 4 6 8

Figure4. Two island-crossing

tomographic
profilesandtheircorresponding
spreadfunctions;
thelocations
of the
profiles
areshownin Figure4. TheP-wavevelocity
distributions
areshown ontheleftandthespreadfunctions
areshownon theright.A zerospread function
impliesa perfectlydefinedparameter,
whereaslargespread
functionscorrespond
to parameters
havingbroadkernelshapes andsmallvaluesof theresolvingkernel;an
acceptablespreadfunctionis 5. Whiteareasmarkunsampled regions.The velocitycontourintervalis 0.5 km/s.
The positionof the Moho correspondsapproximately
to the 7.5 km/scontour. The whitecirclesare relocated
hypocenters
including
eventswithin1gridspace
oftheprofile.Thecrossesshownonthevelocity
profiles
indicate
thelocations
of thenodes.Thetopographycorresponding
to eachprofileis shown
ontopof thevelocity
section.
CER = easternCentralRanges;WF = Western

Furthermore,
the processesappearto be discontinuousin
spaceand in time and accelerated
in the last Ma. These
resultsare in contrastwith the model of thin-skinnedgrowth of a
criticalwedge,thatwasappliedacrosstheTaiwanorogen.
Acknowledgements.
This researchwas supported
by NSF grant
EAR92-18934. We thank Dan Davis, Louis S. Teng, Ben Page
andJ. G. Liou for helpfulcomments.
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 SedimentPore-FluidOverpressuring and Its Effect on Deformationat the
Toe of the CascadiaAccretionaryPrism From SeismicVelocities

Guy R. Cochrane

u.s Geolo$icalSurvey,Menlo Park, California

J. Casey Moore

Universityof CahforniaSanta Cruz, Santa Cruz, California

Homa J. Lee

u.s Geolo$icalSurvey,Menlo Park, California

Analysisof seismicvelocityderivedfrom a 1989 multichannelseismic(MCS) surveyof the Oregon

marginsuggests that thereis a combinationof diffusivepore-fluidflow and fracture-controlled,
fault-
guidedflow at the toe of the accretionaryprism. In an area of incipientthrustingan increasein
sedimentvelocity suggeststhat thrustsaugmentthe diffusive flow responsiblefor consolidationof
sedimentfurther seaward. There is evidence,in the form of high pore-fluid pressureinferred from
interval velocities,that the d6collementforms in overpressured incomingsediments. Low seismic
velocitiesin an area where a major strike-slipfault cuts the sedimentarysection,and high seismic
velocitiesadjacentto the fault, are interpretedto be the resultof fracturingof consolidated
sediment
andescapeof overpressured fluid throughthe fault zone.

1. INTRODUCTION

The importanceof fluid pressurein the mechanicsof estimatepore-fluidpressure from sediment porosityvalues
overthrust faultinghas beendiscussed in detail beginning (inferred from MCS P-wave velocity) and discussthe
with the paperby HubbertandRubey(1959). One of the relationship betweenpore-fluidpressure and changesin the
theoreticalrequirements for reversalof vergencein a region structuralstyleof deformation alongthe toe of the Oregon
of thrusting is a d6collement with minimalshearstrength, accretionary prism(Figure1).
requiringfluidpressures nearlithostaticpressureat thedepth In the studyarea(Figure1) the prismtoe is migrating
of thed6collement (Seely,1977). Severalauthorshavenoted seawardasthrusting rootedat the d6collementstepsout and
reversalsin the vergenceof deformationfrom northto south incorporates new sedimentinto the prism (Silver, 1972).
alongthe Oregonmargin(e.g.:Silver,1972;Snavelyet al., Prior to this brittle deformation, the sedimentundergoes
1986).Mooreet al. (1995b)haveestimated fluid pressures physicalcompactionand fluid loss inducedby tectonic
greaterthan90% of lithostaticbelow thrustsin the Barbados thickening(Carson,1977;Bray andKarig, 1985;Cochraneet
accretionary prismusingdensitylogscollected whiledrilling. al., 1994a).
Estimatesof this type are lacking for the Cascadia Numerous studies in recent years demonstratethe
accretionary prism. Sedimentporosityanomaliescan be relationship between structural deformation and the
indicative of overpressuring(Fertl, 1976). In thispaperwe compaction of sediments
of theCascadiaaccretionary system.
Fluid ventingoccursat numeroussites acrossthe prism
(Kulm and Suess,1990). Near the toe of the prism,vents
Subduction:Top to Bottom occur at the surface intersection of features such as
GeophysicalMonograph96 depositionalunconformities
(Lewis andCochrane,1990), and
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union bedding(OrangeandBreen,1992).
58 CASADIA BASIN-FLUID OVERPRESSURING

that reversed-polarityseismic reflections from the

protothrusts
originate
fromfault-zone
overpressuring.
45 ø15' ' i
Wecoma 2. GEOLOGIC AND TECTONIC SETTING
Fault

The Cascadiasubductionzone (Figure 1) is characterized

by a slowconvergence rate(42 mm/yr[DeMetset al., 1990]),
youngoceaniccrust(8 Ma [Kulm et al., 1984]), and high
sedimentinflux rates(1-2 km/my for unit I and 0.25 km/my
45 ø for unit 2 [Moore et al., 1995a]). Consequently,
waterdepths
are in the range of 2-3 km at the deformation front; a
bathymetric trenchis absentnearlyeverywhere.
The total thickness of sediment in Cascadia Basin is
approximately3.5 km at the toe of the slope (Figure 2)
(Cochraneet al., 1988). The sedimentarysectionis divided
into two major lithologic units (Figure 2B) (Kulm et al.,
1973). The upperhalf of the section(unit 1) is composedof
sandy mudstonesdepositedas fan turbidites. The lower
section(unit 2) is composedof moredistalsilty clays. In all
areasthe proto-d6collement lies withinthe lower unit of silty
clays(MacKayet al., 1992). Discontinuous reversed-polarity
seismicreflectionsand a seismicinterval-velocityreversal
from thetop of the protod6collement (Figure2B) indicatethat
porefluidsmaybe overpressured (Cochraneet al., 1994b).
44ø30.... Figure 2 shows 1989 Cascadia MCS data and
_125o45' _125ø interpretations
from areasof seawardandlandwardvergence.
The locationof thed6collement(within unit 2) maybe dueto
Figure1. Map of 1989MCS tracklines discussed in thisstudy. overpressuring beneatha cap of relativelymore dewatered,
Inset map show the locationof the study area off Oregon.
low permeabilityclay as suggested by Bray andKarig (1988)
Seawardmostthrust faults and oblique-slip faults are from
for the Nankai Trough. In additionto the •changefrom the
MacKay et at., (1992), and Tobin et at. (1993). NF= northof
Wecoma fault, SF=south of Wecoma fault, LV=landward
seaward
vergence
to the landwardvergence
from sout•to
norththe depthof the d6collementincreasesfrom near the
verging area, TR=area of transitionalstructure,PT=seaward
verging area with protothrusts,SV=seaward verging area unconformitybetweenunit I and unit 2 to an intervalof
lackingprotothrusts.SeaBeambathymetry is contoured
at 100 sedimentjustaboveoceaniccrust(Figure2B). We will show
m intervals. that changesin the depthof the d6collement
are associated
with changesin the depthof maximumfluid overpressures
inferred from seismic velocities.

MacKay et al. (1992) identifieddeep-seated oblique

strike-slipfaults and blind incipientthrusts(protothrusts) 3. MCS DATA VELOCITY ANALYSIS
seawardof the frontal thrustin CascadiaBasin usingMCS
data. Tobin et al. (1993) suggestthat dewateringof the The 1989 centralOregonMCS data were collectedby
d•collementin the areaof oneof the obliquestrike-slipfaults Digiconaboardthe M/V Geo Tide. The surveyyielded
(the Wecomafault) causeda local increasein d•collement approximately 2000 km of 144- channelseismicdata. A
shearstrengthand a reversalof vergence. Carsonet al. 3800 m MCS streamerprovided72-fold commonmidpoint
(1994) inferred that near-surfacediagenetic carbonate (CMP) data. Streamerfeatheringwas limited to 10 degrees
deposits,associatedwith point-discharge of fluid are or less.Continuous satellitenavigation(STARFIX) wasused
concentratedin theareaof thestrikeslipfaultsandin thearea to maintaina shot spacing of 25 m. A tuned75 liter air gun
of undeformedCascadiaBasin depositswhich overlie the arrayproduced a consistent spikysourcewavelet.
protothrusts.Cochraneet al. (1994b) have shownthat The relativelyshallow water depthsin theCascadiaBasin
seismic P-wave velocities increase landward, and infer that combined with the long streamer yielded data with
the protothrusts for porefluid escape. approximately
act as fluid conduits 0.25 s of moveoutat the base of the
Moore et al., (1995a) usesynthetic-seismic
modelsto show sedimentary
section,sufficientmoveoutfor the
 COCHRANE ET AL. 59

LV line 23 distance (km) LV line 23 distance (km)

0 10 20 o 10 20
i i [ ! i i i i i [ i i ! [ i i i i i
0.0[ [ [ , , [ [ [ [ [ I [ ] [ [ ] [ [ [ , '
o.o

1.o-

2.0 -

3.0

6.0
DecollemenI
7.0
7.0
8.0 8.0

SV line 5 distance(km) SV line 5 distance (km)

o lO 0 10 20
o.o 0.0

1.o- 1.0
<-Proximal
Basin
->[;-Protothrust
Zone
-><- Marginal
Ridge->1
2.0 2.0

3.0 3.0
4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0
Decollement
6.0 6.0

7.0
_

7.0
Oceanic
Crust
8.0 8O
= faults • = vent sites

Fig.2a.Depth
sections
ofMCSline5,inthePTarea,
andline23intheLVarea.Vertical
exaggeration
is1:1.
Fig.2b. Linedrawing
interpretation
ofMCSdata.Notice
thedifference
in depth
atwhich
theprotod6collement
is
propagating
outintoCascadia
Basinin thetwoareas.

of stacking
velocityin the sedimentary
sectionusingthe The trendof northerlyincreasing
velocitymay be the
semblance
method(TanerandKoehler,1969). resultof changesin lithologyof the sedimentwith
Velocityanalysis
wasperformed alonga strikeline(line proximityto the sourceof AstoriaFan sediments, or
37) thatpasses
throughseveral
structural
regions (Figurel) changesin the degreeof sedimentconsolidation
including,
fromnorthto south:l) areasnorthandsouthof (decreasing
porosity)
relatedto tectonic
stress
andchanges
the Wecomafault, a northeasttrendingdip-slipfault that in structural
styleof deformation.Nelson(1976) has
intersects
themargin(NF andSF); 2) thelandward verging shown thatthepercentageof sandin unit2 sediment
does
dipwest(LV, FiguresI and2); 3) anarea notvaryappreciably
areawherethrusts overdistancesontheorderof 100km
of transitionbetween landward vergenceand seaward from the source. Because sand content is the main
vergence(TR); 4) a seaward vergingareawherethereare lithological factorcontrolling seismicvelocityin sediment,
protothmsts
in thebasin(PT,FiguresI and2); 5) a seaward we believethatvaryingtectonicstresscaused the lateral
verging
area(SV) whereprotothmstsarelacking. variationin velocityin unit 2.
In orderto showthechanges in velocitywithrespect to
the TR area,stacking velocityvalueswereconverted to
4. DISCUSSION intervalvelocityand normalized to the transitionalarea
interval
velocity
profile(Figure
4). Thetrendof increasing
In orderto estimate
porepressure stacking velocity
we converted fromsouth
tonorth
isstillevident.
Contrary
tothe
velocities
tofluidpressures
through
a sequence
of steps. trend,
thevelocity
profilefromtheprotothrust
areaexceeds
thetransitional
profile
intheuppersection
suggesting
thatthe
4.1 RegionalVelocityTrends upperunit sediments in the protothrust
areaare more
consolidated
relativeto sediments
to thenorthandsouth.
There is an increasein stackingvelocityfrom southto Thehigherdegreeofconsolidation
intheprotothrust
zoneis
northalongline37 thatexceeds thestandard deviation
from probably
duein partto dewatering alongprotothrusts.
anyoneareawithinthe studyarea(Figure3). Similar Althoughinitialconsolidation-
andstrength-heterogeneity
changes in stackingvelocityare seenin a westto east mayhaveinitiated
protothrusting
atthislocation.
direction (perpendicular
to thesediment transportdirection) 4.2 PorosityDerivedFromVelocityData
at thebaseof theslopebyCochrane et al. (1994b)andYuan
et al. (1994). We will similarly
modelchanges in seismic In orderto estimateporositywe useda velocity-porosity
velocity aschangesin sedimentphysicalproperties. conversion
derivedby Hyndmanet al. (1993)that
60 CASADIA BASIN-FLUID OVERPRESSURING

Stacking
velocity
(km/s) Interval
velocity
- TR(km/s)
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
0.0 0

I -• ß SF
=South
of
W.....Fault 0.5
0'5
1I . TR
=Area
of
Transitional
Structure•' 1 -•--
'•' ..J. '• • PT=S
--
.....dVergingA
....ithProtothrusts
ß ß
• I TM I +PT
+sv
1.5 2

2.0

2.5 area. Derived from stackingvelocitiesusing Dix's (1955)

equation.Sincereflectorsin CascadiaBasinare flat lying,no
Figure3. Graph showingstackingvelocitiesfor six areasof dip correctionsof theresultingintervalvelocitieswererequired.
varyingstructurealongline 37. Standarddeviationfor groups Arrowsshowwherelow velocityintervalsin unit 2 correlateto
of 5 CMP's,is shownby a curveof theaveragevelocityplusthe the depth of the protod6collement determinedfrom the MCS
deviationand a curveof the averageminusthe deviationfor reflectionprofiles.
eacharea. SpacingbetweentheCMP'swithina groupis 125 m.
The maximumstandard deviationfor anygroupof picksis 0.4
kngs.Stackingvelocitiesaretimeaveraged values. detachments, we modelthechangesin porosity(derivedfrom
velocity)asfluidoverpressures.
To determineexcessfluid pressureswe need to first
measured porosityfor NankaiTroughsediments withina few establishan equilibriumporosityversusdepth relationship
percent(Figure5). For velocitieshigherthan3.5 km/swe use that representsthe porosityof sedimentwhen fluids are at
the linear velocity-porosity
relationshipfor shaleof Vernik hydrostaticpressure.Figure5 showsthatthe porositychange
(1994). The Vernik (1994) curve, a velocity-porosity with depthcurvesroughlyfollow an exponentialdecrease.
relationshipfor brine saturatedshale at 40 MPa effective Hyndmanet al.'s(1993) curveof porosityversusdepthfor the
pressure,was usedbecausethe sedimentsof unit 2 are finer Nankaiaccretionary prismis approximatelyexponentialbut is
grainedandmoredeeplyburiedthanthoseof unit 1. notconsidered an equilibriumprofilebecauserapidsediment
The contributionof protothruststo consolidationof depositionin the area of the Nankai Trough makesfluid
sedimentin the uppersectionis shownin a porosity-depth pressuresin excess of hydrostatic likely. Rubey and
plot (Figure 5). A regional decreasein porosity that Hubbert's(1959) curve is also an exponentialcurve,and is
correspondsto the velocityincreaseto the north is shown. considered to be an equilibriumporositycurve.
Regardlessof thecauseof theregionaltrend,theporosityof Pressureswere calculatedusing Rubey and Hubbert's
the PT area sediment should be intermediate between (1959) equationthat convertsporosityto pressure,giventhe
sedimentto the northand southin keepingwith the trend. equilibriumcurve and assumptions about the densityof the
Figure5 showsthatin unit I theporosityis equalto or lower sedimentgrainsandtheporewater.The equationwasderived
than the porosity in the adjacentareas north and south from Athy's (1930) exponential relationship between
depending onthedepthchosen for comparison.The porosity Paleozoic shale and mudstone density and depth by
anomalyin the PT area is about5% and decreases to zero at substitutingporositytermsfor densityand substitutingstress
approximately1400 m belowthe seafloor. for depth.

4.3 PoreFluid Pressure

EstimatedFromPorosity

Reversalsin the porosityof unit 2 sediment(Figure5)

correspondto the depthsof the protod6collement
observedin
•,1[ 1 p•,w
--

-pw
I log(f
_

o/f)•
c loge
)<
pt,w
,)<
z
theMCS data(Figure2B) in the SV andLV areas. Because
porosityanomalies canbe indicativeof overpressuring
(Fertl, In thisequation
•, istheporefluidpressure
ratio,c isan
1976) andbecausetheseanomalies correspondto structural exponential
factorof dimension(length
-1) fromthe
 COCHRANE ET AL. 61

Porosity
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.0 I
-' NF

•- SF

•, LV

0.5-

• SV
1.0- • Athy

0.8

..... Hyndmann(1991)

o .6 Vernik (1994)

o •F)-!
- .4
2.5- _

.2

3.0 ;
.0 I I I

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

3.5 Velocity (km/s)

Fig.5. Porosity
versus
depth
curves
derived
from
interval
velocity
curves
forareas
ofdiffering
structure.
Anaverage
porosity-depth
curve
fortheNankai
Trough
byHyndman(1993)isshownforcomparison.
TheAthycurveisthe
equilibrium
curve
usedinthis
study
toconvert
porosity
values
tofluid
pressure
values
inCascadia
Basin.
Theinset
figure
showsthevelocity-porosity
conversion
curve
using
Hyndman's
NankaiTrough
relationship
forunit1and
Vemik's
(1994)
conversion
for claysfor unit2.

equation, e the baseof Napierian setting

(1930) empirical to another
is useful
regardless
of theunderestimation
of absolutefluid pressure. We are interested
in the
logarithms.
,Ot,
wistheaverage
densityofthesediment
above
relationship
betweendeformation
andfluidpressure.
thedepthz whichwecalculate
at eachdepthusing
a grain
density
of2700kg/m
3 (Westbrook, anda pore 4.4 Interpretation
etal.,1994) of PorePressures:
Protod6collement
water
density
(/)w)of 1050kg/m
3. fo istheequilibriumFigure 6 shows theestimates
offluidpressure
normalized
porosityatthesediment
surface(0.48)
andf is theporositytohydrostatic.
Anyvaluesgreater
than
hydrostatic
areexcess
thatvaries
withdepth
z. Thefluidpressure
P isderived
from fluidpressures
thataresupporting
someportion
of the
thefluidpressure
ratiousing
P- •,p•,wgZwhere
g isthe !ithostaticload. Overpressuring
of sedimentfrom rapid
gravitationalacceleration. sediment
accumulation
isexpected
(figure6). Nonlinear
fluid
Thismethod of calculating
theporepressure pressure
assumes versus
that depthisexpected,
evenin areas of vertically
homogeneous
all the stresson the sedimentis derivedfrom the loadof the sediment.For instance,BarbadosRidge
overlying sectionand ignorestectonicstress. sediment
sediment fluidpressureincreases
suddenlyat a criticaldepth
Becausetectonicstressesact on the sedimentalong the where fluid flow can not keep pace with increasing
Cascadia porefluid overburden
Margin,this methodunderestimates andtectonic
pressure
(Marloweta!., 1984).
pressures.
Thefollowingexamination
of themagnitude
of In all the areasthereis an elevationof the porepressureat
change
offluidpressure
versus andfromonestructurala depthof approximately
depth 2.4km(shaded area,figure6).
62 CASADIA BASIN-FLUID OVERPRESSURING

FluidPressurein Excessof Hydrostatic(MPa)

-5 5 10 15 2O 25 30 35
0.0 I I I I I I I
I = NF
i

0.5-- I * SF
I
ß LV
I

I TR
1.0-- I
%.

I
--o• PT

I
sv
I

o
2.5- --

3.0- -

Fig. 6. Fluidpressure
derivedfromporosity
usingRubeyandHubbert's
(1959)equation.Valuesarenormalized
to
hydrostatic.
Notice
thereduction
influidpressure
fromtheprotothmst
areatothetransitional
areaandthegreaterdepthof
thelandward
verging
areafluidpressure
maxima.Grayarearepresents
thedepthwherefluidpressures
in all areas
are
elevated
suggesting
a lithologicunitor otherphysical
phenomena
common
to all areas.

suggeststhat a reductionin permeabilityeither due to whereinferredmaximumfluid pressureoccurs(PT and LV,

lithologyor physicalprocesses
of consolidation
is commonto figure6). An estimateof thedegreeof overpressuring in the
all the areas.We suggest thatthechangein lithologyfrom protod6collementis approximately75% of lithostatic.If the
unit I to unit2 compounds theprocessdescribedby Marlow effect of tectonic stress were added this value would increase.
et al. (1984). That is thatthe uppersediments of unit 2 are In ourconversion of stackingvelocityto fluid pressure
we
dewatering relativeto the lowerpartof unit2 because fluids use empirical relationshipsthat were not supportedby
can escapeinto the more permeableunit I sediment. Thus rigorouserror analysis. The differencein fluid pressure
the upperpart of unit 2 becomesmore impermeable and betweenthe LV and SV areas (Figure6) is probablynot
forms a partial cap which traps water resultingin statisticallysignificant. This is consistentwith landward
overpressuring of thosesediments belowthecapas loading vergenceandseawardvergencebeingequallylikely in areas
increaseswith time (Cochraneet al., 1994b). The 2400 m wherebasalshearstressare minimal(Seely, 1977). In the
depthis thedepthof maximumfluid pressure in theSV, PT, area of the Wecoma Fault, however, low inferred fluid
and TR areaswhereasthe LV, SF, and NF areashave a fluid pressurein unit 2 (NF and SF, Figure 6) suggests that the
pressure maximumat thebottomof thesedimentary section. fault maybe responsible for increasedfluid flow out of unit 2
As discussed aboveit is notpossible,withoutmoreextensive andthelocalreversalfromlandwardto seawardvergence.
drilling data, to determineif these trends are the result of Tobin et al. (1993) hassuggested thattheWecomastrike-
tectonic or lithologicvariationsalongstrike.Wherethedepth slipfaultactsasa high-angle fluidconduitallowingescapeof
of theprotod6co!lement is knownit correspondsto thedepth highly overpressuredfluids from the

horizon producingan increasein wedge basal stressand
causingthe local changefrom landwardvergenceto seaward
vergence(Figure1), whichis in agreement with the NF and
SF pore pressureprofiles (Figure 6). The high velocity
valuesin unit 2 sedimentsadjacentto the fault (Figure 4)
suggestthat the fault is providing a path through the
permeabilitycapfor fluid to escapefrom unit 2 resultingin a
decreasein porosity. Cementationaccompanying fluid flow
may also act to increasethe rigidity of the sedimentand
therebyincreasetheseismicvelocity.
A pore fluid pressuremaximum of 70% of lithostatic,
discussed above,occursat a depthof approximately 2400 m
below the seafloor in the NF and SF areas. If a d6collement
were to form in this settingit shouldform at 2400 m, where
the porefluid pressure is highest.Instead,the d6collement
in
thisareais at thebaseof the sedimentary sectionasin theLV
area. Perhaps,in the area whereour velocitymeasurements
were taken, a pore pressureexceeding70% of lithostatic
(using our estimatedvalues) was presentat the time of
formationof the d6collementat the baseof the sedimentary
section. A subsequentpore-fluid pressure decrease
accompanying fluid flow alongtheWecomafault wouldhave
the effect of strengthening the sedimentsand may explain
why the deformationfront has shiftedseawardnorth of the
WecomaFault (Figure 1).
5. SUMMARY
Analysis of seismic velocity values derived from a
multichannelseismicsurvey of the Oregon margin implies
thatthereis fracture-controlled, fault-guidedflow at the toe of
theOregonaccretionary prism. A lateralincreasein sediment
velocityin an areaof protothrusting suggests that fluid flows
along thrustsaugmentingthe diffusiveflow assumedto be
responsiblefor observedconsolidationof sedimentfurther
seaward.Thereis evidence,in theform of highinferredpore
fluid pressurepremisedon interval velocity variations,that
the d6collementis an overpressured sectionof the incoming
sediment. High seismicvelocitiesin an area where the
Wecoma strike-slip fault cuts the sedimentarysection
probably results from reduced porosity due to flow of
overpressured fluid from the d6collementthroughthe strike-
slipfault zone.
The fluid pressurein unit 1 divergesfrom hydrostaticwith
depthbelowthe seafloor. This suggests thatduringthe rapid
depositionof unit 1 the pore fluid flow could not maintain
equilibriumconsolidation.Within unit2 thereis an elevation
of fluid pressureat approximately2400 m below the sea
floor. This may result from dewateringof the uppermost
sedimentof unit2 augmented by therapidloadingandhigher
porosityof the overlyingunit 1 sediment, forming a low
permeabilitycap that traps the fluid below. The fluid
COCHRANE ET AL. 63
pressureincreasesbelow this cap as the load increaseswith
time and is approximately 75% of lithostatic at the
protod6collement.More extensivedrilling is required to
strengthenour argumentthat fluid flow driven by tectonic
stressis the primary cause of velocity variation in the
sedimentat the base of the slope rather than variation in
several other propertiesof the sediment (e.g. lithology,
cementation,andfracturing).
Acknowledgments.This work was supportedby NSF
grants OCE-8813907, and OCE-9116368. Some of the
analysiswas done usingsupportfrom the U.S. Geological
SurveyBranchof PacificMarine Geology. The manuscript
benefited
fromreviews
byTomShipley,
DanOrange,
an•t
an
anonymousreviewer.
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fault-zonedilationin the Barbadosaccretionaryprism:Evidence
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Orange,D. L., and N. A. Breen,The effectsof fluid escapeon 999, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park, CA 94025. (email:
accretionarywedges,II, Seepageforce,slopefailure,headless guy@octopus.wr. usgs.gov)
submarinecanyons,and vents,J. of Geophys.Res., 97, 9277- J. C. Moore, Earth Sciences,Universityof California,Santa
9295, 1992. Cruz, CA 95064 (email:
 ObliqueStrike-SlipFaultingof the CascadiaSubmarineForearc'The Daisy
Bank Fault Zone off Central Oregon
ChrisGoldfinger
1,LaVemeD. Kulm1,RobertS. Yeats
2, CherylHummon
1,GaryJ.Huftile2,AlanR.
Niem2, andLisa C. McNeill2

The Cascadiasubmarineforearc off Oregon and Washingtonis deformedby numerousactive

WNW-trending,left-lateralstrike-slipfaults. The kinematicsof this set of sub-parallelleft-lat-
eral faults suggestsclockwiseblock rotationof the forearcdrivenby obliquesubduction.One
major left-lateralstrike-slipfault, the 94 km-longDaisy Bank fault, locatedoff centralOregon,
was studiedin detail using high-resolutionAMS 150 kHz and SeaMARC-1A sidescansonar,
swathbathymetry,multichannelseismicreflectionprofilesand a submersible.The Daisy Bank
fault zone cutsthe sedimentsand basalticbasementof the subductingJuande Fuca plate, and the
overridingNorth American plate, extendingfrom the abyssalplain to the upper slope-outer
shelfregion. The Daisy Bank fault, a near-verticalleft-lateralfault striking292ø, is a wide
structuralzone with multiple scarpsobservedin high-resolutionsidescanimages. From a sub-
mersible, we observe that these scarpsoffset late Pleistocenegray clay and overlying olive
greenHolocenemud,datingfault activityas post-12ka on the upperslope. Vertical separation
alongindividualfault scarpsrangesfrom a few centimeters
to 130 meters. Usinga retrodefor-
mationtechniquewith multichannelreflectionrecords,we calculatea net slip of 2.2 + 0.5 km.
Fault movementcommencedat about 380 + 50 ka near the westernfault tip, basedupon an anal-
ysis of growthstrataand correlationwith deep-seadrill hole biostratigraphy.We calculatea
slip rate of 5.7 + 2.0 mm/yr. for the Daisy Bank fault at its westernend on the Juande Fuca
plate. The motionof the setof obliquefaults,includingthe DaisyBankfault, may accommo-
datea significantportionof the obliquecomponent of platemotionalongthe centralCascadia
margin. We proposea blockrotationmodelby whichthe seawardmost part of the forearcro-
tates clockwise and translates northward.

INTRODUCTION tail nine suspectedzonesof obliqueleft-lateralstrike-slip

faulting on the abyssalplain, continentalslopeand shelf
The Cascadia subduction zone has received considerable at- off Oregonand Washington(four are shownin Figure 1).
tentionin recentyearsdue in part to the enigmaticaseismic Five of these faults cut both the Juan de Fuca (JDF) and
behavior of this convergentmargin. The quantity and North American (NOAM) plates, extending from the
quality of geologic and geophysicaldata available for abyssal plain to the upper slope-outer shelf region
Cascadiamakepossiblean improvedlevel of understanding [Appelgateet al., 1992;Goldfingeret al., 1992;Goldfinger
of subductionprocesses,particularly the responseof the et al., 1996]. The faults strike298ø to 283ø, with obliquity
forearcto obliquesubduction. to themargingenerallyincreasing to thesouth[Goldfinger,
Using high-resolution AMS 150 and SeaMARC-1A 1994; Goldfinger et al., 1996, 1996a]. The faults are
sidescansonar,swathbathymetry,multichannelseismicre- commonly expressedin swath bathymetry as irregular
flectionprofiles,andsubmersibles, we havesurveyedin de- ridgescomposedof en echelonfolds and sigmoidalbends
and or offsetsof throughgoingaccretionarywedge folds.
SeaMARC-IA sidescan records of these structures reveal
1College
of Oceanic
andAtmospheric
Sciences,
Oregon
State
University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331 steep scarps cutting accretionary wedge folds, and
2Department
of Geosciences,
OregonStateUniversity, commonly show straight traces acrosstopographyand
Corvallis, Oregon 97331 reversalsof verticalseparation,characteristicof strike-slip
faulting. Where topographic features are offset, the
separations are left-lateral. Subsequent analysis of
bathymetricandsidescandatahasidentifiedfour additional
Subduction:Top to Bottom structureswith left offsets of the accretionarywedge and
GeophysicalMonograph96 continentalslopechannelsoff northernWashingtonand
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union northern California.
66 CASADIA STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS

- 125 ø 30' - 125 ø 00' - 124 ø 30' - 124 ø 00'

Astoria •
Till
channel ,
45 ø 30'

45 ø 00'

44 ø 30'

on t•p•hm'waside) 44 ø
.........
5}...........
normalfauI.•

, ....... strike.,slfpfault
•-=7 (left-lateral)
.....

180 ø 125 ø 120

50 ø

45 ø
'% Plate Mi

Plate•a•a• 5 .
40 ø Me•od••
 GOLDFINGER ET AL. 67

-125 o 40' -125 ø 30' -125 ø 20' -125 o 10' -125 ø 00' -124 ø 50' -124 ø 40'
\ ß
landward
vetgent

DF-• pr•mr•

44 ø 50'

• 44 ø 40'

10 20 30 40 5}) Kilometers
Legend:
• anticline
• syncline
thrustfault (teeth
^ ^ onupthrown
side)
z_. strike-slipfault
---' (left-lateral)

Fig. 2. Shadedrelief bathymetryof the Daisy Bank fault and vicinity, centralOregoncontinentalslopeand
abyssalplain. Rough-textured
areasin easternpartof imageresultfrom noisydata. Active structures
of the accre-
tionary wedge are shown. DF = deformationfront. A-A', B-B', C-C', and D-D' indicatelocationsof multichannel
seismic(MCS) profilesshownin Figure6. Seetextfor discussion
of namedfeatures.

In this paper we describein detail one of these active truththesonarimageryandinvestigate

strike-slipfaults, the Daisy Bank fault (DBF), off central
Oregon.We map and characterizethis active structure,de-
termineits senseof motionand rate of slip, and speculate
on its originsand the role of suchfaults in the deformation
of the Cascadia forearc.
DAISY BANK FAULT
The Daisy Bank fault [fault B of Goldfingeret al., 1992;
Figure 2] was surveyed along its entire length with
SeaMARC-1A 30 kHz sidescan sonar at a 5 km swath
width from the abyssalplain to the continentalshelf. On
the upper slope, we imaged the fault zone with both
SeaMARC-1A 5 km and AMS 150 kHz
swaths(2.5 m and 0.5 m resolutionrespectively).The fault
zone and surroundingstructureswere also imaged by
NOAA using SeaBeamswathbathymetryon the abyssal
plain and continentalslope.We conducteda seriesof dives
using the DELTA submersiblein 1992-1993 to ground
theDBFat outcrop
scale.The DBF extends94 km from theabyssalplain (Juan
de Fuca plate), acrossthe deformationfront and continues
acrossthe continental slope landward to the continental
shelf(NorthAmericanplate).It probablyterminatesagainst
the westernedge of the deeply buried basementblock of
lower Eocene Siletz River Volcanics oceanic basalt
[Snavely, 1987; Trdhu et al., 1994] which underlies the
forearc basins of the continentalshelf (Figure 1). The
landward terrane, called Siletzia, forms a high-strength
backstopfor the accretionarywedge. This fault is more
prominently expressedon the outer shelf-upper slope
(accretionarywedge-forearcbasin) than any of the other
strike-slipfaultsin the Cascadiasubductionzone.
1 km sidescan
Upper ContinentalSlopeand Shelf
Daisy Bank is one of severaluplifted Neogene structural
highslocatedon the upper slopeto outer shelf off Oregon
[Kulm and Fowler, 1974]. The DBF bounds the
68 CASADIA STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS

A
-124 ø 46' -124 ø44' -124 ø 42' - 124 ø 40'
. .

Daisy ' 4 ø 36'

..•"•'-...
•. ß.-.•
.:
...•.'.•/"" •.:¾
44 ø 38' ..../..•
.....
...

44 ø 36'
-124 ø 46' -124 ø 44' -124 ø 42' -124ø40 '

0 I 2 3 4 Kilometers

B
:oo.
meters

'D
Fig.3. Sidescan
images
of theDaisyBankfault(DBF),upper
continental
slope. Highbackscatter areasare lightertonesin
bothimages.A - SeaMARC1A image(5 km swath)shows
DaisyBankin upperleft of image.Totalreliefis 130m onthe
westernscarpand47 m on the easternscarpof the DBF. Left-
lateral
offsetof anticline
byDBFis shown.A smallpull-apart
basinformed across a leftstepontheDBF. Left-lateral
drag
foldingof bedding is alsovisiblealongthe eastern
scarp.
B - High-resolution
AMS 150kHz imageshowsdetailsof sec-
ondaryHolocenescarpshownin Figure4.

flankof DaisyBank;a second

lessprominent
strand
of the Mappingfromseismic
reflection
profilesindicates
2-3 km
fault boundsthe northernflank. SeaMARC-1A sidescan leftlateral
offsets
ofNNW-trending accretionarywedge fold
imagery, multichannel (MCS)andsinglechannel (SCS) axesatDaisyBank[Goldfinger etal.,1992a; 1996a].Scarp
seismic reflection
datashowthattheDaisyBankfaultis a heights measured fromthesubmersible rangefromtensof
widestructural zone,withinwhichDaisyBankis uplifted centimeters to 47 m. Thenetupliftof thesouthern flankof
as a horst(Figure 2). The main fault zoneis 5-6 km wide DaisyBankby bothfoldingandfaulting is about130m.
northwest of DaisyBank,widening around theoblong The mostprominent scarpis a steep(250-50 ø) debris-
bank,thennarrowingto a singlestrandto the southeast. covered slope,thedebristypicallyconsisting of a chaotic
Multiple scarps are evident, with variable vertical arrangement
of angulargraymudstoneblockson the lower
separation
southeast
of DaisyBank(Figure3). Northwest slopesandangularto tabularcarbonate-cemented
mudstone
of thebank,twomainstrands
areevident,
bothupto the slabsontheupperslopes.
north.
Thetraces
of thefaultstrands
arestraight,
implying Fromthesubmersible
DELTA,weobserved
a fresh
scarp
a nearverticalfault.Sidescanimageryshowsreversals
of striking 290ø acrossthe unconsolidatedHolocenemud
verticalseparationalongstrike,a characteristic
common (Figure 4), which is also visible in the AMS 150 kHz
onlyto strike-slip
faults.Probable
dragfoldsof exposed sidescan
images(Figure3B). At theoutcrop scale,we
strata,with a left-lateralsenseof motion,are visible in
observedbothright-andleft-stepping
en echelonfault
sidescanimagerysoutheast of the bank(Figure3). traces,althoughleft-steppingwas dominant.This

0 t.0 20 Cm
Fig. 4. Video imagetakenfrom DELTA submersible.Holocene
scarpon a subsidiaryfault to the Daisy Bank fault. The scarpis
up to the south,with a maximumheightof--1 m. A thin layer
of Holoceneolive-gray clay is cut by the fault. The underlying
late Pleistocenegray clay is exposedin the fault scarp.This
constrainsthe most recent fault motion to post-12 ka. The
lack of bioturbation of the scarp face, compared with the
highly burrowed surroundingseafloor, suggestsmovementon
the fault within the last few hundredyears.
fault scarp ranges from a few centimetersto 1.0 m in
height, dips steeply south with the south side up, and
offsetscohesivegray late Pleistoceneclay and olive-green
Holocene mud (Figure 4). This sharp change in color
occursat about 12 ka in sedimentson the upperslopeoff
Oregon-Washington [Barnard and McManus, 1973],
indicatingpost 12 ka motionon this segmentof the Daisy
Bank fault. Abrupt vertical changesin oxidationcolor of
the late Pleistocene
clay, andcorresponding abruptupward
increasesin bioturbationby benthicanimalsinhabitingthe
scarpface suggestthat the scarpmay representmultiple
Holocene tectonic events.
We observedandmappedspectacular carbonatechimneys,
doughnuts,and slabswithin 100-150 m of the tracesof the
DBF. Their occurrence decreasesrapidlywith distancefrom
the fault. Severalinvestigatorshaveobserveda closeasso-
ciation between fluid venting, methane-derivedcarbonate
deposition,and activefaultingalongthe DBF andotherac-
tive faults in the Cascadia forearc [Kulm and Suess, 1990;
Sample et al., 1993]. The main fault scarp southeastof
Daisy Bank localizesthe largestconcentrationof carbonate
depositsyet foundon the Oregonmargin.Tabularcarbonate
blockscover much of the flat top of Daisy Bank. Near the
top of the scarpslope,carbonate-bearing bouldersup to 6
m in the longestdimensionare common.Near fault zones,
we observed tabular bodies 10-30 cm in thickness are a
common mode of carbonate occurrence over wide areas of
otherwise unconsolidated Holocene sediment. These slabs
GOLDFINGER ET AL. 69
werebrokenanddisruptedin a patternsimilarto a parking
lot excavatedby a bulldozer.We presumethat this pattern
of disruptionis tectonicin nature.We observedminor
breakageof carbonatebodiesby bottom-fishingactivity,
but concludethat this breakageis clearly distinguishable,
and could not be responsiblefor the widespreadand
pervasivedisruptionwe observedneartheDBF.
Lower Slope
Using SeaMARC sidescanimagery,we tracedtheDaisy
Bank fault zone acrossthe lower continentalslope(Figures
2, 5). The fault morphologyis subduedon the lower slope
relativeto the upperslopeor the abyssalplain. The DBF is
characterizedby discontinuousfault traces that disrupt
thrust anticlines, and to a lesser degree,the intervening
basins.One 3-4 km long strandterminatesat the foot of a
thrust ridge, producing gullies and a prominent slump
scarp.Fartherseaward,severalsplaysof the DBF truncate
the frontalthrustanticlineof the accretionarywedge(Figure
5) with several tens of meters of relief evident along the
main splay.The DBF crossesthe plate boundaryin a 1 km-
wide fault zone that appearsto have localizedslumpingof
the seaward limb of the frontal thrust (Figure 5). The
intersectionof the DBF andthe accretionarywedgemarksa
transition in structuraldomains between seaward-vergent
thrusts (seaward directed thrusting) to the south and
landward-vergent thrusts(landwarddirectedthrusting)to the
north [MacKay et al., 1992; MacKay, 1995; Goldfinger et
al. 1992]. The initial thrust ridge in this region has
apparentlyundergonea progressivevergencereversalfrom
southto north along the margin (Figure 6). The vergence
transitionis complex, and occursover a 15 km length of
the initial thrust ridge. Fifteen kilometers south of the
DBF, the vergence direction is entirely seaward. The
transition from seaward to landward is manifested as
progressiveundercuttingof the originallylandwardvergent
ridgeby a seawardvergentthrustthat is diesnorthward.The
transition to landward vergence is complete at the
intersectionof the leading ridge with the DBF, where the
undercuttingseaward-vergent thrustterminates.
AbyssalPlain
In sidescanimages,the DBF crossesthe deformationfront
without interruption(Figure 5), extending21 km seaward
ontothe abyssalplainwheresurfaceandsub-surface expres-
sion die out (Figure 2). The main traceintersectsa 150 m-
highridgealongthe boundarybetweenthe landward-vergent
thrustramp and the fault. MCS lines 37 (Figure 5) and 19
(not shown)show this ridge to be a southwest-vergent
thrustridge boundedby the DBF on its southernflank. The
main strandof the DBF stepsto the right at the westernend
of this anticlinal ridge and continues to the northwest
(Figure 5 cutaway). We interpret the ridge as a pressure
ridgedevelopedbetweenthe two overlappingfault
70 CASADIA STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS

Fig. 5. Perspectiveview of the Daisy Bank fault zone - accretionarywedge intersection,viewed from the west-
southwest. The seafloor is representedby a 5 km-wide SeaMARC sidescansonar image draped over SeaBeam
swath bathymetry. High backscatterareas are light tones in the sidescanimage. Multiple fault traces on the first
ridge are shown by small white arrows. In the cutaway section,seismicreflection line MCS-37 showsthe internal
structureof the pressure-ridgeanticline. Depth in two-way time (seconds)is shown at left margin. Thrust ver-
gence in the accretionarywedge is landwardto the north of the fault zone, and seawardto the south. Kilometer
scale is approximatefor foregroundonly.

A similar pressure ridge occurs at a fight step of the
Wecoma fault 34 km to the north (Figure 1; Goldfinger et
al., 1992, 1996a). Basement reflectors show two offsets,
one up-to-the-northand one up-to-the-south,that define a
"popup" of the basementacross the DBF on MCS line
37. We observe the same vertical structure across
Wecoma and Alvin Canyon strike-slipfaults, also on line
37 [Goldfingeret al., 1996]. The DBF is up to the northin
both seis•nic data and sidescanimages, the same vertical
separationas observedfor the other four strike-slipfaults
foundon the Juande Fucaplate.
While thereare no surficialpiercingpointsfrom which to
determine horizontal offset, we can reconstruct the fault's
displacementhistory from the abyssalplain sedimentary
section.To estimatethe overall net slip andslip-ratefor the
DaisyBankfault,we applieda geometric
technique
for
restoration of strike-slip fault motion described by
Goldfinger et al. [1992, 1996a]. This methodutilizes the
geometryof trenchwardthickeningabyssalplain sediment
wedges in at least one trench-paralleland at least two
trench-normal seismic reflection profiles. This
configurationis the minimum required to establish3D
piercingpointsbasedon the geometryof abyssalplainsed-
the imentaryunits.Isopachsin thisareatrenduniformlynorth-
southin pre-faultingsediments,basedon the 1989 MCS
survey. We determinedthe position in the sedimentary
sectionat which the fault-relatedgrowthstratafirst appears
in MCS line 37. We converted the sediment thickness in
two-waytime to depthusingan averagevelocityof 1680
m/s for Astoria Fan sediments [Goldfinger, 1994]. To
determinethe net-slipon the fault, we measuredthe hor-
izontal separationof isopachsin unitsdepositedprior to
faulting.This methodyields a bestfit net slip of 2.2 + 0.5
km for the DaisyBank fault on theJuande Fucaplate.The
uncertaintyrepresentsthe maximum and minimum al-
lowablefault slipthatdoesnotproducea severe
 GOLDFINGER ET AL. 71

West East of thicknessunits acrossthe fault. The directionof slip is

A'
left-lateral,the sameas that shownby the dragfoldson the
upperslope(Figure3A). We estimatethatfaultingbeganat
380 + 50 ka, based upon the initiation of fault-related
accretionary 1 -• growth sedimentationin seismic records, and correlation
deformation wedge •'--[
2• with datedstratain DSDP drill hole 174 [seeFigure 1 inset
front ..__._•_.•
j .....'.[ • for location;Goldfinger, 1994]. This age yieldsan average
abyssal • ..•-_//-•'•-•/_j c slip rate of 5.7 + 2 mm/yr for the DBF near the deforma-
plain ,• •--•-J/;:;7 / / .I 3 '- tion front. We assume that the initiation of horizontal and
vertical slip were coincident.If this assumptionis incor-
-abyssal
............. / ..-- .--- •> rect, the calculatedage is a minimum age. We used the
[-J plain __,,•'2' --'-'-15 •
It....strata
.....
--------_
_oc .......
....... ' -I
ucs-l I 6
sametechniqueto calculateslip rates for the other strike-
slip faultswherewarrantedby dataavailability[Goldfinger
et al., 1996; McCaffreyand Goldfinger,1995].
B'
DISCUSSION

deformation
front
• Daisy
Bank t0
__.-d-----•
fault 1

2
Tectonic Model

The DBF and similarobliquestrike-slipfaultsoff Oregon

and Washingtonappearto play an importantrole in the de-
formationof the marineportionof the Cascadiaconvergent
margin [McCaffreyand Goldfinger,1995; Goldfingeret al.,
1992, 1996]. The set of nine sub-parallel faults with the

......
...... -OC...... - -•t• •5
same senseof slip implies clockwise rotation of forearc
MCS-186 blocks about vertical axes of the style first proposedby
Freund [1974]. This styleof deformationhasbeenproposed
for the Oregonand Washingtononshoreforearc[Wellsand
C C' Coe, 1985], and for the Aleutian forearc [Geist et al., 1988;
f Daisy
Bank
/ Ryan and Scholl, 1993] albeit on a much larger scale.We

deformation _
fault
•, /
-'1 postulatethat theseWNW-trending strike-slipfaults are R'
Riedel shearswithin an overall dextralshearcoupledriven
front ,-'"'•'"----"%--- --------•'-•--..."7-----•----•
• by oblique subduction[Figure 7; Goldfinger et al., 1992].
I ._..•-/ ..--'""- '"N '•----.-._--•--// •'---:'-1---'--.- Severalof thesetransversestrike-slipfaults and associated
folds cross the plate boundary and accretionaryprism,
extendingto the continentalshelf [Goldfingeret al., 1992,
1996].Paleomagnetically-determined clockwiserotationsin
I-_
.... ..--- , - coastal basalts in Oregon and Washington suggestthat
similar processeshave operatedthroughoutthe Tertiary,
: --'--.__-
OC -- MCS-15
- with Miocene Columbia River Basalts (12-15 Ma) in
westernOregonand Washingtonrotated10-30ø clockwise
D D' [England and Wells, 1991], and Eocene Siletz River

t deformation
Volcanicsrotatedup to 90ø [Wells, 1990], althoughsome
of this may be due to microplaterotationand openingof
front
the Basin and Range [Magill et al., 1982]. The locationof

-_cAaln•(•n
/
fault /
,-- _
Fig. 6. Interpretationof migrated 144-channelseismicreflec-
tion profiles, near the intersection of the Daisy Bank fault
(DBF) and the accretionarywedge. Seismiclines are arranged
from north (A-A') to south(D-D'). Vertical scaleis in two-way
time (seconds). Location of seismic lines is shown on Figure
•oo • • M08-3- 2. A-A' is in the landward-vergentprovince north of the DBF.
B-B' and C-C' show transition from landward to seaward ver-
0 5 gence. D-D' is entirely seaward-vergent.The DBF is shownin
i , i , , i
B-B' and C-C', but is out of view in A-A' and D-D'. OC =
kilometers oceaniccrust, A = away, T =
72 CASADIA STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS

the axesof rotation(pivot points)of the offshoreblocksis

presumablyat or near their easternends, althoughthis is
not required.If the pivotsare fixed to the Noah American
plate, compressionbetween the blocks is required. We
observeevidenceof compressionacrossthe three central
Oregon faults, including the Daisy Bank horst, but not
along the Washingtonfaults. Without compressionalong
the block edges, the pivots must translate northward
relative to the North Americanplate. The model shownin
Figure7 suggestsareasof compression andextensionat the
easternendsof the rotatedblocks.Currentlywe are using
new seismicreflectiondata to testthe model by evaluating
the late Quaternary depocenterson the Oregon shelf.
However,the complexityof thisdeformationsuperimposed
on the accretionarywedgemay precludea definitivetestof
the model. This type of model, originally envisionedin a
simple shear strike-slip environment,requiresan overall
dextral shearcouple.However, we find little evidencefor
arc-paralleldextral faulting in Cascadia. In this case,the
dextral shear couple is apparentlybeing provided by an
obliquely subductingslab rather than a pair of parallel
faults.The mechanicsof sucha systemare poorly known
[Englandand Wells, 1991].

Fault Origin

What is the origin of the transversestrike-slip faults?

Certainlytheir presencewithin an activeaccretionarywedge
indicatespartitioningof straininto arc-parallel(strike-slip)
andarc-normal(thrust)components of obliqueconvergence.
We suggest two classes of origins for the faults: (1)
Intraplatestresseswithin the Juande Fuca plate, transmit-
ted acrossthe plate boundaryto the North Americanplate,
and (2) Deformation driven by interplatecoupling of the Fig. 7. A - Block rotationmodel for the centralCascadiafore-
subducting and overriding plates. The high-resolution arc. The arc-parallel componentof oblique subductioncreates
a right-lateralshearcouple, which is accommodated by WNW-
seismicdata available for the three central Oregon strike- trendingleft-lateral strike-slipfaults. B - Slip on nine mapped
slip faults showsstrongevidenceof offset of the basaltic WNW-trending left-lateral faults resultsin clockwiseblock ro-
slab for all three of thesefaults [Appelgateet al., 1992; tation and northward transportof the forearc. With fixed piv-
Goldfingeret al., 1992, 1996; MacKay, 1995]. Evidenceof ots, compressionoccursalong the block edges. We infer that
Daisy Bank (off central Oregon) has been uplifted by this
slab rupture includes: vertical separationof basement mechanism.
reflectors, some of which do not underlie the surficial
structure,and thus could not be velocity pull-up; pop-ups
of basementreflectorswith fault splaysbranchingupward
into the sedimentarysection;and abrupt changesin the
character of basement reflectors across the Wecoma fault.
stresson the interplatethrust.We thereforefavor an origin
involving deformationof the subductingslab that is then
The styleof deformationof two of the Washingtonfaultsis
partially transmittedinto the weakerNorth Americanplate.
virtuallyidenticalto the threecentralOregonfaults,andwe
For a fuller discussionof theseissues,seeGoldfingeret al.
suspectthat they are analogousto the Oregonfaults.The
[1996]. We note a longitudinal pattern of deformation
remainingfour Cascadiafaultsshowno evidenceof surface
along the DBF and most of the other transversefaults:
ruptureon the abyssalplain, andthusmay eitherbe limited
strong expressionon the plain, poor expressionon the
to the upperplate.
lower slope, strong expressionon the upper slope. This
Goldfinger et al. [1996] estimatethat the interplatecou- decreaseof deformationfrom the plain to lower slopeis
pling stressin the Cascadiaaccretionary wedgeis probably alsoconsistentwith a lower plate origin. We speculatethat
insufficient to rupture the subductineslab. Wang et al. reduced coupling acrossthe overpressuredand poorly
[1995], usinggeoaeucdata, alsoinfer very low coupling coupled d6collementbeneaththe lower slope results

weak expression of the overlying upper plate fault.
Rejuvenationof the faults on the upperslopeis consistent
with progressivedewatering of the wedge, and stronger
interplatecouplingas would be expectedfor the rearward
part of the wedge. Landward widening of the fault zones
(Figure 1) is also consistentwith fault slip transmitted
upwardthroughtheeastwardthickeningaccretionary wedge.
The observationthat the frontal thrust has undergonea
progressivevergencereversal,terminatingat the DBF, sug-
geststhat passageof the DBF beneaththe wedge (if the
DBF movesNE with the Juande Fuca plate) may have ini-
tiated the vergencereversal.Tobin et al. [1993] suggested
that a similar vergencereversalat the intersectionof the
Wecoma fault and the accretionarywedge is due to fluid
pressurelossthroughthe vertical fault. They concludethat
a local reduction in pore fluid pressureon the basal d6-
collement results in an increasein basal shearstress,pro-
motingthe switchto seawardvergence.While the vergence
reversalis probablythe resultof changesin sedimentsup-
ply and basal shear stressalong the margin [MacKay,
1995], the DBF clearly localizesthe vergencechange.
Plate Interaction
The observationthat five of the nine mappedfaultscross
the plate boundaryis difficult to reconcilewith northeast-
erly subductionat 40 mm/yr [DeMets et al., 1990], since
the JDF plate shouldhave traveled 10-24 km to the north-
eastduring the 0.2 to 0.6 Ma elapsedsincethe initiation of
faulting [from 5 faults with known ages; Goldfinger,
1996]. The arc-paralleloffsetdueto northeasterlyplatemo-
tion duringthis time would be 4-11 km. However, the de-
formationfront also advancedrapidly westwardduringthis
period. Assuming the DBF moved about 15 km
northeastward since 380 ka, this is resolved as 13.2 km
normal convergence,and 7.0 km trench parallel motion.
We estimate that the westward advance of the deformation
front during this period was 8.5-12.7 km, based on
microfossil ages of uplifted strata from DSDP site 175
[Kulm, von Huene et al., 1973]. Since the deformation
front is constantlyrenewedby rapid westwardadvance,the
age of its intersection with the DBF is always young,
minimizingthe expectedoffsetat the deformationfront.
Thesefactorsact to reducethe expectedfault offsetat the
deformationfront. However,we concludethatthe apparent
lack of any measurableoffset and the relatively straight
trends of the fault zones strongly imply that the lower
slopeis moving with the subductingplate to someextent.
We suggestthat the forearc is deformingas a wide shear
zone by distributeddeformationand translatingnorthward
driven by oblique subduction [Pezzopane and Weldon,
1991;McCaffreyand Goldfinger,1995;Englandand Wells,
1991]. The exponentialarcwarddie out of clockwiserota-
tionsobservedin ColumbiaRiver Basaltonshorestrongly
supportsa model of distributeddeformationdriven by the
dextral componentof oblique subduction[England and
GOLDFINGER ET AL. 73
Wells, 1991]. The net arc-parallelrate of deformationes-
timated from slip rateson the offshorestrike-slipfaults is
sufficientto absorb50-100% of the obliquecomponentof
plate convergence [Goldfinger, 1994; McCaffrey and
Goldfinger, 1995]. Similarly, England and Wells, [ 1991]
inferredthat the onshoreforearcmay be absorbingmostof
the tangentialcomponentof obliqueconvergence,basedon
the rotation rate of the Columbia River Basalt. Although
the mechanics of rotation for Siletzia and for the accre-
tionary wedge are probablydifferent in detail, the general
agreementof the two independentdatasetssupportsa model
of distributeddeformationby dextralshear.We suggestthat
this processmay be occurringin both plates, as indicated
by the ruptureof the slab by threeand possiblyfive of the
transversefaults, and by the presenceof faults that are
probablylimited to the upperplate. Furtherstudyis needed
to test these hypotheses and shed more light on the
complexmechanicsof obliquesubduction.
Acknowledgments. We thank the crewsof the researchvessels
Thomas Thompson(University of Washington), and support
vessels Cavalier and Jolly Roger, pilots of the submersible
DELTA, Hiroyuki Tsutsumi, Craig Schneider, Margaret
Mumford and membersof the Scientific Party on cruisesfrom
1992-1993 during which most of the data were collected.
Thanksto Guy Cohrane(UCSC), Mary MacKayand•reg
Moore (SOEST) for processingthe 1989 MCS data. Multibeam
bathymetry data was collectedby NOAA and processedby the
NOAA Pacific Marine and EnvironmentalLaboratory,Newport
OR. Thanks to Chris Fox, and Steve Mutula of NOAA for their
assistancewith the multibeam data. Thanks to Greg Moore,
Ray Wells, and Holly Ryan for helpful reviews. This research
was supportedby National Science Foundation grants OCE-
8812731 and OCE-9216880; U.S.G.S. National Earthquake
Hazards Reduction Program awards 14-08-0001-G1800, 1434-
93-G-2319, and 1434-93-G-2489, and the NOAA Undersea
Research Program at the West Coast National Undersea
Research,University of Alaska grantsUAF-92-0061 and UAF-
93-0035.
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Fox, R. W. Embley, and P. J. Meis, A left lateral strike slip
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Radiolarian stratigraphy and the Pleistocene-Holocene
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DeMets, C., R. G. Gordon,D. F. Argus, and S. Stein, Current
plate motions, Geophys.J. Int., 101, 425-478, 1990.
England,P., and R. E. Wells, Neogenerotationsand quasicon-
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Freund, R., Kinematics of transform and transcurrentfaults,
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Geist, E. L., J. R. Childs, and D. W. Scholl, The origin of
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Goldfinger, C., Active deformation of the Cascadia forearc:
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Washington, PhD thesis, 202 pp., Oregon State Univ.,
Corvallis, 1994.
Goldfinger, C., L. D. Kulm, and R. S. Yeats, Neotectonicmap
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Goldfinger, C. L. D. Kulm, R. S. Yeats, L. McNeill, and C.
Hummon, Oblique Strike-Slip Faulting of the Central
Cascadia Submarine Forearc, J. Geophys.Res. in press,
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Goldfinger, C., L. D. Kulm, and R. S. Yeats, B. Appelgate,M.
E. MacKay, and G. R. Cochrane,Active strike-slip faulting
and folding of the Cascadia plate boundary and forearc in
central and northern Oregon, in Assessing and Reducing
EarthquakeHazardsin thePacificNorthwest,editedby A.M.
Rogers, W. J. Kockelman, G. Priest, and T. J. Walsh,
U.S.G.S. ProfessionalPaper 1560, in press,1996a.
Goldfinger, C., L. D. Kulm, R. S. Yeats, B. Appelgate, M.
MacKay, and G. F. Moore, Transversestructuraltrendsalong
the Oregon convergent margin: Implications for Cascadia
earthquake potential, Geology, 20, 141-144, 1992.
Kulm, L. D., and G. A. Fowler, Oregon continental margin
structure and stratigraphy: A test of the imbricate thrust
model, in The Geology of Continental Margins, editedby
C. A. Burke, C. A., and C. L. Drake, p. 261-284, Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1974.
Kulm, L. D., and E. Suess,Relation of carbonatedepositsand
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Kulm, L. D., R. von Heuneet al., Site 174, in Initial Reportsof
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MacKay, M. E., Structuralvariation and landwardvergenceat
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L. D. Kulm, Landwardvergenceand obliquestructuraltrends
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Ocean Basins-BeaufortSea to Baja California, editedby D.
W. Scholl, A. Grantz, and J. G. Vedder, p. 305-335, Circum-
Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources, Houston,
TX., 1987.
Tobin, H. J., J. C. Moore, M. E. MacKay, D. L. Orange, and L.
D. Kulm, Fluid flow along a strike-slip fault at the toe of the
Oregon accretionaryprism: Implications for the geometryof
frontal accretion, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 105, 569-582,
1993.
Tr•hu, A., I. Asudeh, T. M. Brocher, J. H. Luetgert, W. D.
Mooney, J. L. Nabelek, and Y. Nakamura,Crustal architec-
ture of the Cascadia forearc, J. Geophys.. Res., 265, 237-
143, 1994.
Wang, K., T. Mulder, G. C. Rogers, and R. D. Hyndman, Case
for very low coupling stress on the Cascadia subduction
fault, J. Geophys. Res., I00, 12, 907-12,918, 1995.
Wells, R. E., Paleomagnetic rotations and regional tectonics
of the Cascade arc, Washington, Oregon, and California, J.
Geophys. Res., 95, 19,409-19,418, 1990.
Wells, R. E., and R. S. Coe, Paleomagnetismand geology of
Eocene volcanic rocks of southwest Washington:
Implications for mechanisms of tectonic rotation, J.
Geophys. Res., 90, 1925-1947, 1985.
C. Goldfinger, L. D. Kulm, C. Hummon, College of Oceanic
and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, 104
Ocean Admin Bldg, Corvallis, OR 97331-5503
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Department of Geosciences, Oregon State University, 104
Wilkinson Hall, Corvallis, OR
 FabricsandVeinsin theForearc'a Recordof CyclicFluid Flow at Depthsof
<15 km

Donald M. Fisher

Departmentof Geosciences,
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark, Pennsylvania

Fluid flow throughmuch of the forearc is channeledalong faults and fractures,so the
distributionand textural historyof veins and deformationfabricscan be usedto evaluateforearc
plumbing.From shallowto deeperlevels, fabric elementsdepicta networkof fluid conduits
that fluctuatebetweendilatancyand collapse.In general,there is a transitionfrom particulate
flow in soft sedimentsdeformedon the upperslopeor near the toe of the prism to grain scale
diffusive masstransferassociatedwith metamorphismof low porosityrocks in the interior of
the forearc. With increasingdepth of burial, veins vary from zones of distributed grain
boundaryfailure ("mud-filledveins")to cracksthat follow grain boundariesand fill with dirty
carbonateto cracks that break acrossgrains and fill with clean calcite or quartz. Deformation
fabrics vary with depth from semipervasivemud-filled veins, kink bands, shear bands,
microfaults, and scaly foliation to slaty cleavage. Fault zones display a scaly fabric that
records dissolutionor local collapseof a more open grain network. Dilatancy within these
zonesis inferredbasedon observations of carbonateand quartzveins and the requirementthat
the scalyfabricsact as fluid conduitscapableof maintainingobservedgeochemicaland thermal
anomalies.Much of the fluid expelledfrom the downgoingslabmay migrateupwardwithin the
scaly fabric at the top of the underthrustsedimentpile to be ultimatelyventednear the toe of
the prism. Observationsof vein distributionswithin the more metamorphosed wedgeinterior,
however, indicatediffuse movementof fluid along systemsof hydrofracturesthat developin
regional zones of low permeability. Differences in hydrogeology between some active
convergentmarginsreflect the range of incoming sedimentpackagesas well as the episodic
natureof fluid flow. Fluid flow may be cyclic, in whichcasethe frequencyof eventsmay depend
on the transientdistributionof open fractures,the rate at which excessfluid pressuresdevelop
within fracture arrays, the rate at which fractures seal, the strain rate, and the nature of the
relationship between the seismicevents and fluid flow events.

INTRODUCTION
Most of the volatiles in a subductingplate are either
returned to the mantle or expelled within the forearc
through a plumbing system that is influenced by the
rapid evolution of sedimentphysicalproperties[lto et al.,
1983; Moore and Vrolijk, 1992]. At the toe of the
accretionary wedge, diffuse fluid flow and porosity
reduction occurs within the protothrust zone (e.g.,
Nankai and Oregon [Bray and Karig, 1985; Taira et al.,
1992; Morgan et al., 1994; Cochrane et al., 1994a]) and
the underthrust sediment pile (e.g., Middle America
[Shipley et al., 1990]). As sediments become
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysical
Union
progressively more consolidated and less permeable,
fluid migration changesfrom distributed flow through a
grain-scale permeability to channeled flow along
networks of interconnected faults and fractures.
Near the toe of active convergentmargins, faults are
sites of low C1- anomalies (e.g., Barbados and Nankai
[Moore et al., 1988; Geiskeset al., 1990; Vrolijk et al.,
1991; Kastner et al., 1991], thermal anomalies [Fisher
and Hourislow, 1990], negative polarity seismic
reflections (e.g., Nankai, Barbados,and Oregon [Moore
G. F. et al., 1990;Bangsand Westbrook,1991;Shipleyet
al., 1994, Moore, J. C. et al., 1995], mineralized fractures
(e.g., Barbados and Oregon-Washington [Brown and
Behrmann, 1990; Vrolijk and Sheppard,1991; Tobin et
al., 1993]), and upward deflection of the gas hydrate
reflector (e.g., Oregon, [Cochrane et al., 1994b]). These
observations indicate movement of fluid along faults,
which requires a higher permeability within fault zones,
76 FABRICS AND VEINS IN THE FOREARC
at least temporarily, than in the adjacent wall rock
[Moore et al., 1991). Lithostatic fluid pressures and
geochemicalanomaliesalong the Barbadosd6collement
require a three orders of magnitude difference in
permeability between the prism and the d6collement
zone [Screaton et al., 1990]. In the absence of fractures,
shearing of wet sedimentsresults in a permeability
reduction both perpendicular and parallel to the shear
plane [Brown et al., 1994]. Thus the reduction in
tortuosity caused by grain alignment (which enhances
permeabilityparallel to the fabric [Arch and Maltman,
1990]) is more than offset by the collapse of the pore
network; active faults must experience episodes of
dilatancy where fluid flow occurs along networks of
fractures [Moore, 1989; Brown et al., 1994].
The history of particulate flow, fracturing, and
precipitationrecordedby fabrics and veins can be used
to evaluate some of the characteristics of forearc fluid
How regimes. For example, the orientation and
distributionof veins can be usedto depict the orientation
of principal stressesand the geometryof fluid conduits
(i.e. spacing, tortuosity, and interconnectivity) during
episodesof dilatancy. Fluid inclusionstrappedby veins
place constraints on the trapping conditions and the
compositionand source of fluids. Vein textures can be
used to estimate fracture apertures and to reconstruct
complicated histories of cracking and crack closure
(sealing or collapse).
Along active submarine accretionary prisms, the
tectonic and stratigraphic setting of vein and fabric
development is known, but the three-dimensional
geometry of these structuresis poorly constrained.In
contrast,exposed accretionarycomplexescan be used to
reconstructthe geometry of the vein network at depths
not yet accessed by drilling along active convergent
margins, but the tectonic setting of vein development
must be inferred based on fluid inclusion analysesand
timing of veining with respect to a structural and
metamorphichistory. Analysesof veins and fabrics from
active and ancient accretionary prisms have led to the
considerationof numerousquestionsabout fluid flow in
the forearc such as: how does fluid flow vary as a
function of depth and sediment properties? Is flow
continuous or episodic? If episodic, what is the
frequency and/or duration of fluid migration events?
Finally, what is the relationship between veins and
faults, and what role do fluids play in the evolution of
fault systems?At present,the relationshipbetweenfluid
flow near the toe and fluid flow deeperin the subduction
zone is largely unknown.
In the following forearc environments (Figure 1),
veins and fabrics are described in terms of the burial
conditions, deformation mechanisms,and the geometry
of the fabric network. Observationsfrom active margins
are used to establish the nature of forearc fluid flow
offscraped or underthrust sediments at the toe of the
accretionary wedge. Inferences about the underthrust
sedimentpile and interior of the wedgeare largelybased
on numerousstudiesof underplatedsequences within the
Kodiak accretionary complex in southwest Alaska
(Figure 2).
THE ACCRETIONARY WEDGE
ShallowStructuralLevels-Developmentof ScalyFabric,
DeformationBands,and CarbonateVeins
Sediments that are offscraped at the toe of the
accretionarywedge undergorapid changesin material
propertiesdue to diffuse dewatering.This dewateringis
in some cases related to the development of
semipervasivedeformation fabrics as incoming trench
sedimentsenter the prism throughthe deformationfront
(defined by a break in slope and the onset of tectonic
deformation).The Nankai protothrustzone (i.e., between
the deformation front and the frontal thrust) displays
distributed conjugate deformation bands or kink bands
that accommodate layer parallel shortening[Karig and
Lundberg, 1990]. The materialwithin bandsis similarin
grain size and compositionbut 5% lower in porositythan
material outside bands. Arcward of the frontal thrust, the
Nankai prism displaysa gradationof fabrics related to
layer parallel shortening including kink bands, shear
bands, and small faults. When crosscuttingrelationships
are observed,the faults are the latest fabrics to develop.
The generalprogressionthroughtime (or arcward)from
semipervasiveductile to brittle deformationinvolves a
decreasein porosity;thus, there is a close relationship
between the diffuse dewatering of the prism and the
evolution of fabrics.
An imbricate fan typically develops at the toe of
accretionary wedges that consists of emergent thrust
faults that connect at some depth with a basal
d6collement.Along the Barbadosmargin, the prism is
also dissected by low-angle, out-of-sequence faults
[Brown et al., 1990]. Fault zones that cut the prism have
the potential to channel the upward flow of deeply
derived fluids. The dominant fabric within fault zones
near the toe of the prism is a scaly foliation that consists
of an anastomosingweb-like array of polished,striated
surfaces.Individual scaly folia are marked by a local
collapseof a more open grain network [Moore et al.,
1986].
Along the Barbados margin, scaly foliations are
associatedwith developmentof carbonateveins;there is
an arcward increasein the intensity of scaly fabric that
corresponds with an increasein the abundanceof calcite
and rhodochrosite veins [Brown and Behrmann, 1990;
Vrolijk and Sheppard, 1991]. Veins in some cases
contain chunks of undeformed mud, and the carbonate
in within veins is "dirty" or cloudy due to dispersedtraces
of a silicate mineral [Vrolijk and Sheppard, 1991].
 FISHER 77

o..

..... ::. ß .
ß .

Underplated
Sediments
Offscraped
Sediments
[[•
SlopeSediments
Underthrust
Sediments
Figure 1: Schematicdepictionof the forearc and the variousforearc settingswhere veins have been either observed
or inferred basedon observationsof exposedaccretionarycomplexes.Numbersrefer to: 1) upper and lower slope
sediments,2a) imbricate thrust faults and strike slip faults at the toe of the wedge, 2b) underplatedrocks in the
wedgeinterior, 3a) shearzone at the top of the underthrustsedimentpile-shallowlevels, and (3b) shearzone at the
top of the underthrust
sedimentpile- deeperlevels. This paperfocusseson fabric and vein developmentwithin
accretedrocks (i.e. forearc settings2 and 3).

veinstypically
iie alongscalyfoliaandarein some
casesintenselyfoldedor disruptedby faulting[Vrolijk
and Sheppard, 1991]. Calcite veins are also observed
alongan out-of-sequence
thrustfrom the OregonMargin
[Westbrook et al., 1994], although veins were absent
within the frontal thrust zone along the Nankai margin
[Maltman et al., 1992]. Observations of veins, scaly
fabrics,and geochemicalanomaliesalong faults suggest
that thrust faults near the toe of the accretionary prism
can act as fluid conduits. The absenceof geochemical
anomalies within fault zones along the Nankai margin
[Taira et al., 1991] indicateseither that fluid flow from
depthin this caseis diffuseand is not channeledupward
alongfaults(e.g.,Maltmanet al. [1992]) or thatfluid flow
is episodicand that geochemicalanomaliesalong faults
dissipaterapidlybetweenllow episodes(e.g., Yanutnoet
al. [1992]).
Regular systemsof carbonate-filledveins have also
been observedin gullies wherea basement-involved left-
lateral fault intersectsthe toe of the Oregon accretionary
prism [Tobinet al., 1993]. The veinsare associated with
carbonatecrustsand biological communities,suggesting
that the fault trace is a site of fluid venting. The frontal
thrust near the strike slip fault displays anomalous
seaward vergence, an observation that is attributed to
increased shear stress on the d6collement due to
drainingof fluid upwardalongthestrikeslipzone[Tobin
et al., 1993]. Thus, the strike slip fault at the toe of the
Oregon accretionaryprism has allowed upward flow of
fluid from the d6collementor deeper.Faults act as fluid
conduits when shear failure is accompanied by
hydrofracturing[Sibson,1983;Behrmann,1991]. This
condition occurs in thrust fault systemsonly when the
fluid pressureexceedslithostatic.In strikeslip or normal
fault systems,simultaneousshearand tensilefailure will
occur at significantly lower excess fluid pressures
[Sibson, 1983; Behrmann, 1991]. Thus, a strike slip fault
in a given area is likely to be favoredas a conduitover
a nearby thrust fault. In general, forearcs that have
numerous strike slip faults and normal faults at high
anglesto the margin may be betterdrainedthan forearcs
that are dominated by thrusts. This may be the case
along thinly sedimentedmargins, where the roughness
on the incoming seaHoorcan indent and locally uplift
the overridingforearc [Von Hueneand Scholl, 1991]. In
this setting, the spacingof fluid conduitsthat drain the
forearc (i.e. strike slip or normal faults) may reflect the
roughnesson the downgoing
 ::"'"•
Sitkalidak
Fm.,
Eocene•Miocene
)Offscraped
• [-• Kodiak
Batholith,
Paleocene
N LB [--] ::•i."•
Ghost
Rocks
Fm.,
Paleocene
• CB Kodiak
Fm.,
U.
Cretaceous
Underplated
• SB Uyak
Fm.,
Cretaceous
[• Afognak
Pluton,
Early
Jurassic
10 0 20 40 [• Kodiak
Island
Schist,
Early
Jurassic
} Underplated
km Shuyak
Formation,
Triassic
Figure 2: Geologic map of the Kodi',ficaccretionarycomplex in southwestAlaska. Boxes show two mappedtransects
where the Kodi',ficFormation has been subdivided into the landward belt (LB), central belt (CB), and seaward belt
(SB). The underplatedsequencesare differentiatedfrom offscrapedrocks of the Sitkalidak Formationbasedon higher
metamorphicgradesand the absenceof overlying slope basins.In addition, the Sitkalid'ticFm. experiencedan early
history of layer-parallel shorteningthat included developmentof landward verging folds [Moore and Allward&
1980], whereasunderplatedunits record an early history of layer-parallel shearand extensionduring underthrusting
followed by imbrication and seawardvergent thrusting under metamorphicconditions[Byrne and Fisher, 1987].
The melange zone in the Ghost Rocks Formationis shown in

Observations near the toe of a several convergent
margins have shown that, in this zone of diffuse
dewatering where porous sediments become
consolidatedand experience rapid changes in material
properties,there are a number of possiblemicro- and
meso-scalemechanismsof subhorizontalshortening,and
these different responsesare critical for defining the
plumbing network that allows for the escape of pore
fluids. This variability may in part be related to the large
differences in permeability between mud-dominated
(e.g., northern Barbados) and sandy (e.g., Nankai)
margins.In both cases,the escapeof pore fluids near the
toe leads to a reduction in permeability, and the forearc
plumbing network quickly evolves arcward from grain
scale fluid flow to channelingalong tectonicfabrics.
DeeperStructuralLevels-Development
of Slaty Cleavage There are two types of quartz veins that provide
and Quartz Veins evidence for fracture-channeledfluid flow during duplex
Sedimentsthat are underthrustbeneaththe offscraped
sedimentsin the toe of the accretionarywedgeare either
subductedor accretedbeneaththe forearc. The arcward
portion of large accretionaryprisms (e.g., the Kodiak
Formation, Figure 2) is composedof underplatedrocks
which are differentiated from offscrapedsequenceson
the basis of metamorphic grade, structural style
(seaward vergence only) and the absenceof overlying
slope basinsor unconformities.Duplex accretionis the
underplating model that is most consistentwith both
seismicreflection profiles of modem margins [Silver et
al., 1984; Brown and Westbrook, 1988; Brown et al.,
1990] and structural observationsand inferences from
ancient margins [Sample and Fisher, 1986; Platt, 1986;
Byrneand Fisher,1990].
The premise of this model is that the basal
d•collement consistsof flats where the fault follows a
given horizon for long horizontal distances (e.g.
Barbados,Westbrooket al., [1982]) and rmnpswhere it
cuts acrossthe underthrusting sedimentpile. Along these
ramps, the flatlying sedimentson the downgoingplate
are imbricatedand incorporatedinto the overriding activefloor thrust,is a fine grainedshalethatcontains
wedge.This processresultsin the seawardgrowthof dispersed bedding-parallel lmninatedquartzveinsand
duplexes,which consistof thrustslicesboundedbelow
by an actived•collementand aboveby a deactivated or
fossil d•collement.Becauseduplexaccretioncan occur
at a considerabledepth and distance arcward of the
deformationfront, our understanding
of the structuraland
hydrologic processes that operate during duplex
accretion are largely based on observations of
underplatedrocksexposedon land.
In the Kodiak accretionary complex, the Uyak
Complex and Kodiak Formation were imbricatedafter
the stratal disruptionand veining that was associated
with scaly fabric development and underthrusting
[Sampleand Moore, 1987;Byrne and Fisher, 1990]. In
the Kodiak Formation,imbricationand henceaccretion
FISHER 79
occurred at depths of 8-12 km based on analyses of
vitrinite reflectance,illite crystallinity, fluid inclusions,
and transitional graphite. The Kodiak Formation has
been subdivided into three belts based on structural
distinctions (Figure 2) [Sample and Moore, 1987].
Mesoscale duplexes are numerous within the central
belt, or the deepest structural level of the Kodiak
Formation where measuredstrain magnitudesare larger,
strain is noncoaxial, folds are overturnedor recumbent,
and both faults and cleavage are subhorizontal[Fisher
and Byrne, 1992]. Larger duplexesare inferred in the
landward belt based on the geometry of fault-related
folds and cutoffs associated with steep thrust faults.
Duplexing was broadly contemporaneouswith slaty
cleavage formation; cleavage is axial planar to fault-
related folds.
formation: (1) continuous laminated veins along fault
surfacesand (2) crack seal veins (e.g., Ramsay [1980];
Etheridgeet al. [1984]; Cox and Etheridge[1989]) at an
angle to fault surfaces. The laminated veins exhibit
slickenlinesand mineralized steps at their margins as
well as internal laminationsthat are definedby layers of
deformed quartz and in some cases calcite that are
separatedby dark insoluble residues.Crack seal veins
aroundthrust faults are typically rotatedduring cleavage
developmentin responseto noncoaxialstrain consistent
with trench-directedoverthrusting.Although internally
deformed, these veins retain chlorite inclusions
embeddedwithin the vein quartz that grew off wall rock
seed crystals and record cracking parallel to the vein-
wall rock interface followed by sealing of cracks with
quartz(Figure 3).
The spatial relationshipbetween laminatedveins and
crack seal veins suggeststhat fluid flow along fractures
plays an importantrole in the developmentof mesoscale
thrust systems. For example, Figure 4 shows a
mesoscaleduplex within a sequenceof siltstones.The
basal layer in each horse, or the layer overlying the
elliptical vugs. These veins show evidence for both
dilation(precipitation)
and collapse(dissolution)during
episodesof crackingalong the active floor thrust. In
units beneath the duplex, steepercrack-seal veins are
observed. No veins are observed in a similar bed
overlyingthe roof thrust.
The spatial distribution of veins and faults is
consistentwith a model whereby the veins in strata
beneath the duplex are hydrofractures that provided
conduitsfor upwardmigratingfluid lensesduringcrack-
seal events(e.g., Fisher and Brantley [1992]). As a
consequence, the low permeability basal layer
experiencesa cyclic historyin which the fluid pressure
in pores and vugs builds until the systemof
80 FABRICS AND VEINS IN THE FOREARC

Figure3' A quartzvein with crack seal bandscomposed

of Figure 4: A mesoscale duplex from the central belt of the
Kodiak Formation.
chlorite inclusions (scale bar=1001.t m). Vein is
contemporaneouswith imbricationand has been rotatedin
response
to noncoaxial
strainduringtrenchwardoverthrusting.
(Figure'6).The differencein texturereflectsthe closure
of cracks: crack-seal microstructures record the
becomesinterconnected, fault slip occurs,and the fluid chemicalsealingof the crack after each fractureevent,
bleedsoff. Fracturessubsequentlyseal or collapse,and so thespacingof bandsgivesa minimumestimate of the
the fault locks. This sequence of events may occur crack apertureprior to sealing.The collapsefeatures
periodically,
with fluid pressure
fluctuating
up anddown recordlongerfluid-filledperiodsfollowedby morerapid
at near-lithostaticvalues. Thus, lithologically controlled drainingof fractures.High concentrationsof immobile
permeabilityvariationsmay controlthe distributionof elementsin collapseselvages(e.g., the presenceof
hydrofractures and the developmentof thrustsystems. rutile, monazite, and apatite) indicate that these
Development of slatycleavageinvolvessilica-producing fractures closed by collapse and dissolution, with
reactions[Knipe, 1981] and dissolutionof silicagrains, penetrationof quartzcrystalsinto wall rock [Fisher et
processeswhichcanprovidea localsourceof silicathat al., 1995].
is transportedto fracturesby grain boundarydiffusion Thick crack-seal veins typically display
[Fisher et al., 1995] or grain scale fluid advection asymmetricgrowth textures;one side of the vein is
lEtheridge et al, 1984]. Under these conditions,the straightandhasfine-grained quartz,but the grainsizeof
permeabilitymay be regulatedby the sealingrate. quartzincreases acrossthe vein, and the othersideof
A largepercentage of the quartzveinsin the Kodiak the vein consistsof euhedralcrystalterminations[Fisher
Formationpostdateduplexformationas well as mostof and Brantley, 1992]. In thesecases,the straightsideof
the deformation associatedwith cleavage development the vein was sealedthroughoutvein development,and
[Fisher and Byrne, 1990]. These veins are regionally the euhedralside was open, with unidirectionalgrowth
pervasive
in theCentralbelt overan exposed
areaof 15 towardthe openside.The wall rock adjacentto the open
km acrossstrike and over 100 km along strike [Fisher et side of the vein is depletedin silica with respectto the
al., 1995]. Thus, a significantportionof the veiningin side which was sealed and can account for -80% of the
quartzin the vein [Fisher et al., 1995]. These silica
the Kodiak Formation has occurred in the interior of the
accretionarywedge after the juxtapositionof accreted depletionzonesindicatethatsilicain veinswasderived
packages.The centralbelt is an idealplaceto consider locally,probablyby grainboundary diffusionfrommatrix
the fluid flow network in the low porosity, to crack. Thus, local diffusion of silica from the matrix
metamorphosed
interiorof the wedge.In particular,what to cracks helps to regulate the flow of locally or
externallyderivedfluid alongthe cracks.
are the attributes of the central belt that lead to such
pervasive veining in the late stages of cleavage The geometry of the vein system is consistent
development? throughout the centralbelt, with verticalcloselyspaced
There are two typesof texturesobservedin these (-5 mm) thin veins in the wall rock between more
veinsthatindicateperiodicfluid flow [FisherandByrne, widely spaced(~ 500 mm) en echelonarraysof thicker
1990;Fisherand Brantley,1992;Fisheret al., 1995]: (1) veins [Fisher et al., 1995]. The en echelon arrays
crack-sealbandsspaced10 I.tm apartand(Figure5) (2) typicallyoccurin southeast-dipping bandsthat indicate
jaggedcollapseselvagesspaced20 I.tm to mm's apart a top-to-thetrenchsense of shear. The vein textures

Figure $: Crack seal vein within the Kodiak Formation with
bands of chlorite inclusions that grew off wall rock seed
crystalsduring cracking events (scale bar=lOO•m).
vary systematicallywith respectto the vein network and
record a range of crack behavior including complete
sealing of fractures after cracking at the vein-wall rock
interface, partial sealing of fracturesafter cracking, and
crystal growth into open voids (Figure 7). In addition,
thick veins within en echelonarraysrecorda progressive
evolution from periodic sealing of fractures to the
maintenanceof open fractureswith periodic collapse.
The thickness distribution for these veins is defined
by a power law [Fisher et al., 1995]. Power law
distributionscan reflect a runaway processwhereby the
growth rate of individual veins is proportional to vein
thickness;thus,larger veins grow at fasterrates [Clark et
al., 1995]. The largest veins in the Kodiak system are
preferentially located within en echelon sets, and
textures indicate that these veins experience runaway
increases in crack aperture as they evolve from
continuous crack seal veins to euhedral growth veins.
Since the cracks which serve as sinks for fluid are also
sites of silica precipitation, these veins experience
runaway growth relative to fracturesthat seal completely
early in the history. The coalescenceof fluid within en
echelon arrays of hydrofractures may be an important
precursorto faulting within the forearcat depthsof 10 to
14 km [Clark et al., 1995].
This vein network is restricted to the central belt of
the Kodiak Formation where the subhorizontal fabric and
abundance of massive shale beds may have restricted
upward fluid flow and provided a regional subhorizontal
zone of low permeability beneaththe forearc high. Local
developmentof excessfluid pressureswithin this region
led to distributed hydrofracturing followed by
organization into en echelon arrays which provided
reservoirsfor fluid. Crack-sealeventswithin thesearrays
are punctuatedby less frequenteventswhere the system
FISHER 81
Figure 6: A quartz vein which evolved texturally (left to right)
from continuous crack-seal to discontinuous crack seal to
euhedralgrowth with collapseselvages(scale bar=l ram).
links up over a greater distance, fractured reservoirs
become interconnected, and the fluid within reservoirs is
drainedupwardor laterally[Fisheret al., 1995]. Periodic
inflation and deflation of en echelon arrays may reflect
periodic rupture of the material that separatesopen
fractures. Thus, the fracture network in the central belt
valved fluid througha regionallyextensivezone of low
permeability. This area may be an exposedanalog for
deeply buried subhorizontal reflections observed in
profilesof large accretionaryprisms(e.g., Fisheret al.,
[1989]). Bedding and cleavage are more typically
steeply dipping within the arcward of the toe of the
accretionary wedge, so regionally extensive
subhorizontal zones of low permeability may limit the
rate of upwardfluid flow within the bulk of the forearc.
UNDERTHRUST SEDIMENT PILE
Developmentof Vein Structure, Scaly Fabrics, and
CarbonateVeinsBeneaththe Toe of the Wedge
The d6collementalong convergentmargins is a sharp
boundarythat decouplesthe imbricatedsedimentsof the
accretionary wedge from the relatively undeformed
sedimentsof the underthrustsedimentpile. There have
been two active margins where drill sites penetratedthe
basal d6collement into the underthrust sediment pile:
Barbados[Moore et al., 1988] and Nankai [Byrne et al.,
1993; Moore and Shipley,1993]. Along bothmargins,the
sediments just beneath the d6collement are
characterized by a pervasive scaly fabric defined by
anastomosingarrays of polished and striated surfaces.
The complex network of microfaults arises because
individual scaly folia are abandonedafter very small
displacements,with slip transferredto new folia
82 FABRICS AND VEINS IN THE FOREARC

a.) ContinuousCrack-Seal

b.) DiscontinuousCrack-Seal

c) Euhedral Growth with

CollapseFeatures
Figure 7: a) Schematicdiagram showing the geometry of the Kodiak veins and the distributionof different textures
(after Clark eta/. [1995]). b) Continuous crack-seal veins. c) Discontinuouscrack-seal veins. d) Euhedral-growth
veins. Thin lines represent bands of phyllosilicate inclusions in the quartz grains, and the thick, black lines
representcollapse features composedprimarily of insoluble residue.

formin thelessdelbrmed
material
between
folia[Moore pervasive scaly fabric) widens from a t•w metersat the
et al., 1986]. The transfer from one folia to the next deformationfront to about 60 m where the displacement
reflects strain hardeningof individual folia and may be a on the fault is 2200 m [Brown and Behrmann, 1990]. The
consequence of [Moore and Byrne, 1987]: 1) shearzone at the top of the underthrustingsedimentpile
strengthening of folia due to collapse of the grain is not a site of extensiveveining within a few kilometers
network, 2) reduction of fluid pressurewithin folia, of the deformation front, although dispersedveinlets of
and/or 3) reorientationof folia during slip on adjacent rhodochrosite were observed beneath the Barbados
curviplanar microfaults. These processescumulatively d•collement(sites675, 676, Vrolijk and Sheppard,1991)
lead to a strengtheningof the shearzone. and mud-filled veins are observed within the
Across the toe of the Barbados accretionary prism, d•collement horizon seaward of the deformation front
the d•collement zone (as defined by the zone of [Brown and Behrmann, 1990]. The top of
 FISHER 83

underthrustingpile may be overpressuredas indicated by

logging while drilling results along the Barbados
d6collement [Moore et al., 1995] and an observed 10%
increase in porosity beneath the Nankai d•collement
[Taira et al., 1992]. Thus, the d•collement is an
important hydrologic boundary; fluid that drains off the
underthrusting plate may be channeled along the
subhorizontal zone of scaly foliation below the
d6collement.

Development of scalyfabrics and carbonate/quartzveins

at deeperlevels(8-15 kin)

In many exposed accretionary complexes, there are

vein sets that record fluid flow within the underthrust
sediment pile. There are several observations that
supportthis interpretation: 1) the veins are concentrated
within zones of mud matrix melange that can extend
100's of km along strike [Connelly, 1978; Fisher and
Byrne, 1987; Vrolijk et al., 1988] (Figure 2), 2) the veins
are associated with a pervasive scaly fabric [Byrne,
1984], 3) the melanges are associated with regional
faults that place older rocks over younger [Fisher and
Byrne, 1987], and 4) the melanges in some cases
display a ghost stratigraphythat matchesthe stratigraphy
of an underthrusting sediment pile (i.e., greenstones,
pelagic sediments,and turbidites) [Byrne and Fisher, '*:
;•'• :.•....•
i....... . ..
":i
':.•
1987;Agar, 1990]. ..

..•........
...•.• ........
•?
.•..•.,.,..,•:-......

The thickness of these melange zones (several .......

•,¾:.;:.,•...:.
.',..•.:.:,
kilometers) is typically greater than the thicknessof the
Barbados d6collement zone near the toe of the Barbados ß" .... ,.:.•';•:..:...

margin (meters to tens of meters). This observationcan

::::::$,..:.-*:4•N•'***
:;':• :::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:,::, %....•:..
in part be a consequenceof strain hardening-- greater
displacement across ancient shear zones results in
widening of fault zones beyond the thickness observed
near the toe of active margins. However, much of the
thickening is the result of subsequentimbrication and • !;•!
..............
:•'
:::.:
:"<....:.::<:.**
":'*'"*":':::A•:4
folding as indicatedby repetitionof a ghoststratigraphy -:::•:
..::
..............
';aS •.;S•;
...... ........
"'.•'•'
.;•::•-';"*•:":
..?,.:.:-.,:
.-:-':.::...•
":.-.:' ........
..... -......"•'"' ;:"• 6:...:.** .....
:.;'*.:.
,:• •,: ß :•'•.'•:-'::':%•;;•:•""'"
[Byrne and Fisher, 1990]. The thicknessof melangein •::• "•:::•,.• •:•:• •:•::,...•,:*-*
...:..:;% ........ :::•
.... .::
individual thrust sheetsfrom the Uyak Complex (100's
of meters to 2 kilometers) is consistent with
approximately two orders of magnitude more ;;;:•: ..f-"'•:.•.•......
,,:.•..:.::.•:..':z•
.... ,................
.:?*'*':•••:}?s.:;.•.::.;:.•**
'•...........
,:***:-:•%::½::??,;;.,•
.... :...•: '..

displacement than is observed along the Barbados

d•collement [Brown and Behrmann, 1990].
In the Kodiak archipelago, melanges are
characterizedby a block-in-matrix fabric composedof
sandstone,chert, and/or greenstone blocks in a mud
matrix with scaly fabric (Figure 8a). The melangesare ,:;• ::.'-'• **::.: . .•
....... ..'.
stratallydisruptedbut structurallysystematic[Moore and
.:.:•
ß ..... •:.
..............
Wheeler, 1978; Fisher and Byrne, 1987]. For example,
..... ..•
........
.•:-:.•
?..:*:. .......,.•,:.._....
..............
. ....,.:...:..::..;...:.
................
................
:•**•'•::..
......:...:...:.**.
.......
..........:....'.;;...:....':,s;:.'*::,
......
the melange inclusionsdisplay a shape fabric with the
long axis of inclusions parallel to either a downdip
stretchinglineation (the Uyak Complex) or an along-
strike linearion defined by intersectingcataclasticshear Figure8: a) Outcropphotoof GhostRocksmelange.b) Outcrop
zones (the Ghost Rocks Formation, i.e. webstructure photo of scaly fabric in the Ghost Rocks Melange. c)
[Byrne, 1984]). The fabric is regionallyconsistent,with Photomicrograph of a scalyfabric network(scalebar=100
84 FABRICS AND VEINS IN THE FOREARC

asymmetric melange inclusions, asymmetric folds, and intrudes into the ends of carbonate veins as a result of
shear bands that indicate layer parallel extension in a diageneticreactionsin the muds that give off CO2 and
zone of layer-parallelshear [Fisher and Byrne, 1987]. dissolve the carbonate along the vein-mud interface
The textural history reflects reduction in pore space [Byrne, 1984; Fisher and Byrne, 1987; Byrne, 1994). In
duringprogressive lithification[e.g.,Orangeet al., 1993], total, these observations indicate that neither the mud
with a conversionfrom distributedgrain scaleparticulatenor the sandwas stronglycementedduring veining.
flow in the muds to localized slip on scaly microfaults Scaly fabrics in the melanges are defined by
[Fisher and Byrne, 1987]. The presentorientationof the anastomosing arraysof polishedsurfaces(Figure 8b and
melange fabric is typically steep, but the scaly fabricc), and there are in places thin veins that lie along scaly
and veins predate the steepeningof fabrics caused by folia. These scaly folia show evidence for both
imbrication, folding, and cleavage developmentwithin dissolution and precipitation (see also the Okitsu
the accretionarywedge. Based on these considerations, melangein the Shimantobelt, Agar, [1990]). Dissolution
it is likely that the melange fabrics (the inclusionshape
and sealing may be additional mechanisms for
fabric and the scaly fabric) were subhorizontal (i.e. strengtheningscaly folia within the d6collement zone
parallel to a basal d6collement) at the time they relative to undeformed material. The network of scaly
developed. folia may behave as an anastomosing fault-parallel
The veins in melange zones are typically composed network of fluid conduits during periods of
of carbonateor quartz. H20-rich fluids trapped within hydrofracturing, fluid flow and quartz precipitation.
veinsare low in CI' (e.g., Geddes,[1993])) as has been Fault-parallel fluid migration may be absent during
observed for fluids from the d6collement along modem periods of collapse and dissolution or when cracks are
margins [Kastner et al., 1991]. An importantsourceof sealed. Under these circumstances, fluid lenses move
H20-rich fluids with lower salinity than seawater is episodically along the web-like network as dilational
dehydration reactions involving hydrous minerals waves (e.g., Moore [1989]).
[Kastner et al., 1991]. In quartz veins from melange
zones on Kodiak Island (the Ghost Rocks, Kodiak and DISCUSSION: FLUID FLOW IN THE FOREARC OF
Uyak Formations), H20-rich and CH4-rich fluid DEPTHS OF <15 KM
inclusionsare presentas a consequence of simultaneous
trappingof two immisciblefluids [Vrolijk, 1987; Vrolijk From shallowto deeperlevels, fabric elementsin the
et al., 1988]. Under these circumstances, the forearc depict a fracture permeability that alternates
homogenizationtemperatureof H20-rich inclusionsis locally between dilatancy and collapse.Within a given
the trappingtemperature[Vrolijk et al., 1988]. Variation rock volume, the fault and fracture system can behave
in the density of CH4 inclusionsis attributed to cyclic as either a conduit or a barrier to fluid migration. This
fluctuationsin fluid pressureduring quartz precipitation paradox is due to the feedbacksbetween pore fluid
[Vrolijk, 1987]. The fluid inclusion analyses from pressure,hydraulic fracture, and fluid flow. Low grain
melanges on Kodiak Island indicate temperatures of scale permeability in forearcs, coupled with rapid
215ø-290ø and depths of 10 to 14 km during vein tectonicloadingand devolitization,leadsto a buildupof
formation [Vrolijk et al., 1988]. These conditions are fluid pressure. Thrust faults will not experience
warmer than would normally be expected in a forearc, simultaneous shear failure and tensile failure unless fluid
suggesting that warm fluids have percolated through pressureexceedslithostatic pressure[Sibson, 1983;
melangezones[Vrolijk et al., 1988]. Behrmann, 1991], so fluid pressurecan rise locally until
Quartz and carbonate veins are observed in both it equals t;3 + T (where T is the tensile strength)at
melange blocks and in the matrix but are thicker and which point hydraulicfracturingresultsin ruptureof the
more conspicuouswithin sandbeds or blocks. Within the material that separatesfluid-filled fractures. Crack
sands, veins are typically perpendicular to either the closureas a consequenceof collapseor sealingduring
long or intermediate axis of melange blocks and are draining of fluid subsequentlyreducesthe permeability
typically truncated at sand-shaleboundaries.The vein and fluid pressuremay again begin to rise. In this way,
margins are irregular at the grain scale and follow sand the fluctuations in fluid pressurein the forearc may be
grain boundarieswithout breaking grains within the wall buffered at near-lithostatic values [Platt, 1990]. In areas
rock [Byrne, 1984; Fisher and Byrne, 1987]. As in the of strike slip or normal faulting, the fluid pressuremay
case of veins from active margins, the veins from fluctuatearound a lower excessfluid pressure.
ancient melange zones display a "dirty" or cloudy Dilatancy and collapseeventswithin the fluid flow
appearance,with floating sand grains or chunks of wall network occur in a variety of ways, dependingon the
rock [Orangeet al., 1993;Byrne, 1984;Fisherand Byrne, sediment properties and the physical conditions
1987]. Blocky crystalswithin the veins reflect growthof associated with different locations within the forearc
crystals into open voids. Mud from the adjacentmatrix (Table 1). In general, there is a transition
 FISHER 85

o•

o
86 FABRICS AND VEINS IN THE FOREARC
particulate flow in soft sedimentsdeformedon the upper
slope or near the toe to diffusive mass transfer or
pressuresolutionwithin low porosityrocksin the interior
of the forearc. With increasing depth of burial, veins
vary from zonesof distributedgrain boundaryfailure to
cracks that follow grain boundariesand fill with dirty
carbonateto cracks that break acrossgrains and fill with
clean calcite or quartz (Table 1).
Near the toe, sediments that enter the accretionary
wedge undergorapid changesin material propertiesdue
to diffuse dewatering. There is an evolution arcward
from semipervasive ductile deformation to brittle
deformationas sedimentsare progressivelyconsolidated.
Observations of veins, scaly fabrics, and geochemical
anomaliesalong faults near the toe of the wedge suggest
that thrust faults can act as fluid conduits. Observed
differences between active convergent margins (e.g.,
Barbadosvs. Nankai) could be due to episodicfluid flow
as well as variations in plumbing between mud- and
sand-dominatedprisms.
Further arcward, the wedge interior consists of
strongly cemented, low grade metamorphic rocks with
very little porosity [Sample, 1990]. Consequently,much
of the fluid expelled from the downgoing slab may
migrate upward and laterally along the active
d6collement fracture network [Bebout, 1991] to be
ultimately vented at the toe of the prism. Locally, the
volume of fluid that passesthrough the wedge material
may be low, but local variation in fluid pressure
associated with local and regional permeability
variations influences the distribution of faults. Duplex
accretion and wedge deformation is accompanied by
local development of crack seal veins and laminated
veins that show evidence for precipitation during
episodesof dilatancy. Closure of cracks occursby both
sealing of gaps with quartz and collapse of fracture
space.
Deformation within the underthrustpile beneath the
toe of the wedge is largely accommodatedby localized
particulate flow and developmentof scaly fabric. Scaly
fabrics show evidence for collapse of the more open
grain network. Dilatancy and abnormalfluid pressuresin
these zones is inferred along the Barbadosmargin based
on logging-while-drillingresults[Moore et al., 1995], the
rare observationof dirty carbonateveins [Vrolijk and
Sheppard, 1991; Brown and Behrmann, 1990], and the
requirement that the scaly fault zone behave as a fluid
conduit capable of maintaining observed geochemical
and thermal anomalies [Brown et al., 1984]. Moreover,
thrust faults near the toe of many accretionaryprisms
have seismic reflections with reversed polarity that
cannot be explained solely by density inversion during
thrusting and must be related to fault-parallel dilatant
zones [Moore et al., 1995]. These reflections are
discontinuousand can vary laterally into normal polarity
reflections [Shipley et al., 1994). Episodic fluid flow
within and between fault-parallel zones of dilatancy may
occur parallel to the anastomosingfault-parallel network
of scaly folia.
At greater depths, collapse of scaly folia along the
d6collementcoincideswith dissolutionand development
of selvages. The pervasive veining and scaly fabric
developmentobservedin melangesexposedon land may
record a long-lived cyclical history of dilatancy and
collapse. Under these circumstances, the onset of
veining within melangesreflects in part a changein the
mechanism of crack collapse due to the onset of
pressuresolutionwithin the underthrusting sedimentpile.
Each of the forearc fluid flow regimes describedin
this paper differ in terms of the orientation, and
distribution of cracks as well as the mechanisms of
crack closure (collapse of the grain network vs. sealing
and dissolution), but in most cases, there is evidence
that fluid flow is episodic or in some examples,cyclic
(Table 1). There are two types of cyclic deformationand
fluid flow [Knipe et al., 1991]: (1) externally imposed
cyclicity where a deformation front migrates into the
volume of material under consideration and (2)
internally generated cyclicity where deformation and
fluid flow is driven by linkage of arrays as a
consequence of local increase in fluid pressures or
differential stress. Fluid flow may be characterized by
externally imposed cyclicity at the deformation front
where an underthrustturbidite section provides a source
of fluid and the seawardpropagationof the frontal thrust
causesepisodic migration of fluid sources[Wang et al.,
1990; Knipe et al., 1991]. Duplex accretionmay resultin
similar pulsesof fluid flow. In both casesthe frequency
of fluid expulsionevents is determinedby the frequency
of thrust events that produce seaward migration of the
deformation front or the leading branch line of the
duplex. Pulses of fluid could also be produced as a
consequenceof the narrow range of P-T conditions
associatedwith somedehydrationreactions[Moore and
Vrolijk, 1992]
Alternatively, the cycles of cracking and crack
closure recorded by fabrics from forearcs could be a
consequenceof periodic linkage of lluid open fractures
when local increasesin fluid pressureinduce hydraulic
fracture across impermeable material. Linkage may
occur over a variety of different scales,so the frequency
of fluid flow cycles may be controlled by a number of
variables that are presently enigmatic: the transient
distribution of open fractures, the rate at which excess
fluid pressuresdevelop within fracturearrays,the rate at
which a seal is reestablished through precipitation of
silica and carbonate, and perhaps most importantly, the
nature of the relationship between the seismic events
and fluid flow events.Are the asperitiesthat govern the
seismic cycle also barriers or valves that restrict fluid
flow? Some of these variables could be addressed from
long term monitoring of fluid flow, seismicity,and

distribution of fault-parallel dilatant zones along active
convergentmargins; others may be elucidated through
analysisof fracture systemsin exposedancientforearcs.
Acknowledgments.This work was funded by NSF grant
EAR-93-05101. I would also like to thank T. Byrne, J. Casey
Moore, and P. Vrolijk for helpful reviews and S. Brantley and
T. Engelder for useful discussions.Field work on Kodiak was
aidedby the U.S. CoastGuard and the Randali'sof SealBay.
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 Large Earthquakesin SubductionZones'
SegmentInteraction and RecurrenceTimes

Larry J. Ruff

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,Universityof Michigan,Ann Arbor, Michigan

Subductionzonesgeneratemostof the world'sseismicity,and all of the largestearthquakes.

This overviewof large earthquakesin subductionzonesconsistsof two parts:a review of the
occurrence of largeeventsin differenttectonicregimesof subduction zones,and the timing of
large interplateunderthrustevents.Our global review showsthat large earthquakeshave
occurredin all intra-plateenvironments from the outer-risedownto 650 km depth,exceptfor
the fore-arcregionof the upperplatein maturesubduction zones.It seemsthat the seismogenic
plate interfaceis an efficientconcentratorof seismicity,thoughlarge earthquakesdo occurjust
trenchwardand also downdipof the interplatecoupledzone. We focuson two aspectsof the
temporal occurrenceof interplateevents:a brief analysisof the compositeglobal occurrence
of great events, and then a brief review and analysis of the methodologyof long-term
earthquakeforecasting,followed by a suggestionto improve the methodology.Occurrence
timesof the greatest
interplate
eventsin the 20th centuryare clustered
morethanexpected
from randomoccurrence.However, a "waitingtime" analysisof the 40 great interplateevents
(M _>8) in the 20th centuryshowsthat their origin times are consistentwith a model of
independentrandomoccurrence.The key to earthquakeforecastingmethodologyis the accurate
determinationof recurrencetime for each plate boundarysegmentfor the currentearthquake
cycle. Observations of large earthquakeoccurrenceshowgreatvariabilityin rupturemodeand
recurrencetimes. Mechanicalmodelsthat includeinteractionbetweenadjacentplate boundary
segmentsproducesyntheticevent catalogswith variable rupture modes and recurrencetimes,
similar to observedearthquakesequences.One robust"rule" extractedfrom these simulationsis
that if the rupture mode changesfrom one great event to severalsmaller events,then the first
smaller event will occur in the epicentralsegmentof the great event with a recurrencetime that
is shorterthan the averagetime for that segment.This "rule" appearsto explain four examples
of sooner-than-expectedlarge earthquakes:the 1942 event in Ecuador; the 1986 event in
central Aleutians;the 1994 event in Sanriku,Japan;and the 1995 event in Kuriles Islands.

1. INTRODUCTION or inter-plateevents.Most largeearthquakes, andindeedall

the very largest ones, are interplate events.On the other
Most large earthquakesoccur in subductionzones. A hand, much of the geographic range and diversity of
globalview of seismicityshowstheselargeearthquakes are seismicity is removed if we just focus on the plate
distributedin depthfromthe surfacedownto sevenhundred boundaryearthquakes.In particular, the depthsof plate
kilometers, the geographicrange includes most of the interface events are less than 50 km, and their focal
world'ssubduction zones,andfocalmechanisms rangeover mechanismsare underthrustingon a fault with shallowdip
all types.To classifyall theselarge earthquakes, the key angle. Subduction zones still show great diversity as
discriminantis to separatethe eventsinto eitherintra-plate measuredby the size of their largestinterplateearthquakes.
The "great"interplateeventsare restrictedto a subsetof the
world's subduction zones, while "large" (Mw>7.5)
interplateeventsoccurmore widely. At the otherextreme,
Subduction:
Top to Bottom a few subductionzonesare devoidof even "large"events.
Geophysical
Monograph96 There is also considerablediversityin the temporalrecord
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union of large interplate earthquakes. Indeed, the temporal
91
92 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE TIMES
occurrenceof largeinterplateearthquakes
is oneof the most
importantunsolvedpuzzlesin seismology.
In this overview, we first consider the diversity of
tectonic environments of the large earthquakes in
subductionzones,but then quickly move to the restricted
environment of shallow plate interface events. We then
review the temporaland spatialoccurrenceof theseevents.
Next, we look at some of the basic observed features of
sequencesof large subductionevents. We then briefly
summarizethe "seismicgap hypothesis"and the various
ideas advancedto improve estimatesof large earthquake
recurrencetime. We end this overview by emphasizing
along-strikesegmentinteraction,and showinghow it may
help explain some of the variability in large earthquake
recurrence times.
2. OVERVIEW OF LARGE EARTHQUAKES IN
SUBDUCTION ZONES
There is no clear consensus on the definition of what is a
"large"earthquake.For the sakeof internalconsistency, I
shallrefer to earthquakes
with magnitudeof 7.5 or moreas
"large"; and I shall reserve the term "great" for those
earthquakeswith magnitudeof 8 or more. In detail, one
shouldalso define which magnitudescalewe use.Ideally,
we wouldlike to quotethe momentmagnitude,Mw, for all
earthquakes, but we mustusethe surface-wavemagnitude,
Ms,formanyevents
in thefirstpartof the20thcentury.
In somecases,Mw has been estimatedfrom the tsunami
waves, or aftershock area, or felt area. Of course, the
societalimpactor "significance"of an eventmaybe greater
thanits quantitativesize.An unfortunate recentexampleof
this is the Kobe,Japanearthquakeof Jan. 16, 1995, with a
Ms = 7, is more "significant"than the much larger event
that occurredoff Sanriku, Japanon Dec. 28, 1994, with
Ms = 7.8. Nonetheless,eventsconsideredin our overview
are strictlybasedon earthquakesize,not significance.
Figure 1 shows an idealized cross-sectionof the
compositesubductionzone, with the various"modesof
occurrence"of large earthquakesin subductionzones.It
attemptsto collapsethe greatdiversityof subduction zones
onto a single cross-section.Thus, while Figure 1 is all-
inclusive, it is important to emphasizethat no single
subductionzone has all the large earthquakeoccurrences
depictedthere.Figure2 showsthe geographic distribution
of the large and greatearthquakes in the varioustectonic
categories.Recall that the primaryclassificationof events
is interplateversusintraplate;there is only one place in
Figure 1 whereinterplateeventsoccur.We briefly discuss
intraplateeventsin the down-goingoceaniclithosphere,
shallowto deep, and then discussintraplateeventsin the
overlyingplate,andconcludewith interplateearthquakes.
2.1. lntraplate Seismicity
2.1.1. Outer-rise. Outer-riseearthquakesoccurwithin
the oceanicplate, with most epicentersin the vicinity of
the trenchaxis.A globalsurveyof outer-riseeventsshows
that the focal mechanisms of most events are normal
faulting with the tensionaxis perpendicularto the trench,
and the focal depthsare quite shallow;theseaspectsare
basically consistent with the bending lithosphere
interpretation[Chappleand Forsythe,1979]. However,an
alternativeinterpretationis that compressional outer-rise
eventsin "coupled"subductionzonesmay indicatehigh
stresslevels on the plate interfacejust prior to a large
interplateevent [Christensenand Ruff, 1988]. The largest
outer-rise events have tensional focal mechanisms,and tend
to occur in uncoupledsubductionzones,e.g. the 2 Mar
1933 Sanriku (Mw 8.4) and 19 Aug 1977 Sumbawa(Mw
8.3) events.Thereis still somedisagreementoverthedepth
extentof the largesttensionalandcompressional outer-rise
events[Lynnesand Lay, 1988; Tichelaaret al., 1992].
2.1.2. Beneaththe coupledplate interface. In "strongly
coupled"subductionzones(i.e., thosethat producegreat
interplateevents),thedown-goingoceaniclithosphere tends
to be aseismicbeneaththe interplatecontactzone. Even
detailedmicroearthquake surveysshowa paucityof events
in this region. Thus, the recent occurrenceof the great
earthquakeof Oct. 4, 1994 in the Kuriles(Mw 8.3) is quite
significant and puzzling. Although the waveform and
geodeticdata showconclusivelythat this eventis not an
interplateevent, the focal mechanismof the Oct. 4 event
has a large componentof dip-slip thrusting. Hence, as
discussedin Kikuchi and Kanamori [ 1995] and Tanioka et
al. [1995b], the Oct. 4 event forces us to the considerthe
possibilitythat someof the underthrust
interplateeventsin
the20thcentury
catalog
mightactually
be "Oct.4 type"
intraplateevents.
2.1.3. Wadati-Benioffseismicity Wadati-Benioff zone
seismicity presumably occurs within the subducting
oceanic lithosphere, though its explanation is still a
controversial matter. From the earliest catalogs of
Gutenbergand Richter [ 1952], therewas a clearminimum
in seismicityat a depthof about300 km. Somesubduction
zoneshavean evendeeperWadati-Benioffzonethatextends
to nearly 700 km. As deducedin lsackset al. [ 1968], the
Wadati-Benioff seismicityfrom the deepestedge of the
coupledinterfaceto 300 km depthis dominatedby down-
dip tension.Onemorerecentdiscoveryis the existence of a
doubleBenioff zonein somesubduction zonesin thedepth
 RUFF 93

ocean
Trench CoastlineVolcanic arc

Outer-rise
1O0_k
m•.• vert. exag. x 2'

Seismogenic Back-arc
Plate
thrusting
Interface
"Oct 4, 94"
Oceanic type 1 O0 km
Lithos

Wadati-Benioff
Intermediate depth
(optional double zone)

150 km

Wadati-Benioff 600 km

Deep depth
Fig. 1. Subductionzone cross-section
with seismicityzonesplotted as the variousshadedregions.All zonesare
intra-plateseismicity,exceptfor the seismogenicplate interface(bold bar). All thezonesplottedhavehadat
least one large (M_>7.5)earthquakesomewherein the world. On the other hand, no individual subductionzone has
had large earthquakesin all the possiblezones.

rangeof 50 to 200 km. While the faultingdepthrangefor
some of the largest intermediate-depthevents is still a
contentiousissue,they seemto be in the range of 50 to
100 km. The largestdocumented intermediate-depth event
is the 4 Nov 1963 Banda Sea event with Mw of 8.3 [Welc
and Lay, 1987].
In several subductionzones, the seismicity increases
from the minimum at a depthof 300 km to a peak at about
600 km, and then rapidly declines. A variety of
explanationshave been offered for this behavior,from the
sinking slab and variable viscosity [Isacks et al., 1968,
Vassiliouand Hager, 1988] to delayedphasechanges(see
papersin this volume).The largestdeepearthquakes tendto
occur at the same depth of the global seismicitypeak,
about 570 to 650 km. Focal mechanismsof theselarge
deepeventscouldbe characterized asverticaldip-slip(with
many exceptions),thoughthe interpretationis not always
clear.In particular,detailedstudiesof the great9 Jun 1994
Boliviadeepevent(Mw 8.2) showthatthehorizontalnodal
planeis the fault plane(seepapersin thisvolume).
2.1.4. OverlyingPlate. The generallevel of seismicity
is lessin the overlyingplate as comparedto the Wadati-
Benioffzone,andhencetherearefewerlargeeventsaswell.
The tectonicenvironmentis splitinto the fore-arc(between
trenchandvolcanicarc,wherepresent)andback-am(behind
the volcanicarc). The volcanicarc itself is characterizedby
numeroussmallearthquakesassociated with the volcanoes,
and arc-parallel strike-slip faults in a few cases (e.g.,
Sumatra).
In general, active accretionary prisms are devoid of
seismicity [see Byrne et al., 1988], thus the potential for
earthquakes startsbehindthe "backstop" of the accretionary
prism. Given the presumed high stress levels, it is
somewhatsurprisingto realize that thereare few examples
of large intraplate events in the fore-arc region. Thus, it
seems that interplate events efficiently concentratethe
seismicstrain releaseonto the plate interface.A possible
exception to this rule is the North Island, New Zealand
subductionzone, where several large earthquakeswith
unknown focal mechanism have occurred in the forearc
[Smith et al., 1989].
Some subduction zones show evidence of active
compressionin the back-arc area. In a few places, large
thrust earthquakeshave occurred in the back-arc (for
example, the back-arcs of Honshu, Mindanao, and
Indonesia).Back-arcthrusteventstend to occurjust at the
94 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE
ß Great Interplate
/• Outer Rise
• SlabIntermediate
0 Slab Deep
[] OverlyingPlate
Fig. 2. Epicenter map of global occurrenceof large and great
earthquakesassociatedwith subductionzones. Closed circles
are the 40 great (M>_8) interplate events from 1900 to 1995.
Intraplate seismicity in various subductionzone settingsare
plotted with different open symbols.
back-arccoastline,thusthey can be quite hazardousdue to
shaking and tsunami generation. This tectonic setting
becomes difficult to characterize if we allow
possibilityof subductioninitiation alongtheseboundaries.
This allowance is particularly important for the Sea of
Japan margin of Honshu, where a nearly continuous
rupturing
of thismarginhasnowoccurred
in the20th
century,andthusappearsto be a newly formingsubduction
zone [e.g., Seno, 1985; Tanioka et al., 1995a]. Thus, our
last categoryof intraplateseismicitycrossesthe boundary
into interplateseismicity.
2.2. Interplate Seismicity
Interplateseismicityis rather simpleas comparedto the
tectonicdiversity encounteredwith intraplateseismicity.
Largeinterplateeventsoccuron the seismogenic portionof
the plate interface,whichhasa shallowdip of between10ø
to 30ø, and the down-dipedgeis at a depthof about40 km
for most subductionzones;it may go as deepas 55 km in
a few places,and be as shallowas 20 km in placessuchas
Mexico or Cascadia[Hyndmanand Wang,1993]. Tichelaar
and Ruff[ 1993] presenta globalreviewof the seismogenic
depth(alsoseea relatedpaperby Ruffand Tichelaarin this
volume). Coseismicslip may extendup to the trenchaxis
during great events, but subsidiaryfaults in the shallow
fore-arcmay accommodatesomeof the slip. The sizeof the
greatestinterplateeventsis morerelatedto the along-strike
rupture length rather than to the down-dip rupturewidth
[Ruff, 1989]. The main focus of this paper is on the
TIMES
temporal occurrenceof large interplate events. We first
discusstemporal occurrenceand then briefly look at the
globalspatialoccurrence,beforeturningto somedetailsof
largeearthquakerecurrence
models.
3. GLOBAL TEMPORAL OCCURRENCE OF
LARGE INTERPLATE EARTHQUAKES
Theverylargest
earthquakes
in the20thcentury
have
beenidentified[e.g., Kanamori, 1983;Nishenko,1991;and
Pacheco and Sykes, 1992]. Specialized catalogs for
particulartectonicregimescan be found in, for example,
Dmowska and Lovison [1988] and Christensenand Ruff
[1988]. These lists include all events above some
magnitudethreshold,mostlythe moment,surface-wave,or
tsunamimagnitude(Mw, Ms, andMt, respectively).Ruff
[1989] compiled a catalog of the nineteen largest
underthrustsubductionevents, with Mw > 8.2, from the
above lists. The catalog of Pacheco and Sykes [1992]
attemptsto be globally completedown to a magnitudeof
low 7's, and they try to identify focal mechanismtype;
unfortunately,the mechanismsof mostof the large events
in the first half of the century are "unknown". As a
for the
compromise, I have tried to extend the list of great
interplatesubductioneventsdown to a magnitudeof 8.0 by
simply assuming an underthrustmechanismfor those
events with a suitable location and tectonic environment
(Table 1). As discussedin much more detail in Nishenko
[ 1991], thereare many uncertaintiesin suchidentifications
for someregions,suchas in the Samoaand Tongaregion.
Thus, I may have excludedmany eventswith Ms of 8 in
theearly20th centurythatmaybe underthrust
events.
Nonetheless,in loweringthe magnitudethresholdfrom 8.2
to 8.0, the number of events increases from 19 to 40.
Table 1 shouldbe completefrom the 1950'sto present.
3.1. Global TemporalVariation
Onewell-known
feature
of 20thcentury
seismicity
isthe
temporalclusterof largesteventsin the 1950'sand 1960's.
Most of the Alaska-AleutianthroughKamchatkato Kuriles
subductionzonesrupturedin the time interval from 1952
to 1969. These observations are commonly cited as
evidence for earthquake clustering or triggering. For
example,Kanamori [ 1983] comments:"It is clearthat the
global seismic activity is very non-uniformin time, at
least at a time scale of 100 years or so". Since a random
processcan produce clustering, we apply two simple
quantitativeteststo theobservedearthquake sequence.One
key differencebetweenthedatain Kanamori[ 1983]andthat
in Table 1 is the demotionof the 1957 Aleutianearthquake
 RUFF 95

TABLE 1. The "Great"(M"•_8)InterplateThrustEarthquakes

in that threeeventsoccurrandomlyover the 95 year interval
the20thCentury(through
1995). from 1900 to 1995, then you would expect them to be
clustered
withina 1•2yearinterval
in about5%of the
randomtrials. Twentiethcenturyinterplateseismicityalso
Date(1900+) Location depth* Mag^
Yr Mo Dy Lat Lon Region (Mw) containsthreeintervalsof 15 yearsor more with no great
earthquakes(M_>8.2)' August 1906 to November 1922;
February 1923 to November 1938; and from December
04 06 25 5 2. 15 9. Kamchatka sh 8.0 s
1979 to present(note that the Oct. 4, 1994 eventhasa M w
06 01 31 1.0 -81.3 Colombia sh 8.8
of 8.2, but it is not an interplateevent).What are the odds
06 08 17 5 1. 179. Aleutian sh 8.2 s
06 08 17 -33.0 -72.0 Chile sh 8.2 of this happeningfor a randomprocess?To answerthis
15 05 01 47. 155. Kuriles sh 8.0 s question, we must analyze the expecteddistributionof
18 09 07 45.5 151.5 Kuriles sh 8.2 s "waiting times" between events. It is well-known that a
19 04 30 -19. - 172.5 Tonga sh 8.2 s random Poisson point processproduceswaiting times
22 11 11 -28.5 -70.0 Chile sh 8.5
between events that follow the exponentialdistribution.
23 02 03 5 4.0 161.0 Kamchatka sh 8.5
24 04 14 6.5 126.5 Mindanao sh 8.3 s Giventhe occurrence of 19 great(M_>'8.2)
interplateevents
32 06 03 19.5 -104.3 Mexico sh 8.1s over a 95 year time span, the cumulative exponential
34 07 18 -11.8 166.5 Santa Cruz Is sh 8.1s distributionpredictsthat the longest"waitingtime" would
38 11 10 55.5 -158. Alaska sh 8.2 be between14 and 15 years,on average.But of course,any
39 01 30 -6.5 155.5 Solomon Is sh 8.0 s
single trial can violate this average due to the small
39 04 30 -10.5 158.5 Solomon Is sh 8.2 s
40 05 24 -11.2 -77.8 Peru sh 8.2 number of events. If we perform many random
42 08 24 -14.5 -74.8 Peru sh 8.2 simulations,we fir•d that the three longest"waitingtimes"
43 04 06 -31.0 -71.3 Chile sh 8.2 canall b,eexcessof 15 yearsin about2% of the trials.In
44 07 12 33.8 136. Honshu sh 8.1 otherwords,if the globalgreatearthquakecatalogcouldbe
46 12 20 3 2.5 134.5 Honshu sh 8.1
extended back for 5,000 years and about twenty events
52 03 04 42.5 143. Hokkaido sh 8.1
52 11 04 5 2.8 160. Kamchatka sh 9.0 occurrandomly in each century,then we would expectto
57 03 09 51.6 - 175. Aleutians 30 8.6 seetheclustering
observed
in the20thcentury
foroneor
58 11 06 44.4 148.6 Kuriles sh 8.3 two of the 50 centuries.Thus, the largestinterplateevents
59 05 04 53.2 159.8 Kamchatka sh 8.2 of the20th century
are"unusually"
clustered
in thesense
60 05 22 -38.2 -73.5 Chile 40 9.5
that only a few percentof randomtrials would producethe
63 10 13 44.9 149.6 Kuriles 35 8.5
64 03 28 61.1 - 148. Alaska 35 9.2 12-year-clusterof the threelargesteventsandthe threelong
65 02 04 51.3 178.6 Aleutians 35 88 quiet periods. On the other hand, one can still argue that
66 10 17 -10.7 -78.6 Peru sh 81 the20thcentury
happens
tobeoneofthose
rarecenturies.
68 05 16 40.9 143.4 Honshu 35 82 The numberof interplateeventsis doubledby decreasing
69 08 11 43.6 147.2 Kuriles 35 82
the magnitudethresholdfrom 8.2 to 8.0. The three 15-year-
71 07 14 -5.5 153.9 Solomon Is sh 8.0
71 07 26 -4.9 153.2 Solomon Is sh 81 long blank intervalsdiscussedaboveare subdividedby the
74 1003 -12.2 -77.6 Peru 30 81
addition of these smaller events. There are three intervals
76 01 14 -29.5 -178. Kermadec 30 8.1s with durationmore than 8 years,including 1986 to 1995.
79 12 12 1.6 -79.4 Colombia sh 8.2 However, simulations show that three intervals of such
85 03 03 -33.1 -71.9 Chile 30 8.0
duration are "expected" for a random process. Thus,
85 09 19 18.1 - 103. Mexico 30 8.1 s
86 05 07 51.3 - 175. Aleutian 30 8.0 lowering the magnitude thresholdquickly obscuresthe
improbably long quiet periods seen for the very largest
General referencesare: Kanamori, 1983; Pacheco and Sykes, earthquakes.
1992; and Nishenko, 1991. 3.1.1. "Wait times"of theforty great events. To further
* "sh" means shallow depth, probably less than 70 km, likely analyzethe temporaloccurrenceof eventsin Table 1, we
to be less than 40 km.
consider the full spectrumof "wait times". The times
^ Magnitudeis M w, unlessfollowedby s, thenM s.
between successiveevents (the "wait" times) are ordered
from the shortestto longesttime. I then "integrate"this
from M w of 9.1 to 8.6 [Johnsonet al., 1994]. Even so, distributionfrom the longesttime down to zero time to
the interval from 1952 to 1964 containsthe three largest obtain the cumulative number of wait times versus wait
earthquakes
of the20th century.
Whataretheoddsof this time. We can see that the observed cumulative wait times
If one supposes conformrathercloselyto the theoreticalcurvefor random
happeningfor a randomPoissonprocess?
96 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE TIMES
occurrence (Figure3). The threewait timesof 8 yearsor
more are consistentwith the theoreticalexpectations,as
discussed above.Figure3 illustrates
yetanotherexample of
a randomPoisson processthatproduces apparent
clustering
of events.While the averagewait timeis 2.3 years,about
half of thewait timesarelessthan1.5years,andtenof the
wait times are about 6 months or less. In conclusion,
while the clusteringof the greatestearthquakes in the
1950's and 1960's is unlikely to occur by random
occurrence,the catalog of large subductionevents of
magnitude8.0 or larger(Table 1) doesconformto a model
of random occurrence.
3.2. Spatial Clustering
Spatialclusteringof seismicityis readily provenby
examination of globalseismicity
maps(seeFig. 2). Large
interplateeventsare not evenlydistributedamongstthe
world'ssubductionzones[Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979];
they are concentratedin the subductionzones of South
America,Alaska-Aleutian,
andKamchatka-Kuriles-Japan.distribution,(dashedline) a relation that fits the data well.
In contrast, the numerous subduction zones in the
southwestern
Pacificlackgreatinterplate
earthquakes.
Ruff
and Kanamori [1980] offered a tectonic basis for these
observations,and this subjecthas receivedconsiderable
work and speculationsincethen. We can summarizethese
resultsby statingthatlargergreatearthquakesarecorrelated
with thefastsubduction of youngoceaniclithosphere, but
a clearphysicalexplanationstill eludesus [seediscussion
in Ruff, 1989; and Scholz, 1990].
4. RECURRENCE TIMES
While considerationof global "wait times"is of some
intellectual interest, the question of great practical
importance is: Whenwill thenextlargeearthquake occur
here?This final topic of our overviewbringsus into the
realmof recurrence times,theseismicgaphypothesis, and
long-term earthquakeforecasting.This topic must be
approached with careandskepticism, yet it is alwaysone
of the mostimportantaspectsof any scientificdiscussion
of subductionzone seismicity.Here, I shall offer one
perspectiveontheestimation of largeearthquake recurrence
times, with the suggestionthat along-strikesegment
interactionexplainssomeof the variabilityin observed
recurrence times.
4.1. Overview
ofLong-term
Earthquake
Forecasting
Plate tectonicsprovides the underlying kinematic
framework for thesuccession
of ideasfromtheseismic
gap
Wait times for the 40 great interplate events
m 42 •
.E_ 36 •observed
wait times
t/2.32)1
'• 30
o •4
• 18
2 4 6 8
Sorted Wait Times (Yr)
Fig. 3. Cumulative distributionof "wait times" betweenthe 40
great interplate events in Table 1. Observed wait times are
sortedandthe numbersare accumulated from the largestinter-
eventtime down to zero time. Independentrandomoccurrence
of events produces wait times with an exponential
hypothesis[Fedotov,1965;Mogi, 1968;Kelleheret al.,
1973]to themostrecentversionsof long-termearthquake
forecasting [Nishenko,1991].The basicideais thatlarge
earthquakes occuragainandagainalongthe sameplate
boundary segment with approximately thesameco-seismic
slip andrecurrence time. Steadyplatemotionsprovidea
constantrate of stressincreaseon a lockedplateinterface
segment,and the assumptionof constantplate interface
properties and segmentationthen results in regular
earthquake behavior.From an observational perspective,
onemerelyneedsto find theplateboundarysegments that
ruptureas largeeventsandthe averagerecurrencetime for
eachsegment,then onecanforecastthe time andsizeof the
nextlargeearthquake. If youcannotdetermine theaverage
recurrencetime for that segment,then use an average
recurrencetime from somewhere else,or possiblycalculate
the recurrencetime basedon the time-predictable model
(describedin section4.2). Thismethodology is remarkably
simple,andit wasremarkablysuccessful with a stringof
fulfilled forecastsin the 1970'sdecade[seeMcCann et al.,
1979]. Detailed studiesshowedthat there were many
violationsof the aboveassumptions, as discussed
below.
Nonetheless, it was difficult to arguewith the "short-term"
successes of long-termforecasting in the 1970's.
McCann et al. [1979] publisheda map that summarized
their long-termforecastsfor mostof the world'ssubduction
zones. In their color scheme,red regions were those
segments wheregreatearthquakes areexpectedsoon,green

regions should be safe for many decades.Kagan and
Jackson [1991] have caused considerable debate and
controversy with their statistical test of the forecast
performanceof the McCann et al. map over the 1980's
decade.They concludethattheMcCann et al. forecastshave
performedrather poorly: large events occurredin green
zones, and did not occur in red zones. The main criticism of
the Kagan and Jacksontest is that therewere only two or
three"characteristically
large"earthquakes in the decadeof
the 1980's,thus any statisticaltest is either premature,or
if a statistical test uses the smaller events in subduction
zones,then it is not a propertest of long-termforecasting
[seeNishenkoand Sykes,1993]. At this point, I shall not
considerthis issue any further, but note that everyone
involvedagreesthat the societalimplicationsof long-term
earthquakeforecastingrequireclosescrutinyandtestingof
any methodology,andthatwe shouldstriveto improvethe
methodology.
This overviewis focusedonjust the largestearthquakes,
hence I shall consider only the six largest subduction
earthquakes that occurredsince1979. The 1980 SantaCruz
Is. earthquakerepresents the worsetype of failure of long-
term forecasting:the characteristiclargeeventoccurringin
a "safe" region (i.e. a green zone in the McCann et al.
map). The 1985 Chile earthquakerepresentsa successfor
long-term forecasting[Nishenko, 1985], as doesthe 1985
Michoacan earthquake.The 1986 Aleutian earthquake
represents anotherfailure for long-termforecastingin that
it occurredin a greenzone. On the otherhand,oncecould
arguethat the 1986 eventis not a "characteristicallylarge"
earthquakein thisregionsincethe precedingeventwas the
great 1957 Aleutian earthquake.Most recently,the 3 Dec
1995 Kurileseventre-rupturedthe epicentralasperityof the
1963 greatKurilesearthquake,a greenzonein theMcCann
et al. map. To conclude,threeof the six largestsubduction
events since 1979 occurred in segmentsthat had great
earthquakesjust 15 to 32 years before the most recent
events.Can we understandthis extremevariationin great
earthquake recurrence times?
4.2. Time/SlipPredictableModel
The time-predictable and slip-predictable models
[Shimazakiand Nakata, 1980] were devisedto provide a
deterministic,yet ad hoc, explanationfor variability in
recurrence times. These two models are the end-member
cases of a class of models that relate variations in
recurrence times to variations in seismic slip. For
reference,Figure 4a showshow a hypothetical"uniform"
seismic segment might rupture through time: the
earthquake
occurswhena constant
failurestressis achieved,
RUFF 97
(a) Uniform (b) Time-pred. (c) Slip-pred.
stress stress stress
(Jfail
,h,
E3 Ofina
time time time
Fig. 4. Idealized time histories of earthquakesequencesfor a
single fault segment. Diagrams show stress as a function of
time, occurrenceof earthquakesis denotedby solid triangles.It
is assumedthat stressincreasesat a steady rate for all three
models. For the uniform model (a), both the failure and final
stresslevels are constant(dashedlines). This model producesa
sequence of identical earthquakeswith constant recurrence
times. The time-predictable(b) and slip-predictable(c) models
both produce the same earthquake sequencesin terms of
recurrence times. The time-predictable model states that the
failure stressis constant,but the final stressvaries. The slip-
predictable model states that the final stressis constant,but
the failure stress varies.
and the stressdrop is constantso that the final stressis
uniform. With a constant stress accumulation rate, the
"ideal"earthquake behaviorwouldbe a sequence of identical
earthquakes with a constant recurrence time. But,
earthquakesdo not behavethis way. Figure 4(b,c) showsa
hypothetical sequence of three earthquakes, the two
recurrencetimes are different. The time/slip-predictable
model offers two end-memberexplanationsfor variable
recurrencetime: (i) the failure stressis always the same,
but the final stress can be different (due to unknown
factors),(ii) the failure stresscan vary, but the final stress
is always the same. It is possible to test which end-
member model is preferred if we know the stress-drop
associatedwith each earthquake.Due to severaltechnical
problemsin obtainingthe stress-drop,it is commonto use
co-seismicslip as a proxy for the stress-drop of a segment.
Even with this simplification,it is difficult to obtain slip
estimatesfor olderearthquakes. Severalworkershavetried
to analyze sequencesof earthquakesand slip estimatesto
decidewhetherthe slip-predictable or time-predictable cases
are preferred.Perhapsthe bestcaseis the sequenceof three
earthquakes thatoccurredin a segmentof theNankaitrough
region,Shimazakiand Nakata [1980] usedmeasurements of
coastlineuplift as a proxy for the displacementson the
fault plane and found a slight preference for the time-
predictablemodel. Overall, there is not enoughstatistical
evidenceto globallyprefereitherend-member
model;
earthquakesequencesare too irregular [see Sykes and
Quittmeyer, 1981; Nishenko, 1985].
98 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE TIMES
4.2.1. Beyondthe Time/Slippredictablemodel. At this
point, one can eitherprobethe plate interfacepropertiesto
follow a deterministicapproachto the scatterin recurrence
times, or follow a statistical approach.In a key paper,
Nishenko and Buland [1987] argue that recurrencetimes
aroundthe world all follow a single "generic"log-normal
distribution.In particular,the global scatterin recurrence
times is about 20% of the averagerecurrencetime. This
statistical approachallows Nishenko [1991] to estimate
when the next large earthquakewill occur,plus and minus
a certainnumberof years,for fault segmentswherethereis
only one observedrecurrencetime. Where there is no
observed recurrence time, Nishenko [1991] assumesthe
time-predictablemodel to get a recurrencetime, with the
uncertaintyagainprovidedby the genericdistribution.In
thismanner,Nishenko[ 1991] hasprovidedrecurrencetime
estimatesfor a total of 96 segmentsaroundthe world.How
can we do betterwith a deterministicapproach?I showin
a later sectionthat a simplemodel of segmentinteraction
can explain irregular earthquakesequences.But first, the
next section reviews some of the above-discussed observed
featuresof greatearthquake
occurrence.
4.3. SomeAdditionalCharacteristics
of Large Interplate
EarthquakeOccurrence
Great earthquakes rupture the full width of the
seismogenic zone, the along-strike rupture length and
averageslip are the key determinantsof overall seismic
moment. In short, greaterearthquakesresult from greater
along-strikerupture length. Hence, much of the effort in
characterizinggreatearthquakeoccurrence hasbeenfocused
on the two parameters:(i) along-strikerupturelength,and
(ii) recurrencetime betweengreatearthquakes.Aftershock
areascan be usedto estimaterupturelengthfor mostof the
greattwentieth-centuryinterplateearthquakes.The along-
strikerupturelengthcanbe estimatedfor olderearthquakes
by examinationof intensitymaps.The recurrenceof great
earthquakesover time spansof a few hundredyears has
been establishedin several subductionzones throughthe
studyof historicaldocuments.Perhapsthe bestexampleof
well-documentedgreatearthquakeoccurrenceover several
hundredyearsis for the Nankai subductionzone alongthe
coastof southernHonshu, Japan[e.g. Utsu, 1974; Ando,
1975; lshibashi, 1981]; severalinvestigatorsfoundthat the
Nankai subduction zone could be divided into four or five
seismicsegments,though it can also be characterizedas
just two primary segments(i.e., the rupture zones of the
great 1944 and 1946 earthquakes).In detail, these two
primary segments tend to rupture as "doublets"
[Nomanbhoyand Ruff, 1996]; in additionto the 1944-1946
doublet, the previous earthquake cycle consistedtwo
earthquakesseparatedby only 32 hours in 1854. Two
important facts emerge from studies of earthquake
occurrencealong the Nankai and other subductionzones:
(1) the recurrencetime for any one seismic segmentis
variable,and (2) the rupturelengthsof largeearthquakes is
variable, i.e. adjacent seismic segmentswill sometimes
rupture as individual earthquakes,other times a larger
"multiple-event" earthquake will rupture two or more
adjacent segments [see e.g., Thatcher, 1990, for more
discussion].Much researcheffort has beenspenttrying to
understandthe causeof observations(1) and (2). Relatedto
thesetwo observations, seismicslip can alsovary between
successive earthquakes in a subductionzonesegment;stress
drop may or may not vary in accordance with slip
variations. Thus, any detailed considerationof observed
earthquakesequences showsmany violationsof the simple
assumptionslisted in section4.1 that form the basis for
the simplemethodsof long-termforecasting.Indeed,some
observersconcludethat variability may be more typical
thanregularityin earthquakesequences[Thatcher,1990].
To improve our earthquakeforecastingmethodology,we
must move beyond the simplest models of earthquake
occurrence.
5. MODELS FOR LARGE EARTHQUAKE
RECURRENCE
The simplest physical model for large earthquake
recurrence employs one frictional slider block with a
simplefrictional failure criterion. The sketchin Figure 5
implies a geometryfor shallow underthrusting eventsin
subductionzones. This simple model assumesthat: plate
motionis steady,earthquakes occurwhenthe stressreaches
Ofail, and stressdropsto Offnaband thatthesestresslevels
are nearly constantover several earthquakecycles. The
prediction of the model for isolated frictional sliders is
obvious: uniform earthquakesoccurring with constant
recurrence times.
If we now extend the model to accommodateadjacent
segmentsalong the plate boundary,we see that it is still
the same idea (Fig. 5b). By showing two independent
slidersside-by-side,we simplyallow for the fact thateach
plate boundarysegmentmight have a differentrecurrence
interval, though they are still constant within each
segment.This model assumesthat major plate boundary
segmentsremain constant,at least over a few earthquake
cycles.The model in Fig. 5b may seemabsurdlysimple,
but it is the underlyingmechanicalmodelfor two decades
of work in long-term earthquake forecasting.What is
wrong with the mechanicalmodel of Figure 5b? From the
 RUFF 99

Simple Mechanical Models for Large-Earthquake Recurrence Times 5.1. SimplestModel with SegmentInteraction

plate (stress, The simplestmechanicalmodel with segmentinteraction

or X)
inal
consistsof two adjacentfrictional sliderblocksconnected
by springsto the upperplate;the blocksare alsoconnected
T recur t i me to eachotherby a "leaf" spring(Fig. 5c). The basiceffect
of this addition is that slip in one segmentincreasesthe
model:
single
frictional
slider,
constant
failure
&final
stress
I
consequence:uniform earthquakes and recurrencetimes (Trecur).
averagedstresslevel in the adjacentsegment.If the stress
(b)
(stress,
'•r ............
•,• ofail increaseplacesthe adjacentsegmentaboveits failurestress,
then we would obtaina "doubleevent",wherethe rupture
._ [. _i
_n.• of one segmenttriggersthe ruptureof an adjacentsegment
on a time scale of seconds to a minute. Thus, this direct

upper
oTi._.__.____••i
Rime
plate (stress, øfai
or X) couplingdramaticallyenhancesthe likelihoodof variable
"rupturemode", i.e. the occurrenceof double eventsin
• time
T recur some earthquakecycles.Even if a doubleevent doesnot
occur,thereare still importanteffectsdueto the coupling.
Imodeh
adjacent
independent
sliders,
constant
fail
&final
(•w/in
each
segment
I
consequence:uniform recurrencetimes for each segment, rare double events.
Figure5c alsoshowsan idealizedearthquakesequence. Just
(c) _Coupling spring provides elastic interaction between
• adjacent segments Tr < Trforindepend. sliders as for the previous models, plate motion accumulates
/ -, o 4.........
•:::• ........ linearly, andthereis a constant(Sfail and(Sfinal.However,
(• ITMstressl I '_•-';'-½•"5 == øfall now there is an extra stressincreasedue to slip in the
•.._\\ • Itransferred I F: neighboring segment. The figure shows a certain
•• • Itoneighbor I -•• .....1-'•"-;':::"--;
• •••1)• upper o T-/W• ...... -;--•-.-• .......... percentageof the stressdrop transferredto the adjacent
segment,and this will causethat segmentto fail sooner
that it would without the interaction (see the dashedlines
-'-•.... • • • "•.......
time in the figure).Of course,allowanceof thisinteractiontends
Trl Tr2
model: adjacent sliders that interact, otherwise same as above to reducethe averagerecurrencetime for both segments.
consequences:variable recurrence times within each segment,
& double events are more probable.
Nonetheless,failure in adjacent plate boundarysegments
does influence the recurrence time. The size of this

Fig. 5. Simple mechanical models used to simulate and
forecastearthquakesequences.Each plate boundarysegment
can ruptureas a large earthquake,andis viewed as a sliderblock
in frictional contact with a subductingplate "conveyerbelt".
The sliders remain stuck to the moving "conveyerbelt" until
the increasingelastic strain causesthe plate interface stressto
reach •fail. An earthquakethen occurs,with the stressfalling
to •Sfinal.Trecur is the recurrencetime, and X is the positionof
the slider with respect to the upper plate. (a) An isolated
segment.(b) Two adjacent segments,but without interaction.
(c) Adjacent plate boundary segmentsthat interact via the
couplingspring. The relative stiffnessof the couplingspring
dependson the geometry. In (c), the occurrenceof a large
earthquakeon one segmenttransferssomeof its stressdrop to
adjacent segments,thereby affecting their recurrence times.
For example, the two recurrencetimes for the lower segment,
Trl and Tr2, are different. A double event is shown by the
hachured bar.
observational viewpoint, it does not satisfy the
observations of variablerupturemodeandrecurrencetime.
From the mechanical viewpoint, this simplest model
ignoresthe fact that slip in adjacentfault segmentswill
increasethe stresslevel abovethat from tectonicloading.
influencedependson the strengthof segment-to-segment
coupling comparedto segment-to-upper plate coupling.
Ruff [1992] investigatedthe simpletwo-blocksystemof
Fig. 5c, wherethe blocksrepresented large asperitiesthat
definethelarge-scale segmentation
of theplateboundary. It
is possibleto determinemanyof the systemparameters for
manysubduction segments aroundthe world.As discussed
in Ruff [1992], this segment-to-segmentcoupling can
cause10% to 80% of the staticstressdrop in one segment
to be transferred to its neighbors. With such strong
coupling,the net effects cannotbe viewed as a minor
perturbationto the independentsliders.It is necessary to
run many numericalsimulationsto fully characterizethe
behavior.We have donethat, and we showFigure 6 as one
examplethat displaysmany of the generalfeatures.This
figure showsthe displacementof segments1 and 2 as a
function of time. When there is a double event, a solid line
is drawn throughboth upper and lower parts, with the
arrow indicating the direction of rupture triggering.
Numbers give the recurrencetime betweenevents(e.g.,
you couldmultiply all thesenumbersby 100 to think of
themas years).Finally, the horizontaldashedlinesshould
go throughthe top/bottomcornersof the displacement
100 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE TIMES
Time- I This rapid healingrupturemode resultsin earthquake
= i ,,,dl
ß ?--Pred.
ß•" -•
..................
:;.....
Tfme....• ,.•.
o
]
......
......................
......•
I'5'•.....•S]lp
Pre•l.•
o 1 2 3
Fig. 6. A syntheticearthquakesequence producedfor the model
of Figure 5c, with realisticsystemparameters.X1 andX2 track
the displacementfor each segment,as a function of time, T.
X1 andX2 are normalizedby maximum displacement,T is
normalized by maximum recurrencetime. The numbersat each
event are the recurrence times between events, double events
are shown by the through-goingvertical line, arrow points
toward the triggeredsegment.Dashedlines labeled "Time-pred
?" and "Slip-pred" show that this synthetic earthquake
sequenceis too irregular to be adequatelyexplainedby either
the slip- or time-predictablemodels.
historiesif the time/slip-predictable
modelwerecorrect.We
seethat this syntheticearthquakesequenceis too irregular
to be explainedby the time- or slip-predictable
models,just
as observed earthquake sequencesare too irregular.
Althoughthe model of Fig. 5c is the simplestmechanical
model with segmentinteraction, it producessynthetic
earthquake sequences thatresembleobserved sequences.
The discreteelementmodelof Figure5c cannotproperly
model the detailed three-dimensional elastic interactions of
a real subductionzone boundary[see, e.g., Rundle and
Kanamori, 1987;Stuart, 1988]. However,oneadvantageof
the simplediscreteelementmodelis that we can produce
earthquakesequences for all regionsof parameterspace.
One key modeling result is that the assumptionabout
multiple-eventfailure modeis crucial.Two extremefailure
modesarethe zerofinal stressassumption, andtheconstant
co-seismicslip assumption[seeRuff, 1992, for details].
The zero final stressassumptionresetsthe stresslevelsto
zero for all segments that fail. This simplifying
assumptionproducesthe simplest possibleearthquake
sequences,and thus allows the overall systembehaviorto
be easily analyzed [e.g., as in Lomnitz-Adlerand Perez-
Pascual, 1989]. The alternative failure mode is that a
segment "heals" during a multi-segmentrupture [e.g.,
Huang and Turcotte, 1992]. Since a segmentis "stuck
again" while slip occurs elsewhere along the plate
boundary,thenpreviouslyrupturedsegments have a non-
zero stressat the conclusionof the multi-segmentrupture.
sequences thatshowmorevariabilitythanfor thezerofinal
stressrupture mode. Our simulationsadopt the rapid
healing rupture mode for multi-segmentfailures. The
resultsdiscussedbelowarefairly robustwith respectto all
otherparameterchoices.
We do notbelievethatanyparticularsynthetic earthquake
sequence(as that in Fig. 6) can be interpretedliterallyas
particular earthquakesequencesfor subductionzones.
Instead,we seekto find somegeneralrulesthatapplyto all
suchsyntheticearthquakesequences. While Ruff [1992]
focused on quantitative statisticalsummariesbasedon
thousandsof syntheticearthquakesequences,here we
extract some robust qualitative behaviorsfor successive
earthquakes.Herearesomeof thegeneralbehaviors:
(la) If the previous cycle was a multiple-segment
rupture,thenthe next earthquakewill occurin the segment
thatcontainstheepicenter(locationof ruptureinitiation)of
thepreviousmulti-segment rupture.
(lb) The recurrencetime to the next earthquakein the
abovescenariowill be shorterthanthe averagerecurrence
time.
(2) During an earthquakecycle in which adjacent
segmentsbreakin separateevents:
(2a) If the larger segmentbreaksfirst, then the smaller
segmenttendsto break soonerthanits averagerecurrence
time.
(2b) If the smaller segmentbreaks first, then the
recurrence timefor theadjacentlargersegment mayor may
notbe shorterthanits averagerecurrencetime.
Some of these generalrules can be seenin Fig. 6, and
rules(1a) and (1b) are graphicallysummarizedin Figure7.
However,it is moreinterestingandimportantto compare
theseresultswithobserved earthquakesequences.
6. SOME OBSERVATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE
RECURRENCE WITH SIGNIFICANT
SEGMENT INTERACTION
We presentseveralinterestingexamplesof earthquake
sequencesthat switchrupturemodes.While thesecasesare
problematicfor anyonetryingto estimatefutureearthquake
occurrence,we shallseethat the abovegeneralrulesallow
usto make somesenseof thesecomplicatedsequences.
6.1. Ecuador-Colombia
The subduction zone off the coast of Colombia-Ecuador
ruptured in one great earthquake in 1906, and has
subsequentlyre-rupturedas threeseparateeventsin 1942,
1958, and 1979 (seeFig. 8). The prior earthquakehistory
 RUFF 101

Segment Interaction & Short Recurrence Time Observed EQ Sequences 1995

1895
I

T IColombiaAEI
1979"
epicenter•
T >1001906
yr
.... ß
Trcr
",-
Mw8.2
81
--'-
..... ......................
*.L .,. Mw88 •1958,Ms7.8
=100 yr.L(•
Trcr<100 yr • Trcr-36
ß

yrT
_L

plate
• ......
----
......-•71942Ms79
.i

multi-segment segmentB
boundary rupture rupture
segments time >
AleutiansAEI
Fig.7. Graphical
summary
of "rules"
(la) and(lb) obtained 1957 1986
from syntheticseismicityproducedby simpletwo-segment Mw 8,6 Mw 8.0
mechanicalmodelswith segmentinteraction.Thesemodels
assume rapidhealing suchthattheplateboundarysegment
initiated the great earthquake,segmentB in the above
that
, I
example, heals after the rupture front propagateson to
segments
segment
A andC. Then,slipin adjacent
B to a highstress
segments
levelat theconclusion
reloads
of thegreat
I Trcr
>_
52
yr
earthquake.
segment
If therupturemodeswitches
ruptureto individualsegment
froma greatmulti-
ruptures,
then:("rule" I Trcr=29
yr
l a) segment B will rupturebeforesegments
("rule"lb) the recurrence
A andC; and
time(Trcr)will be shorterthanthe ISanrikuAN
I T 1994
averagetime. Trcr > 71 yr Mw8.2•[........
Mw7.7• -•-•
............. - ........... -•j. Trcr _,.
I

is not well-known for this region; the previousgreat

earthquake
possibly
occurred
in 1797.Therecurrence
time 1895 •time (yr) • 26Yr1995
before the 1906 event is more than one hundred years,
while the recurrencetime for the 1942 eventwasjust 36
Fig. 8. Observed
largeearthquake
sequences
thatswitch
rupturemodesfrom greatmulti-segment
eventsto large
years.Of course,
the 1942eventwasmuchsmaller than individual-segment
events.The space-time
plot showsevent
thepreceding1906event,soonecouldarguethatit was occurrence
timealongthehorizontal
axis,withtheearthquake
notthe"characteristic"
greatearthquake.Butthefollowing rupturelengthsplottedalongthe verticaldirection.For
twoevents clearlyshowthattherupture modechanged for reference,
thegreat1906Ecuador-Colombia
earthquakehasa
rupture
lengthof 500km.The1957Aleutianearthquakehasa
therecentearthquake cycle.The1906epicenter [Kanamori rupturelengthof morethana thousand
kilometers,
thuswe
and McNally, 1982]is locatedwithinthe 1942rupture showonly part of its length.Starsare epicenters,
and
zone.The1906rupture started
in thesouthern-segment(the subductionzone strikes(arrows)are identified,e.g. "NE" is
northeast.Recurrencetimes between events(Trcr) show that
1942segment), andthencontinued to the north.If the
southern-segment healedbeforethe 1906 rupturewas aftera greatearthquake,
thenextlargeeventre-ruptures
the
epicentral
segmentwitha shortrecurrence
time.
finished,thenthesouthern-segment wouldbe reloaded by
slipin adjacent segments. Thus,theobserved Colombia
earthquake sequence displaysthegeneralbehaviors (la) and 1957event,it wasthoughtthattherecurrence timefor the
(lb) ofinteracting segment rupture:
thenexteventoccurred next greateventshouldbeon theorder ofone hundred years
in theepicentral regionof themulti-segment rupture; and or more. However, it was noted that the 1957 zone
the recurrencetime for this next event is shorterthan the experienced severalsmallerearthquakes in theearly 1900's
average recurrence time. [seeNishenko,1991].Thus,we cansaythatthe first
problem in theAleutians is thattherupture modeappears
6.2. Aleutian Islands to change between earthquake cycles.
In detail,
thesegment
thatruptured in the1986eventincludes theepicentral area
Oneof thenotableproblems withtheseismic potential of thepreceding great1957event[Johnson et al., 1994].
mapof McCannet al. [1979]wastheoccurrence of the Again,rules(la) and(lb) wouldseemto explainthe
1986 Aleutian event in the middle of the 1957 Great locationandsooner-than-expected
occurrence
timeof the
AleutianEarthquake
rupturezone. Giventhe sizeof the 1986 event.
102 SEGMENT INTERACTION AND RECURRENCE TIMES

6.3. Santa Cruz Islands recurrencetime is 45 years.Due to the large size of the
1963 greatevent,mostworkersassigned low probabilityto
As mentionedabove,anotherproblemwith the seismic largeeventrecurrencewithin the 1963 rupturezone.But on
potentialmap of McCannet al. [1979] wasthe occurrence 3 Dec 1995, a large (Mw 7.9) event re-rupturedthe 1963
of the July 17, 1980 SantaCruz Is. event(Ms 7.7) sosoon epicentralasperityregion. Since the 1995 event is much
afterthe Dec. 31, 1966event(Ms 7.9). A detailedstudyof smallerthan the 1963 event,one could arguethat it is not
this sequenceby Tajima et al. [1990] showsthat there is the "characteristic"event for this segmentand thus not
indeedconsiderable overlapbetweentheaftershock areasof worthy of consideration.Alternatively, the interacting
these two events, but that the 1966 and 1980 events segmentmodelagainoffersan explanationfor this sooner-
ruptureddifferentdistinctasperities withinthisregion.This than-expectedlarge eventin the epicentralsegmentof the
caseis differentfrom the abovetwo exampleswherethe previousgreatearthquake.
"unexpected" eventclearlyoccurredwithintherupturezone
of theprecedinggreatearthquake. Instead,thiscasemaybe 6.6. Summaryof SegmentInteractionand
better characterized as confusion in the segment Recurrence Times
identification.Referringto our above"rules",the 1966 and
1980 event sequencewould fall under behavior(2), and Several examplesof shortenedrecurrencetimes can be
possiblybehavior(2a) sincethe 1966 eventwaslargerthan understoodby considerationof plate boundarysegment
the 1980 event.While the 14 year recurrencetime between interaction.If thismodelcanbe appliedto mostsubduction
1966 and 1980 is certainlyconsistentwith behavior(2a), zones, then we have the exciting potential of finding a
we needto know more aboutthe precedinggreateventin deterministic explanation for the variability in large
1934 before we can be confidentof our understanding of earthquakerecurrencetimes.To utilize this potential,we
segmentinteractionin this subductionzone. must know whether a particular earthquakecycle shall
occuras one greatmulti-segmentruptureor as a sequence
6.4. Sanriku of single-segment ruptures. Some features of the
interacting segmentsmodel can be tested with detailed
This subductionzone segmentis off the easterncoastof specificstudies;for example,studiesof the co-seismicslip
northernHonshu,and was rupturedby the greatTokachi- distributionand the rupture processcan help define the
Oki earthquakeof 1968 (Mw 8.2). The previouslarge effectivefailure mode.In particular,we want to know if the
earthquake occurred in the 19th century. Forthe 1968 epicentralsegments"heal" while other segmentsare still
event,the main rupturestartednearthe southernend of the slipping. Also, the model can be testedby re-evaluating
aftershockzone, and then rupturedto the north [see,e.g., historicalrecordsfor the occurrenceof large eventsin the
Schwartz and Ruff, 1985]. Many seismologistswere epicentralregionof precedinggreatearthquakes. Of course,
surprisedby the occurrenceof the Dec. 28, 1994 large the ultimate test would be to use the interactingsegment
earthquake(Mw 7.7) off the Sanriku coast.Preliminary model to forecastfuture earthquakes.This model has the
resultsshow that the 1994 event re-rupturedthe southern potential to switch rupture modes between earthquake
part of the 1968 rupture zone; a shortrecurrencetime of cycles and thus forecast rupture length in addition to
only 26 years!But onceagain,we seea changein rupture recurrence times. There are a few subduction zones that
mode, and the following smaller event (the 1994 event) offer suitableexperimentalconditions,but we shall not
occurredin the epicentralregionof theprecedingevent(the makeany specificearthquake forecastshere.
1968 event), with a shortenedrecurrencetime. Thus, the
Sanriku example is similar to the above first two 7. CONCLUSIONS
examples,and it is explainedby rules (la) and (lb) from
the simulationsof interactingsegments. Largeearthquakes haveoccurredin manydifferenttectonic
environments in andaroundsubduction zones.Nearlyevery
6.5. Kuriles Islands intraplateenvironmenthasgeneratedat leastone great(M
> 8) earthquake.Perhapsthe mostnotableexceptionis the
The southernpart of the Kuriles Islandssubductionzone fore-arc(trenchto volcano)of the overlyingplatein mature
wasrupturedby a sequence of largeearthquakes from 1958 subduction zones;thereareno verifiedgreatearthquakes in
to 1973. The largestof theseeventswas the 13 Oct 1963 thisregion.Until the 4 Oct 1994 greatearthquake, we also
event(Mw 8.5). The northernpart of the 1963rupturezone thought that no large earthquakesoccurredwithin the
was previously ruptured in 1918, thus the minimum subductingslabbeneaththe coupledplateinterface.Unless

we have misidentifiedmany other large events,it is still a
good generalizationto concludethat few intraplateevents
occuraboveor below the seismogenicportionof the plate
interface.
The tectonicregime that producesthe most earthquakes
and the largest earthquakesis the seismogenicplate
interface.The seismogenicdepth range extendsdown to
about 40 km for most subduction zones. Underthrust
eventswith magnitudelargerthan 7.7 typicallyrupturethe
full downdip width of the seismogenicplate interface.
Thus, the size of the greatunderthrusteventsis determined
by the along-strike rupture length and the average co-
seismicslip. In this overview, we presentand discussa
catalogof 40 great subductioneventswith magnitudeof 8
or larger from 1900 to 1995. Thesegreateventsare mostly
concentrated in a few subduction zones. Occurrence times
of the very largest earthquakesare clusteredmore than
wouldbe expectedfrom randomoccurrence, butthecatalog
of 40 greatinterplateeventshasa "wait time" distribution
consistentwith a Poissonprocess,i.e. independentrandom
occurrence.
Long-term earthquakeforecastingattemptsto determine
the plate boundarysegmentsand recurrencetimesfor each
segment.The primary informationsourcefor long-term
earthquakeforecastingis the previousearthquakehistory.
Severalobserversof global seismicityconcludethat large
earthquakeoccurrenceis quite irregular in at least two
important ways: (1) rupture mode can vary between
successive earthquakecycles,i.e. differentcombinations
of
segments rupture;(2) the recurrencetime for eachsegment
can vary.
The simplest mechanicalmodels that connectplate
tectonic motions to recurrence times do not offer an
explanationfor variablerupturemode or recurrencetimes.
Thesemechanicalmodelsdo not incorporatealong-strike
elasticinteractionsbetweensegments. If we add adjacent
segment interaction to the mechanical models, then
variable rupture mode and recurrencetimes are readily
produced. Thousands of synthetic event simulations
indicate a few robust conclusionscan be reached:(la) the
first event that follows a multi-segmentrupture occursin
the epicentral segmentof the precedingmulti-segment
event, and (lb) its recurrencetime will be shorterthan the
averagerecurrencetime. Observedearthquakesequences in
four subduction zones -- Colombia, Aleutians, Sanriku,
and Kuriles Islands-- have one unusuallyshortrecurrence
time that follows the above rules. Thus, our overview
showsthat greatearthquakeoccurrencein subductionzones
is remarkably complex and diverse, but segmentelastic
interactionoffers the exciting potentialto understandand
predictsomeof the variabilityin recurrencetimes.
RUFF 103
Acknowledgments.Thanks to C. Frohlich and S. Kirby for
their comments and suggestions. Earthquake research is
supported at the University of Michigan by the National
Science Foundation (EAR94-05533).
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 What Controls The SeismogenicPlate Interface
In Subduction Zones?

LarryJ.RuffandBartW. Tichelaar
1

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,Universityof Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

The greatestearthquakesoccur on the seismogenicplate interface of subductionzones. We

need to understandwhat controlsthe updip and downdip edgesof this seismogeniczone. For
the circum-Pacific subductionzones that generategreat earthquakes,the downdip edge is at a
depth of about40 km, but with significantvariations.Severalmechanismsmight control this
transitionfrom seismogenic
to aseismicslip. Tichelaarand Ruff [1993] arguethat one or two
critical temperatures can explain the global observations. The model with two critical
temperaturesinvokes two different upper plate rock types, crust and mantle rocks. In this
paper, we investigatethe correlation between the location of the downdip edge with the
location of the coastline. We find a statistically significant correlation between these two
variablesfor the major circum-Pacificsubductionzones.Is this correlationa coincidence,or is
it indicative of deeper fundamentalprocesses?We offer a simple unifying explanation:the
intersectionof the overlying plate's Moho with the top of the subductingslab determinesboth
the downdip edge of the seismogeniczone, and the coastlineabove.This explanationimplies
that rocks in the subductionzone mantle wedge are aseismic.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. LARGE UNDERTHRUSTING EARTHQUAKES

Most of the world's great earthquakesare interplate Plate tectonicsprovidesthe kinematicexplanationfor

underthrusting eventsin subductionzones.Generationsof great underthrustingearthquakes;they represent the
seismologistsand geologistshave speculatedon what subductionof oceaniclithospherebeneaththe overlying
controlsthe occurrenceof thesegreatearthquakes. One key plate.An importantdiscoverywasthatdeepWadati-Benioff
aspectis the fact that just a small fraction of the plate zone earthquakeswere intraplate events within the
interfaceis seismogenic.It is importantto understandthe subductedplate [Isacksand Molnar, 1971], and that only
physicalmechanisms that controlthe updipand downdip the shallowearthquakes occurredon theplateinterface.On
extentof the seismogenic plateinterface,in additionto the the other hand, these shallow underthrustingearthquakes
along-strikesegmentationof the seismogenic zone.There dominate global seismicity [Kelleher et al., 1973;
are two parts of this paper: a short review of the Kanamori, 1977]. Numerousdetailedstudiesof subduction
zone seismicityand focal mechanismsshowthat the dip
characteristicsof the seismogenicplate interface;and a
"suggestion" angleof the subductingplateis typically20ø or so for the
that a ratherobviousfeatureis correlatedwith
thedowndipedgeof the seismogenic shallow seismogenicplate interface, then steepensat
plateinterface.
greater depths. Another important realization was that
POBox60,2280AB,Rijswijk, subductionzonesare quitediverse,andwe canexploitthe
1 Nowat ShellResearch,
Netherlands variation in characteristics to better understand the
subductionprocess[e.g., Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979].
Applicationof this "comparativesubductology" approach
Subduction:Top to Bottom has strengthenedthe notionthat suchdiversefeaturesas
GeophysicalMonograph96 subductinglithosphereage, convergence rate, seismicity,
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union sedimentsubduction,volcanism,and back arc spreading,
mayberelatedto eachother[seereviewbyJarrard,1986].
106 WHAT CONTROLS THE SEISMOGENIC PLATE INTERFACE?
To focusonunderthrusting earthquakes, animportant task
hasbeento "map"the seismogenic plateinterface;bothits
along-strikeand along-dipextentand characteristics. To
explainmanyfeaturesof seismicity,seismologists have
invokedvariousheterogeneities within the seismogenic
plateinterface[seereviewin Scholz,1990].The simplest
characterizationof heterogeneityis a binaryclassification
of strongand weak sub-regions within the seismogenic
plateinterface.Dependent on theparticularrolethatthey
play in the earthquakecycle,the strongareashavebeen
calledbarriers,asperities,andpatches.There are many
suggestions thatthe along-strikedistributionof asperities
may controlseveralfeaturesof seismicity[seediscussions
in Kanamori, 1986; Thatcher, 1990;Ruff, 1992]. Other
papersin thisvolumewill furtherdiscuss asperities
andthe
along-strikesegmentationof theplateinterface.
3. DOWN-DIP EDGE OF SEISMOGENIC INTERFACE
The downdipwidthof theseismogenic plateinterfacealso
playsa key role in subduction seismicity.In general,the
plateinterfaceis seismogenic betweentwodepths,referred
to here as the "updipedge"and "downdipedge"of the
seismogenic plate interface.In somesubduction zones,the
updip edge extends to the surface at the trench axis.
Dependenton the natureof trenchsediments, the updip
edgemay be severalkilometersdeep[Byrneet al., 1988;
Pacheco et al., 1993]. The updip edge is particularly
importantfor tsunamigeneration.
Recentspecializedstudiesof thedowndipedgenowoffera
sharperview of the global variationsin depth to the
downdipedge.For example,Tichelaarand Ruff [1993]
found that the downdip edge in most of the subduction
zonesis at a depthof 40 + 5 km (Figure 1). They founda
few placesthat have a slightly deeperdowndipedge,
northernChile [also see Comteand Suarez, 1995] and the
Honshu-Hokkaido corner,butperhapsthemostsignificant
variation is the shallow depth of about 25 km for the
downdipedgein Mexico. It is importantto understandwhat
controlsthe plate interfacetransitionfrom seismogenicto
aseismic.Inspiredby the acceptedexplanationof a critical
temperaturethat controlsthe seismicitycut-off depth in
strike-slip environments [Chen and Molnar, 1983;
Bergman and Solomon, 1988; Wiens and Stein, 1983],
recent studies have focused on subduction zone thermal
modelsto controlthedowndipedgedepth.
Tichelaarand Ruff [ 1993] exploredthe hypothesis
that a
criticaltemperaturecouldexplainboththe averagedepth
andthedepthvariations in thedown-dipedgeof thecoupled
interface.They usedobservations of the down-dipedge
from the "coupled"subductionzonesof Figure 1 (i.e.,
Maximum Depth of Coupling
10
20
Chile
30
40
ß
50 i
60
Fig. 1. Summary of seismologicaldeterminationsof the
depthto seismogenicinterfacedowndipedge.See Tichelaar
and Ruff [1993] for details of the definitions and
determinations.
zones with great interplate earthquakes).To test this
hypothesis,the temperatureat the plate interfacemustbe
calculated downto thedepthof thedown-dipedge.Thermal
calculationsin subductionzones must include many
processesand parameters,though the key unknownis
frictionalheatingalongthe plateinterface[seeMolnar and
England, 1990; Kao and Chen, 1991;Peacocket al., 1994;
Molnar and England, 1995; and Peacock, this volume].
Another important parameter is the radiogenic heat
production in theoverlyingwedge[Furukawaand Uyeda,
1989]. Tichelaar and Ruff [1993] use the heat flow
observationsto invert for the frictional shearstressand, in
turn, obtainthe temperatureat the down-dipedgeof the
seismogenic zone.For the subductionzonesof Figure 1,
theyfind the globalaveragefrictional shearstressto be:
(i) 14 + 5 MPa, assumingstressis constantthroughout
the seismogeniczone;
(ii) 30 + 5 MPa, assuminga constantfrictioncoefficient,
with stressincreasinglinearly throughthe seismogenic
zone.
We now focuson the globalvariationof temperatures
at
the down-dipedge.Tichelaarand Ruff [1993] foundtwo
different distributions for the two different assumed stress
functions(seeFigure2). For a constant
stress,theyfounda
distributionof downdipedgetemperatures with a single
peak at 250 øC; while for the constant coefficient of
friction,theyfounda bimodaldistribution
of down-dipedge
temperatureswith peak values at 400 øC and 550
 RUFF AND TICHELAAR 107

4. DOES TIlE COASTLINE CONTROL THE DOWNDIP

heat flow observations
EDGE OF SUBDUCTION EARTHQUAKES?

Maps of the downdipedge of the seismogenic

plate
interfaceshow a rather curiouscoincidence.Projectionof
thedowndipedgeontothe surficialfeaturesshowthatthe
coastlineanddowndipedgearein closeproximityfor many
Two
assumed
shear
stress
distributions
I subduction zones.In particular,the coastlineanddowndip
stress stress edgeplotclosetogetherfor muchof theChile,Colombia-
14 MPa Ecuador, Mexico, and northernHonshu subductionzones
[seedetailedmapsin Tichelaarand Ruff, 1993].In some
ß ß

subductionzones, the coastline is complex and hence

ß ß
ß
ß
ß ß
ß

difficult to define (e.g., Alaska and southernChile). In

island arc subductionzones,the downdipedgeplots close
to the edgeof the islandarc platformratherthan at the
I Temperatures
calculated
atdowndip
odgo
I coastline of the volcanic islands. Is this observation
indicative of some causal connection,or simply another
global occurrences,# global occurrences,# demonstration of a coincidencewith no significance?
First,
we shall test whether this apparentcoincidencecan be
250 400 550
explained
by randomchance.Of course we expectthesetwo
propertiesof subductionzones- a coastlineand the
downdipedge- to closelyparalleleachother.At a global
temp, øC temp, øC scale, the curves for the downdip edge and coastline
overlap,whileat thelocalscalethecurvesmightbe offset
Fig. 2. Schematicrepresentation
of the modelingresultsof by manykilometers.How closeshouldtheybe?We have
Tichelaar and Ruff [1993]. The global averagelevel of usedthe trench-to-volcanicarc distanceas the "measuring
frictional shear stress is determined for two different stress stick" to assesshow closetogetherare the coastlineand
distributions:constant stress, and linear increase with depth.
downdipedge(seeFigure3). Thischoiceis basedon the
The stylizedhistograms
showthe subsequent
resultsfor model
fact that both the coastline and downdip edge must be
temperatures at the downdipedge for the circum-Pacific
subduction zones. located somewhere between the trench and volcanos. Hence,
we normalizethetrench-to-downdipedge(Edge)andtrench-
to-coastline(Coast) distancesby the trench-to-volcano
Tichelaarand Ruff [1993] preferredthe lattercase,and distance(Volcano). Table 1 lists the Edge, Coast, and
explained
thetwo differentcriticaltemperatureswithtwo Volcano distances for the well-determined subduction zone
differentrock types. segments
in Tichelaarand Ruff[1993]. For quantitative
Controlof the seismogenic
downdipedgeby oneor more comparison,we use the ratios Edge/Volcano and
critical temperatures is consistentwith observations. Coast/Volcano,which mustlie between0.0 and 1. We find
However,thescientificprocedure thatwe mustfollowis to considerable variation in these ratios from about 0.3 to 0.9;
test all possibleexplanations, and try to eliminateall andthereis a significantcorrelationbetweenthe coastline
explanations exceptone.At thispoint,we havemerely anddowndip edgeratios(Figure4). If thedowndip edgewas
testedjust oneof the possibleexplanations. To adopta always located directly beneath the coastline,then all
critical view of the critical temperaturehypothesis,we pointsin Figure4 wouldfall onthediagonal line.A least-
shouldnot acceptthis hypothesisuntil it survivesa squaresline fit to all observations has a correlation
competition against
otherhypotheses[seeTichelaarand coefficient of 0.77, but the slope differs from one. To
Ruff, 1993, for discussionof othermechanisms and probethe deviations,the individualsubduction zonesare
statistics
of temperature
distributions].
While thenotion plotted
with differentsymbols in Figure 4. The widebars
of a criticaltemperaturehas someintuitiveappeal,we for Aleutian-Alaska reflect the ambiguity over the
mustcontinueto testotherpossibilities.
We shallpursuea coastline: do we choose the beach of Kodiak Island or
differentexplanation
thatappearswhimsicalatfirstglance, AlaskaPeninsula?
One way to resolvethisambiguityis to
but will lead us back to the potential role of rock replacethe coastlines
with the continental
shelfbreaks-
composition. whichmayhavea deeperphysical significance
aswell-
108 WHAT CONTROLS THE SEISMOGENIC PLATE INTERFACE?

Trench-Coast Coast
Distance Volcano
Trench Coastline

Subducting =100 km
Plate Down-dip
Edge of the
Edge Seismogenic
Interface
Trench-Edge Distance

Volcano

Trench-Volcano Distance
Figure 3. Sketch showing how we measurethe coastlineand the downdip edge. We use the Trench-Volcano
distance (Volcano) as our measuringstick. Both the coastlineand downdip edge are between the trench and
volcanic arc, as shownin the abovecross-section.
We use ratios of the Trench-Coast(Coast) and Trench-Edge
(Edge) distancesto the Trench-Volcanodistance.

we leave this refinement for future work. Overall, note the
Chileansubductionzoneplotsabovethereferencediagonal
(downdip edge is landward of coastline),while Kuriles-
Kamchatka plots below the line (downdip edge is
oceanward of coastline). Thus, there is a systematic
tectoniccomponent
to the scatterfromthereferenceline.
Since this statistical evidence for a correlation between
the coastline and downdip edge is based on very few
examples,one may wish to dismissit as a coincidence.
Even so, it is interesting to ponder possible physical
connections between the locations of the coastline and the
downdip edge. We offer the suggestionthat crustal
thickness provides a simple connection between the
coastline and the downdip edge of the seismogenic
interface.This is illustratedin Figure 5, where we show a
cross-sectionthat emphasizesthe densitystructureof the
ocean to continent transition. Recall that in a passive
marginsetting,the coastlineis locatedwherethe crusthas
thickenedto its typical continentalvalue of about40 km.
Let us simplify the densitystructureof a subductionzone
to only three materials:crust,mantle,and water. Then, we
would expectto seethe coastlineapproximatelyabovethe
point of intersection of the continental Moho with the
subductingoceanicMoho, as depictedin Figure 5. While
the trench, sediments,and deepermassexcessesall affect
the detailsof subductionzone structureand compensation,
the simple picture of Figure 5 is still approximately
correct.Thus, we can understandwhy the coastlineshould
be above the intersection of the continental Moho and the
subductingslab,but why would this intersectionpoint also
correspondto the downdipedge of the seismogenicplate
interface?To carry this idea to its logical conclusion,we
would have to contendthat the seismogenicplate interface
requiresthe overlying plate to be predominatelycrustal
rocks, and that the encounter with mantle rocks causesthe
interface to become aseismic. Is this conclusion
reasonable?One fact is that crustal rocks are certainly
capable of seismogenicbehavior, e.g., all the shallow
continental earthquakes,in additionto subductionzone
shallowseismicity.Mantle rocksmight be "stronger"
 RUFF AND TICHELAAR 109

TABLE 1. Subduction Zone Profiles and Distances from Trench to:

Down-dip Edge of CoupledZone; Coastline;and Volcanic Line.

Region Locationof profile Trench-to- Trench-to- Trench-to-

(keyLat or Lon) Edge(kin) Coast(kin) Volcano(kin)

No. Honshu 37øN 204.00 222.00 295.00

No. Honshu 38.5øN 178.00 220.00 290.00
No. Honshu 39øN 198.00 198.00 290.00
No. Honshu 40.3øN 195.00 220.00 300.00
Hokkaido 43øN 131.00 158.00 210.00
Kuriles Is. 45øN 106.00 191.00 212.00
Kuriles Is. 47øN 118.00 177.00 200.00
Kamchatka 51øN 170.00 200.00 220.00
Aleutian Is. 175øE 280.00 310.00 320.00
Aleutian Is. 178øW 208.00 208.00 258.00
Aleutian Is. 175øW 170.00 170.00 200.00
Alaska 153øW 244.00 204.00 325.00
Mexico 103øW 85.00 85.00 265.00
Colombia 2øN 100.00 100.00 250.00
Chile 22øS 140.00 132.00 310.00
Chile 25øS 135.00 120.00 300.00
Chile 33øS 130.00 105.00 290.00
Chile 39øS 200.00 150.00 280.00

ONo.
I
Honshu,
Japan
I Kuriles/Kamchatka

' )-•,( ' Aleutian/Alaska

crustalrocks, but perhapsthey fail by creep eventsrather
than seismic stick-slip events. On the other hand,
/• IVlexico/Colombia transform fault seismicity indicatesthat oceanic mantle
0.9 rockscan be seismogenic.Thus, we must arguethat rocks
I--I Chile
in the subductionzonemantlewedgebehavedifferentthan
thosebeneathfracturezones.It shouldbe emphasizedthat
0.8
this contention is pure speculation, but it is weakly
supportedby the fact that seismicityis not found within
0.7 [• ß the mantle wedge rocks. The notion that mantle wedge
rocks could be both strong and aseismic is somewhat
0.6 m counter-intuitive,but is physically possible[see Scholz,
1990]. Also, mantlewedgerockscouldbe alteredand thus
behavequite different from typical oceanicupper-mantle
0.5 I
rocks[Hyndmanet al., 1996]. The mostdirectexperiment
to test this contention is to make a global map of the
0.4 intersectionof the down-going slab with the overlying
plate'sMoho, then see if this correspondsto the downdip
0.3
edgeof the seismogenic plateinterface.
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
5. CONCLUSIONS
Coast/Volcano

Fig. 4. Observations of the Edge/Volcano ratios plotted The greatestearthquakesoccur on the seismogenicplate
versusthe Coast/Volcano ratio. The through-goingdiagonal interface of subduction zones, which is a narrow ribbon
line is for the coastlineexactlyabovethe downdipedge.Data thatwrapsaroundthe Pacificbasin.We needto understand
points are identified by subduction zones, the bars for
Aleutian-Alaskais due to uncertaintyin coastlinechoice.The what controls the updip and downdip edges of this
correlationbetweenEdge and Coastratiosis apparent,and the seismogenic zone, in addition to the along-strike
deviations are consistent within the different subduction segmentation.Tichelaar and Ruff [1993] found that
zones.
110 WHAT CONTROLS THE SEISMOGENIC PLATE INTERFACE?

Trench
Coastline
110km
v.e. x 2.2
4 km
.....
....

6 km .

040 km

Mantle

Mantle

Down-dipEdgeof SeismogenicPlate Interface

Figure5. Subduction cross-sectiondownto a depthof 50 km or so.The overlyingplatehasa crustalthickness
of
40 km, a typical continentalvalue.Moho is also indicatedin the down-goingoceanicslab.Water is shaded.
Coastlineand downdipedge are marked.Coastlineis fixed to the point wherecrustalrocksachieve40 km
thickness.See text for discussionon the downdipedgeof seismogenic
zone.

downdip edge is at a depth of about 40 km, but with
significant variations. What mechanisms control the
transition from seismogenic to aseismic slip? Several
mechanismsthat might control this transitionare: critical
temperature,rock compositionof the lower plate,the upper
plate, or the interface itself. Global observations are
satisfied by the hypothesis that one or two critical
temperatures control the seismogenic to aseismic
transition. The model with two critical temperatures
invokes two different upper plate rock types, crust and
mantlerocks.The new researchresultin this paperis a test
of the correlationbetweenthe locationof the downdipedge
with the location of the coastline.We find a statistically
significantcorrelationbetweenthesetwo locationsfor the
major circum-Pacificsubductionzones.Is thiscorrelationa
coincidence, or is it indicative of deeper fundamental
processes? We offer one suggestionfor a simpleunifying
explanation:the intersectionof the overlyingplate'sMoho
with the top of the subductingslab determinesboth the
coastlineand the downdip edge of the seismogeniczone.
This particularsuggestion of a rock-composition
controlof
the seismogeniczone may be wrong,but we musttest and
eliminateall competinghypotheses beforewe canconclude
thata criticaltemperature controlsthe downdipedgeof the
seismogenic plateinterface.
Acknowledgments.Thanks to S. Kirby, W. Thatcher, D.
Comte, and an anonymousreviewerfor usefulcomments,and
to R. Hyndmanfor advancecopiesof theirwork.Thanksto the
organizersand participantsof SUBCON for a wonderful
subductionretreat. Earthquake studies at the University of
Michigansupportedby National ScienceFoundation(EAR94-
0553).
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Chen, W.P., and P. Molnar, Focal depthsof intracontinental
and intraplate earthquakesand their implications for the
thermal and mechanical properties of the lithosphere, J.
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Comte, D., and G. Suarez,Stressdistributionand geometryof
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Furukawa, Y., and S. Uyeda, Thermal structure under the
Tohoko arc with considerationof crustal heat generation,
Tectonophysics,164, 175-187, 1989.
Hyndman, R., M. Yamano, and D. Oleskevich, The
seismogeniczone of subductionthrust faults, Island Arc, in
press, 1996.
Isacks, B., and P. Molnar, Distribution of stresses in the
descending lithosphere from a global survey of focal
mechanismsolutionsof mantle earthquakes,Rev. Geophys.
Space Phys., 9, 103-174, 1971.
Jarrard, R., Relation among subduction parameters, Rev.
Geophys., 24, 217-284, 1986.
Kao, H., and W.P. Chen, Earthquakes along the Ryukyu-
Kyushu arc: strain segmentation,lateral compression,and
the thermo-mechanical state of the plate interface, J.
Geophys. Res., 96, 21443-21485, 1991.
Kanamori, H., The energy release in great earthquakes,J.
Geophys. Res., 82, 2981-2987, 1977.
Kanamori, H., Rupture process of subduction zones
earthquakes, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 14, 293-322,
1986.
Kelleher, J., L. Sykes, and J. Oliver, Possible criteria for
predicting earthquake locations and their application to
RUFF AND TICHELAAR 111
major plate boundaries of the Pacific and Caribbean, J.
Geophys. Res., 78, 2547-2585, 1973.
Molnar, P., and P. England, Temperatures, heat flux, and
frictional stressnear major thust faults, J. Geophys. Res.,
95, 4833-4856, 1990.
Molnar, P., and P. England, Temperaturesin zones of steady-
state underthrustingof young oceanic lithosphere, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett., 131, 57-70, 1995.
Pacheco, J., L. Sykes, and C.H. Scholz, Nature of seismic
coupling along simple plate boundariesof the subduction
type, J. Geophys.Res., 98, 14,133-14,159, 1993.
Peacock, S.M., T. Rushmet, and A.B. Thompson, Partial
melting of subductingoceaniccrust,Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
121, 227-244, 1994.
Ruff, L.J., Asperity distributions and large earthquake
occurrence in subductionzones. Tectonophysics,211,
61-83, 1992.
Thatcher, W., Order and diversity in the modes of circum-
Pacific earthquake recurrence. J. Geophys. Res., 95:,
2609- 2623, 1990.
Tichelaar, B., and L. Ruff, Depth of seismiccoupling along
subductionzones, J. Geophys.Res., 98, 2017-2037, 1993.
Scholz, C., The mechanicsof earthquakesand faulting, 439
pp., CambridgeUniversity Press,New York, 1990.
Uyeda, S., and H. Kanamori,Back-arcopeningand the modeof
subduction,J. Geophys.Res., 84, 1049-1061, 1979.
Wiens, D.A., and S. Stein, Age dependence of oceanic
intraplate seismicity and implications for lithosphere
evolution, J. Geophys.Res.,88, 6455-6468, 1983.
L. J. Ruff, B. W. Tichelaar, Dept. of Geological Sciences,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,
 Displacement
PartitioningandArc-ParallelExtension:ExampleFrom the
SoutheasternCaribbeanPlate Margin
Hans G. Av6 Lallemant

Department of Geology and Geophysics,Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005-1892

Focal-mechanismstudiesof earthquakesin the forearc of the southernLesserAntilles and

in northeastern Venezuela [Russo et al., 1992, 1993] and kinematic studies of deformation
structuresin Late Cretaceousand Tertiary allochthonousterranesalong the Caribbean/South
Americanplate boundaryin Venezuelasuggestthat at any site in arcuate,obliquely convergent
plate boundary zones displacementpartitioning results in three modes of deformation which
may operate simultaneously:(1) plate-boundary- or arc-(sub)normalcontraction, (2) plate-
boundary- (arc-) parallel shear, and (3) plate-boundary-(arc-) parallel stretching.The latter
mode of deformationmay contributeto the ascent,decompression, and exhumationof high-
pressure/low-temperature metamorphicassemblagestypical of subductionzones (blueschists
and eclogites).

1. INTRODUCTION et al., 1988]. It has been proposed[Avd Lallemant a

It is well known that in obliquely convergent plate
boundaryzonestherelativeconvergence vectoris generally
partitionedinto a plate-boundary- or arc-(sub)normal thrust
componentand an arc-parallelstrike-slipcomponent[e.g.
Ekstr6m and Engdahl, 1989; McCaffrey, 1991; Kelsey et rare
al., 1995]. Typically, the arc-normal componentis ex-
pressedin the forearcand subduction zoneby thrustfaults
and foldstrending(sub)parallelto the arc, whereasthe arc-
parallelcomponent resultsin oneor'morearc-parallelstrike-
slip faults.Thus, the two modesof deformationare opera-
tive simultaneously, but, generally,in separateareasin the
subductionzone/forearccomplex. It hasalsobeenshown
[e.g. Walcott,1978;Kelseyet al., 1995] thatan arc-parallel
belt in which arc-normal contraction has occurred, sub-
sequentlymay becomea belt in which only arc-parallel
shear occurs,and vice versa.
Where, in addition, the plate boundaryis arcuateand
convextowardthe subducting plate,arc-parallelstretching
(extension) may take place resulting in normal faults
perpendicularto the plate boundary,as has been demon-
stratedin the Kuril arc [Kimura, 1986], the Ryukyu arc
[Kuramoto and Konishi, 1989], and the Aleutian arc [Geist
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion
Guth, 1990; Avd Lallemant, 1991] that this extension is
the resultof the increaseof the arc-parallelstrike-slipcom-
ponentof the convergence vectorandcausesthinningof the
forearcterrane,andconsequently decompression andupliftof
deep-seatedrocks suchas eclogitesand blueschists.In the
instances where the arc is concave toward the
subductingplate, arc-parallelcontractionmay occur (e.g.
wherethe Kuril arc turnsinto Japan[Kimura, 1986]).
It can be demonstrated in the Lesser Antilles and in
northeastern Venezuelathat displacement partitioningand
arc-parallelextensionoccurat presentassuggested by earth-
quakefocal-mechanism studies[Russoet al., 1992, 1993]
and have occurredas well in Cretaceousand Tertiary time
[Avd Lallemant, 1991; Avd Lallemant and Sisson, 1993].
2. TECTONIC SETtING
The Caribbean/South
Americanplate boundaryzone in
northern Venezuela is about 300 km wide. It consists of the
following three east-west-trending lithotectonicbelts: (1)
the Leeward volcanic arc in the north, (2) the Caribbean
Mountainssystem,and(3) the Serranfadel Interiorforeland
fold and thrustbelt in the south(Figure 1). The Caribbean
Mountainssystemhasbeendividedintoseveralsub-belts of
whichonly the Cordillerade la CostaandAraya-Pariabelts
will be discussed here.
The Leeward volcanic arc is the southern extension of
the Lesser Antilles arc and the remnant Aves Ridge arc.
114 DISPLACEMENT PARTITIONING AND ARC-PARALLEL
Magmaticactivity in the LeewardAntillesstartedin mid-,
Cretaceoustime [e.g. Pindell, 1993]. Magmatismceased
graduallyfrom west to east:at about85 Ma on the Dutch
Leeward Antilles [Priem et al., 1979] and at about 45 Ma
on the Los TestigosIslands(Figure 1) [Santamarœa
and
Schubert, 1974], but is, of course, still active in the Lesser
Antilles.
The Cordillerade la Costabelt consistsmainly of high
to intermediategrademetamorphicrocks(epidoteamphi-
bolite and greenschistfacies) which include eclogiteand
blueschistknockers [e.g. Maresch, 1975; Guth and Avd
Lallemant, 1991]. The age of the epidote amphibolite
metamorphismis about 85 Ma (amphiboleand white mica
4øAr/39Ar
ages[AvdLallemant,
unpublished
data]).
The Araya-Pariabelt consistsmainlyof low-grade(lower
greenschist facies) metamorphic rocks. The age of
metamorphismis about Oligocene [Avd Lallemant, un-
published
4øAr/39Ar
data]toEarlyMiocene
[Foland
etal.,
1992].
The Serranfa del Interior fold and thrust belt consists of
Cretaceous
andPaleocenepassivemarginsedimentary
rocks.
They were folded and thrustsouth-southeastward since
Early Miocenetime [Rossiet al., 1987;Bally et al., 1995].
The boundariesbetweenall beltswereoriginallyeast-to
northeast-trending,
south-tosoutheast-vergent thrustfaults.
Many of thesefaults were reactivatedas dextralstrike-slip
faults.
In all recent plate tectonic models, the Caribbean has
formed in the Pacific realm as part of the Farallon plate
[e.g. Pindell, 1993]. In mid-Cretaceoustime the plate
startedmovingtowardthenortheastto southeast in between
the North and SouthAmericanplates[Pindell, 1993]. The
direction of the presentrelative plate motion is not well
constrained.
2.1 StructuralGeology
Deformational structures in the Caribbean Mountains
systemformedduringtwo tectonicevents.The first (D•) is
synmetamorphicand is related to subructionof the Proto-
Caribbeanlithospherebeneaththe Caribbeanplate and the
second(D2) is postmetamorphic andrelatedto obductionof
the CaribbeanMountainssystemonto the SouthAmerican
craton.
The D• structures in the Cordillera de la Costa belt
originatedduringthe upward(retrograde)migrationof the same area, but on different faults.
unit from great(eclogitefacies)to intermediate(blueschist
3. MODEL FOR DISPLACEMENT
facies)depth,and subsequently to relativelyshallow(epi-
dote amphiboliteto greenschistfacies) depth [e.g. A vd
Lallemantand Sisson,1993]. As eclogitesand blueschists 3.1 ObliquePlate Convergence
occuronly as knockers,no kinematicinterpretation of their A modelfor displacementpartitioning
internalstructureis possible.The structuresin the epidote- subductionzone/forearc
EXTENSION
amphibolite-andgreenschist-grade
rocksarepenetrativeand
occur in the entire Cordillera de la Costa belt from Puerto
Cabello to the Araya Peninsula (Figure 1). They are
metamorphic cleavages, isoclinal folds, and lineations
(stretching, mineral, and intersection lineations), all
trendingeastto northeastparallel to the plate boundaryand
presumablyformed by plate-boundary-normalcontraction
(Figure 2). Asymmetric stretchedparticles (Figure 2B),
pressureshadows(Figure 2C), and rotatedboudins(Figure
2A) indicatea componentof dextralshearroughlyparallel
to the plate boundary.Rotation may have occurredsimul-
taneouslywith contraction[e.g. Tikoff and Fossen, 1993],
but, in somecases,it may havepostdatedthe formationof
thecleavage(Figure2A). Plate-boundary-parallel extension
may also haveoccurredduringcleavageformation(Figure
2D), but oftenis clearlylater (Figure2E).
The structuresin the low-grade Araya-Pariabelt are
virtuallyidenticalto thosein the Cordillerade la Costabelt.
However, they seem to have formed in the Oligocene
whereas in the Cordillera de la Costa belt these structures
formed in mid-Cretaceous time.
D2 structures
in the metamorphic
belt are correlatedwith
the structures in the Serranfa del Interior fold and thrust belt.
They are characterized
by south-to southeast-vergent thrust
faults,east-trending
dextralstrike-slipfaults,and southeast-
trendingnormal faults. They formed during the Eocenein
the west and Miocene in the east [Pindell, 1993], but
seismic activity indicates that these structuresare still
active. Focal-mechanismstudies[e.g. Russoet al., 1992,
1993] indicate that the thrust faults, strike-slipfaults, and
normalfaultsare all active,but operateat differentlocalities
(Figure 1).
However on 2, 4, and 6 October, 1957, three strong
earthquakes (M = 5.5, 6.7, and5.1 respectively) occurredin
the southernLesserAntilles (Figure 1) [Russoet al., 1992].
The first mighthaveformedby obliquedisplacement along
anarc-paralleldextralstrike-slipfault;thesecond by oblique
slipalongan arc-parallelthrustfault; andthe thirdby slip
along an arc-normalnormal fault. The epicentersof the
three faults are located within a circle with a radius of 8 km;
the focal depthsare 10, 6, and 10 km, respectively[Russo
et al., 1992]. Thus, the three modesof deformation(arc-
normal contraction,arc-parallel shear, and arc-parallel
extension) operated simultaneouslyand virtually in the
PARTITIONING
in a right-oblique
terrane/volcanicarcsystem, as
 AV]• LALLEMANT 115

VB GB

•Ooo

,zO
øø

eew Or d nti lies

M•_•---
A'

I0 ø

...... .....::-65o: 60 ø

Fig. 1. Map of the southeastern Caribbean[after Case and Holcombe, 1980]. Horizontal ruling: Caribbean
Mountains systemwith cdlc - Cordillera de la Costa belt; vertical ruling: Araya-Paria belt (arpa); fine stipple
pattern: Serranfadel Interior forelandfold and thrust(sdi); coarsestipplepattern= foreland basins. Geographic
abbreviations:A - Araya Peninsula; B = La BlanquillaIsland; Bo = Bonaire (Dutch Leeward Antilles); GB =
GrenadaBasin; M = MargaritaIsland; P = PariaPeninsula;PC = PuertoCabello;T = Los TestigosIslands; TB =
TobagoBasin; Tr = Trinidad; VB = VenezuelanBasin. Bathymetriccontoursin meters. Focal-mechanism
solutions1, 2, and3 (equal-area,lower-hemisphere
projections)for threeearthquakes
whichoccurredon 2 (1), 4 (2),
and 6 (3) October1957 in small area,northof the Paria Peninsula,and at depthsbetween6 and 10 km [Russoet al.,
1992]; blackfields= compressional quadrants.

plicableto the southeasternCaribbeanplate, is shownin terrane.migratesat increasingrate towardthe SW and W,

Figure3. An oceanicplateconverges on a volcanicarc at a
rate of V cm/year. The subductionzone (SS), forearcter-
fane,andvolcanicarc havea rectilinearmap tracebetweenA
and B and the obliquity• is 40ø. The segment
BC is
arcuateand the obliquity• increasesfrom 40øto 85ø.The
traceof segmentCD is rectilinearandtheobliquityremains
at 85ø (the plate boundaryalongCD is almosta transform
fau10.
The relative plate-convergencevector ¾ is partitioned
into a subnormalcomponent(V,) and a tangentialone (Vt).
The normal component results in arc-subparallelthrust
faultsin theforearcregionandearthquakefocalmechanisms
are as in 1 in Figure 3. The arc-parallelcomponentcauses
right-lateralstrike-slipdisplacementalong the arc-parallel
fault ABCD (earthquakemechanismsas in 2 in Figure 3).
The forearcterranemay move at a rate Vt toward the SW.
In the arcuate segmentBC, ¾t increasesand the forearc
causingarc-parallelextensionby arc-perpendicular normal
faulting(3 in Figure 3). In this segmentstrike-slipdefor-
mation is increasingand arc-normalcontractionbecomes
lessimportant. Along segmentCD, V, is very small, the
arc may becomeextinct,andthe forearcterranemay migrate
westwardat the total convergence rateV.
In severalarcuatevolcanicislandarcs(e.g. Aleutianarc
[Geist et al., 1988]) arc-parallelstrike-slipfaulting occurs
within the arc or in the backarc(PQ in Figure 3). Here the
arc complexis extendedparallel to itself and deepbasins
form between the islands.
Generally, at shallow depthsin the brittle regime, the
threemodesof deformationare simultaneously active,but at
very differentsitesin the forearc:thrustingoccurstypically
in the frontal part of the forearc; strike-slip displacements
occurgenerallymore toward the active arc; and extension
occursonlyin thearcuateportionof an arcover-printing
116 DISPLACEMENT PARTITIONING AND ARC-PARALLEL EXTENSION

previoustwo modesof deformation.In contrast,the earth-

quakesof 1957 in the southernLesserAntilles (Figure 1)
occurredvirtuallysimultaneously at approximatelythesame
spot,suggestingthatthethreefaultsarerelatedandmerging
intoa singled6collementsurface[e.g.Oldowet al., 1991].
At greaterdepth, in the ductile regime, displacement
partitioningmay not occuralong an obliquelyconvergent
boundary.A particle may be displacedparallel to the con-
vergencevector,but due to the boundaryconditions(a high
viscositycontrastbetweenthe two convergentplates),this
particle may undergostrainpartitioning:boundary-normal
shortening,boundary-parallelshear [Tikoff and Fossen,
50 ½m 1993],andboundary-parallel extension.

3.2 Exhumationof Eclogitesand Blueschists

Many modelsfor the uplift, decompression, and exhu-

mation of high-pressuremetamorphic rocks formed in
subductionand collision zones have been proposed.The
model, as discussedabove, adds another mechanism. Plate-
boundary-parallel stretchingin theVenezuelaneclogite-and
blueschist-bearingCordillera de la Costa belt occurred
simultaneouslywith decompression[AvdLallemant and
Sisson, 1993] suggestingthat the stretchinghas caused
thinning of the forearc terraneand, thus, decompression;
simultaneousuplift may have been the result of isostatic
rebound. This mechanismmay be applicable to many
forearc terranes as most at least modern volcanic arcs are
arcuateandconvextowardthe subducting
plate.

3.3 TectonicEvolutionof the Southeastern

Margin of the
Caribbean Plate

Accordingto mostplatemodels[e.g.Pindell, 1993] the

Caribbean plate was part of the Farallon plate in mid-
Cretaceous and earlier time. Eastward subduction occurred
along the entire west coast of North, Central, and South
America. At about 120 to 100 Ma the subductionpolarity
along the Central Americanportionof the plate boundary
reversedand the Caribbean/Farallonplate with its fringing

Fig. 2. Sketchesafter photographs(A, B, D, and E) and one

photomicrograph(C) of Dl structuresfrom the Cordillerade la
Costa belt, Venezuela; all figures are orientedwith West to the
left and East to the right. (A) rotated boudin of eclogite (E)
with quartz-filled pressureshadows(Q) in mica schist; (B)
boudin of graphiteschistin mica schist;(C) quartz (Q) pressure
shadowsaround garnet (G) in mica schist; (D) quartz (Q)
pressureshadowsaroundpyrite (P) grain in phyllite; (E) east-
and west-dipping semibrittle normal faults in phyllite with
quartzveins
 AV• LALLEMANT 117

i.

-Forearc
x/

S
cea n t o

Fig.3. Hypothetical
mapof volcanic
islandarc/forearc/subduction
zonecomplexandmodelfor displacement
partitioning;
hypothetical
focalmechanisms
asin Figure1 (seetextforexplanation).

volcanicarc migratednortheastward in betweenthe North portion of the olderCordillerade la Costa belt were thrust
and South American plates. In the southernpart of the southward onto South America.
subduction zoneplateconvergence washighlyright-oblique The east-southeast migration of the Caribbeanplate
andthe obliquityincreasedcontinuously. The D• structures continuestoday. Dx structuresmay still form at depth.
in the Cordillera de la Costa belt formed here while the Earthquakefocal-mechanism studies clearly indicate that
eclogites and blueschists slowly ascended and were displacement partitioningtakesplacein the arc,but also in
decompressed. In EocenetimetheCaribbeanplatecollided the thrust belt.
with the Bahamasand startedmoving east-southeastward. The structural evolution of the Cretaceous Cordillera de
The Cordillerade la Costaterranewascarriedpassivelyto la Costabelt, the Tertiaryevolutionof the Araya-Pariabelt,
the east-southeastuntil parts of it were thrust (D2) andtherecentactivityin the southernLesserAntilles are an
southwardonto the SouthAmericancontinent;partsof the exampleof extremediachronism of deformationresulting
belt continued moving east-southeastward with the fromhighlyobliqueplateconvergence.
Caribbeanplatealongeast-trending dextralstrike-slipfaults.
Meanwhileminor subductionalongthe southernpart of
the LesserAntilles arc continued;the Araya-Pariaterrane Acknowledgments.This study was supportedby National
was subductedto only shallowdepthsand ascendedduring ScienceFoundationgrants EAR-8517383, EAR-9019243, and
Oligocenetime; deformationstructuresindicatethat it was EAR-9304377. This paper benefited enormouslyfrom critical
deformed in a similar tectonic environment as the Cordillera reviews by Susan Cashman, Chris Goldfinger, and Richard
de la Costabelt. In the Miocenethe Araya-Pariabelt anda
118 DISPLACEMENT PARTITIONING AND ARC-PARALLEL
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Av6 Lallemant, H.G., and L.R. Guth, Role of extensional
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Av6 Lallemant, H.G., and V.B. Sisson, Caribbean-South
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Rice University,Houston,Texas
 Thermal and PetrologicStructureof SubductionZones
Simon M. Peacock

Departmentof Geology,Arizona State University,Tempe,Arizona

The subductionof oceaniclithospheredepressesisothermson a regional scale resulting in

large thermal anomalies in the upper mantle. The thermal structure of a subductionzone
dependson many parametersincludingthe thermal structure(age) of the incominglithosphere,
convergence rate, geometry of subduction, radioactive heating, induced convection in the
overlying mantle wedge, and rate of shearheating along the subductionshearzone. Numerical
calculations suggest that subduction shear-zone temperatures beneath the volcanic front
generallylie between500 and 700 øC, but considerableuncertaintyin the thermal structureof
subduction zones results from uncertainties in the rate of shear heating and mantle-wedge
convection.
Lowforearc
heatflow(25-50mW/m2),seismic
coupling
to depths
of-40 km,and
high-pressure,low-temperaturemetamorphicrocks all indicate that subductionzones are cool
and constrain subductionzone shear stressesin the brittle (frictional) regime to 10-30 MPa or
1-5% of lithostatic pressure. In most subductionzones, the subductingoceanic crust passes
throughthe blueschist-• eclogite metamorphicfacies transitionwhere continuousdehydration
reactions
mayrelease
'largeamounts
of H20. Integrated
overtime,aqueous
fluidsreleased
from
the subductingslab causeextensivehydrationof the overlying mantle wedge and trigger partial
melting in the core of the convectingmantle wedge. Partial melting of subductingoceanic
crust occurs only under rare circumstancessuch as near the subductionof a spreadingridge.
Uncertaintiesin the petrologic structureof subductionzones result from uncertaintiesin the
thermal structure,the distributionof hydrousminerals in the oceanic lithosphere,and possible
kinetic barriers to metamorphic reactions. Detailed seismological investigations that
illuminate the velocity and attenuationstructureof the subductingslab and mantle wedge have
the potentialto betterdefinethe thermalandpetrologicstructureof subductionzones.

INTRODUCTION recyclingare intimatelylinked to the thermalandpetrologic

Much of Earth's geologic activity occursin subduction
zones where oceaniclithospheredescendsinto the mantle.
Spectacular arc volcanism is associated with most
subductionzones, despite the pronouncedcooling of the
mantle by subductinglithosphere. The largest historic
earthquakes(1960 Chile, 1964 Alaska)haveoccurredalong
subductionzones and in many western Pacific subduction
zonesseismicityextendsfrom the surfaceto nearly 700 km
depth. Arc magmatism,subduction-zone earthquakes,and
other subduction-zone processes such as crust-mantle
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright 1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion
119
evolution of subduction zones. In this contribution, I
discuss(1) the thermal structureof subductionzonesbased
on two-dimensionalheat-transfermodels; (2) constraintson
thermal models provided by geological and geophysical
observations;and (3) the petrologicstructureof subducting
oceaniccrestand the overlyingmantlewedge.
THERMAL STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES
Analytical vs. Numerical Solutions
The complex nature of subductionzone processes,as
illustratedin Figure 1, rule out the possibilityof deriving
exact analyticalsolutionsthat describethe thermalstructure
of a subduction zone. However, accurate analytical
approximationsexist to calculate temperaturesat shallow
120 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

/ oceanic
crust forearc •, volcanic
arc finite-element,and spectralmethods,can be usedto solve

...........
re••'l•dip
thermalstructu
(age)ofincoming
fithosphere • ß
•_
mechanical
I
lithosphere thermal
lithosphere
thetime-dependent heattransferequation:

•. 4e_•'.'.•,• induced •)T _ tcV2T v VT + A (3)

•)t p C
• mantle-wedge
l•mO
l convection
where T = temperature (K), t = time (s), tc = thermal
diffusivity
(m2/s),v = velocityfield(m/s),A = volumetric
heatproduction
(W/m3),p = density (kg/m3),andC = heat
capacity (J/(kg-K)). The three terms on the fight side of
Figure 1. Schematic•oss sectionshowingimportantfeatures equation(3) representheat conduction,heat advectionand
and processes that determine the thermal structure of a heat sources/sinks,respectively.
subduction zone. The numerical model usedin this paper is describedin
detailin Peacock[1991] andPeacocket al. [1994]. Briefly,
equation (3) is solved using finite-differencetechniques
within a 400-kin by 600-km grid orientedparallel to the
levels in a subduction zone and numerical solutions can subductionshearzone. The angle of subductionis fixed at
yield accuraterestfluat deeperlevels. 26.6øwhichapproximates the averagedip of Wadati-Benioff
At depthslessthan50 km, subduction-zone temperatures zonesfrom 0 to 100 km depth[Jarrard, 1986]. The initial
may be readily calculated using analytical expressions thermalstructureof the subductinglithosphereis def'medby
derived by Molnar and England [1990]. Steady-state Steinand Stein's[1992] global depthandheat flow model
temperatures alongthe subructionshearzone(i.e., theslab- (GDH1); for most simulationsthe age of the subducting
mantleinterface)are closelyapproximatedby [Molnar and lithospherewas fixed at 50 Ma. Below the base of the
England,1990,eqns.16 and23]: lithospherewe use an adiabaticgradientof 0.3øC/kin. A
steady-state200 Ma geothermis usedfor the initial thermal
T = (Qo+ Qsh)Zf/k (1) structureof the hangingwall. Flow in the mantlewedgeis
simulatedusingBatchelor's[1967] analyticalsolutionfor
whereT = temperature
(K), Qo= basalheatflux(W/m2), two-dimensionalincompressible, constant-viscosityflow in
Qsh= rateofshear
heating
(W/m2),
zf=depth
tothefault a comerdriven by constantslip equalto the slabvelocityat
(m), k - thermalconductivity(W/(m-K)), andS - a divisor the top of the subductingoceaniclithosphere. A no-slip
that accountsfor advectiongiven by: boundaryconditionis usedat the baseof the mechanical
(rigid)lithospheredefmedasthe 1000øCgeotherm(equalto
S = 1 + b ¾(Vzr sin/J) (2)
a depth of-65 km). Each numericalsimulationwas run
where b = a constant(--1 basedon numericalexperiments), until all temperatureswithin 10 km of the subduction shear
V = convergence
rate(m/s), t5= angleof subduction,
and tc zonechanged< 1% overa 1 m.y. interval(steadystate).
= thermaldiffusivity(m2/s). Equations
(1) and(2) show
thathigherconvergence
ratesandsteepersubduction
angles ImportantVariables
lead to cooler subduction shear-zone temperatures.
Conversely,
warmerincoming
slabs(higherQo)andhigher The subduction of cool oceanic lithosphere exerts a
ratesof shearheatinglead to warmersubductionshear-zone primary control on the thermal structureof subduction
temperatures. Thus, we would expect the Mariana zones by depressing isotherms in the region of the
subduction zone to be relatively cool compared to the subductingslab(Fig. 2). On a regionalscale,isothermsare
Cascadia subduction zone. Additional analytical subparallelto flow lines in the subductingslab and the
expressions presented by Molnar and England[1990]and overlyingmantlewedge. In steadystate,invertedisotherms
Peacock [1992, 1993] allow temperaturesto be calculated (hotterrockslying abovecoolerrocks)occuronly within
within the subductingslabandthe overridingplate. certainpartsof the convectingsystem,i.e., nearthe top of
At depths greater than 50 km, subduction-zone the subductingslaband the baseof the convectingmantle
temperatures may be moreaccuratelypredictedby numerical wedge. Within the "rigid" part of the overridingplate
models [e.g., Peacocket al., 1994] that simulateinduced (mechanical lithosphere),inverted isothermsmay occur
flow in the mantle wedgeand the transitionfrom brittle to during the early (transient) stagesof subduction,but
plastictheologyin the subductionshearzone. A rangeof thermalsteadystateis characterizedby temperaturesthat
numericalmodelingtechniques,includingfmite-difference, increasemonotonicallydownward.
 PEACOCK 121

Subductionzonemodelspresentedover thepast25 years

demonstrate that the thermal structure of a subduction zone
dependson numerous parametersincluding: the thermal
structure(age) of the incominglithosphere,the convergence
rate, the geometry of subduction, the distribution of
radiogenicheat-producingelements,the rate of shearheating
along the subductionshear zone, and the geometry and
vigor of inducedconvectionin the overlyingmantle wedge
(Fig. 1) [e.g., Oxburghand Turcotte,1970; Hasebeet al.,
1970; ToksOz et al., 1971; Turcotte and Schubert, 1973;
Andersonet al., 1978; Hondaand Uyeda,1983;Hsui et al.,
1983; Wang and Shi, 1984; Cloos, 1985; Honda, 1985;
van den Beukel and Wortel, 1988; Peacock, 1990a, b; 1991;
Dumitru, 1991;Davies and Stevenson,1992;Staudigeland
King, 1992; Furukawa, 1993; Peacock et al., 1994]. The
results of selected numerical models are presented in
Table 1. These examples illustrate the most important
factors that determine the thermal structure of a subduction
zone are the rate of shear heating along the subduction
thrustand inducedconvectionin the mantle wedge. In the
absenceof shearheating,estimates of thetemperature
in the
subductionshearzone at 100 km depthrangefrom 300 to
750 øC (Table 1, shearstress= 0). The lowestcalculated
ß• • • • • - -.:.:.:.•.:.:.:.:.:.:./d,...:.-.:.:.:.:.-........-.:.-.....•...,•..........-.:.v.:...-.-.-.-.-.-
...................
•
•
.•
•
•
•
• -........•.....•....:.....:.....:.... temperatures
resultfrom experiments
•.•:.......•.•....•.•.::::•:•v.•.•..........•.....;.....:...............•.•.•.•.•.•...•:.:•.....•......:.Z...•..........•.•Z•....:..•.:.:.:..•.
-.-.:.:.:.:.;.;.;.-
....:.v.:.--•..:.............v:...............•...•"•...?•..•...•...•.`•......'•..•....•.•..•.•?•....•:•.•..•..........•...............•...•v..•
.. in whichthemantle
.. .• .• '-.. ..............1...................•
• • • • ..................
•.'ßß'".2'"'"'""
...... '"-'"'"'""-' wedgeis assumedto be rigid. Shearheating,causedby
shearstressesof the orderof 100 MPa, dramaticallyincrease
calculatedtemperatures'
in the subduction
shearzoneto
valuesin excessof 1000 øC at 100 km depth [e.g., ToksOz
et al., 1971; Turcotteand Schubert,1973].
The thermal effectsof convergencerate, slab age, and
inducedmantleconvectionaredepictedin Figure3 basedon
the ntunerical model described above. In the absence of

' .........
......................................
...............
- '""""
'-'"'"'"
ßß
shear heating, faster convergencerates result in cooler
subductionshear-zonetemperatures (Fig. 3B). In contrast,
ß.• -'-,,, -•.• •.• • ' ......................
.....•...-.....-.
........
for high
•....•.........•......._...•..........-........•...,....,:,:.....-.........•.
subduction-zone
shear stresses,
fasterconvergence
- ........... rates result in higher rates of shearheatingand warmer
subduction shear-zonetemperatures (Fig. 3B). The thermal
structure (age)of theoceaniclithospherepriorto subduction
'-...'.. also influences the thermal structure of the subduction zone;
youngersubductingslabsresult in warmer subduction
! shear-zone temperatures(Fig. 3C).
I(D)
V:,0mm/yr,
•: 55'0
P,TBp:
500øC
• ,..,• --..... ',,• ' The subductionof oceaniclithosphereinducesconvection
Figure 2. Steady-state subduction-zone thermal structures in the overlyingmantlewedge[McKenzie,1969]. From a
calculated using a two-dimensional numerical model for four
thermal point of view, the base of the mantle wedge
different sets of parameters. Age of incoming lithosphere:
50 Ma. Solid and dashed lines are isotherms labeled in øC.
becomes partof, andsubducts with,thecoolslab(Fig. 2).
Induced mantle convection,which brings warmer mantle
Shaded area represents rigid, 65-km-thick, mechanical
lithosphere. Solid triangles representslocation of a typical materialinto closeproximityto the top of the subducting
arc volcano located 125 km above the top of the subducting slab,increasestemperatures
in thesubduction shearzoneby
slab. (A) V = 100 mm/yr, •r=0 (no shear heating). (B) V = 200-350 øC (Fig. 3D). Analyticalandnumericalsolutions
100 mm/yr, •r= 5% P, TBj•= 500 øC. (C) V = 10 mm/yr, predict similar subductionshear-zonetemperaturesat
•r= 0 (no shearheating).(D) V: 10 mm/yr,•r= 5% P, TBj•= shallowdepths(Fig. 3D), but at deeperlevelstheeffectsof
500 øC.
122 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

TABLE 1. Comparisonof selectedsubduction-zone

thermalmodels.

Computational Slab Conver- Shear Temp.at

method, spatial Mantle dip gencerate stress 100 kma
Reference resolution flow model (o) (mm/yr) (MPa) (øC) Comments

Toks6z et al. Finite difference No induced 45 10 0 35O Experimentswith shear

[ 1971] 10 km mantle-wedge 45 10 5O4 1250 heating also include
flow 45 80 0 300 adiabaticcompression,
45 8O 63 52O phasechanges,and
45 8O 252 9OO radioactivity.
Honda Finite difference T- and P- 27 100 0 750 Rigid mantlewedge
[ 1985] 5 km dependent 27 100 100 1050 corner.

viscosity

Davies and Finite element Constant 30 72 0 600 No frictional heatingor

Stevenson 3 to 40 km viscosity 60 72 0 400 viscous dissipation.
[1992]

Furukawa Finite difference T- and P- 30 40 0 650 No frictional heating

[ 1993] 5 km dependent 60 40 0 620 along the slab interface.
viscosity 30 80 0 620
60 80 0 600

Peacock Finite difference Analytical 27 10 0 545 No viscousdissipation

etal. [1994] lto5km corner flow 27 10 100 710 within mantle wedge.
solution 27 3O 0 485 Additional calculations
27 30 100 800 evaluateslab age, transient
27 100 0 475 regimes, and different
27 100 100 990 shearheating models.

aTemperature
attheslab-mantle
interface
at100kmdepth.
Theinterpolation
oftemperature
values
fromcontour
diagrams
in theoriginalreferences
results
in uncertainties
of approximately
+50 øC.

inducedmantleconvection,
whicharecurrentlysimulated shear zones, based on surface heat flow measurementsand
only in numericalmodels,must be included. petrologicarguments, rangefrom~100MPa [Scholz, i990;
Molnar and England,1990] to severaltensof MPa [vanden
ShearHeating Beukel and Wortel, 1988; Peacock, 1992; Tichelaar and
Much of the variation in subduction zone thermal Ruff, 1993] to approximatelyzero [Hyndmanand Wang,
structurespresented in the literature results from different 1993]. To illustrate the potential importanceof shear
rates of shearheating(Table 1). Equations(1) and (2) heating,considerthat for V = 50 mm/yr and • = 40 MPa,
explicitly show that temperaturesin the subductionshear Qsh= 60 mW/m 2, whichis comparable to theaverage
zonereflecta trade-offbetweenshearheatingandadvective conductive heat flow out of oceanic crust. For plate
cooling, which increaseand decreasetemperatures, tectonicratesof 10-100 mm/yr, advectivecoolingandshear
respectively.Therateof shear heating (Qsh)isgivenby: heating are approximately balanced for average shear
stressesof ~20 MPa. If averageshearstresses alongthe
Qsh = •: V (4)
slab-mantleinterfaceare < 20 MPa, thenfasterconvergence
where•: = shearstress (Pa)andV = convergence rate(m/s) rateslead to cooler subductionshear-zonetemperatures;if
[Turcotteand Schubert,1973]. Convergence
ratesfor average shear stresses are > 20 MPa, then faster
modem subductionzonesare well constrained,but the convergenceratesleadto warmershearzonetemperatures.
magnitudeof subduction-zone
shearstresses
is poorly In many thermalmodelsof subductionzones,one of two
known. Recent estimates of shear stressesin subduction different shear stress formulations are employed: (A)
 PEACOCK 123

/ _,, H -•.'I,. I-
4- - •-
L
.•.,• !!
•,•,• • II
,•,,,.• :.-
,,•. • ß• _
• I.,,L•••' • •-i.• • .••

1 Gr"':•:•':•••:
q•/' "':"•:•:
..............
---•=100MPa
o-, ............
:.........

5_lith•
4- SM•- . •//•/___
-••'••• •• ••(D)Inducedma
i ! // I[]
' I ,- I convection • -

•
-_ 10Ma- • • / •::'
20Ma- -
• / 0Ma• • • Anal•ical•Numerical
I J • expressions
solutions
_

• • • •V = 30 mm/yr • • •65-km-thick•
L •I v • •co••yr • "r•gi•':. •
1 I• _•• • •.• •ecnamcal

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature(øC) Temperature(øC).

Figure 3. Steady-statepressure-temperature (P-T) conditionsalong the subductionshear zone calculatedusing a

two-dimensional numerical model [Peacock et al., 1994] overlain on basaltic phase equilibria diagram.
(A) Metamorphic facies and partial melting reactionsfor basaltic compositionstaken from sourcesdescribedin
Peacock [1993] and Peacock et al. [1994]: Am, amphibolite facies; DS, dry basaltic solidus; EA, epidote-
amphibolitefacies; EB, epidote-blueschist facies; Ec, eclogite facies;Gr, granulite facies;Gs, greenschistfacies;
Hbd out, fluid-absent partial melting region associatedwith breakdownof hornblende;LB, lawsonite-blueschist
facies; WS, wet basaltic solidus. (B) Subductionshearzone P-T conditionsfor three different convergencerates
(10, 30, and 100 mm/yr) and two different shear stresses(0, 100 MPa). Rapid increase in temperature at
P -2.3 GPa for the 'c = 0 curves results from induced convection in the mantle wedge. Age of incoming
lithosphere = 50 Ma. (C) Subduction shear zone P-T conditions as a function of age of the subducting
lithosphere. V = 100 mm/yr, 'c = 0. (D) Calculated steady-stateP-T conditionsalong a subductionshear zone
basedon analytical expressions[Molnar and England, 1990] and numerical calculations[Peacocket al., 1994].
Analytical and numerical solutionsagree well at depthsless than 65 km (P < 2.1 GPa) where the subducting
lithosphereis in contact with the rigid mechanicallithosphereof the overriding plate. At depthsgreater than 65
km induced convectionin the mantle wedge, which is simulatedonly in the numerical model, raises temperatures
in the subduction shear zone 250-350 øC.
124 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES
constant shear stress(•: = constant);or (B) shear stresses
increasinglinearly with lithostaticpressure(P) or depth
(v = • P where • is a proportionality constant). These
simple formulationspermit analyticalapproximationsto be
derived. The constantshearstressformulation(A) provides
a feel for average shear stressesin a subducfionzone, but
conflictswith our knowledgethat stressesvary with depth.
Shearstressformulation(B) approximates brittle(frictional)
deformation.Calculatedsteady-statesubductionshear-zone
temperaturesfor V = 100 mm/yr are shown for the two
different shear stressformulations in Figs. 4A and 4B.
Highershearstresses
resultin higherratesof shearheating
andwarmersubducfionshear-zonetemperatures.
Neither shearstressformulation(A) nor (B) accurately
simulatesthe transitionfrom brittle (frictional) to plastic
(creep)behavioras temperatureincreasesin the subduction
shearzone with increasingdepth. In the plastic regime,
rock strengthand the maximum shear stressthat can be
supporteddropsdramaticallywith increasingtemperature
[e.g.,Kirby, 1983]. Becausesubduction
shearzonesmay
occur in metasedimentary, metabasaltic, or hydrous
ultramaficrocks, the choiceof an appropriateplastic flow
law is uncertain. Rather than specifyingthe material in the
subducfionshearzone,I chooseto definethe temperatureof
the brittle-plastictransition,Tsp, above which shear
stressesdecreaseexponentiallywith increasingtemperature
accordingto therelation:
r = rBp exp [(T- TBp ) / L ] (5)
where •:•p = shear stress (Pa) at the brittle-plastic
transition, T•, = temperature (K) of the brittle-plastic
transition, and L = characteristic1/e relaxation scale (fixed
at 75 K). This simpleexpressioncloselyapproximatesthe
power-lawrheologyof plastic(ductile)materials[Peacock
et al., 1994]. Calculated subduction shear-zone
temperaturesfor three differentvaluesof T•,: 300øC (wet
the top of the slabfrom -250 øCto -600 øC at a depthof
quartzite),500øC (dry aliabase,marble, and dry quartzite),
and 800øC (dry dunite), are depictedin Fig. 4C. The 120 km (Fig. 3D). A cool boundarylayer formsin the
increasein shearheatingthat occursin the brittle regime mantlewedgeadjacentto the slab,the thicknessof which
dropsoff rapidlyat T > TB•,. Partialmeltingtemperatures dependsprimarilyon theviscosityof themantlewedge,the
are achieved in the shear zone only if the brittle-plastic
transitionlies closeto themeltingtemperature of therocks.
Therangein predictedsubduction shear-zonetemperatures
depictedin Fig. 4 illustrates
theimportance of constraining
the rate of shearheatingin subductionzones. Later in this
paper,I describedifferenttypesof datathat constrainthe
thermal structureof subductionzones. Most data suggest
shearstresses
in subductionzoneslie in the rangeof 10 to
30 MPa or a few percentof lithostaticpressure. Given
shearstressesin this range,I presenta rangein probable
subductionshear-zonetemperatures in Fig. 4D for V = 10,
30, and 100 mm/yr. For eachconvergence rate, the range
in subductionshear-zonetemperaturesis bracketedby two
shear-heatingscenarios.
Completetwo-dimensional thermal
structures
for V = 10 and 100 mm/yr andthe two bracketing
shearstressend-members are depictedin Fig. 2. Predicted
temperaturesin thesubductionshearzoneat depthsof 100-
125 km rangebetween500 and700 øCsuggesting thatthe
top of the subductingslab lies at subsolidusconditions
beneaththe volcanicfront. Calculatedtemperatures
within
the upperpart of the subducting
slabbelowthe subduction
shearzoneare evencooler(Fig. 2).
InducedFlow in theMantle Wedge
Critical to our understanding
of arc magmagenesisis the
thermalstructureof the mantle wedgewhich is controlled
primarilyby thevigorandgeometryof inducedflow in the
mantle wedge above the subductingslab. Flow in the
mantle wedge is driven by viscous coupling to the
subducting slab, thermal buoyancy, and petrologic
buoyancy and has been investigatedanalytically and
numericallyby McKenzie [1969], Andrewsand Sleep
[1974],Bodri andBodri [1978],Marsh [1979],Andersonet
al. [1980], Hsui et al. [1983], Honda [1985], Davies and
Stevenson[1992], andFurukawa [1993] amongothers. All
of thesestudiespredictqualitativelysimilarflow fields,but
significantdifferencesin the calculatedthermalstructure
arise from different boundary conditions and viscosity
formulations. Qualitatively, induced convectionin the
mantle wedge brings warm mantle material into close
proximity to the subductingslab; induced convection
warmsthe subductingslab at the expenseof coolingthe
adjacentmantlewedge. Most modelssuggest thatinduced
mantle-wedgeconvectionheats the top of the slab by
severalhundreddegrees;for example,the two-dimensional
model describedabovesuggestsinducedconvectionheats
subductionvelocity, and thermal parameters. Dynamical
calculationsby Kincaid [1995] whichsolvefor themantle-
wedgeflow field usinga temperature-dependent rheology
showthat the cool boundarylayer (viscousblanket)keeps
the subductingslabat subsolidus conditions.
Within a subducfionzone, viscosity varies over many
orders of magnitude making dynamical calculations
computationally difficult, particularlyat the comerof the
mantle wedge and at the boundarybetweenthe high-
viscosity "rigid" subductingplate and the low-viscosity
convectingmantle wedge. In contrastto most mantle-
 PEACOCK 125

(A)'•=
constant
-
-
o,I
II • ß //• //
'/
-
-

, •-.

5
(C) Brittle:'• = ¾P
Ductile:-cc• exp (-T)
800øC

300øC

,• L/i"'/:--------:-'••:,-'f/•
::....-.....,•
V=30rnrn/yr
/
I v=10m_m/yr
!•
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature(øC) Temperature(øC)
Figure
4. Steady-state
(P-T)paths
along
thesubduction
shearzone
fordifferent
shear
heating
modelscalculated
using
a two-dimensional
numerical
model [Peacock
etal.,1994].Ageofincoming
lithosphere
= 50Ma. See
Figure
3Afordescription
ofmetamorphic
facies
andpartial
meltingreactions.
(A)Subduction
shear
zoneP-T
conditions
calculated
for differentvaluesof constant
shearstressalongthe subduction
shearzone. V = 100
mm/yr.(B)Subduction
shear
zoneP-T conditions
calculated
fordifferent
ratesof shear
heating
where
shear
stresses
increase
linearly
withpressure.
V = 100mm/yr.(C) Subduction
shear
zoneP-Tconditionscalculated
for
different
ratesof shearheating
whereshearstresses
increase
linearlywithpressure
in thebrittleregimeand
decrease
exponentially
withincreasing
temperature
in theplastic
(ductile)
regime.P-T paths
depart
fromthe
•:= 0.05 P curveat thetemperature
of thebrittle-plastic
transition
(300,500, or 800 øC)markedby arrows.
V = 100mm/yr.(D)Estimatedrangeinsteady-state
P-Tconditionsalong
subductionshear
zones forV = 10,30,
and100mm/yr.Foreachconvergence rate,theshaded
region is bounded
bytwontunerical
experiments:(1) no
shearheating
and(2) relatively
highshearheatingwhere
•:= 5%P for0 < T < 500øC(brittle-plastic
transition)
andshearstresses
decrease
exponentially
forT > 500øC[Peacock
etal., 1994].Seetextfordiscussion.
126 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION
wedge calculations,Marsh [1979] arguesthat induced
convectioncaneffectivelybringhot rocksinto contactwith
the subductingslab,raisingthe temperatureof the top of
the slab to ~1400 øC at 120 km depth. This conflicting
resultsuggeststhat the thermaleffectsof inducedflow in
the mantlewedgeare still uncertain.Futurework will also
needto evaluatethe effectsof hydmtionandpartialmelting
on therheologyof themantlewedge.
Additional Uncertainties in the Thermal Models
Additionalvariablesthat lead to significantuncertainties
in calculatingthe thermal structureof subducfionzones
includehydrothermal circulationin theoceaniclithosphere,
the variation of thermal parameterswith T and P, the
amount of heat consumedand releasedby metamorphic
reactions,and the effectsof fluid flow at shallowdepths.
In most thermal models of subduction zones, the thermal
structureof the subductinglithosphereis defined by a
purelyconductiveplatemodel. Hydrothermalcirculation
nearspreadingridgesremovessubstantialamountsof heat
from the upperpartsof theoceaniclithosphere
[e.g.,Stein
and Stein, 1994], but this effect is not generallytaken into
accountin subductionzone models. For example,the very
warm P-T paths depicted in Figure 3C for young
subductingslabs(curveslabeled0, 2, and 5 Ma) assume
conductivegeotherms for theincomingoceaniclithosphere.
Because hydrothermal circulation cools the incoming
lithosphere,actual P-T paths for young slabsmay be
substantially coolerthanthepathsdepictedin Figure3C.
In most thermal models thermal diffusivity (or thermal
conductivity)is assumedto be constantthroughoutthe
model. Experimentaldatashowthatthethermaldiffusivity
of geologicmaterialsdecreases significantly
with increasing
temperature [ClauserandHuenges,1995]. The decrease in
thermal diffusivity with increasingtemperaturemay be
largelybalancedby the increasein radiativeheattransport.
Becausethe effectivelengthscaleof radiativeheat transport
in the mantle may be limited by scattering at grain
boundaries andabsorptionby Fe-bearingminerals,radiative
heattransfermay be effectivelymodeledas a diffusiveheat
transportmechanism. I am not aware of any thermal
modeling study that systematically explores the
uncertaintiesintroducedby variationsin thermalparameters.
Metamorphicdehydrationreactionsin the subducting slab
may consumesignificantamountsof heat[Anderson et al.,
1976, 1978; Delany and Helgeson, 1978]. Similarly,
hydration reactions in the overlying mantle wedge may
release significant amountsof heat [Peacock, 1987].
Together,thesetwo effectswill act to retard the thermal
evolution of a subduction zone, i.e., endothermic
ZONES
dehydrationreactionsretardwaxmingof the subductingslab
and exothermichydration reactionsretard cooling of the
mantle wedge [Peacock, 1987]. The magnitudeof this
effect dependscritically on the poorly constrainedamount
and distribution of hydrous minerals in the oceanic
lithosphereprior to subduction(see petrology section
below). Thermal calculationsby Andersonet al. [1978]
that assumeda subductingcrustalmineralogycontaining6
wt % boundH20 suggested
that the heatconsumed
by
metamorphicreactionscotfiddepressisothermsseveraltens
of kilometers. Thermal calculationsby Peacock [1990b]
thatassumed
2 wt % boundH20 in thesubducting
oceanic
crestindicatethat metamorphicreactionshave only a minor
effecton the calculatedthermalstructure(<5 øC). Anderson
et al. [1978] assumedthat the removalof heatby advecting
fluids would effectively doublethe metamorphicheat sink.
Thermal models that explicitly incorporate the flow of
metamorphicfluids asan advectiveheattransfermechanism
do not supportthis assumption[Peacock,1987].
At shallowdepths(<10-20 km) the thermalstructureof
subduction zones may be perturbed by hydrothermal
circulation. Fluid flow in accretionaryprismscan strongly
perturbthe thermalstructurebecauselargevolumesof pore
fluidsare expelledduringsedimentcompaction[e.g.,Reck,
1987; Wang et al., 1993]. Metamorphic reactionsalso
contributeto the fluid flux, particularly at shallow depths
whereclay mineralsdehydrateto form micas. At depths>
50 km, advectionof heatby the flow of metamorphicfluids
is limited by the small volume of releasedfluid and does
not affect the deep thermalstructuresignificantly[Peacock,
1987; 1990b]. Within the arc crust, the thermal structure
will be altered by the vigorous hydrothermalcirculation
associated with the emplacement of magmas which
themselvesobviouslyperturbthe thermalstructure.
CONSTRAINTS ON THE THERMAL STRUCTURE OF
SUBDUCTION ZONES
1. Heat Flow Measurements
Surface heat flow measurements in the forearcs of
subduction
zonestypicallyrangefrom25 to 50 mW/m2
reflecting relatively cool temperaturesat depth. The low
heat flow values indicate that the subducfion zone thermal
structureis dominated by the advection of cool oceanic
lithosphereandnot by shearheating. However,forearcheat
flow measurements are commonlygreaterthanpredictedby
simple conduction-advection models of subducting
lithosphererequiringa contributionto surfaceheat flow
from shear heating, radiogenic heat production, fluid
advection,or the thermaleffectsof forearcdeformation.

Using heat-flowmeasurements to constrainshearheating
in subductionzones suffers from three problems. First,
heat flow data typically e•ibit large scatter;singlevalues
must be interpreted cautiously. Second, heat flow
measurementsonly reflect the local conductivegeotherm
whichmay be perturbedby advectiveprocesses suchasfluid
flow, deformation,and erosion/deposition. Third, heatflow
dataare acquiredeitherin sediments or in relativelyshallow
boreholes. In order to constrainthe rate of shearheating,
thesedatamustbe extrapolatedtensof kilometersdownward
to the subduction shear zone.
Perhaps the best heat flow data set comes from the
northern Cascadiasubductionzone, where surfaceheat flow
measurementsdecrease systematically
from~120mW/m2 bearingsedimentscap the subductingplate andmay control
in theCascadiabasinto •-80mW/m2 ontheslopeof the the seismic behavior of the subduction shear zone. The
accretionary
prismto <40 mW/m2 on Vancouver Island brittle-plastictransitionin wet quartziteoccursat -300 øC
(250 km eastof the trench)indicatingthat isothermsdip [Kirby, 1983] for strainrateson the orderof 10-13/s.
eastwardin the samedirectionas the subductingslab [e.g.,
Hyndman and Wang, 1993]. Thermal modelingof the
Cascadiasubductionzoneby Hyndmanand Wang[1993]
successfullymatches the heat flow constraintswithout
requiringany frictionalheating.
Tichelaar and Ruff [1993] inverted heat flow
measurements from nine subductionzonescharacterizedby
large thrust earthquakesand found that v = 14 to 27 MPa
(constant shear stress)or v = 0.06 to 0.10 P (shear stress
proportional to depth) for different radiogenic heat
production models. For the case in which upper-plate
radiogenic heating decreasesexponentially with depth,
Tichelaarand Ruff [1993] estimatedsubduction
zoneshear
stressesat • = 14 MPa (constantshearstress)and v = 0.059
P (shearstressproportionalto depth).
Using selectedheat flow measurements,Molnar and
England [1990] calculatedrelativelyhigh shearstresses
of
84 + 18 and 73 + 17 MPa for the Japansubductionzone
and 55 + 24 MPa for the Peru subduction zone. As
recognizedby MoltmrandEngland[1990],theircalculations
do not include radioactive heat productionwhich would
reduce the calculatedshear stresses. Tichelaar and Ruff
[1993] included radioactive heat production in their
inversion of heat flow data and calculated substantially
lower shearstressesof 16-31 MPa for the Japan(Honshu)
subductionzone. For the Japansubductionzone, Molnar
and England's[1990] calculationimplicitly assumesthat
the surface heat flow data can be reliably extrapolated
downwardto depthsof 60-70 km.
2. Maximum Depth of SeismicCoupling
Most of the Earth's seismic energy is released in
subductionzoneswhere seismiccoupling(frictional,stick-
slip behavior) extends to greater depths than in other
PEACOCK 127
tectonic environments. In subduction zones characterized
by largeearthquakes, TichelaarandRuff[1993] determined
the maximum depth of the seismiccouplingto be 40 + 5
km as comparedto the 15 km depthobservedin continental
strike-slipfault zones[Sibson,1984]. In continentalfault
zones, the maximum depth of the seismogenic zone
correlateswell with the -300 øC isothermpresumably
becausethe rheologicbehaviorof quartzchangesat T > 300
øC [Sibson, 1984]. The maximum depth of the seismic
couplingin subductionzonesmay also be controlledby a
critical temperature[Tichelaar and Ruff, 1993; Ruff and
Tichelaar, this volume].
In many subduction zones, weak quartz- and calcite-
Assumingthat the 300 øC isothermcontrolsthe maximum
depthof the seismiccouplingin subductionzones,then the
calculated shear stressesrange from •r= 11 to 20 MPa
(constantshear stress)or •r = 1.1% to 3.5% P (shear stress
proportional to depth) using data for the ten subduction
zonesconsidered by TichelaarandRuff[1993]. Radiogenic
heating was not included in these calculations, so these
shearstressesshouldbe considered maximumupperbounds.
In a subduction zone, as in other shear zones,
deformationwill be concentrated
in the weakestrocks[e.g.,
Yuen et al., 1978]. Deformation in most subductionzones
probablywill be concentrated in the sedimentarylayer at the
top of the subductingplate. In those subductionzones
whereall incomingsedimentsare offscrapedor underplated
at shallow depths,the shearzone may developin the mafic
subductingoceaniccrust. Basalticrocks are strongerthan
sediments [e.g., Kirby, 1983] and the brittle-plastic
transition occurs at higher temperatures. If the critical
temperatureis substantiallygreaterthan300 øC, thenshear
stresses
calculated
assuming
Tc = 300øCwill betoolow.
As discussedearlier, Tichelaarand Ruff[1993] usedheat
flow data to estimate subduction zone shear stresses of • =
14 MPa or •r = 0.059 P using a model in which upper
plateradiogenicheatingdecreases
exponentiallywith depth.
Usingtheseshearstressvalues,theycalculated
thecritical
temperature(Tc) at the base of the seismogeniczone in
different subductionzones, finding Tc •. 250 øC for a
constantshearstressandTc -- 400 (thickcrust)or -- 550 øC
(thin crust) for shear stressesthat increasewith depth
[Tichelaarand Ruff, 1993].
3. High-Pressure,Low-TemperatureMetamorphicRocks
The low temperatures recorded by blueschist-facies
metamorphicrocksplace an upperboundon the magnitude
128 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

of shearstresses in subduction
zonesat depthsof 15-50km the subductingoceaniccrest and overlyingmantle wedge
[Peacock,1992]. Calculatedsteady-stateP-T pathsintersect with phaseequilibriafor mafic andultramaficsystems[e.g.,
the blueschistfacies,broadlydefmed,for •r = 10 to 60 MPa Wyllie, 1979, 1988; Peacock, 1993]. The location of
for V= 100mm/yrand•r =0to100MPaforV=30 phaseboundariesand the resultantpetrologicstructureare
mm/yr[Peacock,1992]. If shearstresses increase linearly sensitive to the thermal structure; in other words,
with depth,blueschist-faciesP-T pathsrequire•r= 0.01 to uncertainties in the thermal structure translate to
0.09 P and •r= 0 to 0.14 P for V = 100 and 30 mm/yr, uncertaintiesin the petrologicstructure.In generaltermsff
respectively[Peacock,1992]. Inclusionof radiogenic
heat the subductingoceanic crust is relatively warm, then the
production reduces the estimated shear stresses. The subducting oceanic crust may undergo partial melting
commonoccurrence of blueschist-facies metamorphic rocks [Wyllie, 1988]. Alternatively, if the subductingoceanic
in ancientsubduction zonessuggests thattemperatures are crust is relatively cool, then the subductingoceaniccrust
relatively cool beneath forearcs, but uncertaintiesin the will undergosubsolidus metamorphicdehydrationreactions
convergencerate during blueschistformation translateto ratherthanpartialmelting [Wyllie, 1988].
considerable uncertainties in calculated shear stresses. Peacock[1990a, 1991, 1993] emphasized theimportance
Recently, Maekawa et al. [1993] describedclasts of of constructing petrologic models based on pressure-
blueschist-facies metabasaltsthat were broughtto the temperature(P-T)paths becauserocks move throughthe
surfaceby a serpentinitediapir in the forearcof the active subductionsystemand the thermal structurechangeswith
Marianasubduction zone.Mineralassemblages andmineral time during the early stagesof subduction. In a mature
compositions suggestpeak metamorphicconditionsof T = subductionzonethathasreachedthermalsteadystate,theP-
150-250 øC and P = 0.5-0.6 MPa for the blueschist clasts T path followed by the top of the subductingoceaniccrust
[Maekawaet al., 1993]. Assumingthe blueschists formed correspondsto the P-T conditions along the subduction
in thepresent-day subduction zone(V = 80 to 100 mm/yr; shearzone. It takes -5-20 million years to reach steady-
dip = 12ø),theP-T conditions requireshearstresses of 18___8state conditionsin a subductionzone. During this early,
MPa in the Mariana subducfion zone. This valueagrees transient period subductionshear-zonetemperaturesare
well with Bird's [1978] estimateof •r= 16.5_+7.5MPa for slightly warmer than depictedin Figures3 and 4 and P-T
the Mariana subduction zone based on a force-balance pathsdeviate from the instantaneous
P-T conditionsalong
calculation.Alternatively,if shearstresses
areproportional the shearzone [Peacock, 1992; Peacocket al., 1994].
to depth,thentheblueschist P-T conditionsrequire•:= 2.4 In steady-statesubductionzonescharacterizedby low to
to 4.9% P in the Mariana subduction zone. moderaterates of shearheating, subductingoceaniccrest
Low-temperature mafic eclogitesoccurin manypaleo- passesthrough the blueschist --. eclogite metamorphic
subductionzonesandrecordpeakmetamorphic conditions faciestransition(Fig. 4D), consistentwith the widespread
of 500-600øCat 2 GPabasedonmineralassemblages and occurrenceof blueschistsandeclogitesin formerconvergent
geothermobarometry [e.g., Carswell, 1990]. Coesite- platemargins[e.g.,Ernst, 1973;Evansand Brown,1986].
bearingeclogites,mostlyderivedfrom continentalcrust,are CalculatedP-T pathsfor subductingoceaniccrustdo not
exposed in the Alpine, Qinling-Dabie-Sulu (China), pass through the higher temperature greenschist,
Caledonian,and Ural orogenicbelts and recordpeak amphibolite,or granulitemetamorphicfacies as suggested
metamorphictemperatures of 550-900 øCat pressures> 2.5 by previous workers [e.g., Wyllie, 1988]. At the
GPa (depth> 90 km). Thelow temperatures recorded by blueschist--. eclogitetransitionhydrousmineralsstablein
coesite-bearingeclogitesstronglysuggestformationin a the basaltic oceanic crust, such as lawsonite, sodic
subduction zone where the downward advection of cool amphibole, and chlorite, breakdown via continuous
materialdepresses isothermson a regionalscale[e.g.,Ernst reactionsto form a largely anhydrousmineral assemblageof
andPeacock,thisvolume].Althoughwe do notknowthe garnet + omphacite (Na-Ca clinopyroxene) (Fig. 5A)
rate at which the eclogiteprotolithswere subducted, they [Peacock,1993]. The locationof the blueschist--. eclogite
confirm that the subductingslab is several hundredsof transitionis poorly constrainedat P > 2 GPa andno phase
degreescoolerthanthe surrounding mantle. equilibria experimentshave been conductedat the P > 2
GPa and T < 600 øC. Thermodynamiccalculationsby
PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION Evans [1990] suggest that the blueschist --. eclogite
ZONES transitionis approximatelyisothermalat -500 øC at P > 2
GPa. Recent experimental work [e.g., Pawley and
Petrologic models of subduction zones may be Holloway, 1993] demonstrate that severalhydrousphases,
constructedby combiningcalculatedthermalstructuresfor including lawsonite, mica, and chlorotoid may be stable
 PEACOCK 129

melting, theseearly thermalmodelsincorporatedhigh rates

(A)Subducting
Oceanic
Crust of shear heating with •r = 100-500 MPa. Defant and
Drummond[1990] suggestthat the traceelementandREE
patternsof recent andesificto dacitic volcanics(adakites)
crust:
Variablyhydrated presentin severalmodem arcsmay representpartial melts
basalt and gabbro derivedfrom the subductingoceaniccrust. Partialmelting
facies: ,, ?:::::,
:•:.. ...... :.:::::::::
..... of subducting oceanic crust only occurs in numerical
I' +:::':.'•:
- Na-amphibole* experimentsthat incorporatehigh rates of shear heating,
Chlorite*
'•• "i:
i-.'
.....................
Lawsonite*(czoi*)
Na-clinopyroxene
•uartz
•Eclogite
facies
:'"'"":'"
':":•
' | Na-clinopyroxene
Garnet
I •
I •
I
I
which requireshearstresses > 100 MPa to be maintaine•by
rocks close to their melting temperature(Fig. 4), or that
simulate subduction of very young (<5 Ma) oceanic
Amphibole* I • I lithosphere (Fig. 3C) [Peacock et al., 1994]. Other
Lawsonite*(czoi*)I 'N3q
100
km • Quartz_ J •,1
potential source regions for adakites exist besides the
subductingslab;if it can be conclusivelydemonstrated that
a specificarc magmawas derivedfrom the subductingslab,

(B)
Mantle
Wedge
J then we will have a valuable
structure of the subduction zone.
constraint on the thermal

Hydration
Over time, largeamountsof H20-rich fluids,releasedby
Low temperature: blueschist --> eclogite dehydrationreactions,may cause
Serpentine
Talc extensive hydration of the overlying ultramafic mantle
Brucite
wedge(Fig. 5B). Fyfe and McBirney [1975] suggested that
Free H20
Partial regions of forearc uplift may be related to the volume
melting increasesassociatedwith hydrationreactionsin the mantle
wedge. Serpentinitediapirsin the Mariana and Izu-Bonin
tempera ture: forearcs [Fryer et al., 1985] provide direct evidence of
Amphibole
Phlogopite mantle-wedge hydration. The petrologic structureof the
mantle wedge will depend on the time-integrated P-T
100 km I ••
conditions, hydration history, and chemistry of the
hydratingfluids. At shallowdepthsthemantlewedgemay
Figure 5. Petrologic model of a mature subductionzone. (A)
containlarge amountsof serpentine,talc, and chlorite. At
Mineralogic changes in subducting oceanic crust. Large
deeper levels induced mantle convectionresults in large
amountsof H20 are releasedby continuousdehydration
reactions that occur in subducting oceanic crust during
temperaturegradientsin the mantle wedgeperpendicularto
blueschist --> eclogite facies metamorphism. Proposed the subductingslab. Subsolidusconditionsoccur in the
mineralogy of the subductingslab is shown in boxes; hydrous mantle wedge adjacent to the subducting slab where
minerals are marked by asterisks.(B) Mineralogic changesin amphibole, chlorite, and possiblyphlogopiteare important
mantlewedge. Integratedover time, H20 releasedfrom the stablehydrous phasescapableof incorporatingfluids driven
subducting oceanic crust causes extensive hydration of the out of the underlying slab. Becausethe mantle wedge is
mantle wedge at shallow depths and adjacentto the subducting convectingthe hydratedbaseof themantlewedgewill move
slab. Possiblehydrous minerals stable at different depths are downwardwith the slab [e.g., Tatsumi,1989].
shown in boxes. Water-rich fluids that infiltrate the core of the
Geochemical,isotopic,and petrologicdata suggestthat
convectingmantle wedge may trigger partial melting. most arc magmas are generatedby partial melting of the
mantle wedge inducedby the infiltration of H20 derived
within the eclogitefacies(P = 2-3 GPa) at 650 øC. Further from the subductingslab [e.g., Gill, 1981; Bebout, 1991;
experimentsshouldhelp delineatethe specificreactionsthat Davidson, 1992; Hawkesworthet al., 1993], althougha
occur in subductingoceaniccrustand the depthto which minority view holds that partial melting of the subducting
H20 canbe subducted. oceaniccrust is an importantprocess[e.g., Marsh, 1979;
Severalthermalmodelsof subductionzonespresentedin Myers and Johnston,this volume]. In the core of the
the early 1970's assumeda priori that arc magmaswere convecting mantle wedge beneath the volcanic front,
derived by direct melting of the subductingslab [e.g., temperatureslie well above the wet peridotite solidusand
Oxburghand Turcotte,1970;TurcotteandSchubert,1973]. approach1100-1200 øC at-90 km depth in subduction
In orderto achievethe high temperatures necessaryfor slab zones with rapid convergencerates (Fig. 2). Certain
130 THERMAL AND PETROLOGIC STRUCTURE OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

elementsand isotopesthat are enrichedin arc lavas,suchas oceanic crust and uppermostmantle would significantly
B and10Be
' areclearlyderived oceanic increase,
fromthesubducting andconceivably
dominate,
theH20 budgetof the
crust and sediments [Morris et al., 1990]. How is the subductingslab. Recent experimentsby Ulmer and
distinct geochemical signature of the subducting slab Trommsdorff[1995]haveshownthatserpentine is stableto
transferred into the core of the mantle wedge where arc 620 øC at 5 GPa. Serpentinite, if present, will occurin a
magmas appear to form? The most likely transporting relatively cool part of the slab (5-20 km below the
agentis an aqueousfluid derivedfrom dehydration reactions subduction shear zone) and may remain stable to depths of
in the subductingoceanic crust and sediments. The slab 100 km to >200 km based on the thermal structures
"component" may be transported laterally across the depictedin Fig. 2.
dynamicmantlewedgeto the regionof arcmagmagenesis A second major uncertainty lies in the common
via successivedehydrationandhydrationreactions[Davies assumption that metamorphicreactionsin subductionzones
and Stevenson,1992; Davies, 1994] or partial melting occur at the equilibrium phase boundariesin P-T space.
reactions[Wyllie, 1988; Tatsumi,1989]. Because temperatures in the subductingslabare quitecold,
the possibility exists that reactionsmay be kinetically
Uncertaintiesin thePetrologicStructure hindered. Laboratoryexperimentshave demonstrated that
reactions involving only solid phases, such as the
Aside from the uncertainty in the thermal structure, important eclogite-forming reaction albite -• jadeite +
perhapsthe biggest uncertaintyin predicting the phase quartz, require substantialoversteppingin P-T spacein
changesin the subductingslab and the sites of volatile order to proceed [Hacker et al., 1992a, b]. In contrast,
releaseis our lack of knowledgeregardingthe amountand reactionsproceedrapidlyin the laboratoryin thepresenceof
distribution of hydrous phasesin the oceanic crust and a free fluid phase. Deep-focusearthquakes may be caused
uppermost mantle prior to subduction. Hydrothermal by transformational faulting caused by metastable over-
circulation andsubmarine weathering addCO2 andH20 to steppingof the olivine --> spinelreactionwithin the cold
the oceaniccrust throughthe formation of carbonatesand core of the subductingslab [Green and Burriley, 1989;
hydrous minerals such as chlorite, amphibole, and Kirby et al., 1991]. Intermediate-focusearthquakesthat
serpentine. Carbonates and hydrous minerals are not tend to occur at 90-170 km depthmay reflect metastable
distributedhomogeneouslythroughoutthe oceaniccrust oversteppingof the gabbro-• eclogitereactionwithin the
[e.g., Alt et al., 1986], but rather occurpreferentiallyin, subducting oceaniccrust[Kirby, 1995]. This hypothesis is
and adjacentto, fracturesand permeablezones. Based supportedby the observationof a low seismic-velocity
primarilyon dredgehaul samples,Andersonet al. [1976] waveguide(interpretedasuntransformed oceaniccrust)that
estimated that the basaltic layer of the oceanic crust persiststo depthsof up to 75 to 150 km in the northeast
contains 1.7 to 4.9 wt % H20 (bestestimate = 3.5 wt % Japanand othersubductionzones[seereviewby Kirby et
H20) andthatthegabbroic layercontains1.6to 5.8wt % al., this volume]. An importantunresolvedquestionis the
H20 (bestestimate = 2.5 wt % H20). Basedonanalyses of extentto which fluids liberatedby dehydrationreactionsin
DSDP/ODP drill cores, dredge hauls, and ophiolite the subducting oceanic crust may trigger solid-solid
samples,Peacock[1990a] estimatedthat the basalticlayer reactionsin adjacentrocks[Kirbyet al., thisvolume].
contains anaverage of-2 wt % H20 andthegabbroic layer In the discussionabove it was implicitly assumedthat
anaverage of ~1 wt % H20. altered oceanic crust will transform to a blueschist-facies
The amountand distributionof serpentinizedultramafic mineralogyduring subduction.While this transformation
rocksin the oceaniccrustand uppermostmanfie is poorly may be likely for the uppermostoceanic crust, which
constrained.Serpentinites havebeenrecoveredfromoceanic containspore fluids and very hydrousmineralssuchas
fracturezonesand rift valleys [e.g., Cannat, 1992], but we smectite,kineticsmay hindertransformation of deeperparts
have no direct samplesof the oceanicmantle. The basal of the oceanic crust. Because of the lack of free water,
ultramaficsectionof ophiolitesis commonlyserpentinized, alteredoceanicgabbro(amphibolite)in the subducting slab
but much of the serpentinization may have occurredduring may transform directly to eclogite without first
emplacementof the ophiolite. Heat flow data constrains transformingto blueschistat shallowerdepths.
the amountof hydrothermalcirculationthroughthe oceanic Perhapsthe best hope of constrainingthe thermal and
lithosphere, but does not constrain the depth of petrologic structureof subductionzones lies in detailed
hydrothermalpenetration[Steinand Stein, 1994]. Because seismological investigationsthat illuminate the velocity
serpentine mineralscontain~13 wt % H20 boundin the and attenuation structure of the subducting slab and
crystalstructure,evenminor amountsof serpentinitein the overlyingmantlewedge[e.g.,Helffrichet al., 1989;Zhao
 PEACOCK 131

differentseismicparameters constructing
et al., 1994]. By investigating an accuratepetrologicmodelof subduction
in thesameregionwemaybeableto separate theeffectsof zonesarisefrom our lack of knowledgeregardingthe depth
temperature, bulk composition, mineralogy,andseismic and extentto which the oceaniccrustand uppermostmantle
anisotropy. For example,shallow-levelVp/V s and is hydratedas a resultof hydrothermalconvectionnear
attenuation anomalies observed in the southern Alaska spreadingridges,and the extent to whichmetamorphic
forearcmantle may reflect large-scaleserpentinization reactionsmaybe kineticallyhindered.
[Ponkoet al., 1995]. Ideally, seismicstudiesshouldbe
interpretedin lightof thermal
modelsspecificallytailored Acknowledgments.I thank Dave Scholl,Gray Bebout,and
for individual subductionzonesas has recentlybeen done Steve Kirby for organizing the highly-stimulating1994
for Cascadia[Lewiset al., 1988;Hyndmanet al., 1993], Interdisciplinary Conference on the SubductionProcess
southwest
Japan[Wanget al., 1995],andsouthernAlaska (SUBCON). The original manuscriptwas greatly improved
[Ponko and Peacock, 1995]. Through detailed through constructivereviews by Steve Kirby and several
seismological
studieswe may well find that different anonymous reviewers. This researchwas supportedby the
subductionzoneshave substantiallydifferentthermaland National Science Foundation through grants EAR 91-05741
and EAR 93-03945.
petrologicstructures.

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

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 ContrastingP-T-t Historiesfor BlueschistsFrom the WesternBaja Terraneand
the Aegean' Effects of Synsubduction Exhumationand BackarcExtension

Suzanne L. Baldwin

Departmentof Geosciences,Universityof Arizona, Tucson,Arizona

Thermochronologic studiesof high P, low T metamorphicrocks provide constraintson

protolith ages, subductionburial rates, the timing of subductionrelated metamorphism,and
the timingof subsequent exhumation.Temperature-time datais essentialfor reconstruction
of
accurateP-T-t paths,unambiguous interpretationof the tectonicsignificanceof P-T paths,
andto testthermalmodelswhichpredictthe time scalesrequiredfor the preservationof high
P, low T assemblages. The P-T-t historiesof high P metamorphicrocksfrom the westernBaja
terraneandthe Aegeanare usedas examplesto illustrate how thermochronologic data can be
usedto gain insightinto forearcprocesses. Differencesin exhumationrates and the degreeto
which high P, low T metamorphicrocksare overprintedreflect the variability in processes
affecting convergentmargins. Steady-statesubductioncharacterizedby low geothermal
gradientsin westernBaja enablesslow blueschistexhumationto occur without overprinting
of high P, low T mineralassemblages. In contrast,subductionfollowedby back arc extension
in the Aegeanrequiresrapidexhumationof high P metamorphic rocksto preventoverprinting
by highertemperature mineralassemblages during subsequent higher T metamorphicevents.
P-T-t and structuraldata in other areas (e.g., Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia)indicate
extensiontectonicshasplayeda key role in the exhumationof high P metamorphicrocks.

1. INTRODUCTION
Thermochronology [e.g.,McDougallandHarffson,1988]
It is well known that blueschistsand related high can be used to determineprotolith ages, age(s) of
pressuremetamorphic rocksform at convergentmargins. metamorphism,and subsequentcooling histories of
Howeverthemechanisms by whichhighP, low T mineral subduction
complexes. Exhumationratescanbe determined
assemblages escapeoverprintingby lower P, higher T usingcalculatedcoolingratestogetherwith an assumed
assemblagesduring exhumationremains a topic of average
geothermal gradient.This approachis valid for
considerable
debate[seePlatt, 1993 for a review ]. Rocks geologichistoriesin which geothermalgradientshave
remained constant,and/or are known, during the time
metamorphosed in subductionzones commonlyrecord
period investigated.In this paper thermochronologic
significan
t variations
in metamorphic
conditions.
Thermal
modelspredict.the time scalesrequiredfor high-P,1ow-T constraintson the high-P metamorphicrocks from the
western Baja t•e and the Aegean are discussed.
assemblages.to avoid partial or completeconversionto
highertemperature phasesupon decompression [England Contrasts in theircorresponding
P-T-t historiesreflectthe
andRichardson, 1977;DraperandBone,1981;Englandand effectsof synsubductionexhumation
andbackarcextension,
Thompson,1984;Peacock,1992].However,the detailsof respectively.
the timing of subductionmetamorphism and subsequent 2. SLOW SYNSUBDUCTION EXHUMATION,
exhumationof rocksin most ancientconvergentmargins WESTERN BAJA TERRANE
are not well known.

The westernBajaterrane[Sedlock,1988a,b;this volume]

containshigh P, low T metamorphicrocks which were
Subduction:Top to Bottom slowly exhumedduring steady-state subduction[Baldwin
GeophysicalMonograph96 and Harrison, 1989]. This Franciscan-type
[Ernst, 1988]
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion subductioncomplexwas producedas a resultof oblique
136 CONTRASTING P-T-t HISTORIES FOR BLUESCHISTS

SW NE

convergenceof paleo-Pacific plates with the North a) 170-160Ma Choyalarc

American plate during Jurassic-Cretaceous time. The ..........................

........................
•l•a•l••-•--•-••-:-•.:•••-•:•: osOpio===============================
10 km
loweststructuralunits (i.e., lower plate) exposedin west
centralBaja California[Sedlock,1988b] consistof coherent
metabasites and metasediments regionallymetamorphosed
173
Ma
s'"'"'"'"'"'"'"'"'"' 20

30

40
under blueschistfacies conditions[P=5-10+ kbar and 150- b) 160-150
Ma •
300øC;$edlock,1988a]in Early Cretaceoustime [Ba/dw/n
and Harrison, 1989]. On Cedros Island the upper plate 10 km

consistsof the Choyal terrane,a 165-175 Ma arc-ophiolite 20

complex overlain by late Jurassic volcanic and 30

volcaniclasticrocks[Bolesand•s, 1984; Kimbrough, 4O

c) 150-120 Ma
1985; Busby-Spera, 1987]. Fault zones containing
serpentinite-matrixmelangeseparatethe lower and upper
plates. Blocks within serpentinite-matrixmelange were
derived from at least two sources within the subduction
complex;(1) ~ 115-95 Ma blueschistfacies rocks and (2)
blocks I.40
~ 170-160 Ma epidote-amphiboliteand amphibolitefacies
rocks [Baldwin and Harrison, 1992]. Some epidote-
d) 120-100 Ma Alisitosarc --•
amphibolite facies blocks are partially overprintedby
blueschistfacies mineral assemblages and record both -10 km

metamorphicevents. -20

The westernBaja terraneand serpentinite

melangerecord -30

initiation of subduction, terrane accretion, and '40

synsubductionexhumation of high P, low T metamorphic e) 100-80 Ma

rocks (Figure 1). Initiation of subductionresulted in
growthof theChoyaloceanicislandarcand metamorphism 10 km

of oceanfloor basaltsand overlying sedimentsin Mid- 20

Jurassictime. Tonalitc and granodioriteplutons were 30

emplacedat shallowcrustallevels and cooledrapidly as 4O

indicatedby nearly concordant U-Pb zircon [Kimbrough,

1985]and40Ar/39Ar
feldspar
ages[166-160
Ma;Ba/dw/n, f) 80-20 Ma

19881.
Relatively small volumesof sedimentwere suppliedto 10 km

the trench as subductioncontinuedduring Late Jurassic 20

time. Someepidote-amphibolite facies"blocks"movedto 3O

shallow,coolerlevels(< 100øC)of the accretionary

wedge 4O

inserpentinite
diapirs
asindicated
by40Ar/3
9Arandapatite g)20Ma-present Valle
Fm serpentinite
melange
fission track ages [BaMw/n and Han•son, 1992]. The
Choyalarc collidedwith the North Americancontinentand .......................................
10km
arc magmatismceasedby latestJurassictime [Bolesand 20

Land/s, 1984]. Sedimentsthat eventually formed the 18) (• 30

westernBaja terranewere depositedon the ocean floor at Horizontal not to scale

some distance from the trench.

From 150-120Ma oceaniccrustand overlyingsediments Fig. 1. Schematicevolutionof the subduction complexin west
were subductedand high P, low T metamorphicrocks centralBaja Californiasince170 Ma. St 1-3 denotesubterranes
[after$edlock, 1988b]of the westernBaja terrane.Bs and E are
formed at depth. The accretionarywedge widened as blueschistand eclogite facies rocks, respectively.The 100øC
sedimentsupplyto the trenchincreased.Underplatingof isotherm is indicated. See text for discussion.
coherentsequencesof pillow basalts, cherts, and thin-
beddedturbidites
at depthwasaccompanied by extensionin
the upperportionof the wedge so that stabilitywas continuedto movefrom depthto shallower,coolerportions
maintained
[P/art, 1993].Epidote-amphibolite
faciesblocks of thewedgeassuggestedby apatitefissiontrack
 BALDWIN 137

20
From 120-100Ma someeclogitefaciesrocksmovedto
shallower levels of the subductioncomplex and were Syros
subsequently overprintedby blueschistfacies mineral M1 -50-54 Ma
assemblages. Erosionof the Choyalterranecontributed
a ß:::..., .•'.:Y
distinctive detrital fraction to the Valle Formation 15 :...:
15

turbidites[Gastil et al., 1981]. Arc magmatismcontinued Sifnos / ..•.....

.'".:::...:
on the mainland and formed the Alisitos arc of Baja
California [Gastil et aL, 1981].
os
Subductionand arc magmatismcontinuedfrom 100-20 = lO 10
Ma. Coherentblueschists(i.e., subterranes1-3), as well as - / / ß'.. Naxos -
blueschist
and eclogiteblocksmovedto shallower,cooler
'109
Ma•.• / / • .....
portionsof the accretionarywedge,the later entrainedin Western

Baja
// !! ; 30OC•m
•
serpentinite
diapirsasindicated by apatitefissiontrackages
and40Ar/39Ar
whitemicaandfeldspar
ages[Ba/dw/n
and
Harrison, 1989]. Exhumation was accommodatedby
continuederosion and normal faulting [Seallock,this
volume]. $ubduction continued until ~20 Ma when a 150 Ma

transformplate boundary zone formed in the region

[Atwater, 1970; Atwater and Molnar, 1973]. By mid-late 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature (øC)
Pliocene time the subductioncomplex was undergoing
subaerialerosion[Kilmer, 1984].
Fig. 2. Compilationof P-T-t pathsfor subterrane2 of the
Integrated
P-T-t dataprovidequantitative
constraints
on westernBaja terrane[after Baldwin, 1989], and the Aegean
burial and exhumation rates for some of the coherent region[aftervanderMaar andJansen, 1983; $chliestedtand
blueschists. Maximum burial rate for subterrane 2 was Matthews, 1987; Okruschand Brocker, 1990; Maluski et al.,
-0.7 mm/yr basedon protolith ages, the timing of peak 1987; WijbransandMcDougall,1988;Wijbranset al., 1990].
Note the difference in timescales indicated for slow
metamorphism, andpeakpressure estimates(Figures1 and
synsubductionCretaceous-Tertiary
exhumationof the western
2). The presenceof aragoniteplacesquantitativelimits on Bajaterrane(~105Ma) compared to that indicatedfor Tertiary
geothermalgradientsand P-T-t pathsfollowed by these metamorphism and exhumation
of Aegean(~50 Ma) high P
rocksduringexhumation[Carlsonand Rosenreid,1981]. metamorphicrocks.
An exhumationrateof 0.1 mrrdyris obtainedassumingan
averagegeothermalgradientof 9øC/Ma [Ba/dw/nand granitoid
intrusions.
K-Ar,40Ar/39Ar,
andRb-Sr
analyses
Hardson, 1989]. In Miocene time an increase in the have been usedto establishthe age of high P, low T
exhumationrate (to ~1.0 mm/yr) is coincidentwith the metamorphism at ~50 Ma, subsequent overprintingby
changefroma convergent to a transformplateboundaryin mediumpressureBarrovianmetamorphism at ~20-30 Ma
thisregion[e.g., AtwaterandMolnar, 1973]. [van der Maar and Jansen, 1983; Okrusch and Brocker,
1990; Wijbrans et al., 1990, and referencestherein] and
3. SUBDUCTION FOLLOWED BY BACKARC intrusionof granitesat ~16-10 Ma [Altherr et al., 1982;
EXTENSION, THE AEGEAN WijbransandMcDougall, 1988; Baldwinal• Lister, 1994].
The higher temperaturepost-Eocenemetamorphicand
plutoniceventsobscuremuchof therecordof Eocene(M 1)
The Cycladic blueschistbelt of the central Aegean
(Figure3)is an Alpine-typeblueschistbelt [Ernst, 1988]. high-P metamorphism.
Eocenecollisionwas followedby Miocene extensionand 210Ar/39Ar
data
onwhite
micas
fromM1rocks
onSyros,
since~ 13 Ma the regionhas been dominatedby backarc
andblueschistspartiallyoverprinted
by the M2 eventfrom
extensionlikely driven by southwardretreat of the Ios and Syrosillustratetypicalapparentage variationsfor
subducted slabor collapseof overthickenedcrust[Lister et thesepolymetamorphosed rocks(Figures3 and4; Tables1
aL, 1984]. At leastfour metamorphiceventsare recognized and2*). Blueschist
andeclogite
facies
rocks
fromSyros
in basement rocksof theCyclades.TheseincludePaleozoic that were not overprintedby retrogradeM2 assemblages
and Mesozoicpre-Alpinegneissicbasement(M0), Eocene yielded
undisturbed
40Ar/3
9Arwhite
micaagespectra
with
high P, low T metamorphicrocks (M1), Oligocene- apparentagesof--50-54 Ma interpretedto date subduction
Miocenegreenschists and amphibolites(M2), and contact
metamorphic rocks(M 3) associated
with Mid-Late Miocene Table 2 available from author on
138 CONTRASTING P-T-t HISTORIES FOR BLUESCHISTS

(b) Syros =
89646 ::'::"-:•
Alluvium
.• !•{'":•_
o••Kythnos (a)89641
Myko
.... 4k,m
.
Syros
Serif os
8960, ! -89610
,, • • M11
M2 schists
.• / Amphibolit
Greenschistses
• :'::":;"'"':•.....-•!ii::i::!:
• Augengneisses Anfip•os,• '• _• • • • • • • •
3O km

• normal
au•

250
I
• g•ophan•
schl• •/%/
ß . 4k,
m, ,
MO•
I gran•lc
metamo•hos•
u•ramaflc
rocks
•
garnet-mica schi•
gneisses

Fig.3.a)Location
mapoftheCentral
Cyclades,
Greece.
Simplified
geologic
maps
ofb)Syros
andc)Iosshowing
sample
localities
[aftervanderMaarandJansen,
1983;Okrusch
andBrocker,
1990].SeeVandenberg
andLister
[1995] for los cross sections.

zone metamorphism. In contrast,samplesfrom partially coolingof the subductionzone.Mid-Jurassic amphibolite

overprintedblueschistfaciesrocks from Ios and Syros andepidote-amphibolitefaciesblocksweremetamorphosed
yielded
40Ar/•
•Arapparent
agegradients
ranging
from-25 duringearlystagesof subduction prior to establishmentof
to49Ma,similar
to 40Ar/39Ar
whitemicaapparent
ages coolersteady-stateconditions[c.f., P/art, 1975; Peacock,
from Naxos[W(/bransand McDougall,1988] and Sifnos 1987]. By Cretaceous time steady-state subductionwas
[Rhjbranset al., 1990]. established
in theregionandcontinued untilEarlyMiocene
Preservationof M I ages and mineral assemblages time.
indicates that some blueschists moved to shallow crustal Within the westernBajaterranesomerockswereburied
levels prior to M2-3 metamorphicand intrusiveevents (-0.7 mm/yr)and exhumed(-0.1-0.8 mm/yr) at similar
(i.e., the argon systematics
have not been reset).These rates.Relativelyslowexhumation (0.1 mm/yr)following
rocks likely followed isothermaldecompression paths mid-Cretaceouspeakmetamorphism andextending intothe
and/orcooledduringdecompression (Figure2). However, Miocene,aswell as the pristinepreservationof blueschist
themajority of whitemicasyielded disturbed 40Ar/39Ar faciesassemblages, indicatethat thesecoherentblueschists
agespectrainterpreted
to reflectvariablepartialoutgassing were transportedthrough an accretionarywedge
and/or recrystallizationof M I white micas during characterized by low (cold)geothermal gradientsduring
subsequentM2 and possibly M3 metamorphism. steady-state subduction.Slowexhumation maybe a result
40Ar/39Ar apparent ages associatedwiththelowT steps of erosional processes,
structural data[Smithand Busby,
eitherapproximate the time of post-M1 mineralgrowth 1993; Sedlock,this volume]indicatethat synsubduction
and/orlossof argonvia volumediffusiondue to a thermal extensional mechanisms also contributed to blueschist
pulse[c.f., Wijbransand McDougall,1988].Theseage exhumation.
gradients
however,arenotcompletelymeaningless as the In contrast,Aegeanhigh P metamorphic rocksrecord
apparent
agesfall betweenagescorrespondingto M1 and significantly
differentP-T-t histories
resultingfrom an
M2 metamorphicevents. apparentincreasein geothermal gradients
subsequentto
Eocene metamorphism. Petrologicrelationshipsand
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS preservedmineral assemblages associatedwith M1-3
metamorphismindicategeothermal gradientsincreased
from
In the westernBaja terranethermochronologicdatafor _<10øC/kmto >_30øC/km. The steepening of geothermal
coherentblueschistsand blocksin melangeindicatemid- gradients
islikelyrelatedtorollbackof thesubducting slab
Jurassicinitiation of subductionwas followed by a and backarcextension[e.g., Lister et al., 1984]. The
progressive
decrease in geothermal
gradients
duringearly preservation
of older (i.e., Eocene)apparentages
 BALDWIN 139

60 partially
reset
40At/3
9Atapparent
ages
andoverprinting
by
highertemperaturemineralassemblages (Sifnos,Naxos,
• 50 andIos;Figure4).
Argon systematics
in white micasfrom high P, low T
• 40 metamorphicrocks are not well understood.Several
mechanisms
mayproduce
40Ar/3
9Arapparent
agegradients
• 30
including loss due to volume diffusion and/or
recrystallization
causedby a thermalpulse[e.g., l•hjbrans
White Micas andMcDougall,1988], as well as slow coolingresulting
m 20
in argonlossfrom the leastretentivesites [e.g., Baldwin
Syros and Harrison,1992]. In additiondepressurization during
10
los exhumationcan lead to reopeningof mineralsto volume
diffusion and result in argon loss [Lister and Baldwin,
o 1995] and may be significant in cases involving
o.o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.o exhumation of high P metamorphic rocks. The
Fraction 39Ar Released compositionaldependenceon argon diffusivities in
phengites[Scailletet al., 1992; Grove, 1993] may also
Fig.4. Composite
4øAr/39Ar
agespectra
forMi andMi/M2 leadtovariations
in40Ar/3
9Arapparentages.
All ofthese
white micasfrom Syros [c.fi, Maluski et al., 1987] and Ios.
Therange
in4øAt/39Ar
whitemicaapparent
agesobtained
from mechanisms can potentially
resultin 40Ar/39Arage
M• andM•/M2 rockson Naxos [Wijbransand McDougall, gradientssuch that petrologic,structural,and geologic
1988] and Sifnos [Wijbrans et al., 1990] is shown for constraintsareessential
for interpretation
of argondata.
comparison. Thermochronologic datais essentialfor reconstruction
of
accurateP-T-t paths, unambiguousinterpretationof the
blueschistand eclogitefaciesassemblages for rocks from tectonic significanceof P-T paths, and to test thermal
Syros and Naxos indicatesthat at least a portion of the modelswhich predict the time scalesrequiredfor the
subductioncomplexhad been exhumedto shallow, cool preservationof high P, low T assemblagesduring
crustallevelsprior to M2-3 metamorphismand intrusion exhumation.Exhumationratesand the degreeto which
of Miocenegranitoids.However,someof the high P rocks high P, low T metamorphic rocksare overprintedreflect
were affectedby Miocenethermaleventsas indicatedby the variable nature of subruction zones. P-T-t data can

TABLE1.Summary
of 4øAr]39Ar
analyses
forwhitemicasfromlosandSyros.

.Sample
#.' ...'. Lith•iogy ,',, '4,0Arj3
9Ar•pbarent
ages 'c0mments/'inte)pretati0n
s
Ios Samples
88606
qtz phengite
schist 30.5to 41.9Maa;39.0+ 0.2 Ma* M•/M2
88610
glaucschist 25.6to 39.8Maa;29.9+ 0.4 Ma* M•/M2
89638
glaucschist 25.0to 44.1Maa;33.6+ 0.2Ma* MI/M2
89639
glaucschist 23.5to 42.1Maa;31.7+ 0.2Ma* M•/M2
89641
gt-glauc
schist 25.3to 49.3Maa;42.2+ 0.5Ma* MI/M2
Syros Samples
89642 retrograde
eclogite 49.2+ 0.2Mab phengite;
flat spectra
89644
glauc-marble
schist 52.4to 55.0Maa;53.1+ 0.2Ma* phengite
89645
retrograde
blueschist
34.8to 42.4Maa;39.6+ 0.1 Ma* M1/M2
89646
quartzite 31.0to 41.2Maa;39.6+ 0.1Ma* M•/M2
89649
retrograde
blueschist
,, , ,
40.0to 44.2Maa;43.05+ 0.12Ma*
...... , , ,, ....
M•/M2
Analytical
procedures
followed
those
described
by McDougall
[1985]and40Ar/39Aranalytical
dataarein
Table2 (availablefromtheauthoron request).Notes:whitemica(wm); garnet(gO;quartz(qtz);glaucophane
(glauc).
aGradiems
in 40Ar/39Ar
apparent
ages;
bweighted
mean;
* indicates
40Ar/39Ar
totalfusion
age.
M•/M 2 indicatespartiallossprofile/recrystallization
of M1/M2 white
140 CONTRASTING P-T-t HISTORIES FOR BLUESCHISTS
provideinsightintochanges in subductionzonegeothermal
gradientswith time. Long-livedsubduction(e.g., western
Baja terrane) may allow slow blueschist exhumation
without overprinting of high P, low T mineral
assemblages to occur.In subduction
zonescharacterized by
non steady-state geothermalgradients(e.g., the Aegean),
calculationof exhumationratesusing thermochronologic
datais not straightforward.
Rollbackof the subducting
slab
resultingin back arc extensionrequiresrelatively rapid
exhumationin order to escapeoverprintingby higher
temperaturemineralassemblages. In otherareas(e.g., the
D'EntrecasteauxIslands and New Caledonia) extension
tectonicshasplayeda key role in the rapid exhumationof
high-P metamorphicrocks [Hill et al., 1992; Hill and
Baldwin, 1993; Baldwin et al., 1993; Rawling et al.,
1995]. Multidisciplinarystudiesof subductioncomplexes
which integratethermochronologic data will continueto
providefurther insight into the timing and nature of
subductionprocesses throughout Eagh history.
Acknowledgements.Thanks to R.L. Sedlockand G.S. Lister
for numerousstimulating discussionsregarding the western
Baja terrane and the Aegean, T. Rawling for assistingwith
figures, and P.G. Fitzgerald, M. Grove, H.G. Av6 Lallemant,
and an anonymousreviewer for their commentswhich helped
to significantlyimprovethe manuscript.Technical assistance
from R. Myer, J. Mya, H. Kokkonen,and J. Overs and support
from the Australian National University, University of
Arizona, NSF grants EAR9316418 and OPP9316720 is
gratefully acknowledged.
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 Tectonic Uplift And ExhumationOf BlueschistBelts Along Transpressional
Strike-Slip Fault Zones
Paul Mann

Institute for Geophysics,The University of Texas at Austin, .Austin,Texas 78759-8397

Mark B. Gordon

Departmentof Geologyand Geophysics,Rice University,Houston,Texas 77251-1892

Transpressionalstrike-slip fault zonesclosely control the distribution,shape,tectonicuplift

and exhumation of blueschist belts in the northern Caribbean and circum-Pacific. Tectonic
uplift and exhumationof blueschistbelts are proposedto occur in all examplesby reverse or
thrust faults within the upthrown,commonlyconvex sidesof presentlyactive, transpressional
strike-slipfault systemsthat accompanyor post-datethe phaseof subductionresponsiblefor
blueschistformation. We identify three fault geometriesof transpressional strike-slip faults
responsiblefor the crustalthrustand reversefaulting and consequentuplift and exhumationof
blueschistand other deepercrustalrocks:(1) relatively straightstrike-slipfaults oblique to the
direction of relative plate motion; these faults produce elongate, topographicuplifts and
exposuresof thin belts of deeper crustal rocks; (2) gentle restraining bends with angular
curvaturesrangingfrom 10-50ø that producedomal areasof topographicuplift and exposureof
deeper crustal rocks; the fault bend is much more oblique to the direction of relative plate
motion than the adjacentstraightfault segments;and (3) sharprestrainingbends,or push-up
blocks at distinct fault stepoversthat produce rectangular areas of topographicuplift and
exposure of deeper crustal rocks. In the circum-Caribbean, convergencerelated to late
Cretaceous-Paleogene arc-continentcollision events appearsto play an important role in
uplifting the blueschistrocksto crustallevels affectedby Neogenetranspressional
strike-slip
faults.

INTRODUCTION largely on syn-subduction and subcrustalprocessesthat

involve:(1) buoyantrise of subductedmaterialalong the
Previous workers have proposeda variety of tectonic approximateplane of subduct•on[Ernst, 1971; Cloos and
models to explain the tectonic uplift and exhumationof Shreve,1988];(2) regional
upliftdrivenby underplating
blueschist belts from depths of formation 30-55 km of material at the base of the accretionarywedge [Platt,
beneathforearcbasinsand accretionarywedges. Models 1975]; (3) normal or reverse faulting related to the
of blue-schist uplift and exhumation have focussed maintenanceof a critically tapered accretionarywedge
[Platt, 1986]; (4) normal faulting related to subduction
1By"tectonic
uplift"wemean
tectonically-induced
displace-
mentof the Earth'ssurfacewith respectto sealevel andby "ex- shallowing [Krueger and Jones, 1989]; (5) normal
humation"we mean displacementof rocksrelative to sea level faultingrelatedto post-orogenic collapse[Dewey, 1988];
(Englandand Molnar, 1990). (6) normal faulting related to oblique subduction[Avd
LallemantandGuth, 1990];and(7) isostatic
reboundof
the lower subductedplate [Michard et al., 1994].
Subduction:Top to Bottom Previous tectonically-oriented studies of blueschists
GeophysicalMonograph96 have traditionally focussedon outcrop to microscopic
Copyright1996by the AmericanGeophysical
Union study of structuraland petrologic features associated
144 TECTONIC UPLIFT AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS

with blueschistmineralogies. Few studieshave explored Switzerland[Mange-Rajetsky andOberhansli,1982:Late

scalebrittle faults on the crustaluplift of blueschistbelts Cretaceous crystallization, syn- to post-subduction
becausemanypreviousworkershaveassumedthat brittle Oligoceneexposure];and the Kodiak Islandsof Alaska
faultscanaccountfor only therelativelysmallcrustaluplift [Roeske,1989;ClendenenandByrne, 1989:Early Jurassic
of blueschistsalready elevated into the crust by other crystallization, Oligoceneupliftandexposure].Available
mechanisms. Karig(1979) andRoeske(1989) havepointed apatitefissiontrackageson blueschists in BajaCalifornia
out the possiblerole of activeandancientstrike-slipfaults [Baldwin and Harrison, 1989] and California [Dumitru,
on the crustaluplift of blueschists in forearcand volcanic 1989] indicatethat uplift and exhumationaccompanied
arc settingsbasedon examplesin SumatraandAlaska. In Neogene •trike-slipfaultingin theregion andpost-dated
this paper, we examine the close control that active Cretaceous subduction. Post-subduction exhumation of
transpressional strike-slipfaults have on the distribution blueschistbelts along strike-slipfaults in Californiais
andshapesof blueschist beltsin thenorthernCaribbeanand consistent with the small amount of blueschist clasts found
circum-Pacific. in arc-related basins of Cretaceousand Paleogeneage
[Cloos,1986]. The significanttimelag betweenblueschist
SIGNIFICANCE OF STRIKE-SLIP-RELATED UPLIFF formationand exhumationand their periodsof exposure
AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS with periodsof strike-slipfaultingaccompanying or post-
datingsubructionsuggests strike-slipfaultingmayplay a
Three basic observationssuggestto us that strike-slip significant role in theirupliftat crustallevels.
faultingprovidesan importantmechanism to uplift blues- (3) Recentgeophysical studiesof strike-slipfaultsin a
chistsandotherdeepcrustalrocks: varietyof settings in continental crust(seeBeaudoin, 1994,
(1) There is a commonspatialassociationof blueschist for review)are showingthatin manycasesthesefaultsare
outcropswith the tracesof activeor recentlyactivestrike- sub-vertical surfaces that offset the base of the crust and
slipfaults. This spatialassociation
hasbeenrecognized by thereforeare potentialupwardpathsfor materialsfrom as
field workersfor many yearsand suggests that strike-slip deepas20-30 km with accrefionary prisms.
faultsplay a significantbut poorlyunderstoodrole in their The fieldexamples of strike-slip-related
blueschistuplifts
crustaluplift andexhumation. For example,Ernst(1975) reveal threecommonstrike-slipfault geometriesthat we
stated: "Perhaps it is not fortuitous that almost all infer to be responsible for crustaluplift of the blueschist
blueschistterranesare boundedby - or at least closely beltsdescribexl
(Fig. 1). Terminologyfor thesestrike-slip
associatedwith - post-metamorphicstrike-slipfaults of fault geometriesis modifiedfrom Crowell(1974). We
considerable movement."
subdivideour discussion of examplesinto two categories:
(2) Studiesof reworkedblueschistclastshaveshownthat blueschistbelts in post-subduction tectonicsettingsand
someblueschists are exhumedwithin a phaseof strike-slip blueschistbeltsin obliquesyn-subduction tectonicsettings
faultingthat accompanies or post-datessubduction.There of thetypepreviously discussed by Karig(1979).
arecommonlysignificanttime gapsbetweentheblueschist-
formingsubructionphaseand the later strike-slip-related
exhumation phases. These time gaps suggest that SOME EXAMPLES OF BLUESCHISTS IN ACTIVE
subruction-related upliftwithinaccretionary
wedgesmaybe AND ANCIENT TRANSPRESSIONAL SETtINGS
relativelyslowerandlesseffectivein exhumingblueschists
than syn- or post-subductionstrike-slip-relateduplift. Hispaniola,
NorthernCaribbean
Examples of lengthy time gaps separatingblueschist
crystallizationand exhumationinclude:centralCalifornia The SamanaPeninsulaand Cordillera Septentrionalof
[Cloos, 1986:Late Jurassic-Late Cretaceouscrystallization, northernHispaniolain the DominicanRepublicare on the
mainly early to late Tertiary syn- to post-subduction northern, upthrownsideof theSeptentrional faultzone,the
exposureand erosion]; southernCaliforniaborderlands main,activestrike-slipfault separating the NorthAmerica
[Beboutet al., 1994: Early Cretaceouscrystallization,syn- and Caribbeanplates(Fig. 2A). The fault zone formsa
to post- subductionearly Middle Miocene exposureand prominentarcuate,topographiclimit separatingolder
erosion];Baja California[BaldwinandHarrison,1989'mid- Cretaceous-EarlyPliocene igneous,metamorphic,and
Jurassic crystallization, late Early Cretaceous sedimentaryrocks of the CordilleraSeptentrional and
crystallization,syn-to postsubduction Neogeneexposure], Samana Peninsula [de Zoeten and Mann, 1991] from a
the Sanbagawabelt of Japan[YokoyamaandItaya, 1990: Miocene-late Quaternarybasinal sectionin the Cibao
Late Cretaceouscrystallization,syn-subduction (Eocene) Valley (Fig. 2B). The directionof Caribbean-North
uplift and erosion]; the western Alps of France and Americarelativeplatemotionis roughlyeast-westat
 MANN AND GORDON 145

A. TRANSPRESSIONAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT OBLIQUE TO Joyce (1991) estimatesthat prograderecrystallizafionof

DIRECTION OF RELATIVE PLATE MOTION blueschistand eclogiteassemblages took place at 400-500ø
PLATE MOTION ß

C and 10 kbar. Sm-Nd andK-Ar whole-rockagesfrom the

••...,..•:•••••;•.....,.•o,,,,•:==........•:..
•,•.•!•
..........
...........
.,.....•..............• ..••:•
........ eclogite blocks suggest that high-pressure mineral
"'"•'
•"•"<<""•
:'•"•'
• ' •i•'•"'"'*'"'"•:•:::'•:
....... •'••: NARROW,
ELONGATE,
TOPOGRAPHIC
EXPOSURE
UPLIFT AND
OF OLDER ROCKS
assemblages equilibratedin late Cretaceoustime but the
coolingrequiredfor argonretentionwas not reacheduntil
B. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT WITH GENTLE RESTRAINING BEND
late Eocene. Eclogitesoccuras boudinsin calcitemarble
PLATE
MOTION
• andasinclusions withinmetasedimentary rocks[Giaramita
R . ,':i,:"•:i
:::":'<':
.....
DI ECTION •.•,•...",.::..::::
......... - and Sorensen,1994].
•"----"==''•'*" •>•••-';•"•
•::"•'
.......... TOPOGRAPHIC
EXPOSURE
UPLIFT
AND
OFOLDER Blueschists in the Rio San Juan area of the Cordillera
ROCKS
Septentrional occur as two varieties of incoherent
C. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT WITH SHARP RESTRAINING blueschist-eclogite
melangein a serpentinitematrix that
BENDS AT FAULT STEPOVERS (PUSH-UPS)
protrudeone variety of coherentfine-grainedblueschist-
PLATE
MOTION ,<,<
"' • greenschist
rocks[DraperandNagle,1991].40Ar/39Ar
DIRECTION • ' UPLIFT AND EXPOSURE OF
coolingagesof hornblende yieldagesof 90 +_5 Ma andare
OLDER ROCKS
thoughtto record crystallizationduring late Cretaceous
subduction [Draper and Nagle, 1991]. Serpentinite
fragmentsin Eocene sedimentaryrocks overlying the
Fig. 1. Three mechanismsfor exhumationof deepercrustal incoherent blueschist-greenschistrocksare interpretedasa
rocks along transpressiona]strike-slip faults. A. Tranpres-
siona]strike-slipfault obliqueto the directionof relativeplate briefperiodof subaerialexposureof thecomplexrelatedto
motion. B. Strike-slip fault with gentle restrainingbend. C. the collisionof the arc with the southeasternedgeof the
Strike-slipfault with sharprestrainingbends(push-ups).Bend Bahama Platform. This collision event terminated arc
terminologyis modified from Crowell (1974). Note the close activityalongthismarginand wasfollowedby an Eocene
control of the bend type on the area] shapeof the topographic
uplift and exposureof older rocks.
to presentphaseof left-lateralstrike-slipfaulting [Joyce,
1991; Draper andNagle, 1991]. During this prolonged
strike-slipphase,blueschistrocks were shallowlyburied
rangingfromabout10-20mm/yr[DeMetset al., 1990]. beneatha veneerof Eoceneto Miocenesedimentary rocks
Mann et al. (1990) and de Zoetenand Mann (1991) inferred and subsequentlytectonicallyuplifted and exhumedby
thatthecentralCordilleraSeptentrional
constitutesa gentle restrainingbendtectonicsin Plio-Pleistocenetime.
restraining
bendbecause topographicreliefis greatest
in the
centraland most curvedpart of the fault (Fig. 2). The Jamaica,Northern Caribbean
correspondence of structuraland topographicdoming
suggests
thatthe restraining
bendstructure
is active. The Blue Mountains of eastern Jamaica are within the
Structuraldoming does not match exactly topographic convex-northward, upthrownsideof theEnriquillo-Plantain
doming in the Cordillera Septentrionalbecauseof the Garden and Yallahs fault zones,the main, active left-lateral
complicating effectsof older,nowinactivefault systems. strike-slipfaults separatingthe Caribbeanplate from the
The 10 ø maximum curvature of the fault in the central Gonave microplateto the north [Mann et al., 1985] (Fig.
Cordillera Septentrional decreasesto the east where 3A). The Gonave microplateis an elonagatemicroplate
exposureof a blueschistand eclogiteassemblage on the formed in Late Neogene time between the much larger
SamanaPeninsula arenotrelatedto a bendbutoccuralong North AmericaandCaribbeanplates.
a relativelystraight,transpressionalfault segmentthat is This complex fault zone forms a prominenttopographic
slightlyobliqueto the east-westdirectionof relativeplate limit separating older, exhumed Cretaceous-Paleocene
motion (Fig. 1A). Remnantsof an extensiveUpper igneous,metamorphic,and sedimentaryrocksof the Blue
Miocene-LowerPlioceneshallow-water carbonate platform Mountains from Eocene-late Quaternary clastic and
sequencesuggestthattectonicuplift and exhumationat the carbonateunits fringing the domal uplift (Fig. 3B). The
gentle bend occurredover the last 5 m.y. in both the directionof Caribbean-NorthAmericarelativeplatemotion
CordilleraSeptentrionaland SamanaPeninsula[de Zoeten is roughlyeast-westat ratesrangingfrom about4 mm/yr
and Mann, 1991]. averagedover the last 10 my [Mann et al., 1990]. Mann et
Blueschists on the Samana Peninsula consist of coherent al. (1985) inferred that the Blue Mountains constituteda
schistandmarbleunitscharacterized by thepresence of gentlerestrainingbend(Fig. lB) becausetopographic relief
lawsonite and/or pumpellyite [Joyce, 1991] (Fig. 2B). was greatestnear the mostcurvedsegmentsof the
146 TECTONIC UPLIFT AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS

A. ATLANTIC
OCEAN ELEVATION

NOAM
;ARIB
PLATE
1N
IN METERS

MOTION (10-20 mm/yr) >1000 m

600-1000 m

200-600 m

< 200 m

;•
............
i"!
....
....
!"!'.
......•IA
CENTRAL
iiiii?i:(Ji
ii?•?•i•ii:i!i:!:iiiiii::i:•::::i::•i::::•::..:.::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
CORDILL,--- NK(•':'•:
•:•i:i!:?•iiiii:::i:•::•ii:•;:::;:.':?:::!•;;;!•:•i::

40km .............
:•!::!i!ii!i!•i?i!
i!ii[:ii[!
[!i!i!i:ii!![!11i
!iiii!!ii!ii
!i?!?iiii
•::.
•:;::
....
I ' .....
:•:.•::
ii?•?•[?•?•i•!!:•11i::i
'"":'::'
SEPTENTRIONALFAULT
ZONE

B. AGE OF ROCK
.....................
UNITS
?:?:?:?.??.
PLIOCENE
..:.....:.:.:.:...:.:
........

... .............

OLIGOCENE

EOCENE

co•.7.:.
4,'v,o
LATE CRET,-
PALEOCENE

Fig. 2 A. Topographyof northernHispaniola(DominicanRepublic)and activeand recentlyactivetracesof the

left-lateralstrike-slipfault (Septentrionalfault) separatingthe North Americaand Caribbeanplates. Note that the
direction of relative plate motion of North America-Caribbeanrelative motion is east-westand that the area of
highest topographyis adjacent to the segmentof the fault most oblique to this direction. GRB = gentle
restrainingbend;PUB = push-upblock;TF = transpressional fault zone (compareto Figure 1). B. Map showing
the agesof exposedrock unitsin the bendarea. Note the presenceof blueschists (B) alongthe upthrowneastern
edgeof the gentlerestrainingbend (GRB) in the centralCordilleraSeptentrional and the presenceof blueschists
(B) and eclogites(E) alongthe transpressional fault (TF) boundingthe southernedgeof the SamanaPeninsula.

and Blue Mountains fault zones and because the strikes of
foldsandthrustfaultsmappedin Tertiarysedimentary rocks
are parallel to the bend. Structuraldomingseenin the
outcroppatternof olderrocksmatcheswell thetopographic
domingof the Blue Mountainsand suggeststhe present
activityof thebend. Structuralandtopographic domingin
Jamaicais morepronounced thanHispaniolabecausethere
is muchgreaterfault curvatureof faultsthroughan angleof
about 50ø (Fig. 3B). Structural doming and clast
compositionsof Neogene sedimentaryrocks indicate
exhumationof deepercrustalrocksin the restrainingbend
area initiated in Late Miocene time and remains active to
the present[Mann et al., 1985].
Blueschistsoccurin severaldiscontinuous
outcropsabout
0-10 km north of the major strike-slipfault zones (Fig.
3B). Blueschists consist of metamorphosedbasalts,
gabbros and peridotites thought to have been
metamorphosed in an Early Cretaceous(pre-Campanian)
subduction zone [Draper, 1986]. With one minor
exception,these are the only outcropsof metamorphic
rocks on Jamaica. The close spatial associationof these
rocks with the restrainingbend faults suggeststhat the
metamorphic rockswereupliftedasa resultof transpression
at the Neogenerestrainingbend,althoughDraper(1986)
notesthatblueschistclastsappearin post-subductionelastic
sediments of Paleoceneand early Eoceneage. The ending
of subductionin Jamaicamay be related to eitherpost-
Campanianreadjustments in an intraoccanic,southward-
facingarc [Draper, 1986] or collisionof an intmoceanic,
northward-facingarc with continentalcrust in Central
America [Mann and Burke, 1990].
The strongfoliation and metamorphicmineralsof the
blueschist belt were formed in an early Cretaceous
accretionaryprismat depthsgreaterthan20 km but early
fabricsdefined by orientedmineralswere subsequently
foldedin Neogenetime [Draper, 1986]. We infer thatthis
Neogenefoldingis relatedto restrainingbendtranspression
and uplift becausefolds in the schistshave northwest-
trendingaxessub-parallelto the curvatureof thebendand
are more common adjacent to the Yallahs and Blue
Mountain fault zones than north of the more east-west
strikingEnriquillo-Plantain
Gardenfaultzone. Outcrops
 MANN AND GORDON 147

ELEVATION IN
METERS
> 2000 rn

GONAVE MICROPLATE-CARIB PLATE MOTION :::?•::;!?•iiii::

1000- 2000rn
(-4 mm/yr AVERAGED OVER 10 MY) I 0- 1000
rn

'""::
......
e•o4
•ø04'•"•/4'•
o,•. - CARIBBEAN
SEA

BLUEMOUNTAIN
........
...:':-•:!•.•'""':':'"---•'.:.'-:":'.71•
..........
•...?:ii::11::•?:?:ii::!ii!i!i!11!•
;. e
FAULTZONE ........."•:•:'
:ii;i•i:'!•:!i•i•::i•111111i•11:•??•ii??•??:i;•:?i!i!iiill
YALLA
HS '• ....
:':":':'
:::::•::?!?•!!i??
:•:":"
..::::•::;::•i•i•:::•i•i•::•i•:•
.......•1•
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
FAULT ZONE

ENRIQUILLO-PLANTAIN GARDEN
FAULT ZONE
lO km
I I

AGE OF ROCK UNITS

QUAT. GRAVELS
EOCENE-PLIO.
PALEOCENE
CRET. PLUTONS

• UNMET.
AND CRET.
VOLC. SEDS.

CRET.
AMPH.,
GREENSCHISTS,
BLUESCHISTS

SERPENTINITE
DIAPIR AT FAULT
JUNCTION

Fig. 3. A. Topographyof easternJamaicaandits relationto activetracesof the left-lateralstrike-slipfaults

separating the Gonavemicroplate
fromthe Caribbeanplate. Note thatthedirectionof relativeplatemotionof
North America-Caribbean
relative motion is east-westand that the area of highesttopographyis adjacentto the
segmentof thefaultmostobliqueto thisdirection.B. Map showingtheagesof exposed rockunitsin thebend
area. Numbersindicatepointsthat havebeenleft-laterallyoffsetby 3.5 to 12.8 km. Note the presenceof
Cretaceousamphibolites,
greenschists,andblueschistsalongthe upthrownsideof the gentlerestrainingbend
(GRB).

blueschist
rocks
arealsomoreelongate
adjacent
totheBlue outcrops suggestthattheyrepresent coherent blocksat the
Mountain and Yallahs fault zones, reflecting a dense scaleof individualblocks. A serpentinite diapiroccursat
network of predominately northwest-striking faults theeasternjunctionof theYallahsandBlueMountainfault
boundingthe outcrops. The continuityof foliation and zoneandprobablyrepresents thefilling of a divergentgap
lineation measurements across the extent of the blueschist formedby divergent faultmotionat thejunction(Fig.
148 TECTONIC UPLIFT AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS

Guatemala, Northern Central America the central part of the Baja Peninsulaof Mexico and is
characterizedby elongate,sinuous,northwest-southeast
Jadeitite,a rock composed principallyof the highpressure trendingridgesseparated by fiat-flooredbasins(Fig. 5A).
mineraljadeite, is found as blockswithin a 1-4 km wide, Tectonically,the borderlandsprovince forms part of a
15 km long belt of serpentinitemelangealong the active, diffuse, fight-lateral shearzone betweenthe Pacific and
left-lateral
Motagua faultzoneseparating theNorthAmerica North Americaplatesthat is centeredon the San Andreas
andCaribbeanplatesin northernCentralAmerica[Harlow, fault (Fig. 5B). The predictedN35øW directionof Pacific
1994] (Fig. 4A). The belt of serpentinitemelangeis plate motionrelative to North Americaand totalrate of 56
locatedat thefootof thehighestpeak(CerroRax6nat 3015 mm/yr [DeMets et al., 1990] is manifestedacrossa broad
m) in the elongateandextremelysteep-sided Sierrade las zoneof sub-parallelactive,northwest-striking fight-lateral
Minas.Mannetal.(1990)interpreted •h-e-fo•ati•n of tile faults [Feigl et al., 1993]. The northwest direction of
SierradeMinasanditsexposures of serpentiniteanddeeper motioncausesfault blocksboundedby fight-lateralfaults
crustalrocksas the resultof tectonicuplift in a sharp in the borderlands and in southern California to intersect the
restraining
bendorpush-upblockbetween theMotagua and more westerlystriking,reversefaults boundingthe Santa
Polochicfault zones. The outcroppatternand trendsof Monica Mountains and TransverseRanges (Fig. 5B).
measured foliationplanesin Mesozoicmetamorphicrocks Active seismicityof theborderlandsprovinceandsouthern
[Kesler,1971]outlinesthe300 X 100km area(Fig.4B) California indicates right-lateral displacementalong
thatbestcorresponds to thebendtypeshownin Figure1C. N30øW-striking faults and thrustingand oblique-slip
Curvatureof theMotaguafaultmayaddto thebendeffects movementalongmorewesterlystrikingthrustsat thebase
in thisareaby thegentlerestraining
bendmechanism
(Fig. of the SantaMonica Mountainsand TransverseRanges
lB). [Hutton et al., 1991].
Harlow(1994) reportsthatjadeititecanonlybe loosely Offshorefaults in the borderlandsprovinceof southern
constrained with blueschistconditions(100ø • 400øC;$ • California mapped by mostly non-systematicseismic
P • 11 kb) and interpretsjadeitites as mctasomatic reflectionprofilinghavebeencompiledby Jennings (1975)
alterationsof a felsicknockerprotolithaffectedby fluid and are reproducedon Figure 5A. Faultsconsideredby
flow in a highPiT setting. V. B. Sisson(pers.comm., Jennings to be Quaternaryor youngerthan2 millionyears
1995)proposes thatjadeitites,whilenottypicalblueschist includeonly about15% of the faultsshownon Figure5A
rocks,do havepeakPT conditions thatdo overlapwifl•the but are presentin segments of eachof the mainfault zones
blueschistfaciesfield. The occurrence of jad½itit½
is rare summarized on Figure5B. Major strike-slipfaultsinclude:
worldwide but is commonlyassociatedwith ultramafic theNewport-Inglewood-Rosewood andMalibuCoast-Santa
b•lts,ophiolites,andblueschists [Harlow,1994]. Theage Monica fault zones [Hutton et al., 1991]; the Palos Verde
of crystallization
of theMotaguajad½ititeis fl•oughtto b• Hills-CoronadoBank fault zone [Legg, 1985; Ward and
late Cretaceous and uplift is assumed to be from late Valensise,1994]; the SanDiegoTroughfault zone[Legg,
Cretaceousto late Cenozoic [Donnelly et al., 1990; 1985];andtheSanClementefaultzone[Legget al., 1989].
Fourcad½½tal., 1994]. This age of uplift of basedon Basedon the regionalalignmentsof fault segments,we
40Ar39Arand40K36Ar age datesof maficand proposethat the San Diego Trough fault zone of Legg
metamorphic rocks in the Motagua fault zone that (1985) stepsleft throughan angleof about15ø to form a
suggestingthat blocking temperaturesof theseminerals major gentle restraining bend (Fig. lB) with its
werereached
at $8.$_+3.7m.y.(40Ar36Ar
and40K36Ar topographicandstructuralculminationmarkedby Catalina
dating
byBertrand
e•al., 1978)andbetween
78.0and63.7 Island. An unnamed zone of faults to the northwest of
m.y.(40Ar39ArdatingbySutter,
1979).Sutter
(1979) Santa Catalina Island is proposed to represent the
notesthat the oldest40Ar39Aragesof 78 m.y. continuationof the SanDiegoTroughfaultzone(Fig. 5B).
(Campanian)are from the highesttectonicunitsand are Haukssonand Jones (1988) proposedthat the 1986
probablyare the closestestimateof the time of collision Oceansideearthquake(ML = 5.3) dips to the northand
between continental crust in northem Central America and a strikesparallel to the San Diego Trough fault zone (Fig.
north-facing
arc. Nearbycontinental
deposits
assumedtobe 5B). The main shockof thiseventshowedreversefaulting
of Mioceneageconlainnumerous cobbles
of serpentinite. on an east-southeaststriking plane. These authors
concludedthat the Oceansideevent ruptureda small left-
SouthernCaliforniaBorderlands
andLosAnœeles
Basin, steppingrestrainingbendjust southof CrespiKnolls on
USA the southeastward continuation of the Santa Catalina
bathymetricridge(Fig. 5A).
TheCaliforniaborderlands
physiographic
provinceextends A gentle restrainingbend is also presenton the Palos
from the TransverseRangesof south-centralCaliforniato Verdes Hills -Coronado Bank fault zone at the Palos
 MANN AND GORDON 149

ELEVATION IN
METERS GULF OF
NOAM-CARIB PLATE HONDURAS
>2000 rn MOTION (10- 20 mrn/yr)

ALTO POLOCHIC
CUCHUMANTES
3353rn
• -•-SIERRA
..•:.•.:;
4::." FAULT
DE \ ZONE
• SIERRA
DE
ß
:::':.... • ß:..:.•"
:.': ß•:•.
'" CHUACUS LAS MINAS

HONDURAS

•/•'• "':L:;!:•.::i;i;!::?..::.'
42'i0
rn
?.::.?•:.
i:!::i:•i:...•:;;.•;::::.:
651
rn3015
RIFT

•, .:.:.::•.;:..:::::i:!:.:•.;.;..::i•!:i::•y.!::.;5:::.i:.:!i;:•:.t•;::::i•f:i•::i?::!!:::::•.:.::.:.i:
•:..'•l•' /
• '":
:.'":;•::•.::!::•:i;:::i;
i•::;;
•i!
:!11:iiiii;i;i•:
i:i•i•i:.?:?f::•i!!.::.:::i•:•.•
:..:. ' MOTAGUA
faULT ZONE
GUATEMALA CITY

PACIFIC
• RIFT IPALA
RIFT 100 km
OCEAN •
!

..................
.........
PRE-CENOZOIC METAMORPHIC
:.iii
........
:i:.ANDIGNEOUSROCKS-THINLINES
.......
:..........
" REPRESENT BEDDING AND FOLIATION
TRENDS

i=1 MAJOR
OUTCROPS
OFJADEITITE
ALONG MOTAGUA FAULT ZONE

_ ii.,..,._ I
Fig. 4. A. Topographyof northernCentralAmericaand its relationto activetracesof the left-lateralstrike-slip
faults separatingthe North Americaand Caribbeanplates. Note that the directionof relativeplate motionof
North Americarelative to the Caribbeanis approximatelyeast-westand that the area of highesttopographyis
adjacentto the segmentof the fault mostobliqueto this direction. B. Map showingthe agesof exposedrock
units in the bend area. Numbers1-1 indicatepointsthat have been left-laterally offset by 130 km along the
Polochicfault [Burkart, 1983]. We proposethat the topographichighlandsandexposures of deepercrustalrocks
in the Sierra de las Minas, Sierra de Chuacus,and the easternpart of the Sierra Madre may be related to the
combined effectsof a sharpstepover or push-upblock(PUB) betweentheMotaguaandPolochicfaultzonesanda
gentlerestrainingbend (GRB) alongthe Motaguafault zone. Jadeititeoutcropsare restrictedto the areaof the
threepointsshownin the Sierra de las Minas.

Hills. Buriedreversefaultsat this gentlerestrainingbend extension of the Palos Verdes-Coronado Bank fault zone is
uplift a staircaseof marineterracesof Quaternaryage at a similar, thoughless topographicallyprominent,gentle
ratesof about0.2 mm/yr and exhumea core of blueschist restrainingbend. The Newport-Inglewood-Rose Canyon
rocks of the Catalina Schist [Ward and Valensise, 1994]. and San Clemente fault zones appear to lack gentle
We proposethat the LasuenKnollsalongthe southeastern restrainingbends(Fig. 5B). These faults appearto
150 TECTONIC UPLIFT AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS

AREA OF MAP
BELOW
CALIFORNIA

500 km

20 km

•!:,
_'• .::';•i:;•;:•:•::•:•:::

.............

========================

QUAT. AND PRE-

QUAT. FAULTS

============================
.:
'•:•:•:•.F:M.F:•-':-E

OVER 1000 FT
WATER DEPTH
IN FEET

HIST)

ISLAND

Fig. 5. A. Topographyof the coastalareaof southernCalifornia,the southernCaliforniaborderlands and andthe

relationof topographicandbathymetricrelief to activetracesof the right-lateralstrike-slipfaultsseparating
the
North Americaand Pacificplates. Note that the directionof relativeplatemotionof the Pacificplaterelativeto
North Americais approximatelysoutheast and that the areasof highesttopographyand shallowestwater depths
are adjacentto the east-southeast-trending
segments of faultsthat are moreobliqueto this direction. B. Map
showingthe locationsof pre-QuaternaryrocksandCretaceous blueschistrocks. We proposethatthe topographic
highlandsandexposures of blueschist
rockson the PalosVerdesPeninsula andSantaCatalinaIslandarerelatedto
gentlerestrainingbends(GRB) on the faultsshown. The LasuenKnollsis a shallowlysubmerged bankthatmay
alsobe a gentlerestrainingbend. Transpressionalfaults(TF) slightlyobliqueto the directionof platemotionbut
lackingperceptiblegentlebendsincludethe Newport-Inglewood-Rose Canyonfault zonewith elevationsalong
the California coastline and the San Clemente fault zone with elevations on Santa Barbara and San Clemente
 MANN AND GORDON 151

145 ø
relatively straight transpressionalfaults oblique to the 135ø 140ø

direction of relative plate motion (Fig. 1A). This fault :i;!!i!:iiiiii:i;ii•ii:11i•:i:!:ili

BLUESCHIST OUTCROPS
geometry may account for the relatively straight and HOKKAIDO

IN ISLAND
topographically elevatedcoastlinebetweenLosAngelesand
SanDiego. The upthrownsideof the transpressional fault
correspondsto the northeastern,higher block of the
Newport-Inglewook-Rose Canyonfault zone. On the San SEA OF JAPAN
40 ø
Clemente fault zone, the upthrown side of the
transpressional fault correspondsto the relatively straight
andnarrowuplift exposingSantaBarbaraandSanClemente ITOIGAWA-SHIZUOKA
TECTONIC LINE
Islands.The lack of gentlebendsor push-upblockson the
9.6crn/yr
Newport-Inglewood-Rose Canyonand San Clementefault
zones may explain why neither of these faults exposes
MEDI TECTONIC
blueschistrocks of the SantaCatalina Schist. The simple LINE PACIFIC
OCEAN
patternof exhumeddeepercrustalrocks and topographic
highs along transpressionalstrike-slip faults does not
support the model by Crouch and Suppe (1993) for
regional,low anglenormalfaultsextendingin a northeast- •I•3.8 crn/yr I 400 km , I
southwestdirectionand exhumingdeepercrustalrocksin BUTSUZO TECTONIC
LINE
their footwall uplifts.
Rocks collectivelyassignedto the Catalina Schistand
Figure6. Map of majorblueschist beltsin Japan(from Banno,
locally exposedat the Palos Verdes Hills and on Santa 1986; Bannoand Nakajima, 1992) and their relationto active
CatalinaIslandincludeblueschist-faciesmetagraywacke and or recentlyactive strike-slipfaults (from Taira et al., 1983).
metavolcanicrocksand also glaucophanicgreenschist and Filled arrowsindicateplate convergencedirectionswith rates
amphibolite-facies rocks[CrouchandSuppe,1993;Bebout in cms/yrfrom DeMets et al. (1990). Open arrowsindicate
et al., 1994]. The pre-LateCretaceousage of the Catalina motionsof forearc slivers driven by oblique plate convergence.
We proposethat the majority of blueschistoutcropsoccurs
Schist,therock typespresent,andthe styleof deformation
along the following two types of transpressional strike-slip
and metamorphismof theserocksindicatethat they canbe faults' GRB = gentlerestrainingbend; PUB = push-upblock.
correlatedwith the Franciscansubductioncomplex of Note that few blueschistsare exposedin central Japanwhere
central California. The conditions of formation for the the Pacific Oceanis subductingorthogonallyand thereare few
Catalina Schist included regional metamorphism at Neogene strike-slip faults.
pressures
of about7-14 kb thatcorrepondto paleodepthsof
15-45 km and temperaturesranging from 300-600ø C
beginningin Neogenetime [Taira et al., 1983;Banno,
[Beboutet al., 1994]. The CatalinaSchistis overlainby
the middle Miocene San Onofre breccia which contains 1986]andculminating
in about10 km of fight-lateral
displacement
in theQuaternary
[ItohandTakemura,1993].
angularclastsof the schist.
HighP/T metamorphismoccurred duringearlyCretaceous
obliquesubduction
[Hara et al., 1983;Faureet al., 1986].
Japan YokoyamaandItaya (1990) identifiedblueschist
clastswith
isotopicagesof 120-85Ma in middleEocene conglomerate
Blueschist rocksin Japanareconcentrated alongmajor thatunconformably overliestheSanbagawa belt. They
strike-slipzonesor "tectoniclines"in northernand southern interpretedtheconglomerate asa record
of strike-slip-related
Japanthatareassociated withactivestrike-slip faultsthat exhumation of the belt duringan Eocenephaseof left-
accommodate obliqueplateconvergence (Fig. 6). The lateralstrike-slip
movement alongtheMedianfaultzone.
centralpartof Japan whichis undergoing convergence in an We proposethatblueschist beltsalongthetwo tectonic
orthogonal directionlackssignificant activestrike-slip linesoccuraseithergentlerestraining bends(Fig. lB) on
faultsandblueschist exposures. theButsuzo tectonic lineor asa push-upblocks in a fight-
In southern Japan,blueschists of theChicibu-Sanbagawasteppingpush-upblock betweenthe Butsuzoand Median
beltsare locatedbetweenthe Median and Butsuzotectonic tectoniclines(Fig. 6). We interprettheblueschist
belt at
lines. The Median tectonic line exhibits evidence for the northern end of the Median tectonic line near its
Several
tensof kilometers
of left-lateral
displacement
during intersection
with the Itoigawa-Shizuoka
tectonicline as a
CretaceousandPaleogene timewithright-lateral
motion left-stepping
gentlerestraining
152 TECTONIC UPLIFT AND EXHUMATION OF BLUESCHIST BELTS

A. UNDERPLATINGACCOMPANYINGACTIVE SUBDUCTION
Blueschistsin northernJapan(HokkaidoIsland) are AND ARC TECTONICS

concentratedalongthecentralHokkaidowherea forearc
sliverdrivenby obliquesubruction
alongtheKuriltrench
ZONE OFLAWSONITE
eu.M•, .or• '• -• .........
•;.....-....,•,,,;:..:...-.:.'
:6,::..-:•:---':1
•:'x•:?..-:.r.-•.•::
is impingingtheJapanesearc[Tairaet al., 1983;Kimura, ZONEO•I•ADE•TE
ANDG•UCOPHANE mRUAT•ON '"'•'•'•'• ..........
..........
•:•••••i':.ii 40 am
1986](Fig.6). Thelargest
areaof blueschist
exposures
is 0 SO • 00 • SO •00 nU

concentrated
alonga north-strikingMioceneto Recent B. WEDGE FOLDINGAND UPLIFT ACCOMPANYINGACTIVE
right-lateral
faultthatextends 2000km northward from SUBDUCTION/ARC/COLLISION TECTONICS
-.•..• 0

Hokkaidothrough SakhalinIsland[Fournieret al., 1994]. -- '"'

"•*"'"'""""•:
"'"•""-"i•:';-".•'-:'
'•' _-:_-.-.-.-.-.-,.-.
.........................
::.-..-
20
Thelargestblueschist
beltin northern
Japanappears to be i- ...... o..................
..,½
UPLIF'i'/FOLD
PRODUCED
INBLUESCHIST
•.•,--:...-•...__.:__:r•,E,..T..•
:""':':':""*•;•i]
locatedon a gentlerestrainingbendof the activeright- BODY
BYSUBDUCTING
I .........
BATHYMET
'::•-:'-
•"•"""•""•'••••i!•
......
•-'-,• ,
40
'•:i:-;:-;l
lateralfault zone that extendsnorthwardthroughSakhalin 0 50 100 150 200

Island. C. INTERNALWEDGE EXTENSIONACCOMPANYINGACTIVE

SUBDUCTION AND ARC TECTONICS

Sumatra
ß
Karig(1979)proposed theideathatstrike-slipfaultscould 0
,,B.
LU.ES.CH!ST.
B?DY,
........ ':'"'"'•:'"'""•::"
50
'•:•••••t
"'"'"
""'"••'
' 40
100 150 200
serveassub-vertical conduitsfor theupliftandexhumation D. STRIKE-SLIPFAULTSAND RESTRAININGBENDSAFFECTINGSYN- OR
of blueschistrocksformeddeepwithinaccretionary prisms. POST-SUBDUCTIONACCRETIONARYWEDGES NARROW STRIPOF
BLUESCHIST UPLIFTED ALONG
He pointedoutthatsuchconduits werenecessary for deep-
seatexlrocksto penetrate thecommonlythickslopesection
blanketing the underlying accretionaryprism. His
observational basis for this conceptual model were
exposures of highpressure amphibolites
in blockseraplaced ..............
alongtheNeogeneleft-lateralBateestrike-slipfault zones UPLI•SATGEN•E ? 40
thatcutsaccretionary prismsedimentary rocksontheisland RESTRAINING
BENDS
PUSH-UPS
AND•1•0 .... 1•0' • 200
of Nias in the Sumatranforearc. In this region of the
Sumatraforearcthe Indianplateis obliquelyconvergingin Fig.7. Proposed modelfor tectonicuplift andexhumation of
a northerlydirectionat a rateof about10 cm/yr[DeMets,et blueschistrocks that involvesa continuumbetweensyn-
al., 1990]. The Batee fault has a strong,fight-stepping subductionshortening (B) or lengthening (C) of the
curvatureindicativeof a gentlerestrainingbend at Nias accretionary wedge[Platt, 1986]followedby a syn-or post-
Island(seeFigure3 of Karig, 1979). Rock typesadjacent subduction phaseof tectonicuplift relatedto activityof syn-to
post-strike-slipfaults cuttingthe accretionarywedge. In D,
to the Batee fault include amphibolite, gabbros, strike-slip faults are hypothesizedas sub-verticalplanes
serpentinized harzburgite,and metagraywacke.No true penetrating the entirecrustandsubduction is not necessarily
blueschistswere identifiedalthoughits possiblethat the active.

amphibolitewas retrogressivelymetamorphosed from

eclogite. Like the Japaneseexample,the Nias Island
exampleillustratesthepossibilityof transpressional strike- Subductionproceedsin a steady-state modeand thereis no
slip faults forming in oblique subductionsettingsand differentialuplift of the blueschistbody. The secondand
actingasconduits alongwhichaccretionary prismmaterial third stagesshownin Figures7B and C representtectonic
eventsperturbingthe steadystatesubductionsystemand
causingtheaccretionary wedgeto eithershorten(Fig. 7B) or
PROPOSED SYN- TO POST-SUBDUCTION MODEL lengthen(Fig. 7C). Suchdifferentialmovementresultsin
FOR THE UPLIFT OF BLUESCHISTS the upwarddisplacementof the blueschistbody and could
occurby reversefaulting in responseto the subductionof
An observation-based,
conceptualmodelfor the uplift and bathymetrichighs as shown in Figure 7B or by normal
exhumationof blueschistsmodified from Platt (1986) using faulting during lengtheningof the wedgetowardscritical
theexamplesdiscussed hereis shownin Figure7A-D. The taperFigure7C [Platt, 1986]. Upwardmovementcouldbe
first stagerepresents
early to intermediate
stagesof prism eitheras an en bloc uplift within a transpressional strike-
formationwhenunderplating of subducted
materialleadsto slip zoneor diapiricriseof blueschist blocksentrainedin a
its blueschistmetamorphism underconditions> 5.5 kb serpentinitematrix deformedby the transpressional strike-
pressurethat corresponds to depths> 20 km (Fig. 7A). slip fault

Our three dimensionalmodification of the Platt's (1986)
two dimensional model for differential vertical movements
of blueschistsalong strike-slip faults is shown in Figure
7D. We showlocal exposures of blueschist
rocksresulting
from rex:tonicuplift at either genre bends(Fig. 1A), push-
ups (Fig. 1C), or relatively straighttranspressional faults
(Fig. 1A). Blueschistuplift is proposedto occurin all three
t• of structuresby crustalreverseor thrustfaultswithin
the upthrown,commonlyconvexsidesof presentlyactive,
transpressionalstrike-slip fault systems. Note that the
transpressionalstrike-slipfaultscouldserveto accommodate
either the upward flow of incoherentblueschistbodies
within serpenfinite/shalymatrices or the upward brittle
thrustingof coherentblueschistbodies. The subducfion
phaseresponsiblefor producingthe blueschists as seenin
Figure 7A may or may not be activeduringthe strike-slip
phaserepresented in Figure7D.
Acknowledgments. We thankG. Harlow for kindly providing
preprints and S. Roeske and an anonymousreviewer for
providing comments. UTIG contributionno. 1187.
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Inner Continental Borderland of southern California and
 Syn-SubductionForearc Extension and BlueschistExhumation
in Baja California,M6xico
Richard L. Sedlock

Departmentof Geology,SanJos• StateUniversity,SanJos•, California

Regionallymetamorphosed, structurallycoherentCretaceousblueschists
in westernBaja California,
M6xico form the footwallsof major shallowly-dippingnormalfault systems.The hangingwalls of
thesemajor normalfaults consistof Mesozoicarc, ophiolite,and forearcbasinrocksthat formed
part of the Cretaceousforearc above an active subductionzone. All Mesozoicrocks underwent
extensionalstrain of probableLate Cretaceousto Paleogeneage. Exhumationof the blueschists
from depthsof 15-30+ km is interpretedto have occurredduringsyn-subduction extensionof the
North American forearc between >95 Ma and about 40-30 Ma, and thus is unrelated to Basin and
Rangeextensionor the openingof the Gulf of California. The structuralstyleof extensionis simi-
lar in many ways to that of metamorphiccore complexes. This study is the first to document
extensionand exhumationof this agein Baja.

1. INTRODI. ICrlON hundredsof meters. In contrast,regionally metamor-

phosedcoherenttracts may have long dimensions of
Most surfaceexposures of blueschistsare inferred kilometers to hundreds of kilometers, and consist of
to representexhumed parts of ancient accretionary structurallycoherentsequencesof basalt, ribbon chert,
prismsbecauseappropriateP-T conditions(roughly0.4- and terrigenousturbidires.
1.2 GPa, 170-350øC)are attaiaed only in subduction Most block-sized blueschists may have risen
zones. Such blueschists must have been subducted to throughthe crustwithin diapirsof serpentinite or argil-
blueschist-facies depthswhile attachedto the subducting lite, or within strike-slipfault zones[e.g., Karig, 1980].
plate, transferred at depthto the overridingplate, and However, exhumation of large tracts of regionally
then exhumed to shallow crustal levels. Blueschist metamorphosedblueschistsposes difficult kinematic
preservation implies one or both of the following:(1) problems. Explanationsbased on the buoyantrise of
subductedrocks were exhumedso rapidly that higher- subductedmaterial and erosion of the overburden [Ernst,
temperatureoverprints(e.g., greenschist-facies assem- 1971) may not satisfactorilyexplain the high structural
blages)had insufficienttime to develop;(2) subducted levelof dense units,lackof a higher-temperature over-
rocks were exhumeddining steady-state subductionand print, and the timing of uplift and erosion. An
continualdepressionof forearcisotherms,i.e., constant alternative explanation,first discussedby Lister et al.
refrigerationof the forearc. [1984] and Platt [1986], is that underplatingand overth-
Blueschistsoccur in Baja, as in orogenicbelts ickeningof the forearclead to gravitationalcollapseby
throughoutthe world, in two forms. Isolatedtectonic extension, and to exhumation of blueschists in the
blocksare suspended in a matrixof serpentiaite
or argil- footwalls of normal faults. This interpretationhas
lite, and typically have long dimensions of metersto gainedsupportin the FranciscanComplex[Jaykoet al.,
1987; Harms et al.. 1992], the Alps [Selverstone,1988],
Australia[Littleet al., 1993],andJapan[Kirnura,1994].
Subduction:Top to Bottom DismptexiMesozoicblueschist,ophiolite,and arc
GeophysicalMonograph96 terranesin westernBaja California,M6xico are similar
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical Union in many respectsto FranciscanComplex,Coast
155
156 SYN-SUBDUCTION EXTENSION AND BLUESCHIST EXHUMATION IN BAJA

Ophiolite, and other rock units in California, but are

betterexposedand litfie affectedby later tectonism.The
goals of this paper are to argue that Baja blueschists
were exhumed by syn-subductionextension, and to
highlightthe effectsof extensionon rocksthat structur-
ally overliethe blueschists.
2. MESOZOIC ROCK UNITS OF WESTERN B AJA
Mesozoic rocks that crop out on San Benito,
Cedros,Magdalena,and SantaMargaritaIslandsand the
Vizcaino Peninsulain westernBaja (Fig. 1) are divided
into three structural units [Sedlock 1988a, 1993]. The
stmcturally highest unit, or upper plate, consistsof
severaldistinctterranesthat crop out in all areasexcept
the San Benito Islands (e.g., CedrosIsland, Fig. 2).
Upper-plateterranescontainbasementof Late Triassicto
Middle Jurassicislandarcs,ophiolites,or both, andover-
lying Jurassicvolcanogenicstrata [Kimbrough,1984;
Moore, 1985]. Upper-plate terranes evolved in the
Pacific oceanicrealm until their attachment to North
America in the latest Jurassic or earliest Cretaceous.
Magmatismceasedin theseterranesafter attaclmaem,
but
was active to the east in the Cretaceous arc of mainland
Baja. The arc and ophioliteterranesin westernBaja
formedpart of the forearclid abovean east-dipping
sub-
duction zone that fed this Cretaceous arc, and the ter-
ranes were overlappedby forearc basin turbiditesthat
range in age from lower AptJan to latest Cretaceous
[Smithand Busby, 1993; D. Smith,unpublisheddata;R.
Sedlock,unpublished data).
The stmcturallylowest unit, or lower plate, con-
sists of regionally-metamorphosedassemblagesof
blueschist-faciesmetabasiteand metasedimentary rocks
that crop out on Cedros,San Benito, and SantaMargarita
Islands. These rocks are not melange, but rather a
faulted, originally continuousstratigraphicsequenceof
oceanfloor or intraplatebasalticflows,pillows,andbrec-
cias, Late Triassic to Early Cretaceousred ribbon
radiolarianchert, and terrigenousturbidites. The entire rangesfrom 1 to 3 kin. Individualbedsshowup to 65%
oceanicpackagewas subducted, deformed,andmetamor-
phosedunder blueschistfacies conditions(P = 0.5-1.0+
GPa, T = 150-300øC) [Sedlock, 1988b] at 115-105 Ma
(4øAr/39Ar) [BaldwinandHarrison,1989].
All contactsbetween the lower plate and upper
plate are fault zonesup to 500 m thick that are occupied strain interpretedas syn-accretion.Normal separations
by serpentiaite-matrix melange (not visible at scale of on thesefatfitsrangefrom a few mm tOat least10 m.
Fig. 2). The melangeconsistsof shearedserpentinite
containingtectonicblocksthat includewall rocksand a
diverse suite of Mesozoic metamorphicrocks [Baldwin
and Harrison, 1992; Bonini and Baldwin, 1994].
San Diego
200 km
11ow
30 N
San Benito
Islands
N
Cedros
Island
Vizcaino Peninsula
26N I
115W
Magdalena Island
Santa Margarita Island
Fig. 1. Location map of Baja California. Mesozoicoceanic
rocks on San Benito, Cedros,Magdalena,and SantaMargarita
Islandsand the Vizca•no Peninsulaare separatedfrom the grani-
tic basement(stipplepattern)of mainlandBaja by an inferred
major fault (heavy dashedline) that has beenbuffedby Ceno-
zoic sedimen•y rocks.
3. SYN-SUBDUCTION F_XrENSION
3.1 Evidencefor Extension
Structural features in most upper-plate terranes
indicatea singleextensionaldeformationevent;in some
terranes on Magdalena and Santa Margarita Islands,
extension is superposedon earlier, probably syn-
accretion,contractionalstrains. Normal faults dip 0-70ø,
normal separations rangefrom a few mm to at least2
km (Fig. 3), and crustalthinningacrossseveralfaults
extensionalong setsof subparallelplanarnormalfaults.
Widespreadveins are up to 1 m thick and recordup to
15% bulk extension. In the lower-plateblueschists,
extensionalstrain (normal faults, vein systems)is the
youngestdeformationevent, overprintingcontractional
Earlier workersinterpretedthe fatfitsbetweenthe
upperandlower platesas thrusts[Rangin,1978]or pos-
sible strike-slip fatfits [Kilmer, 1979], but I interpret
them as normal faults for the following
 SEDLOCK 157

Schematic
tect•nøstraiigraph
y' ....
;::;.:;'-'•7-'.-:.•-';.'.--•':':.'.-':.".'-':"'.:;,:-'..•;..'..•"
o 373•'
A
•.3•..:•;.?.•.•:.?.7.'.'..:•'..:'.'..:•7c..-•7•7'.7
...'-'3."3;'.•.•',,^•"
/]•?.-.'('•-•mid.-K
-,•,;,
f_o_rearc_basi
............ :::•..J_,-
'-J ' '"
"•."•'.'::"'::••lt•
•.
'"'"""
";'"'
"•'"'
"''"•
"'""
"•"• •""*'"
•..•..•.-•'...
'"'
"•"'"':'.......,T,.':,
'"'"'•"""
:..•....-....,.....-......:...-..;......:..;..•.%:%;'

"""•"•'"'""•'•"' """""'""'""
....
.'.-.'.-'..".-•.-;.-;:•.'-."%.'.-;'
ellell.llell
."e,pe.".."e
•. ,•
,,. •, /.

',,".,:,' ;.'•.' l' l' ;.'-' '

TM
.
II .%-.%-.'.-.•,..•.- -.".- ".-.'.-.'.-.".:•.•,.'•,- ' e",.a",,e •,

' ' -,•,'•,,,,,,,.,,....,,,,..,,.,,..•-,.v',

ß . . ;..

'•,.•.

-3-kin
- NT
Av *•
-'"
•"
'-"
:'
-'ß A'

B !

3'3iii'ii!ii!!1111111111111
Fig.2. Simplified geologic
mapandsections of southern
Cedros Island.Patternsonmapandsections correspond
to unitsidentifiedin schematic
tectonostratigraphy
(inset).Blueschists
with heavierpatternwereexhumed from
greaterdepths(20-30+km) thanthosewith lighterpattern(15 km). Blueschists occupyfootwallsof major
shallowly-dippingfaultzones(heavylines)interpreted
asnormalfaults(seetext). Tickmarksonfaultzonespoint

1. Fault striae rake 45-90ø, indicatingdip slip or
obliqueslip.
2. Upper-plate normal fatfits and vein systems
merge with the faults that separateupper and lower
plates,suggestinga synkinemaficorigin.
3. Gex)barometric estimates indicate
maximum pressuresof 0.1-0.6 GPa acrossthe major
fatfits,with lower-pressure rockseverywherein the upper
plate; this relation indicatescrustalt.hinningof 3-20 km
andnet normaldisplacements of 5-40 km (Fig. 4).
3.2 Geometryand Kinematicsof Extension
The geometryand kiaematicsof fatfiringare com-
plex and have not yet been systematicallystudied.
Fatfitsbetweenupper and lower plates,and most major
upper-platefaults, are groupedinto three sets:(1) dip
<20ø;undulatory,possiblydomal(CedrosandSantaMar-
garita Islands,Vizcaino Peninsula);(2) NE strike, dip
20-45ø, undulatory(Cech'os Island);(3) E-W strike,dip
30-55ø, planar(Cedrosand MagdalenaIslands). Paleos-
tresses cannot be inferred from fatfit strike because striae
on most fatfits indicate oblique slip. Preliminary
kinematic analysisof fatfits and striationsœR.Sedlock,
unpublished
data]indicatethat.whereaso• is everywhere
within15øof vertical,osspansa rangeof N55E-S55W _+
50ø. Systematicstructuralstudiesare in progressto
differential determine
whetherthe rangeof o3 direcfiomrepresents
heterogeneous faulting during a protractedepisodeof
extension,superposed fault systemsthat developedunder
different stressregimes,or post-faultingrotations. The
data alsoindicatethat extensionwasnot simplymargin-
normal.
3.3 Age of Extensionand Exhumation
Geologic and geochronologicdata indicate Late
Cretaceous to Cenozoic extension and exhumation of
lower-plateblueschists.Extensionprobably startedat
leastas early as the Cenomanian, as indicatedby active
fault scarpswithin the Cenomanianforearc [Smith and
Busby, 1993], and continuedinto the Cenozoic,as iadi-
cated by forearc basin strata as young as Maastrichtian
that are cut by normal faults. Lamprophyredikes
158 SYN-SUBDUCTION EXTENSION AND BLUESCHIST EXHUMATION IN BAJA

Fig. 3. Photographs of normalfaults within upperplate. A. Shallowlydippingnormalfault separates mid-

Cretaceous turbidites
in hangingwall (beddingdipsto left) fromsubhorizontal Jurassicshalein footwall;hanging
wall is cut by numeroussyntheticnormalfaults(planar,dip to right). Hill is about100 m high. CedrosIsland. B.
Normal fault zone within Cretaceous turbidires.Sledgehammer in centerof photois 40 cm. SantaMargarita
Island. C. Planarnormalfault dips45ø to fight aboveJurassicarc basementof footwall(darkerrocksleft of main
valley); beddedrocksin hangingwall are AptJanturbidites.Magdalena

Fig. 4. Normalfaultzonemarkedby 8-m-thickbandof light-colored
shallow-level(maximumdepthabout3-4 kin) lurassicvolcaniclastic
blueschists
of thelowerplate(exhumed
from20-25kin). Faultdipsabout10ø intohill, cutssubhorizontal
in dark upper-platerocks.Southwestern
CedrosIsland.
Santa Margarita Island that have yielded K-Ar and
4øAr/39Ar
agesof 30 Ma [Formanet al., 1971;Bonini
and Baldwin, 1994] intrude and are not cut by major
upper-platenormal faults. This stronglysuggeststhat
widespread extensionandexhumationceasedby 30 Ma.
Several lines of evidence suggestpost-30 Ma
extensionand exhumationin westernBaja, but none
effectivelyconstrains themagnitudeor timing.
1. Normal faultswith unknownmagnitudes of net
slip currentlyare active on or offshoreCedros,Mag-
dalena,andSantaMargaritaIslands.Slip on thesefaults
probablyhas contributexl to the modem topographic
relief (up to 1 kin).
2. Pliocene conglomerates containingblueschist
clasts
cropoutonCedros
[Kilmer1979],indicating
sur-
face exposureof blueschists
by about4 Ma. However,
this is a minimum age becauseclast-bearingstrata of
Eocene-Miocene age are absentfrom westernBaja.
3. Baldwin and Harrison [1989] (see also Baldwin,
thisvolume)
interpreted
nøAr/39Ar
datafroma lower-plate
blueschist,which had experiencedpeak metamorphism
of 170-220øC and 0.7-0.8 GPa (20-25 kin) about 110 Ma,
to indicatecoolingbelow 145øCabout20 Ma. Basedon
this interpretationand on exhumationof thesearagonite-
bearingrocksinto the calcitestabilityfield at a tempera-
rare of 125-175øC[Carlsonand Rosenreid,1981], they
inferred averageexhumationrates of 0.1 mm/yr from
about110 Ma to 20 Ma and >0.8 mm/yr from 20 Ma to
5 Ma. The rocks thus would have been exhumed from
depthsof 12-15 km dtuing the Neogene. However, a
differentinterpretationof the sameobservations
is that,
following peak metamorphismabout 110 Ma, the rocks
SEDLOCK 159
serpentinite-matrix
melangejuxtaposesvery
rocksof the upperplate and deep-level
bedding
were exhumedat about0.3 mm/yr from about110 Ma to
30 Ma and at <0.1 mm/yr since30 Ma. The rocksthus
would have been within a few km of the surfaceby 30
Ma, allowing litfie subsequentexhumation. These two
very differerabut equallypermissibleinterpretationssug-
gest that thesedata do not effectively constrainthe age
of extension and exhumation.
In summary,I infer that syn-subduction extension
and blueschistexhumationbegan by about 95 Ma and
effectivelyceasedin the mid-Tertiary. Crosscutting
rela-
tionships and gexx:hronologic data suggestthat most
extensionand exhumationhad ocxzmxed by 30 Ma; plate
tectonicarguments(see below) may indicatecompletion
by 40 Ma. In any case,extensionand exhumationwere
not associatedwith the Basin & Range provinceor the
openingof the Gulf of California..It is unclearwhether
extensionandexhumationwerecontinuous or episodic.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Exhumationof blueschists
The preservationof Nueschistsin westernBaja
Californiaprobablyreflectsprotractedexhumationin the
continuouslyrefrigeratedforearc of a steady-statesub-
duction zone. The 2-dimensionalsectionsin Figure 5
schematicallyportrayonly the margin-normalcomponent
of extension;as notedabove,extensionin Baja probably
was not simply margin-normal.Geophysicaland geolo-
gic evidence show that oceanic lithosphere(Farallon,
Kula, or both) was subductextbeneath North America
from at least 100 Ma until about 30 Ma.
160 SYN-SUBDUCTION EXTENSION AND BLUESCHIST EXHUMATION IN BAJA

100Ma accretedcontinental
w E

20

40

40
Ma I• extension
and
Isyntectonic
i-' normal
faulting
• Kseds
0

20

40

60

50krn sediments
& •
greenstone
Fig. 5. Generalized,unbalanced cross-sections
of westernmarginof Baja at 100 Ma (top) and about40 Ma (bot-
tom). Cross-hatched unit is peridotite.Accretionary
prismconsists of four diagonally-lined
unitsdividedat inter-
vals of 0.4 GPa, 0.8 GPa, and 1.2 GPa. Underplating led to extensionandnormalfaultingduringLateCretaceous
andEarly Tertiary(seetex0. Queriedblankareais transitionbetweenextensional andcontractionalregimes.

subductionof cold lithospherewould have maintained
low geothermalgradientsand preventedblueschistsfrom
warmingduringexhumation. However,by about40 Ma,
youngFarallon lithosphereenteringthe subductionzone
may have causeda slowdownin the rate of subduction
[Ward, 1991] and probablycausedheatingof the forearc
and overprinting of blueschistsnot already at near-
surfacedepths.
4.2 Similarityto Core Complexes
In many respects,the geometryof extendedMeso-
zoic rocks in western Baja resembles that of
metamorphiccore complexesin the North American
Cordillera(Fig. 6). Both consistof shallowly-dipping
zones of great strain that separatebrittlely extended,
shallow-levelrocks from deeper-levelmetamorphicor
plutonic rocks. Extensionin both settingsmay have
resultedfrom verticalo, causedby underplating
(mag-
mas or uppermanfie addedto crustin core complexes;
subductedmaterialaddedto hangingwall in subduction
zones). Obviously, there also are notable differences
betweencore complexesand westernBaja, suchas the
natureof lower-platerocksand of the interveninghigh-
strain zones. However, there are no essential differences
in the structuralstyleof upper-platerocksin the two set-
tings.
4.3 Applicationsto OtherAreas
Restfitsfrom Baja Californiasuggestthat any rock
unit at shallow to mid-crustal levels of a similar forearc
may undergolarge extensionalstrains. The geologic
evolution of individual convergentmarginsdetermines
what rock types may undergothis strain:in Baja these
happenedto be accretexlarc and ophioliteterranes,but at
other margins they might include fiysch sequences,
miøgeoclinal
strata,or granitoids.
Many workershave noted that ophiolitesdisplay
incompletesectionsthat have been tectonicallythinned
by extension.Extensionalstrainsin ophiolitesmay have
beenacquiredin eitheror both of two environments:(1)
shortlyafterformation,near an oceanicspreadingcenter;
(2) after obduction/accretion, within an
 $EDLOCK 161

Metamorphic core complex

ß' _•.,_ extended layered rock

....,
• i:'c•,->.-'
.:•.'.,"•i?•ii:
iii,..
-• ß..:":/•:
.................
.:?=?•=•
.........
.......?'.........
•'"
i.... .•,
of shallowcrust
.."•-•.•!•ii!•'::=ii!iiiii!!!ii•i•?"••'•=
-..
ß...'".
•.•
•-
.' ..
;v-.:::•.:.-
'- mylonile,
v..v.....v...:..
breccia
......:.:.::::::i:'
n_ •
•.-• _ •r •
••.•
•½ ß
- ß
ß .::ß:....
:.. m_• • :::'.'.;:..<.:•:!:•.•...•:.:;..
ß .... . -•.-
.......::::::..::.v. , --•,•,•,•,•#-•,
/////.,,,,,/,/,/
• • • m
ß.:::.
..... ' • •. '
:. '"". '.. '.'..
-• ß-
.':
,,"•'•
//•d•-.•'•_ •l / /
ß ß ß- Id.ctdelY-•e•ormed
/
rocks
ß':5.': ß ß .. // ß ß ß
:.. '....
:.•......' "',,;';,••1((,{(',"," Iof minddieto lower crust
/////// ß ::...: .. ///, ß
.........
.............. ß..., ..... • I ( gnemss, granmtomos

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% •,•p•p,%•,•_ •.. =

extended shallow crustal rocks

on arc/ophiolitebasement
serpentinite-matrix
melange

regionally-metamorphosed
coherent blueschists
(exhumed from 15-30+ km'

Fig. 6. Schematic
blockdiagramsshowing geometric similaritybetweentypicalmetamorphic
corecomplexandthe
Mesozoicrocksof westernBaja California. Symbolsin westernBajadiagramcorrespondto thosein Figure2.

forearc. This studyhas found clear evidenceof post- Bonini,J. A., andS. L. Baldwin,
•Ar/39Ar
geochronology
of
accretion extension. accretedterranesfrom southwestern Baja Califoma Sur,
In many ways the geologyof westernBaja is simi- Mexico, U.S. Geol.SurveyCircular1107,p. 34, 1994.
lar to that of Mesozoicrocksin westernCalifornia (e.g., Carlson,W. D., and Rosenfeld,J. L., Opticaldeterminationof
FranciscanComplex,CoastRangeOphiolite). Thanksto topotacticaragonite-calcitegrowthkinetics:Metamorphic
implications,
J. Geol., 89, 615-638, 1981.
excellentexposureand the lack of tectonicoverprint,it
has beenpossibleto documentsyn-subduction extension Ernst,W. G., Metamorphiczonationson presumablysubducted
that is inferred but not easily demonstrablein related lithosphericplatesfrom Japan,California,and the Alps,
units in California. Contrib.MineralogyPetrology,34, 43-59, 1971.
Forman, J. A., Burke, W. H., Jr., Minch, J. A., and Yeats, R.
S., Age of the basementrocks at MagdalenaBay, Baja
Acknowledgments.Co-workersin Baja have included
California, M6xico, Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstr. Prog., 3,
SuzanneBaldwin, JenniferBonini, Jon Hagstrum,Yuldo Iso-
120, 1971.
zaki, andDave Lame. My understanding of westernBajageol-
Harms, T. A., A. S. layko, and M. C. Blake, lr., Kinematic
ogy owesmuchto discussionswith GordonGastil,Dave Kim-
evidence for extensionalunroofingof the Franciman
brough,Tom Moore, andDoug Smith. Work hasbeenfunded
Complexalong the CoastRangefault, northernDiablo
by NSF grantsEAR85-18871(Larue)andEAR91-04771.
Range,California,Tectonics,11,228-241, 1992.
layko, A. S., M. C. Blake, Jr., and T. Harms, Attenuationof
the Coast Range Ophioliteby extensionalfaulting,and
REFERENCES natureof the CoastRange "Thrust", California,Tecton-
ics, 6, 475-488, 1987.
Baldwin, S. L., and T. M. Harrison, Geochronologyof Kilmer, F. H., A geologicalsketchof CedrosIsland,Baja Cali-
blueschistsfrom west-centralBaja California and the fornia, M6xico in Baja California Geology,editedby P.
timing of uplift of subduction
complexes,J. Geol., 97, L. AbbottandR. G. Gastil,pp. 11-28, Dept. Geol. Sci.,
149-163, 1989. SanDiego StateUniversity,1979.
Baldwin, S. L., andT. M. Harrison,The P-T-t historyof blocks Kimbrough,D. L, Palcogeographic significanceof the Middle
in serpentinite-matrix
melange,
west-central
BajaCalifor- JurassicGran Ca•non Formation,CedrosIsland,Baja Cal-
nia, Geol. Soc. America Bulletin, 104, 18-31, 1992. ifornia Sur, in Geologyof the Baja California
162 SYN-SUBDUCTION EXTENSION AND BLUESCHIST EXHUMATION
edited by V. A. Frizzell, Jr., pp. 107-117, Pacific Sec-
tion, Societyof EconomicPaleontologists and Mineralo-
gists,Book 39, 1984.
Kimura, G., The latestCretaceous-early Paleogene rapidgrowth
of accretionarycomplexand exhumationof high pres-
sure series metamorphicrocks in northwesternPacific
margin,J. Geophys.Research,99, 22,147-22,164,1994.
Lister, G. S., G. Banga, and A. Feenstra,Metamorphiccore
complexesof Cordillerantype in the Cyclades,Aegean
Sea,Greece,Geology,12, 221-225, 1984.
Little, T. A., R. I. Holcombe, and R. Sliwa, Structural evi-
dence for extensionalexhumationof blueschist-bearing
serpentinite matrix melange, New England orogen,
southeastQueensland,Australia,Tectonics,12, 536-549,
1993.
Moore, T. E., Stratigraphyand tectonic significanceof the
Mesozoic tectonostrafigraphicterranesof the Vizcaino
Peninsula,Baja CaliforniaSur,M6xico,in Tectonostrati-
graphicterranesof the Circum-Pacific region,editedby
D. G. Howell, pp. 315-329, Circum-Pacific Councilfor
Energy and Mineral Resources,Earth ScienceSeries,
Number 1, Houston Texas, 1985.
Platt, J.P., Dynamicsof orogenicwedgesand the uplift of
high-pressure
metamorphicrocks, Geol. Soc. America
Bulletin, 97, 1037-1053.
Rangin,C., Speculative modelof Mesozoicgeodynamics, cen-
tral Baja Californiato northeastern
Sonora(M6xico), in
MesozoicPalcogeography of the WesternUnitedStates,
edited by D. G. Howell and K. A. McDougall,pp. 85-
106, Pacific Section, Soc. Econ. Paleontolologists
and
Mineralologists,1978.
IN BAJA
Sedlock,R. L., Tectonicsettingof blueschistandisland-arcter-
ranesof west-centralBaja California,Mexico, Geology,
16, 623-626, 1988a.
Sedlock, R. L., Metamorphicpetrology of a high-pressure,
low-temperaturesubducfion
complexin west-central
Baja
California, Mexico, J. Metam. Geol., 5, 205-233, 1988b.
Sedlock,R. L., Mesozoicgeologyand tectonicsof blueschist
and associated oceanic terranes in the Cedros-Vizca[no-
San Benitoand Magdalena-Santa Margaritaregions,Baja
California,M6xico, in Mesozoicpaleogeography of the
westernUnited States-H,editedby G. C. DunneandK.
McDougall,pp. 113-125, Pacific Section,Societyof
EconomicPaleontologists
and Mineralogists,Book 71,
1993.
Selverstone,I., Evidence for east-west crustal extensionin the
EasternAlps: Implicationsfor the unroofinghistoryof
the Tauem Window, Tectonics, 7, 87-105, 1988.
Smith, D. P., and C. J. Busby, Mid-Cretaceouscrustalexten-
sion recordedin deep-marinehalf-grabenfill, Cedros
Island, Mexico, Geol. Soc. America Bulletin, 105, 547-
562, 1993.
Ward, P. L., On plate tectonicsand the geologicevolutionof
southwesternNorth America, J. Geophys.Res., 96,
12,479-12,496, 1991.
Richard L. Sedlock,Departmentof Geology,San Jos6
State University, San Jos6, CA 95192-0102,
sedlock@geosun
 Slip-History of the Vincent Thrust'
Role of DenudationDuri g ShallowSubduction
Marty Grove and OscarM. Lovera

Departmentof Earth & SpaceSciences,

Universityof California,LosAngeles

4øAr?gAr
ageand39Arkineticstudies
performed
withK-feldspars
sampled
fromabovethe
VincentThrust(VT) allowreconstruction of its sliphistoryduringLateCretaceous-EarlyTertiary
shallowsubduction.Variationalmethodswereappliedto the multiplediffusiondomainmodelto
producebestfit thermalhistories.The K-feldsparT-t resultsindicatethata temperature
difference
of-150øC wasmaintained from>60 Ma to <55 Ma betweenpositionsthatarepresentlyat nearly
the sameelevationandarelocated5 and15 km westof theVT. Usinga geothermal gradientand
dip angle estimatedfrom geologicconstraints,simplenumericalheat-flow modelswere used to
determinethe slip velocityand relativeverticalseparationof the samplesduringthrustingby
requiringcalculated T-t resultsto fit theK-feldsparthermalhistories.For modelsin whichcooling
wasdue solelyto subduction of colderrocks(hangingwall stationary),solutionsmostcompatible
with the K-feldsparresultswere yielded by underthrusting rates of-1.4 crn/yr. and a vertical
separationduring the Late Cretaceous/Early Tertiary of 8.5 km. Allowing denudationof the
hangingwall duringthrusting(footwallstationary)providessomewhatmoresatisfactory fits to the
data. For thesemodels,-0.2-0.4 crn/yr.displacement occursalongthe VT from 65 Ma to 50 Ma
alonga fault planeinclinedat 15ø. Becauseonly net verticaldisplacement can be constrained by
K-feldspardata,our calculatedslip rateis only a relativevaluethatis inverselyproportionalto the
dip angleat the time of thrusting.

1. INTRODUCTION capable of constraining temperature-time histories of

processes
activewithin the middlecrust(-400-150øC).
Knowledge of the slip history of subduction-related
thrust faults is fundamental to understandingconvergent 2. GEOLOGIC OVERVIEW
margin evolution. Since tectonic movementsmodify the
distributionof thermal energy within the crust, combined The VT within the eastern San Gabriel Mountains
thermochronology and numericalheat-flow analysisoffer a (Fig. 1) juxtaposeda Cretaceousmagmaticarc and older
powerful means of evaluatingtectonic models. Within crystalline rocks of the San Gabriel terrane over a
subductioncomplexes,attentionhasgenerallybeenfocused subductionassemblage(the Pelona Schist)during the Late
upon constrainingthermal historiesof accretedmaterials. Cretaceous-EarlyTertiary. The Pelona Schist and its
In this contribution,we employ thermochronologic results regional equivalents (Fig. 1) consist of metamorphosed
from the Vincent Thrust (VT) of southern California flysch, mafic, and minor ultramafic assemblages
togetherwith simple numericalheat-flow calculationsto recrystallized under amphibolite, epidote amphibolit. e,
demonstrate that knowledge of the temperature-time greenschist,or rarely epidote blueschistfacies conditions
evolution above subductioncomplexescan also provide [Graham and Powell, 1984; Jacobsonand Dawson, 1995].
important insights. Our methods [Lovera et al., 1989] These rocks are widely believed to have been accreted
feature thermochronology basedupon4øAr/39Ar ageand beneath the VT and related faults during Late Cretaceous-
•39Ar kineticexperiments performed withK-feldspar thatare Early Tertiary shallow subduction[Coney and Reynolds,
1977; Graham and England, 1976; Burchfiel and Davis,
1981; Dickinson, 1981]. While Late Tertiary reactivation
Subduction:Top to Bottom of this suturewas widespread[Jacobsonand Dawson, 1995
GeophysicalMonograph96 and references therein], structural, petrologic, and
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion thermochronologicevidence all imply that an
163
164 SLIP HISTORY OF THE VINCENT THRUST

:'..• Miocene Sediments

V 35000'
FT• MioceneHypabyssals
• PaleoceneMarine Sediments
• Cretaceous
Granitoids
I Triassic
Granitoids
....
•':• PrecambrianRocks
• MyloniticUpperPlateRocks
• Vincent Thrust ,,, ................. } I
• PelonaSchist
,, ............... [

34030'

N Vincent
Thrust

30 km %

Localities

Modifiedafter Ehlig (1981)

I J J I l 34000'
118ø30
' 118ø00
' 117ø30
'

Fig. 1: (A) Regional

distribution
of PelonaSchist
andrelated
rocksin southwestern
NorthAmerica(indicated
byblack
filled regions).
Rocksexposed in the SanGabrielmountains(inset)havebeendisplaced
-240 km alongthe San
Andreas
faultfromtheirequivalents
in SECalifornia.
(B) Geologic
sketch
mapoI theSanGabriel
mountains
illustrating
theposition
oftheVincent
thrust
andsamples
discussed
inthetext.

thrust fault contact is preserved across the VT in the England [1977] produced models that required
northeastern San Gabriel Mountains. Significant displacementof-90 km accompanied by 0.2 mm/yr erosion
reactivationof the VT is seeminglyprecludedby the pattern to avoid temperatureincreasesunsupportedby geologic
of inverted metamorphism beneath the fault and observations. Peacock [1987] alternatively found that
development of isofacial mineral assemblages and underflow of many hundredsof kilometersof oceaniccrust
concordantfabrics in the underlying schist and mylonitic was required to create and preserve the inverted
upperplatero•ks at the contact[Ehlig,1981,Jacobson, metamorphicgradient acrossthe VT if frictional heating
1983, 1995]. Similarity of mica K-Ar cooling agesabove was negligible. Similarly, Dumitru [1991] has invoked
and beneath the VT also implies sharedhistoriesfor the refrigerationof the Cretaceousmagmaticarc during rapid,
upper and lower platesduring the early Tertiary [Jacobson, shallow-angleLaramide subductionbeneathwesternNorth
1990 and references therein]. America. Note that althoughdenudationof the VT hanging
wall was potentiallysignificant[Mahaffie and Dokka, 1986;
3. TESTING TECTONIC MODELS Dillon, 1986; May and Walker, 1989], no numericalstudies
of the VT have explicitlyconsideredit.
Previousnumericalmodelingstudiesthat have sought In the presentpaper, we discussresultsfrom two K-
to explain the inverted metamorphiczonation beneaththe feldspar samplessuppliedby A.P. Barth. The specimens
VT have offered significantlydifferentestimatesof its slip were obtainedat positions5 and 15 km westof, and above,
history. Using relatively high estimatesfor shear heating the presentlyexposedtraceof the VT (Fig. 1). Both sample
(125-250MPa @ 3cm/yr= 0.12-0.24W/m2),Graham and localitiesoccur approximatelyat the sameelevation.
 GROVE AND LOVERA 165

specimensexamined consist of homogeneousorthoclase 5. THRUST FAULT MODELS

(93-NG-17) and microclinewith minor pertbite(93-NG-6).
Both were obtained from intrusionsthat are texturally Simple, two-dimensional,numericalheat-flow models
similarto the youngestdatedplutons(-80-75 Ma) emplaced with thrust fault geometry and kinematics have been
into the VT hanging wall prior to thrusting [May and investigated. Calculations involved finite-difference
Walker, 1989; Barth et al., 1995]. A sampleadjacentto 93- methods using direct and alternating-directionimplicit
NG-17 has yielded a U-Pb spheneage of 77+_2Ma [Joe techniques.Thermal diffusivitywas setat an averagecrustal
value•c=10-6m2/sec.
Wooden, unpublished data] and a hornblende inverse Constanttemperaturewasmaintained
isochron
ageof 71_+2
Ma [sample
93-NG-13;
4øAr/39Ar
data both at the surface (25øC) and base (1025øC) of the grid
tablesand plots for this and othersamplesdiscussed.in
the while a zero heat flux condition was imposed over the
text are available at the following WWW site: lateral boundaries. Frictional and internalheating(due to
http://oro.ess.ucla.
edu/argon.html]. radioactive decay and metamorphicreactions) were not
considered. Although frictional heating can significantly
4. THERMAL HISTORY RECONSTRUCTION
influence temperaturedistributionsadjacent to the fault
[Molnar and England, 1990], our calculationsusing shear
K-feldspar 4øAr/39Ar ageand39Arkineticdataallow stress values we consider reasonable (-25 MPa; cf.
reconstruction of thermal histories of mid-crustal rocks
Peacock,1992) indicatethat samplessituatedmore than-3
(-150-400øC) throughuse of the multiple diffusiondomain km from the fault are only mildly affectedby the frictional
(MDD) model [Lovera et al., 1989]. In this mode•, heating.The effect of frictional heatingalong the fault can
differing intra-sampleargon retentivitiesare assumedto essentiallybe compensated by an equivalentdecreaseof the
result from a discrete distribution of non-interacting slip rate (i.e., neglectinginternal heatingcould lead to a
diffusiondomainsthat vary in dimension(r). The form of slightunderestimation of the slip rate).
theArrhenius
plot(log(D/r
2) vs. I/T; seeFig.2b) or its
associatedlog(r/ro)plot [Fig. 2c; seeRichteret al., 1991] is 6. DISCUSSION
a functionof the parametersthat characterizethe individual
diffusiondomains(activationenergy(E), frequencyfactor Combined K-feldspar thermochronology and
(Do), domainsize (p), and volumefraction({)). Although numerical heat-flow calculations allow us to estimate the

the age spectrum (Fig. 2a) also depends upon these displacementhistory of the VT. Given a geothermal
parameters,its shapeis further modulatedby the thermal gradient and dip angle, we are able to use the numerical
history. heat-flow modelsto constrainthe slip velocity and relative
We have recently incorporated new automated vertical separationof the samplesby requiring the T-t
routines[Lovera et al., 1995] that allow thoroughanalysis results to agree with the K-feldspar thermal histories.A
of the K-feldsparresults.Levenberg-Marquardt variational 25øC/kmgeothermal
gradientand 15ø dip anglehavebeen
methods(a generalizationof least squaresroutinesto non- used in all of the numerical heat-flow models. The
linear cases) are used to find the maximum likelihood geothermal gradient can be estimated from available
estimateof the model parameters[Presset al., 1988]. From petrologicand thermochronologic
data. Assuming~20 km
the39Ardata,values forE andlog(Do/ro 2)arefound froma emplacement depths [Barth, 1990; Barth et al., 1995],
linear, weighted, least-squaresfit to the initial, low- closuresystematicsof Pb in spheneand Ar in hornblende
temperature log(D/r2) values(Fig. 2b). The maximumimply both a -25øC/km geothermal gradient and slow
likelihoodestimateof the distributionparameters(p, {) is cooling of 93-NG-17 through600-450øC from >77 Ma to
then obtainedby applying the variationalmethod. With <70 Ma. The originaldip of the VT is more uncertainsince
these values, the Levenberg-Marquardtmethod is again Neogene doming of the VT due to transpressional
applied to modelthemeasured 4øAr/39Ar agespectrum by deformationresultingfrom San Andreas-related,strike-slip
varying the coefficientsof Chebyshevpolynomialsusedto faulting precludesprecisedeterminationof this parameter
approximatethe thermalhistoryuntil an acceptablesolution (Fig. 1). Althoughthe sinuousmap patternof the VT (Fig.
is returned. In the presentstudy,we have restrictedour 1) indicatesthat it dips gently at the surface, geologic
solutionsto monotoniccooling by constrainingthe first relationshipssuggestthat the fault rotates to a steeper
derivative of the thermal history to be negative. Since orientationin the west beneathour samples. To the extent
uncertaintiesin age and non-linearity of the diffusion that the VT originally dipped at a shallowerangle, this
processgive rise to multiple solutions(Fig,2d), we use relationshipimplies that the WNW-trending domal uplift
contourplots to indicate the probability distributionof the shown in Fig. 1 has exposedprogressivelydeeper rocks
thermalhistory. movingeastwardstowardthe
166 SLIP HISTORY OF THE VINCENT THRUST

7O -2
(a)
65 E= 41.8 kcal/mol
93-NG-17
• 60
-4
1og(Do/ro
z)- 3.76S'1
g•55

• 50

45 es 0 Measured values
4O
MDD model ß MDD model

35 -10
20 40 6'0 8'0 100 6 8 10 12 14
Cumulative
% 39Ar
released 10000/T(øK)
600
(a)

1.2 500

• 400

• 300

• 200
0.0 d values
MDD model
' ' ' , ...... , , , , , , , , 100
0 20 4'0 60 80 100 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Cumulative% 39Arreleased Age (Ma)

Fig.2: Thermochronologic
constraints
from93-NG-17
K-feldspar.
(a) Measured
andcalculated
agespectra;
(b)
Arrhenius
plotcalculated
from
39Ar
loss
(circles)
andfrom
theMDDmodel
fit(squares).
Isothermal
duplicates
have
been
performedatlowtemperatures
(<700øC);(c)log(r/ro)
plotshowing
values
calculated
fromlaboratory
dataand
MDDmodel fit. Results
aremodeled
onlyto 1100øCsincemelting
hasoccurred
athighertemperatures.
A cross
correlation
valueof 0.99wasobtained
between
thelog(r/ro)
plotandagespectra
(to1100øC);
(d)Calculated
thermal
histories
whichfit themeasured
agespectrum
in (a)above.
Thesolidcurve
in(a)isa representative
solution
obtained
fromoneof thesemonotonic
coolingcurves.Thecooling
thermal
histories
areconstrained
to within+10øCbetween
350-150øC.A contour
plotofthecalculated
thermalhistories
isshown
in
 GROVE AND LOVERA 167

Thermochronologic constraints provided by our result for 93-NG-6 deviates significantly from the K-
samplesand by previous studiesare most consistentwith feldsparT-t resultsbeyond55 Ma in Fig. 4a, thisportionof
motion along the VT initiating sometimebetween-63-69 the thermalhistoryis constrainedonly by the first 5% of gas
Ma and continuing to -50 Ma. As mentioned above, releasefrom the sample (Fig. 4b). Assumingthat the fault
4øAr/39Ar hornblende and U-Pb sphene for a sample originallydippedat 15ø, the estimatedverticalseparationof
adjacentto 93-NG-17 indicateslow cooling through-550- 6 km impliesrotationof theVT to a present-day -50 ø dip in
450øCfrom> 77 Ma to < 70 Ma. Amphibole 4øAr/39Arthe subsurfacebeneaththe two samples,possiblydue to
ages of 58-65 Ma from epidote amphibolitemafic schists Neogenedoming.
within the underlying Pelona Schist [Jacobson,1990] and Resultsfrom Model II yield somewhatlesssatisfactory
regional biotite closure at -65 Ma within higher structural fits to the K-feldspar thermal history results (Fig. 4a-b).
levels in the upperplate [Miller and Morton, 1980] likely Although a closelymatchedsolutionis obtainedfor 93-NG-
constrainthe time of initial thrusting.PreviousRb-Sr, K-Ar 6 using a subductionrate of 1.5 crn/yr, considerable•nisfit
and4øAr/39Ar results fromupper platemylonites andlower of 93-NG-17 results(Fig. 4b). More significantly,the best
plate micas summarized in [Jacobson, 1990] indicate fit to 93-NG-6 requires that the samples be separated'
continuedcoolingbetween60-50 Ma. The initial 5-10% of verticallyby -8.5 km. This value impliesrotationof the VT
gas releasedfrom both our samplesis consistentwith slow to a present-day75ø dip in the subsurfacebeneaththe
coolingbelow 200øC at timeslater than50 Ma (Fig. 2d). samples.We believethat sucha steepinclinationof the VT
Basedupon theseobservations,we have initiatedslip is unsupportedby the surfacegeology.Slip-ratesfasterthan
at 65 Ma in our numerical models. Isothermal distributions 1.5 crn/yr. require the vertical separationof the samplesto
at selected times for two end member cases are shown in exceed the 10 km distancethat presentlyseparatesthem.
Fig. 3a-f. In the first (Model I; Fig. 3a-c), the footwall is Alternatively,slowerrates of displacementproducesteady
maintainedstationarywhile uplift of the hangingwall due to state temperatureshigher than thoserequired to model the
thrustingis balancedby erosion(pure denudation). In the K-feldsparthermalhistoryafter -57 Ma.
second(Model II; Fig. 3d-f), the hangingwall is fixed (no Although the match to the K-feldsparthermal history
denudation)while the footwall is subducted. Althoughwe results for the case of pure subduction(Model II) is less
vary the relative vertical separationof the samplesin the satisfactorythan that obtainedfor Model I, it appearsfrom
models to obtain the best agreementwith the K-feldspar Fig. 4a that an improved interpretationwould result by
results, their overall separationis fixed by their present consideringcombined subductionof the lower plate and
geographiccoordinates(10 km; Fig. 1). Becausewe are denudationof the hangingwall. For example, subduction
most confident in our ability to project surface geology startingat -65 Ma can accountfor the slow coolingportion
beneaththe sample which lies closestto the VT (93-NG- of the thermal histories(>60 Ma and <56 Ma) if the rapid
17), we maintain its positionat 3.5 km above the fault in coolingbetween60-56 Ma is explainedby the superposed
both models. effectsof subductionplusdenudation.
In the following discussionwe consider only the In comparingour resultsto thoseobtainedin previous
solutionsto models I and II which produceT-t historiesin studies [Graham and England, 1976; Peacock, 1987], we
best agreementwith the K-feldspar thermal historyresults. emphasize that these authors lacked thermochronologic
The resultsfor hangingwall positionsindicatedin Fig. 3 are constraints and therefore were concerned only with
shown in Fig. 4a together with contoured T-t histories explaining the formation and preservationof the inverted
yieldedby K-feldsparthermochronology.Referenceto Fig. metamorphic zonation across the VT. Graham and
4b enables evaluation of T-t conditions for which the K- England'spreferredmodel (3 cm/yr displacementfor 3 Ma
feldspar thermal history results are able to constrainthe with0.12 W/m2 (125 MPa) shearheatsource) predicts
numerical models in Fig. 4a. For example, 93-NG-6 temperaturesthat are too high in the VT hangingwall after
providesconstraintsfrom 63 to .-55 Ma (Fig. 4b). -56 Ma to explain the K-feldspar results. Alternatively,
The thermal model results shown in Fig. 4a indicate Peacock's [1987] model predicts temperatures in the
that denudation and cooling of the hanging wall in the hangingwall that are too low after--56 Ma.
manner describedby Model I can easily accountfor the K- From the available thermochronology and the simple
feldspar thermal history results.Our best fits are obtained numerical calculationspresentedabove, we concludethat
for a relative vertical separationof--6 km and a net vertical appreciable(--1 mm/yr.) denudationof the VT hangingwall
displacementof---10 km from 65-50 Ma (Fig. 3a-c). Note (particularly between 60-56 Ma; see Model I) likely
that the slip rate was increasedfrom -0.2 to --0.4 cm/yr accompaniedmodest(<1 crn/yr) underflow of the colder
between 60-56 Ma to account for the rapid cooling rocks from 65 to <50 Ma. We emphasize that the
indicatedby both samplesat this time. Althoughthe model displacementrates in model I (0.2-0.4 crn/yr)
168 SLIP HISTORY OF THE VINCENT THRUST

(tu•I) a:)•j.m S tuoaj

(m•l) a:)epn S mo.q

 GROVE AND LOVERA 169

600 I I
7O
93-NG-13
Hbd

5OO 65

93-NG-6

4OO Regional 6O
Biotite Closure

300 93-NG-17..•
55 93-NG-17

93-NG-6
200
5o

100 45
'?--?• Ksp CH
•'
,•&:•..>:.>.?:,.::•.::
.>.•.•,
Measured
Ages
Model I
Model I
Model II
Model II
0 4o
45 50 55 60 65 70 0 20 40 60 80 100

Age (Ma) Cumulative % 39Ar released

Fig. 4: (a) Thermal evolutionof the VT. Thermal historiesdensitycontourscalculatedfor 93-NG-17 and 93-NG-6 K-
feldspars(45 resultseach)are represented by shadesof gray. The lowestdensityshownrepresentsa >50% probability
that a solutionlies within the indicatedregion.. Open boxesindicatethermochronologic constraintsprovidedby 93-
NG-13 hornblende(adjacentto 93-NG-17) and biotite resultsfor the centralSan Gabriel Mountains(similar to 93-NG-
6). Calculatedthermalhistoriesfrom Model I and II for the samplepositionsindicatedin Fig. 3 are shownin bold and
light lines respectively.(B) Age spectracalculatedfrom modelsI and II are comparedto the measuredK-feldsparage
spectra. Note that althoughModel II yield a satisfactoryfit to the measuredage spectrumof 93-NG-6, it fails to
reproducethat of 93-NG-17 K-feldspar.

relative values that are inverselyproportionalto the dip REFERENCES

angle. If the fault shallowed to become subhorizontalat
depth, our model for the slip history of the VT would Barth, A.P., Mid-crustal emplacementof Mesozoic plutons, San
clearly underestimatethe total magnitudeof displacement. Gabriel Mountains, California, and implications for the
Similarly, althoughthe thermochronologicdata preclude geologichistoryof the San GabrielTerrane,in The nature and
significant underflow of colder rocks beneath the VT origin of Cordilleran magmatism,edited by J.L. Anderson,
Geol. Sci. Am. Mem. 174, 33-45, 1990.
hanging wall prior to -65 Ma, earlier motion along a
Barth, A.P., Wooden, J.L., Tosdal, R.M., Morrison, J., Crustal
subhorizontalfault that juxtaposedrocks of equivalent contaminationin the petrogenesisof a calc-alkalicrock series:
temperaturecannotbe ruled out. JosephineMountain intrusion, California, , Geol. Sci. Am.
Bull., 107, 201-212, 1995.
Acknowledgments.The samplesexaminedin this studywere Burchfiel, B.C., and G.A. Davis, Mojave Desert and environs, in
provided by A.P. Barth (funding by the National Geographic The GeotectonicDevelopementof California, Rubey Vol. I,
Society). We particularly thank C.E. Manning, T.M. Harrison, editedby W.G. Ernst, pp. 217-252, Prentice-Hall,Englewood
A.P. Barth, B. Idelman, and A.C. Wamock for providing _
Cliffs, N.J., 1981.
constructive
reviews. Aspectsof this researchwere supportedby Coney P.J., and S.J. Reynolds,CordilleranBenioff Zones,Nature,
grantsfrom NSF (Lovera) and DOE (Harrison). 270, 403-406,
170 SLIP HISTORY OF THE VINCENT THRUST
Dickinson, W.R., Plate tectonics and the continental margin of
California, in The GeotectonicDerelopementof Californi.q,
Rubey Vol. I, edited by W.G. Ernst, pp. 1-28, Prentice-Hall,
EnglewoodCliffs, N.J., 1981.
Dillon, J.T., Timing of thrusting and metamorphismalong the
Vincent-Chocolate Mountain thrust system, southern
California, Geol. Sci. Am. Abstr. Programs,18, 101, 1986.
Dumitm, T.A., Effects of subductionparameterson geothermal
gradients in foreacs, with an application to Franciscan
subductionin California, JGR, 96 (B 1), 621-641, 1991.
Ehlig, P.L., Origin and tectonichistoryof the basementterraneof
the San Gabriel Mountains, centralTransverseRanges,in The
GeotectonicDevelopemeritof California, Rubey Vol. I, edited
by W.G. Ernst, pp. 253-283, Prentice-Hall,EnglewoodCliffs,
N.J., 1981.
Graham,C.M., and England, P.C., Thermal regimesand regional
metamorphismin the vicinity of overthrustfaults:An example
of shear heating and inverted metamorphiczonation from
southern California, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 31, 142-152,
1976.
Graham, C.M., and R. Powell, A garnet-hornblende
geothermometer:Calibration, testing, and applicationto the
Pelona Schist, southernCalifornia, J. Metamorph. Geol., 2,
13-31, 1984
Jacobson,C.E., Relationshipof deformationand metamorphism of
the Pelona Schist to movement on the Vincent thrust, San
Gabriel Mountains, southern California, Am. J. Sci., 283, 587-
604, 1983.
Jacobson,
C.E.,The4øAr/39Ar
Geochronology
ofthePelona
Schist Press,W.H., B.P. Flannery,S.A. Teukolsky,and W.T. Vetterling,
and Related Rocks, Southern California, JGR, 95 (B1), 509-
528, 1990.
Jacobson, C.E., Qualitative thermobarometry of inverted
metamorphismin the Pelona and Rand Schists, southern
California using calciferous amphibole in mafic schist, J.
Metamorph.Geol., 13, 79-92, 1995.
Jacobson,C.E., and Dawson, M.R., Structural and metamorphic
evolution of the OrocopiaSchistand related rocks, sourthem
California: Evidence for Late Movement on the Orocopia
Fault, Tectonics, 14, 733-744, 1995.
Lovera,O.M., F.M. Richter,andT.M. Harrison,
The 4øAr/39Ar
Thermochronometryfor Slowly Cooled SamplesHaving a
Distribution of Diffusion Domain Sizes, JGR, 94, 17917-
17935, 1989.
Lovera, O.M., M. Grove, T.M. Harrison, and M.T. Heizler,
SystematicAnalysisof K-feldsparAge andKineticProperties,
EOS, 76 (17), 287, 1995.
Mahaffie, M.J, and Dokka, R.K., Thermochronologicevidencefor
the age and coolinghistoryof the upper plate of the Vincent
thrust,California, , Geol. Sci. Am. Abstr. Programs,18, 153,
1986.
May, D.J., and Walker, N.W., Late Cretaceousjuxtapositionof
metamorphic terranes in the southeasternSan Gabriel
Mountains, California, Geol. Sci. Am. Bull. 101, 1246-1267,
1989.
Miller, F.K., and D.M. Morton, Potassium-argongeochronology
of the easternTransverseRanges and the southernMojave
Desert,southernCalifornia, U.S. Geol. Surv.Prof Pap., 1152,
30 pp, 1980.
Molnar P., andEngland,P., Temperatures, heatflux, andfrictional
stressnear major thrust faults, J. Geophys.Res., 95, 4833-
4856, 1990.
Peacock,S.M., Creation and preservationof subduction-related
invertedmetamorphicgradients,J. Geophys.Res.,92, 12763-
12781, 1987.
Peacock, S.M., Blueschist-faciesmetamorphism,shear heating,
andP-T-t pathsin subduction shearzones,J. GeophysRes,97,
17693-17707, 1992.
Numerical Recipes:The Art of Scientific Computing,
CambridgeUniversityPress,New York, 818p., 1988.
Richter, F.M., O.M. Lovera, T.M. Harrison, and P. Copeland,
Tibetantectonics
from 4øAr/39Ar
analysis
of a singleK-
feldsparsample,Earth Planet.Sci.Lett., 105, 266-278, 1991.
M. Grove and O.M. Lovera, Departmentof Earth and Space
Sciences,Uviversityof California,Los Angeles,Los Angeles,CA
 A ThermotectonicModel for Preservationof Ultrahigh-
PressurePhasesin MetamorphosedContinentalCrust

W. G. Ernst
Departmentof Geologicaland EnvironmentalSciences,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California

Simon M. Peacock
Departmentof Geology,Arizona State University,Tempe,Arizona

Continental rocks subjectedto ultrahigh-pressure(UHP) metamorphism contain relict

minerals indicating formation at mantle depths approachingor exceeding 100-125 km.
Thermobarometriccalculationsand phase-equilibriumconstraintsindicate peak metamorphic
conditionsof approximately700-900 øC and 28-40 kbar. These extremely high pressuresand
relatively modest temperaturescan be explained through the deep subduction of coherent
tracts of continental lithosphere, and reflect the low thermal conductivities of geologic
materials. Relatively rapid return to midcrustallevels after detachmentfrom the downgoing
slab may result from buoyancyof the UHP continentalcrust.Incompleteprogradeconversion
to the ultrahigh-pressuremineral assemblageat depth could enhancethe exhumationprocess.
Adiabaticdecompression of UHP metamorphicrockswould result in P-T pathsthat enter the
granuliteand pyroxenehornfels metamorphicfacies; under these conditions,rising, intensely
metamorphosed units would remain hot enoughto ensureobliterationof precursorUHP phase
assemblages.Numerical experiments simulating Pacific-type subduction and continent
collisionfollowedby exhumationsuggestthat survival of tracesof UHP metamorphicphases
during ascentrequiresthat the terranesmigrate toward the surfaceas relatively thin sheets.
Cooling during decompression may occur if (1) subductioncontinuesoutboard at tectonically
lower levels, allowing heat conductiondownward into the refrigerating subductingplate, (2)
unroofingoccursalong an inboard,extensionalfault or shearzone, allowing heat conduction
upward into the cooler hanging wall, or (3) a combinationof both processes.Documented
coesite+ diamond-bearinglithotectonicunits from westernEurope and central + easternAsia
range in thicknessto a maximum of about 10 + 5 km, but most resurrectedultrahigh-pressure
complexesare substantiallythinner. Thus, althoughlarge, coherentmassesof relatively cold
material may move down subductionzones resulting in UHP metamorphismat profound
depths,ascenttoward the surfaceof thin slabsof such complexes,with cooling acrossboth
upper and lower surfaces,may be required for the partial preservationof ultrahigh-pressure
mineral assemblages.

INTRODUC'TION inental crust subjected to UHP metamorphism.Each

A small number of sialic crustalcomplexes,chiefly
locatedwithin Eurasia,exhibit rare effectsof ultrahigh-
pressure(= UHP) recrystallization [Schreyer, 1995;
Coleman and Wang, eds., 1995]. Figure 1 presentsthe
global distributionof authenticatedsectionsof cont-
Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion
complex containsscatteredtraces of phasesindicative
of formationat mantle depthsapproaching,and in some
casesconsiderablyexceeding100 km [Schreyer, 1988;
Wang et al., 1995]. Mineralogic evidencefor ultrahigh
pressuresincludesthe preservationof trace amountsof
minerals and relict phase assemblagessuch as coesite,
diamond, K-rich clinopyroxene, pyropic garnet, and
volatile-bearing associations including magnesite +
diopside, coesite + dolomite, talc + kyanite and/or
phengite, ellenbergerite, lawsonite, zoisite, and Na-
clinoamphibole. Judging from phase relations and
172 PRESERVATION OF ULTRAHIGH-PRESSURE PHASES

':":<---
:.....",'....
•?•,
;.,..
,•' ' •.X•--
•:-'"•.
' •;{-'i

•! ......
;.;.::
.:. '":':i:::::::::::::::
.... ,.•e-'::•'

'"':•
<-';-<•.....5..',¾.-i
""'"'"'"•:':"•<•'
'"••{i"
':•- : •ua•

"••••••
"'""'''"
l•:•,"
..•..:ii...
•'' i::
aksyutov]
"•'
'"
"•, '"••,
• Coesite
locality
a.o=o,+Cno=,=oroo.n=Well-DocumentedUHP MetamorphicTerranes
.-.• Paleozoicorogens

:::__:..-•
Precambrian
cratons.:!i•.
Fig. ]. Wo•]d-wjde disl•ibution
Coleman and Wang, eds. (1995) and Liou et al. (1994).

thermobarometric
estimates,temperaturesduring re-
crystallizationwere about700-900 øC at confiningpres-
suresapproaching28-40 kbar.
As with the more widespread.high-pressure(= HP)
metamorphicterranes,theseremarkablyhigh pressures
and relatively low temperatures can be generated
thr.ough the deep subduction of coherent tracts of
ancient, cold, sialic-crust-cappedlithosphere,and due
to the fact that geologic materials are poor thermal
conductors [Ernst, 1971; Peacock, 1995]. Return to
shallowdepthis also explicable,basedon the buoyancy
of UHP-metamorphosedcontinental crust, once it has
separatedfrom the downgoinglithosphericslab [Cloos,
1993; Ernst and Liou, 1995]. Because adiabatic
decompression would result in the transitof decoupled
subductioncomplexesthroughP-T regimes(700-800 øC,
2-10 kbar) appropriate to the granulite, high-rank
amphibolite,and pyroxenehornfelsmetamorphicfacies,
completeoverprintingof the earlier UHP assemblages
would be expected.The very rare occurrencesof ultra-
high-pressurerelics suggestthat the rocks back reacted
almost completely on return toward the Earth'ssurface.
On the other hand, because of the apparent short
durationof individual UHP events(see next section),it
is conceivablethat metastablelower pressuremineral
assemblagesfailed to react to produce the stable
prograde UHP configuration [Erambert and Austrheim,
1993; Harley and Carswell, 1995] exceptin kinetically
favorablesites, suchas regimescharacterizedby trace
amounts of fluid.
How is it possibleto preserveany relict phasesfrom
the originalUHP metamorphism? This paperattemptsto
answer that question.A comparativepetrotectonicde-
scription of five relatively well-known UHP tracts
including the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu belt of east-central
China, the Kokchetav Massif of northern Kazakhstan,
the Maksyutov Complex of the south Urals, the Dora
Maira Massif of the Western Alps, and the Western
Gneiss Region of Norway was recently presentedby
Ernst et al. [1995]. Basedon thesegeologicconstraints,
inferredphysicalconditionsof metamorphism, recovery,
and crustal evolution are summarized in tabular form.
Insofar as possible, the dimensionsof the UHP com-
plexes and timing of events are also approximated.
Lastly, thermal modelling of steady-statesubduction
and of continental collision (burial of sialic crust
followed by tectonic return to midcrustal levels) is
utilized to demonstratethe following conclusion:

cessfulretentionof UHP mineralogicrelics probably lithologies. Moreover, becauseKokchetav unit I rocks
dependson the ascentof relatively small blocks and
thinslabsmfrom whichheatcanbe conducted relatively
efficientlymbetweenthe still descending,outboard,
cold lithosphericfootwallplate below, and the inboard,
cool,hangingwall plateabove;accordingly, bothplates
therebyfunctionas heat sinks [Ernst, 1977; Hacker and
Peacock, 1995].
BRIEF SUMMARY OF ULTRAHIGH-PRESSURE
COMPLEXES
Geologic/mineralogic, radiometric, maximum P-T,
and tectonicdata are briefly summarizedin Table 1 for
the five intracratonic Eurasian ultrahigh-pressure
metamorphicterranesnoted above. Physicalconditions
of recrystallizationwere determinedemploying phase-
equilibriumconstraints(e.g., field of stabilityfor coes-
ite) combined with thermobarometric measurements
involving exchange equilibria (e.g., Fe<-->Mg par-
titioning betweencoexistinggarnet and clinopyroxene).
In addition, times and rates of exhumation to midcrustal
levels, and the relative areal dimensions + thicknesses
of the UI-IP units are approximated.The overprinting
stage presumably reflects midcrustal achievement of
neutralbuoyancyof the no-longer-ascendingcomplexes.
Few firm constraints are available, but it seems clear
that decompressionof the most profoundly subducted
lithotectonicsectionswas geologicallyrapid, that the
exhumed UI-IP assembliesinvolve predominantly old
sialic crust(the apparentlyanomalousmafic UHP rocks
of the Zermatt-SaasFee and Alpe Arami areas of the
Western Alps are immersedin low-densityserpentinite
melange and/or surrounded by quartzofeldspathic
schists), and that their dimensions are modest and
generallysheetlike.It shouldbe noted that the tabulated
thicknesses for the UHP complexesare maxima (except
for the very thin UHP sheetexposedin the vicinity of
the Dora Maira Massif, where control is especially
good), assumingsteeptectonicterraneboundaries;most
are probably thinner than values listed in Table 1. In
addition,nearly all supracrustal
rockssubjectedto UHP
metamorphismappear to have been portions of pre-
existing, relatively cold cratons, rather than young,
relatively warm oceaniccrustor calc-alkalinearcs.
In terms of mineral parageneses, lower temperature
terranessuch as the Dora Maira, the Maksyutov, and
the Dabie Shan are associatedwith blueschists,whereas
the higherT conditionsattendingUHP metamorphism of
the Western Gneiss Region and the Kokchetav Massif
evidently destroyedsuch assemblageson decompres-
sion•if, in fact, they existed earlier as prograde
ERNST AND PEACOCK 173
record the highest temperaturesof all, it seemscon-
ceivable that the rarity of coesitein this assemblageis
a consequenceof elevated reaction rates in the system
SiO2 during unloadingat-900 øC comparedto kinetics
of the diamond--> graphitetransformation.Finally, it
is worth noting that, among the group considered,the
Maksyutov Complex which evidently rose most slowly
to midcrustal levels seems to have retained no coesite
or other unambiguousUHP relics, whereas the Kok-
chetav Massif which may have ascendedthe fastesthas
retained the most abundant diamonds.
DECOMPRESSION P-T TRAJECTORIES OF UHP
COMPLEXES INFERRED FROM MINERALOGY
The quantitative significance of individual relict
phasesand mineral assemblagessummarizedby Ernst
et al. [1995] and listed in Table 1 has been documented
by numerousauthors [e.g., Coleman and Wang, eds.,
1995; Schreyer, 1995; Harley and Carswell, 1995].
Extremely low P-T gradients, approximately 5-10
øC/km, are requiredfor deeplyburiedrocks to enter the
stability fields of some of the reported minerals and
phase associations. Such terrestrial HP and UHP
environmentsare only found in the vicinity of down-
going lithospheric plates. Moreover, the systematic
progression in relict subduction-zone minerals and
inferred mineral associationssupportthe hypothesisthat
the parageneses represented close approaches to
chemical equilibrium at their times of formation. Of
course, the relatively high temperatures attending
profound upper mantle depthsof underflow would be
expectedto promoteequilibration.
Thermobarometricestimatesof the physical cond-
itions attendingthe HP and UHP metamorphicevents
summarized in Table 1 are illustrated in Figure 2.
Clearly, a range of temperaturesand pressuresare pre-
served in the several complexes,reflecting stagesof
partial re-equilibration on ascent towards midcrustal
levels. It also seems likely that different UHP com-
plexes decoupledfrom the subductinglithosphereat
differentdepthsand underwenta periodof heatingprior
to return toward midcrustal levels. The actual exhum-
ation process undoubtedly involved a continuum of
changingP-T conditions.Incompletenessof back react-
ion apparentlytestifies,at least in part, to the rapidity
of exhumationand/or the absenceof a rate-enhancing
aqueousfluid phase.
Nonetheless,for sectionsundergoingessentiallyiso-
thermal decompressionat 800 + 100 øC along an
adiabatic decompressionpath, residencetimes
174 PRESERVATION OF ULTRAHIGH-PRESSURE PHASES

TABLE 1. Comparisonof Ultrahigh-Pressure

MetamorphicComplexes[afterErnst et al., 1995]

Qinling-Dabie- KokchetavMassif, Maksyutov Dora Matra WesternGneiss

Sulu belt, coesite- unitI Complex,lower Massif, lower Region, Fjordme
eclogite unit Venascaunit complex

protolithformation 1.3-2.9Ga 2.2-2.3Ga 1.2Ga 303 Ma 1.6-1.8Ga

age

tempof UHP 750 4-50 øC 950 4-50 øC 6254-50 øC 725 4-50 øC 825 4-75 øC
metamorphism

depthof UHP 90-120km 125km 90 km 90-120km 90-125km

metamorphism

time of UHP 210-220 Ma 530-540 Ma 589 ñ 69 Ma 35-40 Ma 420-440 Ma

metamorphism

midcrustal 180-200 Ma 515-517 Ma 400 -500 Ma 15-25 Ma 375 Ma

annealing

rise time to 254- 10 Ma 20 ñ 5 90-190 Ma 20 4- 5 Ma 55 +_5Ma

midcrust

exhumationrate* 4 -5 mm/yr 6• 0.5-1nm!/yr 4-6 mm/yr 2 mm/yr

coesiteincl. rel. abundant rare very rare rel. abundant very rare

diamondincl. very rare rel. abundant absent absent very rare

blueschists present absent(?) present present absent

areal extent 450 x 75 km 50 x 15 km 120 x 8 km 225 x 60 km 350 x 70 km

max thicknessof 10 Ion 5-10 km 4-6 km 1-2 km 10-15 km (?)

complex

* Descriptions
andreferencesto primarydataare summarizedby Ernstet al. [ 1995].Exhumationrateswereestimated
by
dividingdepthof UHP metamorphism by risetime[ seealsoColemanandWang,eds..,1995;Harley andCarswell,1995;
Hacker et al., in press].

the stabilityfieldsof UHP mineralsfor tensof millions similarto other devolatilizationreactions,is relatively
of yearsoughtm havecausedthe totalobliteration of rapid-running.This reactionconstrains the maximum
suchphases.It thereforeseemsplausiblethat deeply temperatureof the DoraMaim terraneduringdecomZ
subductedsections that retain traces of UHP precursors pression.
Temperatures evidentlydeclinedfrom700-800
may havecooledduringinitial stagesof exhumation; øC at 35 kbar to 500-600 øC at 7-9 kbar accompanying
lithologicpackagesevidentlymore-or-less retracedthe the low-rankamphiboliteto greenschist faciesoverprint.
progradeP-T trajectoryin reverse(= retrograderefrig- .BecauseH20 is evolved by the reaction,the temp-
eratedpath) by migratingup the subduction channel eraturescited above representmaximum values, and
during continuedlithosphericplate descent.For in- lowered activities of this volatile componentwould
stance,in the Dora Maira UHP Massif, the assemblage constrainthe retrogradeP-T trajectoryof the talc +
talc + phengiteremainedstableduringdecompression phengitepair to even lower temperatures for a given
from peak metamorphic conditionsof 700-800 øC at lithostaticpressure.The Dora Maira Massif apparently
depthsof 90-120km. The assemblage talc + phengite did notpassthroughconditions of thepyroxenehornfels,
dehydrates to phlogopite+ kyanite+ quartz+ H20 at high-rankamphibolite, or granulitefaciesduringexhum-
-600 øC and 10 kbar [Schertl et al., 1991], and if it is
 ERNST AND PEACOCK 175

THERMAL MODELLING OF UHP TERRANES--'I'HE

IMt•RTANCE OF BEING THIN

PR OGRADE P-T PATHS

As documentedin Table 1, ultrahigh-pressuremeta-

morphic rocks record temperaturesof 700-900 øC at
pressuresof 28-40 kbar, correspondingto depthsof 100-
125 km. These peak metamorphic temperaturesare
301
significantlylower than temperaturesof 1000-1450 øC at
-100 km depth estimated for continental and oceanic
geothermsfar removedfrom plate margins[e.g., Pollack
and Chapman,1977;SteinandStein, 1992].
The low temperaturesrecordedby UHP metamorphic
rocks strongly suggestformation in a convergentplate
margin where isotherms are depressedon a regional
scaleby the descentof cool lithosphere.During subduct-
ion, downwardconductionof heat warmsthe top of the
lO
sinkinglithosphereand coolsthe overlyinghangingwall
lithosphere and asthenosphere.For initial stages of
underthrustingat typical plate-tectonicrates of 10-100
mm/yr, the top of the footwall is heated to a temp-
erature equal to approximately one-half of the initial
200 400 600 800 1000
prethrustingtemperatureat any given depth[Molnar and
Temperature(oC) England, 1980]. Thus, during the early stagesof sub-
duction,rocks underthrustto depthsof-100 km should
Fig. 2. Pressure-temperatureconditionsof metamorphismfor reach temperaturesof 500-725 øC. Continued under-
UHP terranessummarizedin Ernst et al. (1995) deducedfrom thrustingdrains heat from the hangingwall and results
phase-equilibriumrelations and thermobarometriccomput- in even cooler temperaturesin the downgoingslab at a
ationsby variousworkers(seeTable 1 for petrotectoniccomp- given depth, with the final steady-statetemperature
arisons).Abbreviationsare: Dabie = Dabie block of Qinling- dependingon the geometryand rate of underflow, the
Dabie-Sulu belt; DM = Dora Maira Massif; Kok = Kokchetav rate of shear heating, and the rate and distribuuonof
Massif;M = MaksyutovComplex;S = Sulublock of Qinling- radioactiveheat-producingelements.Thus, temperatures
Dabie-Sulubelt; WGR = Western Gneiss Region; and Z = at 100 km depth in convergentmargins could be even
Zermatt-SaasFee ophiolitic melange. Speculativeprograde lower than thoserecordedby UI-IP metamorphicmineral
subductionand retrograde(refrigerationversusapproximately
assemblages.
adiabatic)paths are also illustrated;tops and bottomsof slabs
The P-T conditionsrecordedby UHP metamorphic
are not distinguished,and contrastingpatternsare for recog-
nitionpurtx)sesonly.
rocks are somewhat warmer than steady-state sub-
duction-zone conditions predicted by two-dimensional
thermal models.For example, as illustratedin Figure 3,
steady-state temperatures within a subruction shear
Evenin favorable circumstances, onlythoseUHP zone characterizedby underflow of oceaniclithosphere
complexesof appropriatedimensionsto be relatively may be as cool as 450-650 øC at-100 km depth, for
efficiently cooled would be able to preserveevidenceof convergencerates of 10 to 100 mm/yr [Peacock et al.,
Itheirearlier, deepupper mantle history.Thehypothes-1994; Peacock, 1995]. Temperaturespredictedby such
ized mechanism involving ascent of relatively thin subduction-zonethermal models should not be strictly
tectonic slices is numerically modelled below. It is comparedto UI-IP metamorphicconditionsbecausethe
more-or-lesssimilar to the generalmechanismadvanced geometryof convergenceand the rate and distributionof
by Dobretsov [1991] and Dobretsov and Kirdyashkin radioactive heating in continentcollision zones differs
,[1994], as well as the "tectonicwedgeextrusion" from thosein Pacific-typesubductionzones.The higher
scenario proposed for the Dabie-Sulu UHP belt by temperaturesprobablyreflect one or more of the follow-
Maruyamaet al. [1994]. ing possibilities: (1) UHP rocks formed in a
176 PRESERVATION OF ULTRAHIGH-PRESSURE PHASES

cooled during decompression and that thermal

relaxationtook place at considerabledepth.Mineralogic
evidence previously presenteddemonstratesthat UHP
metamorphic terranesdo not follow typicalclockwiseP-
T paths, characteristicof regional metamorphismof
•.'-'.';".;;:'-:'-'-,'
-':;:;:;;;;"'
5' -:::::: ß sialic crust,which generallyreachpeak temperatures at
•i:..-:-:"..:::•:•:;,i::iii::::ii•:'..--"-;.:•i::::•::'
ßß -
•
-•- '.r-:.:...•::.-'.::.::.::'..::.
.:A ":::::::'-"
•:.-'-%'.-':: .::!,'...--:::--
.-i::::" ß ß about 10 kbar. In contrast, ultrahigh-pressuremeta-
morphic complexes appear to have lost significant
• r--'-'-'..-"•:....
•i::i::i•!i;..i?;-.-?::ii':•:'
•...-.......-.•...•:.•.....-:::,iiiii:::;i:::ii!!::::::•i•i•
...... •
- amountsof heat as they were exhumed from mantle
• •'-'"..-"•:•'.-i.-'."",:iii:i?'"'::***
......,,' depthsof ~100 km to crustal depthsof ~30 km. Such
assemblagesmust have lost heat by conductionto
t..-'.'...-':......-'•?
,oi- •..:%.-:-::: ?Z;;:..
::::'' ß.-"
.r..-:::::.-.'.--
,..'...•:::" •,•,* _ cooler rocksencounteredduring ascent.
......... ..
•.....-...-.-
.!..: • Ultrahigh-pressuremetamorphismoccurs at temp-
eraturesthat are unusuallycool for depthsof 100 km.
How is it possiblefor such rocks to cool even more
•00 400 600 800 1000 during ascent from 100 to 30 km depth, where the
T•mp•ratum (øC;) effectsof surfacecoolingare insignificant?Deep-seated
Fig. 3. Steady-statesubduction-zoneP-T paths and possible coolingof UHP metamorphicterranesmay occurif the
progradeP-T paths followed by UHP metamorphicterranes. rocks are exhumed in the footwall of an extensional
Shadedregionsrepresentrange in calculatedP-T conditions fault/shear zone, if exhumation takes place while
within a steady-statesubductionshearzone for V = 10, 30, and subductioncontinues,or, most likely, by a combination
100 mm/yr and two different shearheatingmodels, assuming of both processes.The volume of orogenicsediments
no shearheating and high shearheatingwhere shearstresses and the lack of mantle detritus strongly suggestthat
increase at 5% P until the brittle-ductile transition at 500 øC
erosionalunroofingaccountsfor only a part of the ex-
(Peacocket al., 1994). Higher peak metamorphictemperatures humationof UHP metamorphicrocks [e.g., Platt, 1986].
recordedby UHP terranesmay be achievedby post-subduction
Exhumation of UHP metamorphicterranesfrom great
heating after detachementfrom the subductingslab (path A),
depth, therefore,requiresremoval--or lateral displace-
subductionat slow (<10 mm/yr) convergencerates (path B),
subductionprior to the achievementof thermal steady state
ment--of most of the overlying rocks by extensional
(path B), or heightenedheat flow producedin subductedsialic unroofing. During normal faulting, footwall rocks are
crust (path B). juxtaposed against cooler hanging wall rocks. For
moderate displacementrates, the upper parts of the
steady-statesubductionzone, but heatedup 200-300 øC footwall cool as heat is conducted upward into the
at ~100 km depth after detachmentfrom the downgoing cooler hanging wall. Accordingly, UHP metamorphic
plate and prior to ascentback toward the Earth'ssurface complexesmay cool in a similar fashion if they are
(path A, Figure 3); (2) UHP metamorphicrocks were exhumed in the footwall of extensional structures.
tectonically buried at convergencerates <10 mm/yr, Exhumation of rocks by syncollisionalextensional
consistentwith a slowingof convergencewhen buoyant processeshas recently been documented in many
continentalcrust entered the subductionzone (path B, orogenicbelts [e.g., Platt, 1993]. In subductionzones,
Figure 3); (3) UHP metamorphismoccurredprior to the thickeningof an accretionarycomplexby underplating
achievementof steady-stateconditionsin the subduct- promotesextension in the upper parts of the prism
ion zone (path B, Figure 3); or (4), the computed [Platt, 1986]. Similarly, during continent collision,
Pacific-type thermal structure was modified by the crustal thickening can cause surface elevation
contributionof radiogenicheat from the subductedsialic differencesthat can drive extensionin the upper crust
crust(path B, Figure 3). (e.g, the SouthTibetan detachmentsystemin the High
Himalayas). In both settings, exhumation of
RETROGRADE P-T PATHS metamorphicrocksoccursin higherpartsof the system
while subduction (or crustal convergence) continues
The generallack of high-temperature, lower pressure below. UHP metamorphicterranesare less densethan
granulite-faciesoverprinting (except for rocks of the mantle rocks, and buoyancyforces must drive exhum-
WesternGneissRegion of Norway, and the Sulu block ation from depthsof ~100 km to crustallevels [Platt,
of easternmost China) suggests that UHP terranes 1993; Ernst and Liou, 1995]. Some UHP
 ERNST AND PEACOCK 177

rising
UHP
metamorphic
rocks 401 ' I ' I ' I
con•nental
crus• continental
crest
•---800øc
.....'-. •• .-............ 100
mm•r '
lithosphem
'-.. "• lithosphem
30---•5• - ---- 10 mm/yr

-
ß 20 ,'- -

steady-state
su•uctio•. D•ing up]dr of a •in UHP
c•l•g of •e u•r m•g• of •e sheett•es pla• whereit •
juxm•sed ag•t •e lowerT h•g•g w•l; cool•g •ong •e
lowerm•g• of •e sheett•es placewhereit is juxtaposed
agent the lower T su•ucting (re•igerat•g) plate. As the
sheet•ic•ess d•re•es, c•ng of •e entre UHP complex 0 200 400 600 800 •000
is effectS. Tamp•ratar•

Fig. 5. Calculatedburial and exhumationP-T pathsfor a rock

terranes, such as the Dora Maira, evidently represent
thin slices of continental crust that were subducted
during ocean basin destructionprior to final continent
collision. If such a buoyant fragment were detached
from the downgoingplate and underplatedat ~100 km,
continued lithospheric underflow beneath the complex
could remove heat from the base of the UHP terrane
during its ascenL
Synsubduction exhumation of the footwall of an
extensional structure would effectively cool an UHP
metamorphicterrane during exhumation,as illustrated
schematicallyin Figure 4. In the illustrated scenario,
heat is efficientlywithdrawnfrom both upperand lower
surfacesof the UHP complex:(a) downwardacrossthe
thrust-fault contact with the relatively cold, sinking,
outboardlithosphericplate; and (b), upward acrossthe
normal-faultcontactwith the cool, inboardhangingwall
plate. The decompression P-T path followedby an UHP
metamorphicterranedependson the rate and geometry
of exhumation. Recent radiometric data, summarized in
Table 1, suggestthat most UHP complexesrise from
depths of ~100 km to the midcrust in 20-50 million
years at rates of a few mm/yr. Unfortunately, the
geometryof exhumationis so Ix)orly known that derail-
ed thermal models of the exhumationprocessare ill
constrainedat present.
Results of several simple burial-exhumation cal-
culationsare depictedin Figure 5. The purposeof these
computationsis to demonstratethat substantialcooling
of a terranecan occurduringexhumationin the footwall
of an extensional structure. In these two-dimensional
heat-transfercalculations,rocks are tectonicallyburied
tectonicallyburied to 100 km depthalonga thrustfault dipping
27ø, then immediately exhumed by tectonic extension along
the same feature reactivated as a normal fault. Convergence
and extensiontake place at the same constantrate; P-T paths
are depictedfor V = 5, 10, and 100 mm/yr. Progradeburial P-T
pathsare warmerthan those depicted in Fig. 3 becausethe
system does not reach thermal steady-state during con-
vergence.RetrogradeexhumationP-T pathsdependslightlyon
the rate of extension,but all paths clearly show that heat is
lost to the hangingwall duringexhumation.Heat wouldalsobe
conductedinto the tectonically lower subductinglithosphere
(not illustrated).
(subducted) to 100 km depth and then immediately
exhumedby tectonicextensionalongthe samestructure
reactivatedas a normal fault. The computedexhumation
paths are slightly warmer than the burial paths, but
clearly, the rising UHP slabscool duringdecompression
due to loss of heat upward into the cooler hangingwall.
The retrograde P-T trajectory dependsslightly on the
exhumation rate.
Both prograde and retrograde pressure-temperature
pathsdepictedin Figure 5 are for rocksconstitutingthe
top of the footwall. Material sited deeper within the
lower plate (farther from the fault) will follow different
descent and ascent P-T trajectories. During burial,
interior rocks will follow cooler P-T paths than rocks
close to the thrust fault. In contrast,during exhumation,
interior rocks will remain warmer than materials
adjacentto the normalfault. For this reason,the inferred
coolingof UHP complexeson returntowardthe surface
requiresa relatively thin, slab-likegeometry.For a time
scale of 20 million years (typical rise times to
178 PRESERVATION OF ULTRAHIGH-PRESSURE
midcrust, according to Table 1), the characteristic
length scale of heat conductioninto or out of a slab
boundedby faults is approximately40 km. Each UHP
metamorphicterrane summarizedin Table 1 is less,
probably far less, than 10-15 km thick; accordingly,
sufficient time exists during exhumation for these
complexesto lose heat, provided that they are juxta-
posedagainstcooler rocksduringascent.
Acknowledgments.This study was supportedby Stanford
University,Arizona StateUniversity,and the National Science
FoundationthroughgrantsEAR-93-04480/Colemanand EAR-
94-17711/Peacock. We thank R. G. Coleman, N. L. Dobretsov,
J. G. Liou, B. R. Hacker, and Tracy Rushmet for fruitful
discussions and constructive reviews of the
manuscript.
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 Volatile Transferand Recyclingat ConvergentMargins' Mass-Balance
and Insightsfrom High-P/T MetamorphicRocks

Gray E. Bebout

Departmentof Earth and EnvironmentalSciences,Lehigh University

The efficiency with which volatiles are deeply subductedis governed by devolatilization
histories and the geometries and mechanismsof fluid transport deep in subductionzones.
Metamorphism along the forearc slab-mantleinterface may prevent the deep subductionof
many volatile components(e.g., H20, Cs, B, N, perhapsAs, Sb, and U) and result in their
transportin fluids toward shallowerreservoirs. The release,by devolatilization,and transport
of suchcomponentstowardthe seaflooror into the forearcmantlewedge,could in part explain
the imbalances between the estimated amounts of subducted volatiles and the amounts returned
to Earth's surface. The proportionof the initially subductedvolatile componentthat is re-
tained in rocks subductedto depthsgreater than those beneathmagmatic arcs (> 100 km) is
largely unknown,complicatingassessments of deep mantle volatile budgets.
Isotopicand traceelementdata and volatilecontentsfor the CatalinaSchist,the Franciscan
Complex, and eclogite-faciescomplexesin the Alps (and elsewhere)provideinsightinto the
natureand magnitudeof fluid productionand transportdeepin subductionzonesand into the
possibleeffects of metamorphismon the compositions of subductingrocks. Compatibilities
of the compositionsof the subduction-relatedrocksand fluids with the isotopicand trace ele-
ment compositions of variousmantle-derivedmaterials(igneousrocks,xenoliths,serpenti-
nite seamounts)indicatethe potentialto tracethe recyclingof rock and fluid reservoirschemi-
cally and isotopicallyfractionatedduring subduction-zonemetamorphism.

1. INTRODUCTION 1015grams/year
of seawater;
theseestimates
donotac-
count for the pore fluids containedin the sialic sediment
Knowledgeof the flux of volatilesat convergentmar-
contributed to trenchesfrom the continents[von Huene and
gins is fundamentalto our understandingof crust, ocean,
Scholl, 1991]. Large amountsof othermajor fluid-forming
and atmosphereevolution[e.g., Javoyet al., 1982; Berner
volatiles(e.g., reducedand oxidized C; ammoniumand or-
and Lasaga, 1989; Zhang and Zindler, 1993]. Subduction
ganic N; sulfide and sulfateS) and relatively fluid-mobile
transfershydrothermallyalteredigneousrocksproducedat
trace elements(e.g., B, Cs) are also subducted,impacting
mid-oceanridges and sedimentsdepositedon the seafloor
their globalcycling [Bebout,1995].
abyssalplain and in trenchesto the uppermantle(Fig. 1).
Much of the pore fluid initially subducted(perhaps>
Interstitial pore fluids make up a large fraction of the
90%; von Huene and Scholl [1991]) is expelled by com-
volatilesinitially subducted(> 50 vol. % initially in some
pactionprocessesat shallowlevels and escapestowardthe
subductingsediments;Moore and Vrolijk [1992]). Rea and
surface[Moore and Vrolijk, 1992]. The volatilesthatper-
Ruff [in press]estimatethat seawaterconstitutes-40% of
sist to greater depths(> 15 km) in subductionzonesare
the massinitially subductedin sediments,with subduction
primarily thoseboundin mineralsin the subductingrocks
(globally)
of 1.4x 1015grams/year
of sediment
and0.9x
(e.g., H as hydroxyl, C in carbonatesand graphite, N as
ammoniumin clays and micas). The volatile components
Subduction:
Top to Bottom of the subductingrocksare thenreleasedthroughmetamor-
GeophysicalMonograph96 phic devolatilization(and melting) reactionsdeeperin sub-
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion ductionzones. Fluidsreleasedby devolatilization
179
180 CONVERGENT MARGIN VOLATILE RECYCLING

[Kastner et al., 1991]. Another significantfraction of the

Chemical
Fractionation
atConvergent
Margins volatiles released during devolatilization could enter the
Hydrothermal Forearc Volcanic forearcmantlewedge,resultingin widespreadhydrationand
Alteration AtmosphereSystem Arc
......... 'S•-•,a%• metasomatism[e.g., Ryan et al., this volume]. The reten-
- •-• ..... •..............
- - / _-.• ß
Degassing
/ % '•'-•%,- Crust tion of volatiles in subductingrocks to depthsgreaterthan
those beneath arcs [e.g., Thompson, 1992] could also
Volcanism S•d•ctio•'Zo•e•'•--•.;•,o";;,,•s•
Metamorphism •• Arc . . stronglyimpactthe crust-mantlevolatilemass-balance.
' • • Melting?weoge
Chemical Change in • •• • Oetive• ofStab High-P/T metamorphicrockscannotbe directly usedto
Subducted Sediments? • • • • Componen• to constrainvolatile flux at paleo-convergent marginsbecause
• I• • •'1 • •••a•Mantle
of the greatcomplexityof the tectonicprocesses leadingto
their ultimate surficial exposureand the potentiallybiased
• I•b N ß• I Delive•ofFrac•onatea
• I•halløw •Pl Material
• Deep ManSe lithologicalrecordinherentwith theseprocesses.However,
DepthalongSu•u•-Zone
Thrust study of the volatile contentsand chemical and isotopic
compositionsof theserocks can potentially yield insight
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of a continental margin-type into the magnitudesand mechanismsof devolatilizationas
subductionzone, showing possible sites of trace element frac- functionsof varyingthermalhistoryandthepossiblechem-
rionation. The large arrow along the slab-mantle interface in- ical and isotopicfractionationsresultingfrom this devola-
dicates transfer, toward the surface,of volatile componentsre-
tilization. Knowledgeof this fractionationcan improveour
leased by subduction-zone metamorphism. The inset plot
demonstratesthe likely evolution of chemical parameterswith efforts to trace the possibleadditionsof "slab signatures"
progressivemetamorphismof sedimentaryrocks during sub- throughstudy of suchfeaturesas serpentiniteseamounts,
duction. The concentrations of B, N, Cs, As, Sb and possibly forearcaccretionarywedgefluids,arc volcanicrocks,mantle
U, the B/Be ratios, and H20 contents are expected to be de- xenoliths, and ocean-island basalts (OIB; Moran et al.
creaseddramatically by this metamorphism,whereasthe Rb/Cs
[1992]; Bebout [1995]). Study of suchsuitescan also af-
ratios,•515N, •513C of graphite, andperhaps, the•5•lBvaluesof
ford estimatesof metamorphicfluid flux and the scalesand
the sedimentaryrocks are expectedto be increasedby the de-
volatilization process[Bebout, 1995]. This shift in composi- mechanismsof fluid transportdeep in subductionzones
tion is accomplished by the separation, from the rocks, of [Bebout, 1991a, b; Getty and Selverstone,1994].
reservoirs (e.g., C-O-H-S-N fluids and silicate melts) with In this paper, I presentcalculationsof subduction-zone
complementary, fractionated compositions (e.g., high B/Be, inputsand outputsof volatile componentsin a considera-
lowRb/Cs,N2 withlow•515N). tion of the possible effect of subduction-zonemetamor-
phism on convergentmargin volatile recycling. I review
may metasomatize the mantlewedgeandflux partialmelt- our knowledgeof the mechanismsand magnitudeof deep
ing leadingto arc magmatism,contributingchemicalcom- subduction-zonefluid productionand transportbasedon
ponentsto arc magma sourceregions [e.g., Ryan et al., studyof high-P/T metamorphicrocks.
this volume]. Imbalances exist in the amounts of volatiles
believed to be subducted and those returned to surficial and 2. THE FLUX OF VOLATILE COMPONENTS AT

shallow crustal reservoirsby arc magmas[e.g., Bebout, CONVERGENT-MARGINS

1995]. Ito et al. [1983] suggestedthat only - 10% of the

deeplysubductedwateris returnedin arc magmas;thesecal- In this section,I discussconstraintson the magnitudes
culationsdo not includepore fluids. The majority of the of volatile flux at convergentmargins,comparingthe esti-
fluidsexpelledby mechanicalprocesses anddevolatilization matedflux of volatiles(H20, C, N) into subductionzones
may be returnedto the oceansby updiptransport[Bebout, with the estimated return fluxes of volatiles from the man-

1991b], perhapscontributingto apparentrecyclingimbal- tle to the surface(Table 1). Similar calculationsfor B by

ances. Seafloor fluid venting occursalong trenches,and
studiesof modernandancientaccretionary complexesdocu-
ment updip shallow fluid flow [Fisher, this volume].
However,the magnitudeof the flux of deeper-sourced fluid
into shallow parts of accretionarycomplexesis unknown
Moran et al. [1992] are summarized in Table 1. For con-
siderations of volatile subduction in sediments, I use esti-
matesof Rea and Ruff [in press]andvonHueneand Scholl
[1991] which considerthe volume and compositionof sed-
iments in ocean basins seaward of trenches, the addition
 BEBOUT 181

ß
182 CONVERGENT MARGIN VOLATILE RECYCLING

terrigenoussedimentin trenches,andsubduction erosionof with a reduced C content of 1 wt. % [Bebout, 1995], a C

the hangingwall. Of particularinterestis the proportionof subduction
rateof3.5x 1013
grams/year
isobtained
forthe
the sedimentsubductedto depthsbeyondaccretionarycom- reducedsedimentaryC alone (Table 1). Considerationof
plexesandavailablefor additionto the mantle. varying carbonatesubductionsignificantlyincreasesesti-
Ito et al. [1983] useda global sedimentsubductionrate mates of total C subduction. If sediments contain 0.5 wt.
of3.5x 1015grams/year
[cf.ReaandRuff,inpress]
and % CO2 in relict diageneticcarbonatecement,then this es-
timate
isincreased
estimateda rate of H20 subductionin sedimentsof -1 x to4.0x 1013grams/year,
again
fora
10TM
grams/year,
assuming
3 + 1 wt.% H20inthesub- sediment
subduction
rateof 3.5x 1015
grams/year.
The
ducted sediments(Table 1). Data for low-grade Catalina subductionof calcareousoozes dramaticallyincreasesthe
Schistmetasedimentaryrocksare consistentwith somewhat estimatesof C flux at convergentmargins. If 25% of the
higherH20 contentsof 4 + 1 wt. % (Bebout,1995]. Ito et 3.5x 1015 grams/year
ofsubducted
sedimentis100%cal-
al. [1983] assumed1-2 wt. % H20 contentfor subducted cite,theC fluxestimate
isincreased
to1.35x 10TM
grams/
oceanic
crust,
deriving
aH20subduction
rateof-9 x 10TM year. Estimatesof the proportionof biogeniccarbonate
grams/year
(value
of 8.84x 10TM
grams/year
in Table1 subductedglobally (individual marginsvary dramatically)
basedon H20 contentof 1.5 wt. %). Pore fluids were not by Rea and Ruff [in press] and yon Huene and Scholl
consideredby the massbalancecalculationsof Ito et al. [1991] fall between3 and 4% after considerationof the dilu-
[1983] and are not directlyconsideredhere. However,such tion of oceansedimentby terrigenoussedimentdepositedin
fluidsmay play a key role in fluid-relatedprocesses
at shal- trenchesand the contributionsof material by subduction
low levels [von Huene and Scholl, 1991; Moore and erosion. Using estimatesof Ito et al. [1983] and Peacock
Vrolijk, 1992] if they hydratemafic (and ultramafic)rocks [1990] for ratesof subductionof oceaniclithosphere(58.9-
or are retainedin small amountsof porosity. If additional 60x 1015
grams/year)
andtheestimate
ofCO2content
of
hydrationoccursin forearcs[seeBebout, 1995], the esti- oceaniccrustfrom Staudigelet al. [1989] (averagein "bulk
matesof deep H20 subductionin oceaniccrust basedon oceanic crust" is 0.081 wt. %), a C subductionrate of-4.8
analysesof unsubducted seafloorbasaltsand gabbros(ave. x 1013grams/year
is inferred
forsubduction
of oceanic
1-2 wt. % H20; Ito et al. [1983]; Peacock [1990]) may be crust alone. Thus, dependingon the types and amountof
low. The use of 3.0 wt. % resultsin a H20 subduction sedimentsubducted,and againrecognizingthe uncertainties
rateof-1.8x 1015
grams/year
inoceanic
crust
(Table
1). in all estimates, the C flux from the mantle could amount
Basedon their estimatesof H20 subductionand constraints to -10-45% of the amount of C subducted.
on rates of H20 expulsion in arc magmatism (they esti- The recyclingbudgetof N, whichshowsa far morehet-
mated-1 x 10TM
grams/year;
Peacock [1990]
estimated1.4 erogeneousisotopiccompositionin the mantle [Javoyet
x 10TM
grams/year),
Itoetal. [1983]
concluded
that-90% al., 1986; Boyd and Pillinger, 1994], and for which fewer
of the H20 is either returnedto the mantleor to the crust data exist, is more difficult to evaluate. However, subduc-
by processesother than arc magmatism. The higheresti- tion of N is expectedwherelarge amountsof sedimentare
matesof H2¸ contentin subductedrocksbasedon studyof recycled.
If thesediment
subduction
rateof 3.5x 1015
the Catalina Schistwould indicatepossiblegreaterimbal- grams/yearis used,alongwith the N concentration
datafor
ances(-5-15% return,incorporatingrangesin estimatesfor the low-gradeCatalinaSchistmetasedimentaryrocks(250-
subductionzone inputsand outputs;seeTable 1). 1000ppmN; ave.600 ppm;Beboutand Fogel [1992]),the
Much attentionhas beenpaid to the magnitudeof recy- subduction
of - 2.1x 1012
grams/year
ofN isindicated.
cling of C into the uppermantle[Bernerand Lasaga,1989; This estimateis higherthanZhang's[1988] estimateof 2.1
x 1011
grams/year;
Javoy et al., 1982]. Javoy et al. [1982, 1986] estimated thisestimate
wasbased
ona sediment
thattheC fluxes
fromthemantle
are>2.7x 1013
grams/ subduction
rateof 3.0x 1015
grams/year
andanaverage
year [cf. Zhang and Zindler, 1993; Marty and Jambon, sedimentN contentof 70 ppm whichaccounts for lossdur-
1987]. Those authorssuggestedthe possibility of recy- ing devolatilization.A conservativeestimateusingthe N
clingof largeamounts
of C withaverage
1513CPD
B near contentof the high-graderocksof the CatalinaSchist(ave.
that of the "average mantle" compositionsof- -5%0 125ppm)
yields
aN subduction
rateof4.4x 1011
grams/
[Agrinier et al., 1985; cf. Mattey, 1987]. If the sediment year. Zhang[1988]estimated
N expelledby subduction-re-
subduction
rateof3.5x 1015
grams/year
isused,
together lated
magmatism
tobe2-4x 1010
grams/year;
Javoyet
 BEBOUT 183

[1986]
estimated
a N fluxof8.5x 1010
grams/year
outof metasedimentaryrocksresultedin the dramatit:removalof
themantle
(8.96x 1010grams/yearestimated
byZhang trace elementssuchas B, N, Cs, As and Sb by the C-O-H-
and Zindler [1993]). The N imbalancewould be more dra- S-N fluids (Bebout et al. [in press];Fig. 2). Varying de-
matic if seafloorbasaltscontainappreciableN [Hall, 1989]. greesof removal of trace elementsresultedin changesin
the ratios of particulartrace elements(B/La, B/Be, Rb/Cs,
3. RECORD OF FLUID PROCESSES AND VOLATILE Cs/Th) with increasingmetamorphicgrade; thesechanges
RECYCLING IN SUBDUCTION-RELATED have been used to estimate the trace element ratios in the

METAMORPHIC ROCKS metamorphicfluids [Beboutet al., in press]. Veins, meta-

somatizedmdlange,and isotopicalterationthroughoutthe
3.1. Summaryof Evidencefrom the Catalina Schist complexreflectextensivechemicalredistributionduringthe
high-P/T metamorphism[Beboutand Barton, 1993].
The Catalina Schist,which preservesa recordof Early Metabasaltic rocks in the Catalina Schist preserve
Cretaceousaccretionand high-P/T metamorphism,is well- chemical alteration attributableto seafloorprocesses(e.g.,
suited for studies of volatile content and stable isotope enrichmentsin large-ion lithophile elements, LILE, ele-
compositionsas it containsmetamorphosedsandstones, vated 87Sr/86Sriand{5180, {513C of carbonate
breccia fill-
shales,basalts,and gabbrosranging in grade from law- ings; Beboutand Barton [1993]; Bebout [1995]; Barnicoat
sonite-albiteto amphibolitefacies(inferredpeakP-T condi- and Cartwright [1995]). The systematicsamongthe LILE
tions of-275ø-750øC, 0.5-1.1 GPa; Sorensen and Barton stronglyoverlapthoseobservedin seaflooralteredbasalts
[1987]; Groveand Bebout[1995]). The rock typesare char- (Fig. 7 in Bebout [1995]), complicatingattemptsto iden-
acteristicof those in many subduction-zonemetamorphic tify LILE alterationdueto subduction-zone processes.
terranes[cf. Bailey et al., 1964; Ernst et al., 1970], largely
representing seafloorbasalticand trenchandpelagicsedi- 3.2. Comparisonof the Catalina Schistwith Other High-
mentaryprotoliths. The rangein gradeallowscomparison P/T Metamorphic Suites
of the volatile contentsand isotopiccompositions of rocks
of similar compositionswhich have beendevolatilizedto Many similaritiescanbe demonstrated
in the lithologic
varyingdegrees. Suchstudyhasyieldeda recordof pro- characteristicsand, where suitable data exist, the stable iso-
gressive high-P/T devolatilization [Bebout and Fogel, topic characteristics
and volatile contentsof the metamor-
1992; Beboutet al., in press]and migmatizationof sedi- phic rocksof the CatalinaSchistand othermetamorphic
mentaryandmaficrocks[Sorensen andBarton,1987]. suitesproducedin similarnon-collisionalsettings(i.e., not
In the CatalinaSchist,heterogeneous rheologystrongly involvingultimateuplift due to continentalcollision,as is
impactedfluid transfermechanisms duringmetamorphism. the casein the Alps; seeErnst [1988]). A strikingresem-
Mdlange zones are homogenizedin their stable isotope blance in structuralcharacter,lithology, and geochemistry
compositionsand show other evidencefor metasomatism is observed between the low-grade parts (of lawsonite-
[Bebout, 1991b] consistent with their having served as blueschistandlowergrades)of theCatalinaSchistandlarge
zones of enhancedfluid flow (relative to more coherentse- partsof the FranciscanComplex[Baileyet al., 1964;Ernst
quencesof metasedimentary andmetamaficrocks). Stable et al., 1970; Taylor and Coleman, 1968; Magaritz and
isotopecompositions of mdlangeand veinsfrom through- Taylor, 1976; Beboutand Barton, 1993]. Comparisonof
out the complex record fluid-rock interactionsinvolving the Catalina Schistwith otherrocksrepresentingshallower
high-P/T,H20-rich C-O-H-S-N fluidswith relativelyuni- partsof circum-Pacificaccretionarycomplexes (depthsof <
form O- and H-isotope compositions,indicatingpossible 15 km; see Fisher, this volume) providesa continuumin
km-scale fluid flow [Beboutand Barton, 1993]. inferreddepthand temperatureover whichto examinethe
The lowest-grademetasedimentary rocksin the Catalina progressiveevolutionof permeabilityduring subduction
Schist (peak P-T of 275øC, 0.5 GPa; Grove and Bebout and its relationshipto changingrheologyof the subducted
[1995]) bear a strikingchemicaland isotopicresemblance sedimentaryrocks. However, notabledifferencesexist be-
totheirseafloor protoliths
(e.g.,inC content, C/N,{515N, tween the documentedhistoriesof fluid and rock composi-
and trace element contents; Bebout [1995]; Bebout and tional evolution in Franciscan-like suites and those for

Fogel [1992]; Fig. 2). Higher-gradedevolatilization

of the suitesin the Alps (and elsewhere)representing
184 CONVERGENT MARGIN
100 , i , i , i , i , i
• 10 • Metasedimentary
I--I
•) 1 [Nadeau et al., 1993]. Documented fluid compositional
03 .1
' Amphibolite-Grade
Metasedimentary
Rocks
I . I • J , J . ! .
.01
B AsSb Cs K RbBaTh Ta LaCe SrSmZr EuBe Ti Yb
Fig. 2. Comparison of the abundancesof selectedelementsin
the Catalina Schist metasedimentary rocks of varying meta-
morphic gradeswith samplesof deep-seasedimentfrom trench
environments (averaged composition of noncalcareoussedi-
ment from ODP Site 765; Plank and Ludden [1992]. Data are
normalized to the concentrationsin the upper continental crust
composite of Taylor and McLennan [1985]. The rangesof
compositionsof the lowest-graderocks (lawsonite-albite)and
their amphibolite-gradeequivalentsare indicatedby the diago-
nal patternedregion and the shadedregion, respectively.
consumptionof oceanic lithosphere with termination of
subductionby continentalcollision. The likely complex
effectsof varyingthermalregimes,lithology,and depthon
the resultingfluid releaseand transportmechanisms
deepin
subduction zones remain uncertain.
Tables 2 and 3 summarizethe reportedevidencefrom
subduction-related metamorphicsuitesrelevantto considera-
tion of fluid productionand transferand volatile recycling.
Although the suitesfrom collisional settings(Table 2) in
manycasescontainmetamorphosed seafloorbasalticrocks,
some contain abundantcarbonaterocks (e.g., in Norway,
Cyclades,TauernWindow, Alps; seeAgrinier et al. [1985];
Matthews and Schliestedt [ 1983]; Getty and Selverstone
[1994]) generally absentin the Franciscan-likesuites(see
Table 3). Some have arguedthat the large accumulations
of carbonate-richrocks in Cenozoic orogenssuch as the
Alps andthe Himalayareflectenhancedcarbonateaccumula-
tion and subduction
Cenozoicglobal CO2 budgetand, thus,the global surface
VOLATILE RECYCLING
, i , i ,"1 ß i , i , i ß i , ! , i , i ß i , i , i ..,
temperatures[see Kerrick and Caldeira, 1993; Selverstone
Lawsonite-Albite Grade and Gutzler, 1993]. Petrologic studies of the high-P/T
complexesin collisionalsettingshave indicatedpeak meta-
Rocks morphic pressureshigher than those experiencedby the
Franciscan-like suites, with the most extreme inferred meta-
eg76• morphic pressuresfrom the collisional settings (30-35
kbars)corresponding to coesite-bearingrocksfrom the Alps
historiesin the suitesfrom collisional settingsare in gen-
eral complex, involving significant variations in fluid
compositionduringprograde,high-P/T stagesand uplift-re-
lated, lower-P/T and retrogradestagesof their metamorphic
histories. Whereasfluid compositionsinferredfrom petro-
logic, fluid inclusion,and stableisotopestudyof Francis-
I . I . I . I . ! . I . I . ! . I . I . i . I . I
can-likecomplexesare in generalextremelyH20-rich (with
varying CH4) and low-salinity [Beboutand Barton, 1993;
Element Giaramita and Sorensen, 1994], fluids during some meta-
morphic stagesin the suitesfrom collisionalbelts are CO2
and N2-rich and relatively saline [Selverstoneet al., 1992].
Immiscible low- and high-salinity fluids have been docu-
mented in some of these suites [Selverstoneet al., 1992].
In Franciscan-likesuites,the studyof rocks which have
experiencedpeak metamorphicpressuresand temperatures
similar to those of the Alpine and other eclogitic rocks is
in generalpossibleonly throughstudyof isolated"exotic"
blocks of eclogitic material in lower-grade m61ange.
Giaramitaand Sorensen[ 1994]conducteda detailedstudyof
fluid inclusionpopulationsin eclogitic blocks in m61ange
in the FranciscanComplexand in the DominicanRepublic
and documentedthat fluids duringthe eclogite-faciesmeta-
morphism were extremely H20-rich and low-salinity.
Thus, the differencesin inferredfluid compositionalevolu-
tion (describedaboveand evidentin Tables2 and 3) are not
obviouslyattributableto differingpeak metamorphicP-T
conditions,but appearto relate to somecombinationof
varyinglithologyandP-T-timehistories(includinguplift-
related P-T paths). The fluid evolutionin thick accre-
tionarycomplexes(at depths_<50 km), represented by the
Franciscan-likecomplexes,and fluid processesalong the
slab-mantleinterface and within the slab at greaterdepths
(i.e., as represented
by someof the Alpine andothereclo-
gitic suites)may differ significantly[e.g.,Giaramita and
Sorensen,1994], furthercomplicatingthe comparisons of
the resultsfrom the differing settings.
An additional difficulty in comparingthe recordsof
which affected the Mesozoic to volatileproductionand transportamongthe eclogiteand
circum-Pacificsuitesrelatesto the disparityin the field
 BEBOUT 185

o
186 CONVERGENT MARGIN VOLATILE

analytical approachestaken by researchersin each area.
Thesedifferencesin approachare in many casesobviously
relatedto the quality, extent, and natureof the exposures.
As an exampleof sucha difference,whereasit has become
apparentfrom study of the Catalina Schistthat km-scale
fluid flow was largely localized along zonesof structural
weakness(i.e., mfilangeand fractures;Bebout, 1991a, b),
similar observationsregardingthe presenceor absenceof
possiblefluid transferzonesare for the mostpart lackingin
studiesof the Alpine suites(Table 2). In part due to limi-
tations in the extent of the exposures,these other studies
havefocusedon the documentation of open-vs. closed-sys-
tem chemical behavior at relatively small scales (meter-
scale) or on detailed analysisof fluid compositionsusing
the fluid inclusion record [Selverstone and Munoz, 1987;
Philippot and Selverstone, 1993; Getty and Selverstone,
1994]. Unfortunately, the studiesof the Franciscan-like
complexeshave devoted less energy to study at this scale
and using fluid inclusions. Finally, few studieshave been
conductedof progressivesubduction-zonedevolatilization
and its effects on volatile content (concentrations of B,
LILE, H20, etc.). The work on the Catalina Schistand by
Moran et al. [1992] has focussedon the behavior, during
high-P/T metamorphism,of trace elementsused to trace
slab-mantletransferin studiesof arc magmatismandforearc
processes[Ryan et al., this volume;Beboutet al., 1993, in
press]. However, few othersimilardata setsexist,limiting
broaderconsiderationsof the recyclingof theseelements.
4. DO HIGH-P/T METAMORPHIC ROCKS PROVIDE
A USEFUL RECORD OF VOLATILE CYCLING
CONVERGENT MARGINS?
The extent to which the characteristics of fluid
(i.e., P-T conditions,magnitudes,isotopefractionations)in
the Catalina Schist or any other subduction-relatedmeta-
morphic suite reflect the global subductionprocessis not
known. The Catalina Schist metamorphism,particularly
of its higher-gradeunits, occurredin a relatively hot sub-
ductionenvironment,probably during early stagesof sub-
duction [Grove and Bebout, 1995]. Metamorphismunder
these conditions may be more typical of the relatively
warm subductionproposedfor early stagesof Earth history
or for moderncasesof either early-stagesubductionor the
subduction of young oceanic lithosphere [Defant and
Drummond, 1990; Kirby et al., this volume]. More rapid
subductionof older, cooler oceaniclithosphereresultsin
BEBOUT 187
cooler thermal structuresand promotes the retention of
volatilesto greaterdepths[e.g., Bebout, 1991a].
A combination of the results from the Catalina Schist
and similarrocksandfrom eclogiticsuitesreflectingdeeper
metamorphismmay ultimately constrain the degree to
which fluid loss occurs at shallow levels of subduction
zonesas a functionof thermalstructure.Basedon studyof
the Monviso and Tauern Window eclogites[Nadeau et al.,
1993; Selverstone et al., 1992; Philippot and Selverstone,
1993; Getty and Selverstone, 1994] and the Dora Maira
Massif [Philippot, 1993], it has been concludedthat these
Alpine eclogiticrocksrepresenting peak metamorphism at
depths>40 km experienced prior dramaticfluid lossduring
progradedevolatilizationat shallowerpartsof the various
subductionzones. Thus, despitedissimilaritiesin the tec-
tonic settingsand the approaches takenin the variousstud-
ies, there appearsto be agreementthat, in even the cooler
subductionzones,loss of fluid and large-scalefluid trans-
port may be dramaticat relativelyshallowlevelsof subduc-
tion zones (< 50 km). Some eclogitic materials reflect
complexmelting histories[e.g., Philippot et al., 1995] and
may provideinformationregardingtraceelementbehavior
duringdeeperfluid-melt-rockinteractions.
A recent detailed petrologic and thermochronological
study of the Catalina Schistby Grove and Bebout [1995]
placesbettertectonicconstraints on the metamorphism and
resulting devolatilization and offers insight into the rele-
vanceof Catalina fluid-relatedprocessesto devolatilization
in differing subduction-zone thermalregimes. In this com-
plex, the fortuitouspreservation of a relativelycoherentset
AT of tectonometamorphic unitsrepresentingmetamorphismat
similar depthsin a rapidly coolingsubductionzone allows
evaluationof the magnitudeof forearcdevolatilizationas a
loss functionof progradethermal history (Fig. 3). Suchinfor-
mation may be appliedto understanding the chemicalevo-
lution of present-daysubductionzonesof varied thermal
structures,in particular,in consideringthe likely degreesof
hydrousfluid- and/ormelt-mediatedtransfercontributingto
magmatic arcs in these diverse settings[Beboutet al., in
press]. The tectonometamorphicunits of the Catalina
Schist, excluding the lawsonite-albitefacies unit, reflect
peak metamorphismat similar pressuresof 0.8 to 1.1 GPa
in a rapidly cooling,newly initiated,Early Cretaceoussub-
ductionzone. The amphibolite-faciesrockswere metamor-
phosed and accreted to the hanging-wall in the earliest
stagesof subduction(i.e., experiencingthe highest-temper-
ature progradethermal histories;Fig. 3), whereas
188 CONVERGENT MARGIN VOLATILE RECYCLING

elementlossesover a wide rangeof progradethermalhisto-

O•• ' ' ' ' ' Thermal
• Schematic
Evolution of
the Catalina Schist ries (P-T paths; Peacock [1990]) representingextremely
2 [ •Pr•ograae
P-T Paths Subduction
Zone warm regimes(producingextremelydevolatilizedepidote-
Cc =_ amphibolite- and amphibolite-faciesrocks) to relatively
cool regimesmore similar to thoseexpectedunder"normal"
4
conditions(producinglessdevolatilizedepidote-blueschist-,
lawsonite-blueschist-, and lawsonite-albite-facies rocks).
The lawsonite-albite-faciesmetasedimentaryrocks, which
are similar in their volatile and trace element contents and

stable isotopecompositionsto unmetamorphosed equiva-

lents (see Fig. 2; Bebout [1995]; Bebout et al. [in press]),
are believed to have been subducted to shallower levels than

10 the otherunits (perhaps10-15 km) at later stagesafter cool-

ingof thesubduction
zone(40Ar/39Ar
dataindicate
that
Progressive
theserockscould be --20 Ma youngerthan the otherunits).
12 The shallow devolatilization(and melting) experienced

14t
•
PathsResultingin Minimal
Shallow Devolatilization
PathsResulting
in Dramatic Shallow
by the higher-gradeunits of the Catalina Schist (i.e., epi-
(Further Fluid Loss at Blueschist- Devolatilization and
EclogiteTransition?) PartialMelting dote-amphibolite- and amphibolite-faciesunits) may be
analogousto the processesattendingforearcmetamorphism
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
in relatively warm subductionzones such as the Cascadia
Temperature (øC) plate margin. A comparisonof the volatile and trace ele-
ment contentsof the epidote-amphibolite- andamphibolite-
Fig. 3. Pressure-temperaturediagram illustrating the varying facies metasedimentaryrocks with thoseof the lawsonite-
prograde thermal histories and timing of peak metamorphism albite-faciesrocks (representingunmetamorphosed to low-
and cooling of the tectonometamorphicunits of the Catalina grade equivalents)suggeststhat dramatic devolatilization
Schist. Schematic P-T stability fields of the prograde meta- occurs in such subduction zones. This shallow devolatili-
morphismin each of the units (patternedregions)and general-
ized phase equilibria for relevant volcanic and volcaniclastic zation (at depths< 50 km) shouldresultin smallerhydrous
rocks are discussedin Grove and Bebout [1995]. The dark lines fluid fluxes beneatharcs and the productionof fewer arc
with arrows representschematicprograderock P-T paths in a volcanoes [Kirby et al., this volume] which erupt lavas
newly formed subduction zone as a function of time [cf. lacking the distinctivetrace elementsignaturesof hydrous
Peacock, 1990], with the highest-Tpath representingthe early fluid additions but possessingtrace element abundances
stagesof subduction(labelled "115 Ma") and other progres-
consistentwith additions of slab sedimentmelts [Leeman et
sively lower-T pathsdepictingthe evolution toward an overall
cooler subductionzone thermal structure(dark line labelled "95 al., 1994]. Later subductionproducedthe relatively cooler
Ma"). Overall P-T-time loops for each of the units would ap- thermalregimesreflectedby the lower-gradeunits(i.e., epi-
pear clockwise on this diagram (Fig. 9 in Grove and Bebout dote-blueschist-, lawsonite-blueschist-, and lawsonite-albite
[1995]). Abbreviations for metamorphic facies are: "LA" =
lawsonite-albite; "LBS" = lawsonite-blueschist;"EBS" = epi- faciesunits;coolerP-T pathson Fig. 3) andresultedin less
dramatic volatile and trace element losses at the same
dote-blueschist;"EA" = epidote-amphibolite;"GS" = green-
schist; "AM"= amphibolite. Mineral abbreviationsare: Jd =depths. The lawsonite-blueschist-facies metasedimentary
jadeite; Ab = albite; Qtz = quartz; And = andalusite;Sil = silli-
rocksare extremelysimilar in traceelementcompositionto
manite;Kya = kyanite; Cc = calcite;Ar = aragonite. the lawsonite-albite-facies(and unmetamorphosed) equiva-
lents [Beboutet al., in press]. This similarity reflectsthe
retentionof volatiles to far greaterdepthsat later stagesin
gradeunitswere metamorphosed andaccretedsuccessively the Catalina subductionzone, perhapsto the depthsof the
during the progressivecoolingof the subductionzone (see blueschist-to-eclogite transition(Peacock[1993]; Fig. 3) to
schematic,progressivelycooling, progradeP-T paths for be affectedby processes of fluid-melt-rockinteractionsimi-
the lower-grade units in Fig. 3). Thus, the units of the lar to those recordedby the studiesof more deeply sub-
CatalinaSchistprovidea recordof devolatilizationandtrace ducted rocks in collision-related settings. The
 BEBOUT 189

thermal regime of the subductionzone producing the

CO2 Calculated from
CatalinaSchistwasperhapsmore similarto thatof the pre- Catalina Data
sent-dayKurile subductionzone [cf. Ryan et al., 1995]:
that is, relativelycool, affordingadditionsof hydrousfluids i......•'"'•*•"••••'-••'
"••••CH4 Calculated
Catalina Data
from
• to-37%0
with distinctivetrace elementsignatures(high B/Be, B/La,
.-•----
•--.•-•• Y" •.•••••
...•.
•:•:-•-:• •••.•
.•:.•;•,:•;•:..•
.... ,........:;•:.,.

B/Zr, Cs/Th, Cs/Rb, As/Ce, and Sb/Ce) to the subarcman-

CatalinaGraphite CatalinaC•bonate Veins
tle wedge[Ryan et al., this volume;Noll et al., 1996].
Making the necessaryqualificationsregarding these
likely variedmechanisms of slab-to-mantletransfer(e.g.,in Volcanic Arc C02 :.....................................
C-O-H-S-N fluids or melts; by assimilation),the uncertain Diamonds
with .......
•"••......•-••••
Back-ArcBasin
degreesof fluid-melt-solidisotopicfractionationwithinthe high
15'•1
•. BasaltGO2
•' -•'•:'" "*•:• > '-•T •:• :-.
..•.•....
.
.... F•-••----•••••
mantle [Javoyet al., 1986; Boyd and Pillinger, 1994; Boyd Mean
Diamonds Range
et al., 1994], and the varyingextentsof stableisotopefrac-
tionation during magma degassing[Javoy et al., 1986;
Taylor, 1986], it is interestingto make preliminary com-
parisonsof the stableisotopiccompositions of the Catalina
rocks and fluids with the compositionsof variousmantle-
13C
PDB
derivedmaterials(see Fig. 4). These comparisonsdemon- Fig. 4. Comparisons of calculated fluid C-isotopic composi-
stratethat the diverse isotopiccompositionsexpectedfor tionsfor the CatalinaSchist,and the fi•3C of reducedandoxi-
dized C reservoirs in the Catalina Schist with isotopic compo-
the subductedreservoirsare compatiblewith the rangesin
sitions of mantle-derived rocks (xenoliths, diamonds, igneous
the stable isotopecompositionsof certain mantle-derived
rocks). The range for Catalina Schist CH 4 is calculated using
materials [cf. Kyser, 1986; Boyd and Pillinger, 1994]. the data for carbonaceousmatter; the range for Catalina Schist
Manyhaveconsidered
theextent
towhich
high-15180
man- CO2 is calculated
usingtherangesin fi•3C of carbonaceous
tle xenolith materials (particularly eclogitic xenoliths) matter and carbonate at all grades (both ranges calculated for
could reflect the subduction of hydrothermally altered the temperaturerangeof 300-650øC;Bebout[1995]). Indicated
aretherangesfor high-15•SNdiamondsof BoydandPillinger
oceanic lithospheresuch as that representedin high-P/T
[1994]andthemeanfi•3Cof diamonds [Mattey,1987].Nadeau
metamorphicsuites [Bebout, 1995; Nadeau et al., 1993], et al. [1993]reported
similar•513C
valuesof-24.2 + 1.2%o
in
seafloor cores, and ophiolites [Muehlenbachs, 1986]. metagabbrosfrom the Monviso ophiolitic complex that could
Woodheadet al. [1993] and Harmon and Hoefs [1995] sug- reflect organicC addedto oceaniccrust.
geste0.that
the151.8.0
ofsubduction-related
basalts
andsome
EM-type ocean island basaltsmay reflect the presenceof
subductedcrustalcomponentsin their sources. lith diopsidesto contributionsby crustalrecycling. Addi-
Evaluationsof the bulk [13 C of the C deliveredto the tionsof fluids with lower [13 C similar to that of the Cata-
mantle by subduction[Agrinier et al., 1985; Javoy et al., lina fluids (particularlyCH4-rich fluids; Fig. 4) could pre-
1986] and the possibleeffect of subductedorganic C on sumablyproducesuchshifts. The rangeof calculatedCH4
mantle•513C[e.g.,.Mattey,1987;Matteyet al., 1989] [13C values,
together
withthe[13C valuesof carbona-
havefueledmuchrecentdebateregardingthe magnitudesof ceousmatter in the metasedimentaryrocks (total range of
crust-mantle
volatileracycling.
Thecalculated
CO2 [13C -37to -19%o),
is similartothatof relatively
13C-depleted
(-14 to +5%o;mean of- -5%o)usingdata for carbonateand diamonds(see Mattey [1987]; Boyd and Pillinger [1994];
carbonaceous matterin the CatalinaSchistgreatlyoverlaps Fig.4). Theextremely
widerange
in 1513C
fordiamonds
the rangeof- 10 to -4%o(mean near -6.5%o)commonlyin- may representsome fractionationin the mantle but may
ferred for "mantle" or "igneous"values [Taylor, 1986]. also be partly explainedby (1) additionsof C with low
CO2 [ 13C of back-arc
basinbasalts
ranges
from- 15to -9 [13C in CH4derivedfromtheslabor in metamorphosed
%o,somewhatlower than valuesfor mid-oceanridge basalt organic matter [Mattey, 1987; Boyd and Pillinger, 1994],
(MORB; mean - -6.5%o);this differencehas been attributed and(2)thevarying
influence
ofrelatively
higher-1513C
sig-
to the addition of "sedimentarycarbon" [Mattey, 1987]. naturescontributedthroughsubductionof pelagiccarbonate
Matteyet al. [1989]attributed
low1513C
in mantlexeno- or vein/cementcarbonateor CO2-rich fluids
190 CONVERGENT MARGIN VOLATILE RECYCLING
with carbonateor carbonaceousmatter [e.g.,Agrinier et al.,
1985]. In metamorphicsuiteswith large amountsof car-
bonaterocks(e.g., Alps, Norway, Cyclades;Matthewsand
Schliestedt [1984]; Agrinier et al. [1985]; Getty and
Selverstone
[1994]),carbonate
(andfluid)/513C
differs
sig-
nificantly from that in the Catalina Schist.
Differencesin the H-, N-, and S-isotopiccompositions
of subduction-related basalts and andesites from MORB
valuesare similarly compatiblewith the additionof one or
moreof the rock-fluid isotopesignaturesobservedin, or in-
ferred for, the Catalina Schist. Some subduction-related
basaltshave /SDSMOWof-46 to -32%o[Poreda, 1985];
these values are intermediate to the /SD of the Catalina
Schistmetamorphicfluids (-15+15%o;Bebout[1991a]) and
MORB values, the latter of which are believed to be more
negative, near-80%o [Kyser, 1986]. Similarly, valuesof
/515Nai
r of +3 to+8%o
wereobtained
byZhang[1988]for
subduction-related
volcanicrocks. These/515Nvaluesare
intermediate to values for the Catalina Schist metasedimen-
tary rocks (+1 to +5%o)and fluids (-1.5 to +5.5%o;Bebout
and Fogel [1992]) and MORB valueswhich appearto ap-
proach+ 10%o(Zhang [1988]; seediscussionof uncertainty
in mantle/515N
byBoydandPillinger[1995]).[34ScD
T flow paths[Beboutand Barton, 1993].
values of 0 to +21%o have been obtained for subduction-re-
lated volcanic rocks [Woodhead et al., 1987; Alt et al.,
1993]; thesevaluesappearto be shiftedfrom MORB values
near 0%o(in more altered sectionsrangingto +5%o;Kyser
[1986], Alt et al. [1993]) toward values for marine sulfate
(>20%o)and the CatalinaSchistmetamorphicfluids (+5 to
+9%o)and rocksand veins (-1 to +9%o;seeBebout[1995]).
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTED DIRECTIONS
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Significant imbalancesappearto exist in the amountsof
volatiles (H20, C, N, and B) subductedand the amounts
obviously returnedby arc magmatism. These imbalances
couldin part reflectthe releaseof volatilesfrom subducting
rocksduring forearcdevolatilizationand their transferinto
reservoirsother than arc magmas. Evidence for massive,
large-scale fluid flow in the Catalina Schist [Bebout,
1991a] is consistentwith potentialcontributionsof H20-
rich fluids from subductingmaterialsto the mantlewedge,
particularlyin forearcregions,or with the large-scaleupdip
movementof suchfluids along the slab-mantleinterface.
Great uncertaintyremainsregardingthe proportionof the
volatilesretainedin subductingrocksinto the deepmantle.
Field-based studiesof fluid processesduring high-P/T
metamorphismdemonstratethat devolatilizationand other
fluid-rockinteractionscan resultin significantchemicaland
isotopicfractionationin subductingrocks and fluids, thus
potentially impacting the "subductionsignature"in arc
magmasand other mantle-sourcedmaterials. Compatibili-
ties exist between the rock compositionsand calculated
fluid compositionsfor the metamorphicsuitesand the iso-
topic compositionsof various mantle-derivedmaterials
(igneousrocksandxenoliths). Furtherassessments of frac-
tionationduringmantleandmagmadegassing processesand
of the volatile contentsand stableisotopecompositionsof
mantle-derived materials [Kyser, 1986; Marty, 1995] are
necessaryto improve our understandingof volatile recy-
cling. Future work shouldendeavorto identify geochemi-
cal signaturesof deep-sourced fluids in shallowpartsof ac-
cretionary wedges (d6collement zones, serpentinitesea-
mounts). Their identificationis complicatedby mixtureof
deep-sourced fluidswith fluidsderivedby mechanical expul-
sion and devolatilization at shallower levels [Kastner et al.,
1991], by fluid immiscibility relations[Selverstoneet al.,
1992], and by the effectsof fluid-rockexchangealongfluid
Finally, calculationsof crust-mantlevolatile fluxesare
generallyperformedon a globalbasis,averagingsignificant
differences in the nature of both the subducted sediment sec-
tion and the volatile returns (e.g., via arc magmatism)
amongmargins. Future study shouldexpanduponthese
globalconsiderations in assessments of the mass-balance
of
volatile components,includingtraceelementand isotopic
signatures,in individualsubductionzones.
Acknowledgments. This research was supportedby the
National Science Foundation (grants EAR-9206679, EAR-
9220691, and EAR-9405625). I acknowledgethe supportpro-
vided by the Santa Catalina Island Conservancyand I thank S.
R. Getty and an anonymousreviewer for their reviews.
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Taylor,H. P., Jr., andR.G. Coleman,O18/O16ratiosof coex-
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Taylor, S. R., and S. M. McLennan, The Continental Crust: its
Composition and Evolution, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 312 pp., 1985.
Thompson, A. B., Water in the Earth's mantle, Nature
(London), 358, 295-302, 1992.
von Huene, R., and D. W. Scholl, Observationsat convergent
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Vrolijk, P., G. Myers, and J. C. Moore, Warm fluid migration
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Woodhead, J. D., P. Greenwood, R. S. Harmon, and P. Stoffers,
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(e-mail:
 Intermediate-DepthIntraslab Earthquakesand Arc
Volcanismas PhysicalExpressionsof Crustal
and Uppermost Mantle Metamorphism
in SubductingSlabs
StephenKirby•, E. Robert Engdahl2, and RogerDealingera
U.S. GeologicalSurve[t

We elaborate on the well-knownspatial associationbetweenaxcvolcanoesand Wadati-

Benioffzonesand explorein detail their geneticrelationshipsas dual physicalexpressions
of slab metamorphismof the oceanic crust and uppermostmantle. At hypocentral
depthslessthan 200 km intraslab Wadati-Benioff eaxthquakestend to occur near the
top surfaces
of slabs.Subductionof veryyounglithosphere(age< 15-25 Ma) with high
heatflow(> 75 mW/m2) producesmainlyshalloweaxthquakesandspaxse
or absentarc
volcanism.Subduction
of oldercrustwith normalheatflow(50-65mW/m2) produces
markedlydeeperintraslabearthquakesand generallynormalvolcanicvigor. Seismological
observationsshow that the low-seismic-velocitygabbroic mineralogy of the crust may
persistto depthsof as much as 150 km in old, cold lithospherebut only to depthsof
50-60 km in young,waxmslabs. Metamorphicprocesses in the crust and shallowupper
mantle of subductingslabs and the reactivationof faults originally created at shallow
depthsin the oceanbasinsprobablycontrolthe occurrence of intraslabearthquakesto
depthsof as muchas 350 kin. A conceptualmodelfor this metamorphism incorporates
the likely effectsof water liberated by dehydration. Suchdehydrationfacilitates both
brittle faultingby fault reactivationand promotesthe kineticsof the transformation of
the anhydrous gabbrocomponent of the crustto eclogite.Finite-element modellingshows
that densificationto eclogiteis expectedto produceextensionalstressesin transformed
crust and a smaller compression in the underlyingmantle. This model helps explain
why most intermediate-depth intraslabearthquakesoccurjust belowthe top surfaces
of slabs and why many have focal mechanisms indicating down-dipextension. Young,
warm slabshave mostlyshallowintrazlab earthquakesand sparseaxcvolcanoesbecause
dehydrationand eclogiteformationlaxgelyceasebeforesuchslabsaxein contactwith
asthenosphere. Theseprocesses are evidentlydelayedby kinetichindranceand the high-
pressure stabilityof hydrousphazesat lowtemperatures in older,coldersubducting crust,
and thus eaxthquakeactivity and asthenospheric-wedge melting tend to be focusedat
depthsof 100-170kin. Anomalous behaviorcorrelated with thesubduction of island-and-
seamountchainsappearsto be associated with anomalous shallowintraplatefaultingand
with perturbationsof slabmetamorphism by thesechains.

INTRODUCTION
Subduction:Top to Bottom
Geophysical Monograph96
This paperis not subjectto U.S. copyright. The geographic
coincidence
of the gracefulvolcanic
Publishedin 1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion arcs of the Circum-Pacific and
195
196 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM
orogeniczoneswith globalearthquakebelts waswidely
recognizedin the 19th century [e.g., Mallet, 1859;
Milne, 1886]. It was not until well into the era of
global instrumentalseismology,however,that it was
establishedthat inclined bands of earthquakes,now
called Wadati-Benioff zones, generallyextend under
volcanicarcsat depthsof about100km [Wadati,1935;
Visser, 1936; Berlage, 1937; Benioff, 1949; Sykes,
lO•C].
With the developmentof plate tectonics,convergent
plate boundaries were identified as settings where
the shallow materials of the oceanic lithosphere are
transportedto great depthsby the subductionprocess.
Such materials slowly heat up by conductionduring
descent[McKenzie,1969; Toks6zet al., 1971;Griggs, the subduction of the volcanic edifices of island-and-
1972].Thisheatingproduces
arcmagmas that somehow seamount chains. These features of arc volcanism are
ascendto the surface [Coals, 1962; Ringwoodand
Green,1966; Ringwood,1969]. Wadati-Benioffzones broadly consistentwith a conceptualmodel proposed
typically are at depths of about 110 km beneath here. Lastly, we briefly considersome earthquake-
and volcano-hazard implications of this model of
volcanicfronts(the oceanward
limit of stratovolcanoes)
[Tatsumi,1986;seealso Isacksand Barazangi,1977; metamorphismnear the top surfacesof slabs.
Gill, 1981; Chiu et al., 1991]. Focal mechanisms
indicate that earthquakesshallowerthan about 50 km
representboth interplate thrust motion and shallow
intraplate failure; events deeper than about 50 km
predominatelyrepresentfailure within descending
slabs
(intraslab).
Hydrousphasesare initially stableat shallowdepths
in oceaniclithosphere,but they liberate water when
that regionis heatedby conductionduringslabdescent.
It is now generally agreed that most arc magmas
result from this releaseof water by dehydrationof the
subducting
crustor uppermost
mantle[e.g.,Gill, 1981;
Kushiro, 1983; Tatsumi et al., 1983; Tatsumi, 1989;
Davies and Stevenson,1992; Kincaid, 1995; Ulmer and
Trommsdorf,1995; Tatsumiand Eggins,1995]. This
water is generallythought to flux peridotite melting in
the overlyingmantleasthenospheric wedgeand produce
arcmagmas.Densificationof maficcrustto eclogitealso
accompaniesdehydrationof subductingcrust during
slab descent.
It is the purposeof this paper to showhow many of
the characteristics of Wadati-Benioffzones and volcanic
arcs are related to each other and that some of these
relationshipscan be understoodin terms of a simple
unifiedconceptualmodel for slab metamorphismthat
we propose. We will not review the large literature
on the metamorphismof mafic oceaniccrust basedon
field petrologyand laboratoryobservations.Theseare
topicsdiscussed elsewherein this volume. Instead, our
approachis to considerthe plate-scaleconsequences of
suchmetamorphism.
We begin by documenting how oceanic plates
are mechanically flawed and also mineralogically
and thermally heterogeneous as they enter trenches.
These complexitiesare important in governingthe
seismologicaland magmaticexpressions of subducting
slabs. We then cite seismologicalobservations
that place constraintson the depth distributionsof
large-scaledehydrationand eclogiteformation, and
then show that there is a dichotomyin the depth
range of crustal metamorphismamong subduction
zones: young, slowly-descending slabs metamorphose
at shallowdepths. In contrast,crustalmetamorphism
in older, more rapidly descendingslabs is probably
delayedto depths of 100-170 km or more. We show
that this dichotomy in subductionzoneswith plate
ageis •lsoexp•essedasdifferencesin t•r of arc
magmaticactivity and that somemagmaticarcs and
the underlyingintraslab seismicityare perturbed by
WHAT GOES INTO TRENCHES:
MECHANICALLY FLAWED AND ltETERO-
GENEOUS LITltOSPltERE
Oceanic plates, created by seafloor spreading
and modified by their tenure below ocean basins,
are mineralogicallyand structurally complex and
heterogeneous objects. Their subsequentphysical
evolution with descent as slabs probably reflects
this internal complexity(Figure la). This section
emphasizes three first-orderaspectsof that complexity
that have obviousimportancefor slab metamorphism
and consequent effectson arc volcanismand intraslab
earthquakes
[Kirby, 1995]: (a) Oceaniclithosphere
is
flawed principally by normal faulting near midocean
ridges and in trench/outer-risesystems. These
mechanical flaws can serve both as channels for
hydrothermal fluids and associatedlocalization of
hydrous minerals before subduction and as zones
of weaknessthat can be exploited by reactivation
accompanying dehydrationduringslabdescent[Savage,
1969; Kirby, 1995; Silver et al., 1995]. Fracture
zonesevidently are not as effectiveas flaws for later
reactivation, either seismically in the ocean basins
[M. Wysession,
personalcommunication
1996]or at
depth in slabs. This may be related to the initial
vertical orientation of such faults and to differences in
the hydrothermalregimesof fracture zonescompared
to normalfaults. (b) Oceaniccrust and uppermost
mantleare heterogeneous in the distributionof hydrous
phases. As will be discussedshortly, liberation of
water by dehydrationof hydrousmineralsalongfaults
and fracturesin slabsnot only can inducemelting
 KIRBY ET AL. 197

Arc Volcano
Basalt / Outer Trench
Gabbro Rise

Forearc
(a)
Hydrated Faults

• 100
0
* •,=,-I ehydrati

/ Asth o-

Earthquake:
i• 200

Eclog

300 I I I

Basalt / Trench
Gabbro /-
o

Subducting
{ Hydrated
Plate Fault - --- x (b)
• •Dehydration
EarthquXa
Eclogite

• 100
¸

• 2oo

300 I I I I

Fig.1. Schematicdiagrams ofslabmetamorphism associated earthquakesandarcmagmatism (a) Thermally-

matureslabs[after Kirby, 1995]. Oceaniclithospherelayeredin mineralogyand flawedprincipallyby
hydratednormalfaults descends to the depthsnear the rootsof arc volcanoes whereit dehydratesand
densities
to ecolgite,becomes
proneto reactivation
of fossilfaultsby dehydration
embrittlement
andproduces
earthquakes.Slab dehydrationalso fluxesmeltingin the asthenospheric mantle wedge,producingarc
magmas.(b) Youngand/orslowlysinkingslabsthat arewarmsustain similarprocesses
asin (a) but
largelyat shallow
depthsbeneaththeforearc,a condition
causing
shallow
intraslabearthquakes
andfeeble
or absent arc
198 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM

the asthenospheric wedge,but can alsocauselocalized WHAT GOES INTO TRENCHES:

failure by faulting and promote eclogiteformation. WARM TO COLD CRUST
(c) Oceaniclithosphere is alsominerslogically
layered.
The fundamentallymafic mineralogyof the crust and Lithosphere entering trenches varies in thermal
•thecontrastin its pressure-temperature
phasestability structure, primarily with the time elapsedsince the
comparedto the ultramafic slab mantle will produce plate is createdat midoceanridges [e.g., Stein and
a heterogeneityin slab volume compressionwhen the Stein, 1992; Stein et al., this volume]. This is
oceaniccrust dehydratesand forms eclogiteduring evident both from the decay in seafloordepthswith
descent. As we discusslater, this heterogeneity seafloorage(whichreflectsthe decrease
in average
plate
can produce stressesin the transformed crust and temperature caused primarily by conductionof heat
uppermost mantle that can cause seismicfailure by fromplateinteriorsto theseafloor)andheatflow(which
reactivatingfossilfaults. reflectsthe near-surfacethermalgradient). Heat flow
Recenthigh-resolution sonarimagesof the oceanfloor is dependenton both normal thermal conductionand
and seismicreflectionprofilesshow that normal faults on heat losses by hydrothermalcirculation[e.g.,Stein
produced by stretching deformation near midocean et al., 1994; 1995]. That heat lossby hydrothermal
ridges[e.g., Mutter and Karson, 1992; C'arboiieand advectionfrom the shallowlithosphereis important is
Macdonald,1994]andby bendingat trench-rise systems evident from the fact that observed conductive heat
[e.g.,Masson,1991]are nearlyubiquitousfeaturesof flow is consistentlylowerthan that predictedby purely
oceaniclithosphere,confirmingearlier investigations. conductionmodelsfor plate coolingto agesof about 50
Masson[1991]alsoshowedthat normalfaultscreated Ma [e.g.,Steinet al., 1995].Heatflowdecreases rapidly
at midocean ridges are commonly reactivated at with ageto 20 Ma old, andis insensitiveto agefor older
trench/outerrise systemsif the originalfault traces lithosphere (Figure2a).
are within 20-30 ø of the trench axis. Some individual Slabs are initially coldest at their top surfaces,
fault scarpsat outer trench walls are as much as 100
and they slowly heat up with time by conductionof
kilometerslong and have throws of as much as 500 m heat from the plate interfaceand from the overriding
[Masson,1991].Thesedimensions and the occurrence plate and asthenosphere.This heating, in addition
of normal-faultingearthquakesat depths of up to a to the pressurizationthat occursduringslab descent,
few km at MORs [e.g.,1t•ang et al., 1986]and up to governswhere internal metamorphic processestake
severaltensof km at trench-rise
systems[e.g.,Chappie place[e.g.,Peacock,this volume].Earthquakedepth
and Forsyth, 1979; Christensenand R•ff, 1988; $eno distribution varies from subduction zone to subduction
andGonzales,
1987;Senoand Yamahalea,
thisvolume] zone.Plate age,A, andverticaldescentrate, Vz, are the
indicatethat suchfaults penetratewell into the tops of principalparametersthat controlthe thermal structure
descending slabs. As explainedmore fully below, such of descending
slabs[e.g.,Molnaret al., 1979].The slab
flawsmay be reactivatedduringslab descent. thermalparameter,•b- AVz hasthe unitsof lengthand
Faults in the top layers of oceanicplates can also is proportionalto the depth that the "v" shapedslab
serve as channelsfor hydrothermalfluids, especially isothermsareadvected[Kostoglodov, 1989;Kirby et al.,
near midoceanridgeswhere hydrothermalcirculation 1991;Gorbatovet al., 1996].As such,it is a measure
of
is important [Mevel and Cannat, 1991; Dick et al., how coldslabsare relativeto the surroundingmantle.
1991;Agar, 1994;Nicolas,1995]. It shouldbe noted, For subductionzones with thermal parametersless
however,that the depthsthat rocksof suchfault zones than about 1000 km, maximum earthquake depths
may be hydrated dependsupon the depth over which increase
withincreasing thermalparameter(Figure3a).
they are coldenoughfor hydrousmineralsto be stable. Intermediate-depthearthquakedepthsare insensitiveto
Very near midoceanridges, this hydralion zone may variationsin thermal parameter beyond •b= 1000 km.
only extend to depths of a few km or less. It is not Comparisonof the variation of these depthsand heat
known how deeply fault-zone hydralion may occur in flow in the ocean basinswith the age of lithosphere
trench-risesystems.As discussedbelow, this question enteringtrenches(Figure2) showsthat heatflow also
of howdeeplyhydrousmineralsoccuralongsuchfaults decreases steeplywith increasingageto a criticalage
will likely determinehow deep seismicfaulting may of about 20 Ms. Both heat flow and maximum
penetrateinto the topsof descending
slabs. intraslabearthquakedepthareinsensitive to increasing
Thus in addition to the first-order layering of age in older lithosphere. This transition in behavior
the oceaniclithosphereinto crust and mantle [e.g., probablyreflectsthe effectof hydrothermalcirculation
While el al., 1992] and the layeringof the crust in coolingthe crust and uppermostmantle in the ocean
by magmaticand volcanicprocesses [e.g., Nicolas, basinsto a nearly-equilibriumthermal gradient for
1995],the mechanicalhistoryof oceanic
platesimprints A _• 20 Ma and •b _• 1000 km. Becauseheat flow
mechanicalflaws and producesan associatedlocalized reflectsmost directly the 'temperature of the oceanic
circulation of hydrothermal fluids, and hence a crust and uppermostmantle entering trenches,the
heterogeneous distributionof hydrousminerals. parallel behaviorshownin Figure 2 suggeststhat
 KIRBY ET AL. 199

900
distributionin the Cocosplate beneathMiddle Amexica
N. Pacific
andNWAtlantic i ai
(Stein and Stein, 1992) o
showsthis markedvariationwith plate ageenteringthe
MiddleAmericatrench(Figure3b). Earthquakes in the
25i •M
.....
W/m-2
--'•'-- Median mW/m2

oldest(> 20 Ma) Central-American

sectorof the Cocos
600• plate persist to depthsof > 250 km, whereaseventsin
•2o
the youngersectorsbeneathsouthernMexicoto the NW

150••
and Eastern Costa Rica and Panama to the SE rarely
are deeperthan 100 km.
r.,
o o o 300•
Later we show how the parallel variation of heat
flow (and henceshallowcrustal thermal structure)
and depth distribution of intraslab earthquakeswith
age discussedabove also extends to the properties
0 of arc volcanismand to other geophysicalproperties
ß ß ß [ ! .... i .... ! .... i .... i .... ! ....
sensitiveto slab metamorphism. We now turn to the
1
ß
ß,
: ß Peak in Distribution (b) seismological observationsthat can give independent
5 9 ß Deepest
(•) Next Deepest Event
Event
information about slab metamorphism in subducted
oceanic crust.
lOO ß ß
ß ß ß
3
•:h 15o
TOP-SIDE INTRASLAB SEISMICITY
2OO
AND SEISMIC VELOCITY STRUCTURE:
IMPLICATIONS FOR CRUSTAL
250 METAMORPHISM

300
350
400 ' ' ' [ I .... I ....
0 25 50
Fig. 2. Parallelvariationsheat flowandintraslabearthquake
depthsin oceaniclithosphere with lithosphere
age. (a) Mean
and metEauheat flowversusageof the oceanfloorfrom Stein
and Stein [1992]. Note the precipitousdrop in heat flow
with ageto about 20 Ma and the insensitivityto variations
in age beyond that. (b) Maximum earthquakedepth,
and depth to the first relative maximum in earthquake
numbers versus plate age at the trench. Age from
Mueller et al. [1993]and other sourcesand depthsfrom
relocated hypocentersobtained in this study. Subduction
of younglithospherewith high heat flow [asshownin (a)]
producesmostly shallowearthquakes.Key to youngslabs:
1) Cascadia
(Pugetlowlands);
2) S. ½hn•(40to 47øs);3) $.
Mexico;4) S. AmericaEcuadorneat 2øS;5) Luzonnear
16øS;6) Shikoku/Nankaido,Japan. Intermediate-depth
earthquakedistribution in older lithosphereis insensitive
to variations in age, as is heat flow. Subduction zones
with maximum earthquake depths between 300 and 350
km represent those with clusters thought to represent
subduction of anomalous
is the thermal regime near the top surfacesof slabs
that governsthe depthsof processes controllingthis
earthquakedistribution. Other evidencediscussedlater
also supportsthis interpretation. Earthquake depth
The detailed spatial relationshipsbetween intraslab
Old Slabs with Depth Gaps
hypocenters and the locations of the top surfaces
Between Intermediates and Deeps of slabs provide crucial information regarding the
I .... ' .... I .... ' ....
75 100 125 150 175 physicalenvironmentand the internal processesthere.
Age, Ma Moreover,intraslab earthquakesmay be usedassources
of seismicwavesthat probe the seismic-wavevelocity
structuresof slabs,from which inferencescan be drawn
as to their mineralogicaland thermal structures.
Sincethe primary expressions of subductingslabsare
the Wadati-Benioff-zoneearthquakesthemselves,how
can we independentlydetermine the locations of the
top surfacesof slabs?The resultsdetailedbelowsuggest
that most intraslab eventsat intermediate depthsoccur
just below the top surfacesof slabs, an environment
we term the "topside"slab setting. This finding is
important because this seismic activity occurs just
where the thermal gradients and hence the rates of
conductiveslab heating are greatest, where hydrous
phasesare most abundantand thereforewhereprograde
metamorphismis expected to be focused.
Somesubductionzonesalsolocally have an additional
inclined zone of seismicactivity at depthsof 10-40 km
beneaththe upperzone[Seereviewsby Abetsand by
Seno and Yamanaka,in this volume]. Theseevents
clearlydo not fit the phenomenology
summarizedhere.
Recent studies of this phenomenonevoke the effects
crust. of magmatic processesat mid-plate depths, either at
mid-oceanridges[Abets,thisvolume]or abovehot-spot
plumes[Kirby,1995;Senoand Yamanaka, thisvolume]
in explainingthe activity in the lowerzone.
Several methods have been used to locate the top
surfacesof slabs relative to earthquakes that
200 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM

A B C
o within them. Earthquakes with focal mechanisms
C) Next DeepestEarthquake consistentwith interplate thrust motion representthe
100•t Old Slabs with Depth Gaps
$ Deepest Earthquake
motionbetweenthe overridingand subductingplate;
• L.Antilles
200
Bet
.... Int ....diat.... d o.os (a) intraslab earthquakesimmediately downdip of such
eventsare therefore also near the top surfaceof the
$00 slab(Figure4c).
* • • 0 •. •zu
,.• 400 Approximatelocationsof slab top surfacesmay also
be made using high-resolutionseismictomography.
Most of the generalseismic-velocity
anomalyof slabsis
,• 500

• 600 ß So.
Am.S caused
by lowslabtemperatures
[Spekmen
et el., 1989].
700 •So
Am.
N•
•• (• C) i i i i i i i i
Tonga
i i
Tomographicinversionsof regional and teleseismic
travel times place most of the intermediate-depth
5000 10000 15000 20000
intraslabseismicactivity near the topsof thesegross
Thermal Parameter •, km slabanomalies
(Figure4) [EngdehlendGabbins,1987;
Kissling end Lehr, 1991; yen der Hilst el el., 1991;
Hasegawaet al., 1994; Zhao et al., 1994; Engdahlet
CONVERGENCE
SOUTHERN
48 Cocos:N. Am.
MEXICO
71 63
CENTRALAMERICA (b
Cocos:Caribbean 92 al., 1995].
RATE
PLATE
•mm/a
AGE •
mm/amm/a m,m/a Other methods of locating the top surfacesof
........ • 3-16
Ma i 22-28
Ma i•l,'7',•la
slabsrely upon the velocity discontinuitybetweenthe
$o subductingoceaniccrust and the overridingplate or
ß : ß :•.'..-.."' ß ..?'.%'I.•7•.• the asthenosphericmantle, a discontinuitythat is too
, oo• ß . . . •.•..••

DEPTH
• '•:
.nß
km '150 .•.•. •
. .
200
250•
•o
• 500 1000 1500
WNW ALONG-STRIKE
Figure3. (a) Variationof ma•dmumeaxthquake depthwith
thermalpaxameter •b[afterKirby,1995].•bis a measure of
how deeply isothermsaAvectin slabs,i.e., how cold slabs
are comparedto normal mantle. Arrows showapproximate
correctionsfor the thermaJ para•neters of South America
(SAN of 15øSand SA S of 15øS)to accountfor a likely
compositeage and thermal paxameterfor the N•zca slab
[Engebreson
and Kirby, 1992]. Note the rapid deepening
of eaxthquakeswith incteeing •b up to •b = 1000 km
(RegionA) which we a•sociatewith deepeningof topside
slab metamorphic processes.Region B showsno particular
trendsand correspondsto approximatelythe age range20-
75 Ma where deepeningwith age is not observed(Fig.
2b). The deepeningneax •b = 5000 into Region C is
thought to representthe seismiceffectsof solid-solidphase
changesin •nhydrousm•ntle [seereviewsin Kirby [1995]
and Kirbt/et al. [1996b].(b) Eaxthquake
depthvariation
with -long-trench distance, Middle American subduction
zone. Vaxiationsin the convergence rates(Cocos: North
Americaand Cocos: Caxibbean)and in the age of the
lithosphereat the trenchare shown(dottedlinesrepresent
age discontinuitiesat fracture zones). Note the factor of
about 2.5x increasein maximumeaxthqu•kedepthswith
increasing age toward the Centr"l American subduction
zone,consistentwith pattern seenin Figures2b and 3a.
•.•.
large and sharply defined to be causedjust by the
slabthermalanomaly[seereviewsby Hel.ffrich •t al.,
1989; Helffrich end Stein, 1993; Hasegeweet el., 1994;
2000 2500 3000 ttelffrich,this volume].This velocitydiscontinuity
can
DISTANCE, km ESE convertS wavesfrom earthquakesourcesto P wavesor
P wavesto S wavesby refraction[e.g.,Metsuzeweet el.,
1990].Again,intermediate-depth intraslabearthquakes
tend to be just below the surfacethat describesthose
conversionpoints.
Lastly, the oceaniccrust not only can convertseismic
body wavesbut alsocan serveas a low-velocityseismic
waveguideand producelate-arrivingbody-wavephases
at stationsupdip from the source.Carefulidentification
and timing of these phasesallows estimation of the
seismicvelocities of these "trapped" waves and the
thicknessof the waveguide.Fukaoet el. [1983],Hori
e, el. [1985], Hofi [1990], and Ode et el. [1990]
studiedthis crustalw•veguidein the young(12-22
Philippine plate subductingbeneath SW J•pan and
concludedthat the waveguidewas less than 10 km
thick and that V• = 7 km/s and V• = 4 km/s for
earthquakesourcesin the waveguidedown to depths
of 50-60 km, below which no trapped phaseswere
observed.As thesevelocities
wereindistinguishabI•'
from those for oceanic crust beneath ocean basins,
they concludedthat the waveguidewasgabbroiccrust
that survived untransformedto depths of 50-60 km.
TheseJapaneseinvestigations of the crustalwaveguide
in the Philippine plate also concludedthat either the
crust transformedto eclogiteat the 50-60 km critical
depth or that deeper earthquakes occurred outside
untransformed crust. In the older and colder Pacific
plate subductingbeneath Northeast Japan, the low-
velocitycrustal channelpersiststo depthsof up to
 KIRBY ET AL. 201

of slabshave been reported in the Vanuatu subduction

zone[Chiu et al., 1985]and in SouthAmerica[Snoke
ef al., 1977]. While generallyless comprehensive,
their resultssre largely consistentwith thosefron.tthe
100 --
Japanesestudies.
In contrast,Anselland Gubbins[1986],Gubbins
and
$neider [1991]and Gubbinset al. [1994]report the
arrivalsof anomalously-fast,high-frequencyP waves
200
from earthquakesin the Tonga-Kermadecsubduction
zone and recordedin New Zealand, ray paths mostly
along strike of that subductionzone. Gubbins
0 I I I I and his colleaguesinterpret these early arrivals as
representingwavepropagationin a thin, high-velocity,
low-attenuationlayer. They tentatively identify this
structureas a continuouseclogitelayer extendingfrom
lOO -
50 km depth to the bottom of the Wadati-Benioff zone.
Althoughattemptshavebeenmadeat reconciling these
observations with thosemade in Japan [Gubbinset
al., 1994],an apparentlyshallowdepth to onsetof a
200
continuoushigh-velocityeclogitelayer in the Tonga-
TRENCH
Kermadecsubductionzoneseemsincompatiblewith the
10o • •oo • 3oo more extensive Japanese work. Moreover, an earlier
o
study of velocity anomaliesin the northern Tonga
slabby Mitronovasand Isacks[1971]identifiedP-to-
(c) ø S convertedphasesat Tonga stationslike thoselater
lOO -
observedin Japan and theseinvestigatorsarguedthat
detailsof their seismograms
were consistentwith a low-
velocitycrustal waveguideexistingto depthsof about
100km and roughlycoincidentwith the Wadati-Benioff
zone.
200 -
We conclude from the above studies that most
intermediate-depth intraslab earthquakes occur near
i
ßthe top surfacesof slabsandmanylie within subducting
Fig. 4. Profiles through Wadati-Benioff zones with crust. This is whereplatesenteringtrenchesare initially
coldest, where brittle norma] faults are expected
independent placement of the top surfaces of the slabs
to 'be concentrated,and where hydrous phasesare
using seismictomography. Upper-plate seismicitymasked
expected to be initially stable. This "top-side"
out for clarity. Apparent thicknessesof zones partly slab environment should be the locus of rapid slab
reflect the errors in hypocenterdetermination and also the conductiveheating,associated slabmetamorphism,and
shortcomingsof 2-D projectionsin describingthese 3-D dewatering.Untransformedcrustcanevidentlysurvive
objects.(a) Cascadiasubductionzone[Drageftet al., 1994; .to depthsthat vary markedlydependingupon whether
Chiao,1991].(b) Southern Alaska[Kissling
andLahr,1991]. the plate enteringtrenchesis youngor old and hence
(c) CentralAleutians[EfigdaMa,d Gubbi,,,1987]. dependingupon the slab crustaltemperature.Next we
outlinesomeof the likely physicalconnnectionsbetween
topsideslab metamorphismand intras]abearthquakes.
to 150km depending
on the localityandthe technique,
and its thickness is estimated to be about 5 km
[Matsuzawaet al., 1986; 1987;Hurukawaand Imoto,
1992;Iidaka and Obara,1993]. The foregoingmodel SLAB METAMORPHISM, INTRASLAB
for thesetopsidevelocityanomaliesin slabsseemsto be EARTHQUAKES AND ARC VOLCANISM'
a morestraightforward interpretationthan identifying A CONCEPTUAL MODEL
the low-velocitylayer as oneof partially serpentinized
mantleright abovethe slab[e.g.,TatsumiandEggins, The evidencesummarizedin the foregoingsections
1995]. points to intermediate-depthintraslab earthquakesoc-
Simila• seismicbody-wavephasesthat are evidently curringwhererapid conductiveheatingand associated
producedby velocityanomaliesnear the top surfaces metaxnorphic processes
shouldalsobe occurringin
202 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM
ductingcrustand uppermostmantle. Why is there this
spatial correlation?
Slab metamorphism is important for intraslab
earthquakesfor severalreasons.First, densificationof
crust by eclogiteformation can alter slab stressesby
increasing
negativebuoyancy [e.g.,RuffandKanamori,
1983;$aci•s,1983]and therebyincreasing the sinking
force tending to bend slabs [Jones et at., 1978;
Chappieand Forsltlh,1979] and to extend them by
directslab pull [e.g., Spense,1987]. McGarr [1977]
and Pennington[1983] also emphasizethe general
importanceof metamorphicvolumechangesin altering
the states of stress in slabs. Eclogite formation
should produce a stretching deformationin the crust
and a smaller compressionin the underlyingmantle
causedby the strainsaccompanyingthe heterogeneous
volumechange
(Figurela)[•e.li.•er ..J Kirblt,1901],
providedthat transformedcrust doesnot delaminate
from the underlyingmantle. We examinedthis effect
of edogite formation by finite-elementmodellingwith
a simplerheologythat illustratesthe localizationof
deformationto transformedcrust (Figure 5). A full
description of our computations will be published
elsewhere. The stresses and deformations are
consequenceof the dimensional mismatch between
subductingcrustand mantlethat occurswhenthe crust
transformsto eclogite.A stretchingdeformationoccurs
in the crust, and a smaller compressionaldeformation
occursin the underlyingmantle (Figure 5b). This
stressstate would be generatedin slabs becauseof
the constraintimposedby a "no-slip"conditionalong
the subductingcrust-mantleboundaryduring eclogite
formation and would occur even if the crust
uppermostmantle of the slab is segmentedby normal
faulting,sincepatchesof intact crust-mantlecouldstill
provide the "no-slip" constraint. The seismological
responseof the crust to these stressesdependsupon
the influence of other sources of stress in slabs and on
slabrheologies,as explainedbelow.
Dehydrationcan lead to high pore pressures,reduce
effectivenormal stresses,and hencepromotefaulting
by dehydrationembrittlement[Raleighand Paterson,
1'965; Raleigh, 1967; Paterson, 1978; Meade and
Jeanloz,1991; Kirblt, 1995]. This may be especially
importantwheredewateringoccursalongpre-existing
normal faults, becausesuchfossilfaults may be readily
reactivated if water is releasedjust where it is most
effectivein reducingthe localnormalstressby elevating
pore pressurealongthe fault [Kirblt, 1995; Silver et
al., 1995].Wesuggest
that reactivation
by dehydration
embrittlement of previously hydrated fossil normal
faults is the primary rupture processfor intraslab
earthquakes shallower than about 325 kin. Such
reactivationmay be driven by stressesassociatedwith
eclogiteformationasexplainedaboveand/orby stresses
that derivefrom plate-scale
forces[e.g., Vassiliou
and
Hager,1988].Stretching deformationalongreactivated
normal faults in the crust would also facilitate fluid
migrationout of slabsand into the asthenosphere.
Theseeffectsof metamorphism on intraslabfaulting
and associatedearthquakesoutlined above would be
difficult to isolate from each other by seismological
observations,becausedehydrationreactionsin hydrous
maficrocksare themselveskey stepsin the formationof
eclogitefrom hydrousmaficrocks.In a mineralogically
complexand mechanically-flawed crust,suchprocesses
may well occur in the same depth range for a
givensubductingslab with a given thermal structure.
Water releasedby dehydrationof hydrousphasesalong
fractures and faults could facilitate transformation in
adjacentregionsof anhydrousgabbroand basalt. The
abrupt changein the decaylaw in earthquakenumbers
near90 km may reflectthe averageglobalonsetof large-
scalecrustal metamorphismof thermally mature slabs
(Figure6).
Many previousstudiesof slab metamorphismin the
contextof the origin of arc magmashave assumedthat
metamorphicreactionstake place at near-equilibrium
a conditions. If this were correct, then dehydration
of the crust and eclogiteformation would take place
mainly at shallowdepths(<< 70-80 km). However,
recent studies of simple polymorphic mineral systems
and a model systemfor Na-pyroxeneforming reaction
that is a key step in eclogiteformation(albite --•
jadeite + quartz) suggestthat if slabs are cold
enough,kinetichindranceof eclogite-forming
reactions
will be significant[Hacker, 1992; Hacker, 1995].
and The presenceof free water is vitally important in
governingreaction rates becauseunder comparable
pressureoverstepsof the albite breakdown reaction,
rates of reaction with excess water present may be
attained at 200-300øC colder than for nominally dry
experiments. This means that eclogite reaction in
anhydrousgabbrocouldbe effectivelydelayedto depths
where large-scaledehydration takes place in adjacent
hydrousmetagabbros.This hypothesishasbeenlargely
confirmedin the Japaneseseismological studiesof the
subducting Pacific Plate beneath NE Japan, cited
earlier,indicatingthat a crustallow-velocitywaveguide
existsin the old, cold Pacificplate to depthsof up to
150 km. At greater depth, seismological evidencefor
the low-velocitycrustallayer disappears.This change
suggeststhat the crust transformsto eclogiteand its
seismicvelocity becomescomparableto the mantle in
the slab below the crust.
The depth distribution of earthquake activity in
thermally mature slabs (thermal parametergreater
than about 1000km) indicatesthat thereis a reversal
in the rate of decline in earthquake numberswith
increasingdepth at about 90 km and that
 KIRBY ET AL. 203

(a)
ß
e-

-•*-- Elastic Rheology

(c)
Profile B • Von Mises Rheology
Yield Stress = 1.0 GPa
Eclogite I Basalt/Gabbro
Profile C ""•'"

Eclogitic Crust Gabbroic Crust

50 X 200 km slab

(b)
'- /
. Elastic
Rhelogy
--0--- von Mises Rheology
Yield stress = 1.0 GPa
-2 i i

-100 -50 0 50 100

• ' Distance from Phase Boundary, km

MANTLE • ß
(d) : Elastic
--O- Rheology
Von Mises Rheology

In Mantle Below In Mantle Below

.• •-_-• ----•-- -• - 9 9
Eclogitic
Crust
,.•c Crust
-2 i i l_ i i i •_ l

-50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 I1• -2
-100 -50 0 50 100
Distance from Crust-Mantle Boundary, km
Distance from Phase Boundary, km

Fig. 5. Finite-elementmodel of the effectsof the volumechangeassociatedwith eclogiteformation on the

stresses
in slabs.(a) Deformedfinite-elementgrid showingthe grid geometryand positionsof the profiles.
Stressprofilesin (b), (c) and(d) for a purelyelastictheology
(filledcircles)anda critical-yield-stress
(von
Mises)theology(opencircles).Choiceof the numericalvalueof the yieldstresswasarbitraryand selected
for illustrative purposesonly. The general pattern of deformationis independentof the choiceof yield
stressover the range of 10 MPa to 1 GPa. The biaxial stressis the differencebetweenthe slab-parallel
normal stressand the slab-perpendicularstress. Note the conventionthat extensionalstressesare considered
positive. Differencesbetweenthe stressprofilesfor the two theologiesare proportionalto the amount of
inelasticdeformation. (b) Profile perpendicular
to the slab showsthat the deformationin the crust is
markedlystretchingand in the underlyingmantle is mildly compressional.(c) Profileparallelto crust-
mantle boundary but within the crust. Note that the rapid falloff of the extensionalstressand deformation
with distancefrom the gabbro-eclogite
boundary.(d) Profileparallelto crust-mantleboundarybut within
the mantle. Note the changein signof the stressesand deformationacrossthe gabbro-eclogiteboundaryand
the markedly lower stressesthan in the crust.

peak near 100-170 km. This depth range corresponds a changein slopeor shownothingat all distinctiveat
to the global range of depthsof Wadati-Benioff zones that depth.
below the volcanicfronts of modern magmatic arcs The crustof younglithosphere(< 20 Ma) entering
(Figure 6). This coincidence suggeststo us that the trenchesmay be as much as 300øC hotter than that
focus of crustal metamorphism and associatedslab for thermallymaturesubductionzones[Peacock,1990,
seismicityin thermally-mature slabs is at the roots of this volume;tt•ndman and Wang, 1993; Wang et al.,
the volcanicarcs(Figurela). This criticaldepthrange 1995](Figure2a). This suggests that dehydration and
of 100-170 km seems to be insensitive to variations in eclogiteformation may take place at shallowerdepths
plate age for age > 20 Ma, in parallel with the lack of at morenearlyequilibrium conditions(Figurelb). This
sensitivityof heat flow with crustalage (Figure 2a). conclusionis supported by the Japaneseobservations
It shouldbe noted that althoughmany individual cited earlier. Consistentwith this interpretationis the
subductionzonesshow peaks in intraslab earthquake observationthat intraslab earthquakesin youngslabs
activityin thisdepthrange(Figure2b), someshowonly are generallylimited to depthsof lessthan 50-100
204 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM

[
EXTRAPOLATED
I
DECAY
I
LAW Other examplesof shallowseismicityin young slabs
FOR SHALLOW EARTHQUAKES includethe Cascadiasubductionzone [Ladwinet el.,
lOO
1991],southern
Mexico[PardoandSuefez,1993;1995;
Kostoglodovand Bandy, 1995], SE Costa Rica/NW
ß
Panama[Protti et el., 1994],in the Nazcaplate in
200
southernChile betweenthe Chile Ridge and 40øS,in
the Antarcticplate southof the Chile Ridge[Engdahl,
unpublished
catalogue
data],southwest
Japan(Nankai-
.,300
Shikoku)[Ukawa,1982],southern
Luzon/Manila•rench
a• 14.5-18øN,and the Sou•hShetlandssubducfionzone
[Engdahl,unpublished
data]. The lackof appreciable
400 seismicityat greater depthsin theseyoungslabsmay
well reflectthe near completionof metamorphicactivity
in •he subducting crus• and hence the lack of a
500 mechanismfor faulting at grea•er depths.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ARC MAGMATISM

600
The fundamental seismologicaldifferenceswe have
discussedbetween subductionzones involving young
700 lithospheresubductingat low to moderate rates and
200 400 600 800 1000 subduction zones that involve older, more rapidly
Number of Events 1964-1991 descending plates has significance in helping us
interpret trends in arc volcanism. The parallel
topology of the variations of heat flow and intraslab
earthquakedepths with age (and particularly the
marked transition in both quantities at an age of
about 20 4-5 Ma (Figure 2a and b) suggests
to us
5 0 that youngslabsare hot enoughto alehydratelargely
ß
at depths shallower than about 100 km. Hence,
/
dehydrationwould occur before such slabscommence
contactwith asthenospheric
mantle. Other independent
/
100
Sub-Arc
Intraslab Fig. 6. (a) Histogramshowingthe depth distribution
Earthquake of subduction-zone
earthquakes
in the Circumpacific/Indo-
Distribution
• 150 nesian/SouthScotia/Caribbeansubductionzones. Events
are relocated from ISC arrival-time data 1964-1991 and
filteredto removehypocenterswith large depth and location
uncertainties. Also shown is a fit of the data from 50-90 km
to an exponentialdecay law where earthquakenumbersin
200
5-kindepthbins(N) varyasN = A exp(az)wherez isthe
centerof the depth bin (A = 11,850 and a = -0.03395
1
km-1). Notethedeparture
of theobserved
numbers
from
250 1
1
the decaylaw at depthsgreaterthan about 90 km. (b)
Residual earthquakenumbers (observedminus predicted
_

1
1
1
1
1
numbersfrom the shallowdecaylaw) versusdepth. The
1 scatter in the residuals at depths less than 90 km is due to
I
I 1964 ' 1991
/ -- the errorsconnectedwith subtractinglarge numbers.The
300-.,,,I ....
onsetof the sub-arcpopulation is believedto representthe
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
global averageonset depth of large-scaledehydrationand
Residual Numbers of Earthquakes eclogiteformation in thermally mature subductingcrust
from Exponential Decay Law

evidenceexists for slab metamorphismlocalizing at
shallow depths in such slabs. Wannamaker et al.
[1989] note an anomalously-low
electricalresistivity
region in the Cascadiasubductionzone and suggest
that large-scaledehydrationof the subduetingoceanic
lithospheretakesplacebeforethe slab descendsbeneath
the Cascadevolcanicare. Likewise,Zhaoet al. [1995]
interpret regionsof low seismicvelocity that coincide
with zonesof high electrical conductivity establishes
wherethe Juan de Fucaslabis dehydratingbeneaththe
nor.thern Cascadiaforearc. These observationsprovide
independentevidence that crustal metamorphismin
very young slabs occurs largely beneath forearcs
before the crust developscontact with the overlying
asthenosphere.
If the widely-held conceptual model for arc
magmatism is correct that fluids liberated by
dehydration of slabs flux melt the aathenospheric
wedge,then prematurelossof the water of hydration
duringthe descentof younglithosphereshouldreduce
the rates of asthenospheric
melting and the vigor of
arc magmatism (Figurelb). Simkinet al. [1981]and
SimkinandSicbert[1984]emphasized that subduction
zoneswith plateageslessthan 20 Ma and/ordescending
at slow rates often have relatively sparse or absent
young arc volcanism. Subduction zones with slabs
older than 20 Ma showno particular trends in volcanic
vigor with plate age. Simkin and his colleaguescite
examplesof youngslabslackingvigorousarc volcanism:
southernChile, southern Mexico, and Cascadia. We
wouldadd to that list the following:(1) the northern
part of the Philippine plate subductingbeneath SW
Honshu(Japan), (2) the SouthShetlandssubduction
zone (Antarctica)[Maidsrio et al., 1994], (3)SE
Costa Rica/NW Panama in Central America, and
(4) possiblynorthern Luzon near 14.5-18'N where
a young but inactive spreadingridge is now being
subducted
at the Manilatrench[Briaiset al., 1993].As
notedearlier, the abovesubductionzonesgenerallydo
not have significantnumbersof intras]abearthquakes
appreciablydeeperthan 100 km. This correspbndence
between the population of young slabs with mainly
shallow intras]ab earthquakesand those that lack arc
magmaticvigorreinforcesthe hypothesisthat they both
reflecta focusof shallowmetamorphismthat takesplace
largelybeneathforearcs.
Alsostrengtheningthis conclusion is that someof the
arcmugmssproducedin thosesettings(S. Chile, Costa
Rica/Panama;SW Honshu,Cascadia)have mugmss
of unusual composition(high in Al and possessing
rare earth element patterns that are anomalousfor arc
mugmss).Suchmugmssare alsofoundin somearcs
wherea plate is obliquelysubducting,the slab vertical
descentrate is therefore very slow and hencethe slab is
warm(e.g.,W. Aleutians[CreagerandBoard,
1991]).It
KIRBY ET AL. 205
hasbeenargued
that "addkites",
astheyaresometimes
called, representmelting of hot subductedcrust at
conditions nearthe amphibolite-eclogitetransformation
with garnetas a residualphase[Fursand Stern, 1988;
Derant and Drummond, 1990; Derant et al., 1991; Kay
et al., 1993; Morris, 1995]. It shouldbe emphasized
that adskitesmay representonly a minor componentof
the magmaticrocksof somearcsinvolvingyoungslabs.
The thermal structure of lithosphere entering
trenchesand the rates of convergence can vary with
time suchthat marked temporal variationsmay occur
in the slab thermal structure of a given subduction
system. The system may crossthe critical transition
from thermally-mature to warm-slab conditions. How
do these changesaffect arc volcanism?The Cascadia
subductionzone providesan excellentplace to study
this question. The Juan de Fuca (Farallon): North
America motion has markedly decreasedduring the
Cenozoic[Vetplanckand Duncan, 1987; Duncanand
Kulm, 1989; Wilson,1988;1993],and the averageage
of lithospherehasdecreased slightlyasthe Pacific:Juan
de Fuca(Farallon)spreadingcenterslowlyapproached
the North Americanplate [Wilson, 1988; Aiwalet,
1989; McCro• et al., 1995; P. A. McCro•, pets.
comm.,1995].Accompanying this decreasein thermal
parameterwas a dramatic decreasein the production
rates of arc lavas in the Cascadia subduction zone in
the lint 30 Ma [seereviewsby Muffler and Tamanita,
1995; Vetplanckand Duncan,1987]and a systematic
shiftin the volcanicarc to the eastwith time [Duncan
andKulm 1989],suggesting a decreasein averageslab
dip. These changesin the Cascadevolcanicarc axe
consistentwith the expected change from a normal
subductionzonewith coldcrust and uppermostmantle
(Figurela) to a subduction
zonepresentlyinvolvinga
warm, buoyantslab and henceshallowmetamorphism,
shallowearthquakes,shallowslab dip and more feeble
arc volcanism
(Figurelb).
EFFECTS OF SUBDUCTING VOLCANIC
CHAINS AND RIDGES
Another factor besidesplate age and convergence
rates that can potentially alter the progressof slab
metamorphism is the subduction of anomalouscrust,
such as is produced in the ocean basins by earlier
arc volcanism or hot-spot volcanism. The effects of
entranceof suchfeaturesinto trencheshas been widely
discussedin the literature, mainly in the context of
collisional accretion of terranes and their effects on
forearc tectonic erosion, slab buoyancy,slab dip, arc
magmatismand other expressions
of subduction[e.g.,
Nut and Ben-Avraham, 1981; Greene and Wong, 1989;
Ballance et al., 1989; Masson et al., 1990; yon
206 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM

and Scholl, 1991; Cloos,1993]. This is a complex structureson slab metamorphismand fault reactivation
•ubject with a hugeliterature,and a thoroughreview in the context of the presenthypothesis:
is beyondthe scopeof this paper. Instead, we focus (1) Effects of volcanic ridges in reducingslab
on some recent observations that are relevant to this buoyancy,decreasingslab dip and therebyeliminating
paper. slabcontactwith an asthenospheric
wedgein the critical
Evaluatingthe possibleseismological expression of depth range 100-150 km (see review by Cahill and
the subductionof aseismic
volcanicridgesand volcanic Isacks[1992]).Sucha conditionevidentlyextinguishes
chainsat greater depthsis made difficult by the lack arc volcanismby excluding partial melting of an
of knowledgeof whethera given structureoriginally asthenospheric
wedge[Barazangiand Isacks, 1977].
persisted or survived "downstream" of the trench Reducedslab sinking forces should also alter slab
and, if so, what its geometry might be. The stresses. These effects are discussed in the literature
seismological expressionsof straightforward
along-trend cited above and will not be further considered here.
projectionsof large,prominentvolcanicridgescan be (2) Effectson localizedshallownormal faulting
surprisinglysubtle. For example,intermediate-depth in trench/outerrise settings. High-resolution sonar
events are not unusually intense downstreamof the images of the seabed in trench-rise systemswhere
Nazca and Carnegie Ridges in South America, the volcanic chains are subductingoften reveal intense
D'EntrecasteauxRidge in Vanuatu and the Emperor normalfaulting that tectonicallydissectsthe seamounts
seamountchainoff Kamchatka.In fact, Marthelotet al. themselvesand the seaflooraround them [USGS
[1985]arguethat the descentof the D'Entrecasteaux Gloria Atlas of the Aleutian ExclusiveEconomicZone,
Ridge beneaththe North Fiji Basin producesa gap unpublished;Kobayashiet al., 1987;Fisher el al., 1991;
in the intermediate-depthseismicityof the Vanuatu seereviewin yon Huene and Scholl, 1991; yon Huene et
subductionzone. Although a numberof large and al., 1996].Intenseshallowseismicity commonly occurs
mainly shallowshockshaveoccurreddown-trendof the wheresuchstructuresare flexed[Chrislensen andLay,
prominentandlong-lived LouisvilleRidge[Christensen 1988;Wysession et al., 1991;Zhaoet al., 1996].
and œay, 1988], there is surprisinglylittle, if any, Kirby el al. [1996] investigatedthe relocated
expression of this structureat intermediatedepths. historicaland modernseismicityof the Juan Fernandez
Down the trends of somenarrowerand generally earthquakezone and suggestthat the fine structureof
lesscontinuous volcanicchains,however,intermediate- the Juan Fernandezseismicbelt is composedof two
depth seismicitycan be intense. An outstanding parallelzonesof earthquakesthat are alignedwith two
exampleis the Juan Fernandezchainoff centralChile, clustersof shallowearthquakesnear the trench. These
whereintermediate-depth clustersoccuralonga seismic shallow clusters are near the intersection of the Juan
belt that extendsnearly700 km eastof the Chile trench Fernandez chain with the trench and outer rise and
[Figure7a and 7b]. The trend of this seismicbelt correspondto the gravity highs where the forebulge
alignswellwith the Valparisoembaymentin the Chilean of the chain associated with seamount loads coincides
shoreline and with a remarkable tectonic excavation the outer-rise of the subduction zone. If faults created
of the inner wall of the Peru-Chile trench where the at near-trench-outer-rise
settings in ordinary crust
volcanic
chainhascollidedwiththeshallow forearc[yon and mantle are reactivatedat intermediatedepthsas
Huene,1995;yonHueneet al., 1996]. describedearlier, faults localizednear seamountsshould
Further north, Kirby and Engdahl [1993] have alsobe reactivatedand perhapslead to clusteringat
alsoidentifiedother ENE to NE-trendingearthquake intermediatedepths.This reactivationhypothesis
may
clustersthat parkllel trendsin Cenozoicoffshoreisland help explain why the Juan Fernandezchain produces
and seamountchains. Such alignmentssuggestthat two zonesof intermediate-depth earthquakes.
someof these dusters are the seismicexpressionsof (3) Effectsof differences
in the internalstructures
of
thesesubductedvolcanicchains.In the presentcontext, the crust comparedto normal oceaniccrust. One of the
we note that someof the more prominentclustersin biggestinternal structuresproducedin large volcanic
this grouphaveyoungarc volcanismabovethem in the edifices
areinternalrift zones[e.g.,Clagueel al., 1989].
South American plate that is deflectedeastwardof the Thesestructuresevidentlydevelopin connectionwith
main trend of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes lateralspreadingand volcanicedificebuilding.Should
(compareFigure7 with Fig. A1, p. 194in de Silvaand theserift structuressurvivethe subductionprocess,
Francis,1991). they couldalsoserveas flawsthat couldbe reactivated
To interprettheserelationships
betweensubducting duringdescent.
volcanic chains, on the one hand and intraslab (4) Perturbationsof thethermalstructureof thecrust
earthquakes in the Nazca slab and the Andean derivedfromthe originalvolcanicheat trappedduring
volcanism,on the other, we considerfive possible edificebuilding. The thermal effectsof v.•)lcanic
chains
physical effects of subduction of these volcanic on the thermalstructureof crustand mantle
 K•RBY ET AL. 207

- 5os

10øS

- 15os

- 20oS

- 25øS

- 30øS

I 35øS
80øW 75øW 70øW 65øW 60øW

Fig.?a. Heterogeneities
in the Nazcaplateandslabasrevealedby earthquake
locations.(a) Shallow(+: 0-50
krn),intermediate
(O: 50-350krn)anddeepintraslabearthquakes (x: > 350 krn)in the Nazcaslabbeneath
South America. Contours are drawn as depth in km to the Wadati-Benioff zone. Shallow earthquakes
are stripped from map east of the 75 km contour to emphasizeNazca slab seismicity. Note clustering of
interrnediate-depth
eventsin roughlyENE- to NE-trendingbands(arrows),especiallyat latitudesbetween
15 and 33 S. These bandsare frequentlyalignedwith offshorevolcanicchainsand ridgesand with shorehue
ernbayrnentsand collisionalfeaturesas shownby offshoresatellitegravity[Sandwellet al., 1995]. Note the
alignmentof someof the offshorevolcanicchainsandridgeswith coastalembaymentsandearthquakeclusters
alsoshownin Figure
208 INTRASLAB EARTHQUAKES AND TOPSIDE SLAB METAMORPHISM

Interplate Sub-Arc
ThrustZonePopulation Deeper
Clusters duringdescent
thannormaloceaniccrust.Forexample,
to a goodapproximation,a crust that is twice as thick
as normal has four times the thermal time constant than
ß : ' ' ' icaca
15 ß ß oneof normalthickness.Thusthe kineticsof eclogite-
':" ' " ":'• Salar forming reactionsthat are sensitiveto temperature
t'. ',.... de Uyuni shoulddelayeclogiteformationand dehydrationat the

•eß
•ee •le e
?eee e.
baseof the crustto significantlygreaterdepthsin the
•eee ß cold,thick crustof fossilhot-spotvolcanicedifices.
ß e•l• e
ß ß ßß•%• ß ß
ß Lipe EFFECTS ON ARC MAGMATISM

.....;
,-, . ßeeee,e
'•
-20

ß•/•,::e::. Returning to the broader connections between

ßeeee•
. ß•e,i• % ß ß juy subducted volcanic chains created in the ocean basins
•,I•1'1•
-,-:::
ee ß. •e and the volcanic arcs above them, it should be
notedthat the obliquesubductionof the NW-trending
oN LouisvilleRidge has perturbedthe Tonga-Kermadec
-25 volcanicarc. Although the LouisvilleRidge does
not have a prominenteffecton intraslab intermediat•--
Coquimbo- depthseismicity,
it evidentlyproduceda 450-kmgap
/ Catamarca in Holocene and historical eruptions north of its
intersection
with the Tonga-Kermadectrench[Simkin
and Siebert,1994]. Geological
evidencesuggests
that
this gap has been migrating to the south at about
Juan Fernandez
-30 the rate that the trench-volcanic chain intersection is

ß
ßß ß ß
• ¸
ß Seamount
-35
0
5 0 100 150
Depth,
Fig. 7b. North-South cross section of Nazca intraslab
seismicity. Note genera•tendency for earthquakeclusters
with labeled names to trend in the ENE to NE direction
and plungetowardthe north and east,correspondingto the
rangeof Nazcaplate motionrelativeto hot-spots[Gordon
and Jurdy,1986; Gripp and Gordon,1990]and the offshore
trendsof volcanicchainsshownin (b).
trenchesshoulddependuponthe ageofvolcanicactivity
and the manner in which they are built and lose
their volcanicheat. If they are youngenoughto be
significantly
hotterthan the surrounding
oceaniccrust,
then crustalmetamorphicprocesses might occurat
shallowdepthsas they evidentlydo in youngcrust
created at MORs.
(5) Effectsof crustalthicknesson the thermaltime
constantof the crust(howfast it takesto heat up by
conduction duringdescent).If a seamount or volcanic
ridgeis old and cold,the normaloceaniccrustunderthe
volcanicedificewill be thermally blanketedand hence
may take significantlylongerto heat up by conduction
ß Earthquake
migratingsouth[D. Scholl,personal
communication].
In other words,subductionof the island and seamount
• Coastal chain"extinguishes"the volcanicarc and "rekindles"it
Embayment whenthe arc reaches400-500km from the migrating
Offshore
ridge-trenchintersection. One possibleexplanationof
this progressionis that the rocksof the volcanicridge
thermallyblanketthe underlyingoceaniccrust,andthis
200 250 300 350
insulatingeffectdelaysheatingthe normaloceaniccrust
km underneathas it descends. By the time dehydration
doesoccur,the melts producedare at sufficientdepth
that they become entrained in the asthenospheric
circulationof back-arcspreadingand volcanismrather
than fluid circulation to the island arc. Some back-
arc lavas in the western Pacific have compositions
suggesting
a componentof island-arcchemistry[Lau
Basin' Vallier et al., 1991; Marianastrough' Stolper
and Newman, 1994]. If a subductionzone lacks
activeback-arcspreading,water liberatedat greater-
than-normal depths by dehydration of cold volcanic
chainsmay producearc volcanismdisplacedtowardthe
directionof slab motion from the normalmagmatic
arc. This may explain the outboard deflectionsof some
arc volcanoes in subduction zones that have island-
and seamountchainsbeing subductedand that lack
present-dayback-arcspreading,suchas in Kamchatka
and South America.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Our conceptual model for the effects of metamor-
phism of the crust and uppermostmantle of slabs,

though highly simplified,recognizesthe fundamental
roles of temperature and free aqueousfluids in pro-
moting reactionrates and the dual effectsof suchlib-
erated fluids in facilitating both seismogenic intraslab
faulting and melting in mantle asthenospheric wedges.
The modelis successful in explainingwhy intermediate-
depthearthquakestend to occurjust belowthe top sur-
facesof slabs. It alsoexplainsthe first-orderdichotomy
of subduction zones:(1) Younglithosphere subducting
at.low to moderaterates(with thermalparameterless
than 500km) produces
largelyshallowintraslabearth-
quakes,and feeble, if any, arc volcanism. Some arc
magmasin this settinghavebulk chemistries consistent
with meltingof eclogiticoceaniccrust. Dewateringand
ec]ogiteformationprobablyoccursprimarily at shal-
lowdepth,and henceaqueousfluidsare releasedlargely
into the overlyingforearc.When the alewatered slabde-
scendsand developscontactwith the overlyingastheno-
sphere,free water is not abundantenoughto produce
large-scaleflux melting,and hencearc volcanismis not
vigorous.(2) The crustand uppermostmantleof older
lithospheredescending at moderateto highratesis very
cold and this thermal structure is essentiallyindepen-
dent of plate age. Dehydration of thermally mature
slabsnot only producesnormal arc volcanismbut also
permitsintraslabearthquakesto occurin greatestabun-
danceat depthsof 100-170 km at the roots of volcanic
arcsand continueto maximum depthsof typically 200-
325 kin. We interpret the peak in seismicactivity as
indicativeof the primary focusof dewateringand asso-
ciatedeclogiteformationin that depth interval.
A numberof factorsmay complicatethis classification
of subduction zones and the conceptual models used
to explain their differences. First, plate age, rates
of convergence and slab dip may vary with time. It
is not known how rapidly magmatic arcs respondto
changesin their thermal regime at depth. Second,
volcanismin the oceanbasinsaltersto somedegreethe
thermal and mechanicalstructuresof subductingcrust
and uppermostmantle.
Some of these ideas about shallow metamorphism
in young and/or slowly descendingslabs may have
relevanceto the assessment of earthquakeand volcano
hazardsin suchsettings.If earthquakesin youngslabs
are localizedjust at shallow depths, then the falloff in
strongmotionsassociated with bodywavesandsurface-
wave motion for such events are expected to be less
than for intermediate-depth shocks(depths• 70 krn)
and hence ground motion should be more intense.
Examples of such destructiveshallow intraslab events
are the M•7.1 event of 23 April 1949 and the Mto6.5
shock of 29 April 65 in the Juan de Fuca slab of the
Cascadia subduction zone and the M•7.5 shock of 15
January31 in the youngCocosplate beneathsouthern
Mexico (Mw is the earthquakemagnitudecalculated
KIRBY ET AL. 209
from the seismicmoment). Lastly, the conceptof
normalfaults producedby flexureat shallowdepthsin
trench-outer-risesettingsbeing reactivatedat greater
depthsmaybe usefulin assessing the hazardsassociated
with large interplate thrust earthquakes.Many very
large interplateeventsin stronglycoupledsubduction
zonesdisplay shallow intraplate earthquakesseaward
of trenches, before and after large underthrusting
earthquakes. These intraplate events have been
used to evaluate the potential for large interplate
earthquakes
[e.g.,Christensen
andRuff, 1988].If such
shallowintraplatefaults are subsequentlyreactivatedas
intraslabevents,then a fuller seismological
recordexists
of prior shallowtrench/outer-riseintraplate activity in
the formof deeperintraslabearthquakeactivity[Kirby
et al., 1996a].
This model for shallow metamorphismin young
subducting plates also provides a framework for
understandingwhy subductionof young slabs tends
to produce feeble arc volcanism and how temporal
changesin the slab thermal parameter can produce
systematicshiftsin volcanicvigor and arc positionwith
time. While arc-wide volcanismmay be feeblein such
settings,explosivevolcanismat individual volcanoes
may still be very hazardousand destructive,suchashas
occurred in the Cascadia subduction zone of the NW
U.S duringthe Holocene[SirnkinandSiebert,1994].
Acknowledgments. We thank Tracy Rushmet, Brad
Hacker, Mike Clynne, Steve Bohlen, David Gubbins, Emile
Okal, Doug Wiens, Akixa Hasegawa,Seth Stein, Sue Agax,
Tetsuzo Seno, David Scholl, David Clague, Bob Tilling,
Rollie yon Huene, Diana Comte, Mario Paxdo, Sergio
Baxrientos, and Caxol Stein for their helpful discussions,
preprintsand commentson the manuscript. Laura Stern,
Wayne Thatcher, Pat Muffler, GeorgeHelffrich and Dave
Schollhelped improve the presentationof this paper.
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 SubductedLithosphericSlab Velocity Structure'
Observationsand Mineralogical Inferences

GeorgeHelffrich

GeologyDept., U. Bristol,WillsMemorialBuilding,QueensRoad,BristolBS8 1RJ UK

A variety of observationaldata bearing on slab seismicwave speedstructureyields slab

anomaliesbetween 4 and 10 per cent relative to ambient mantle. There is also evidencefor
dip-parallellayeringof velocitiesin slabs,whosethicknessis _<10km. After a review of the
observations, the mineralogicalcompositionand the transformationsin the subductedlithosphere
are related to the observations.It appearsthat 1) transformationsare taking place in the slab,
becauseslab/mantlevelocity contrastsdo not monotonicallydecreaseas a thermal origin for
thesewould predict;and 2) velocitylayeringin the slabmustpersistto depthsin excessof 200
km. Layeringpersistence impliesthat wholesaledelamination or underplating of slabmaterial
does not occur in all subductionzones, and suggeststhat the oceanic lithospheresubducts
coherently.Velocitycontrasts in hydrousmetabasaltsappearlargeenoughto explainlow velo-
city layersin the shallowslabs,implyingthat the metastable
anhydrous
gabbro-•eclogitereac-
tion may not be a goodmodelfor changes in shallowslabmineralogy.

INTRODUCTION city. A typical choice is a whole-earthseismicvelocity

model. The secondway to garner slab informationfrom
Thoughsubducted slabsare delineatedby their seismi- seismic waves is to search for secondaryarrivals that
city, they also influencethe travel times and pathstaken would not otherwiseexist except for the presenceof a
by seismicwaves from the earthquakesourceto the slab. Discontinuities in a rock's elastic propertiesgen-
seismic station that records their arrival. That slabs affect erate S waves from P and vice-versa,and slab properties
travel times was an early realizationin the plate tectonic differ greatly from mantle ones. Thus, by inspecting
paradigm[Daviesand McKenzie, 1969]. It took a bit seismograms after P arrivals (when slab-generated P-->S
longer to recognizethe alternativepaths that seismic arrivals would be expected)and before S arrivals (ditto
waves could take on account of slabs [Mitronovas and for S-->P), the size of the discontinuityand its location
Isacks, 1971] and to relate theseto the material properties may be inferred. Finally, frequency-dependent effects
of subductedlithosphere[Sleep, 1971]. However, the arise when seismic waves travel along or acrosslayers.
seismic wave anomalies due to slabs were ultimately If a seismicwave crossesa layer stack,wavelengths that
appreciated
for the informationthey bearconcerning
slab aremultiples
of thelayerspacingwill be eitherenhanced
mineralogy[Solomonand U, 1975], which is their main or suppressed,
changingthe form of the waveemerging
contemporaryinterest. from the stack. Running parallel through the stack,
This information is carried in three different ways. longerwavelengths
will seean averagevelocitythrough
Most basic is the travel time of the wave, which, if the the stack (or even outside of it), whereas shorter
pathis known,canbe turnedinto an averagepathvelo- wavelengths will be confinedto narrowerregionsof the
city or velocityanomalyrelativeto somereference
velo- stack and prefer its fasterlayers,with corresponding
changesto its waveform.
All threeobservationaltypestradeoff advantages
with
Subduction:Top to Bottom disadvantages.Travel timesare fundamental, simpleto
GeophysicalMonograph96 recognize andmeasure, but are along-path
averages
and
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union thus smoothout speedvariations,which are of
215
216 SLAB VELOCITY STRUCTURE

interest. On the other hand, wave conversions are not

always seen in one location, nor are they even seen
everywhere.Thus the informationthey give is spottyand
arguablybiased, representingonly an exceptionalcoin-
cidence of favorable factors. Frequency dependent
effects,being intrinsicallynoisy,are difficult to quantify
in detail and only broad featuresin the spectrumare
interpretable. Layer-parallel paths also suffer the same
smoothingpenalty mentionedearlier.
What seismologicalinvestigationprovidesis a velocity
(or an anomaly) in somepart of the slab,or a layer thick-
ness. Mineralogical inferencesmay only be made by 0

comparison with computed velocities. Therefore some

idea of slab mineralogiesmust be to hand for the final
step in interpretingthe seismicobservationsmineralogi-
cally, which is the goal of this work. This will be
deferred until the observational data is discussed.

SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

All the geometriesdiscussedhere involve stationssited

above subductionzones. Earthquakeseither in the slab
belowthe stationor at somedistantlocationemit waves Figure1. Ray geometries
for studies
discussed
here. (a) P
thatinteract
withtheslabastheyascend
tothesurface.reflector
andScSp
geometries.
(b)PS conversion
geometry.
The interactions are generally one of either reflection
fromthefaceof thesubducted
slab,or refraction
at its non-slab
mantle
at thesamedepth,12%slower
thanthe
surface,
or lengthyalong-strike
or up-dippathstakenin slab,andis about7 km thick. S-->Pconversions
at the
the slab,with the slabactingasa waveguide. surfaceof the subducted
slab of core-reflected
S waves
All of Japanoverliesactivesubduction,
so Japanese from nearbyearthquakes (ScSp)are commonandyield
subductionzonesprovidemostof therecordedinstances localestimates
of velocitycontrast
at the slabinterface
of the slabinteractions.Slabfacereflectionis the rarest [Okada,1977;Snokeet al., 1978;Nakanishiet al., 1981;
reportedtype (Fig. l a). Fukaoet al. [1978]observed a lidakaand Obara,1993;HelffrichandStein,1993]. The
distinctive
patternof laterarrivalsfollowingthedirectP P amplitude,compared to the amplitude of the S wave
wave from shallowearthquakes betweencentralJapan whoserefractiongenerated P, impliescontrastsbetween
andTaiwan. To be visible,thewavemustgrazetheslab 5-10%at the interface(Fig. l a). A valuablecharacteris-
face so as to causetotal internalreflectionand no tic of ScSp observations stemsfrom the interaction
transmissionthroughtheslab. Thustheobservations pro- geometry:at stationsfartherfrom the trenchalongits
vide a constrainton the materialpropertycontrast down-dipside,the S-->Pconversion occursdeeperin the
betweenthe mantleandthe subducted slab,in thiscase subductionzone. Thussteppingawayfrom the trench,
4-10% changein wave speedsin a region10-20 km the changein characterwith depthof the converter may
thick. This estimatedepends on knowingthe interaction be examined.In the NE Japansubduction zone,ampli-
geometry,but the sourceof the constraint is essentially tudesvary non-monotonically. Shallowamplitudes are
geometric. high,intermediateare lower,and deeperonesincrease,
More commonare observations of refractedwavescon- but not to valuesseenat the shallowest conversiondepths
vertedfromS-->Por P-->Sat theslabinterface.Boththe (Figure2).
geometryand the relativeamplitudes of the P and S Along-strikeor up-dip paths provide the longest
wavesconstrain the properties of theconversion interface. interactiontimeswith the slab,yieldingpotentiallylarge
Mitronovasand Isacks[1971] inferredP and S velocity slab-related signals,whichcan be frequencydependent.
contrastsof---7% at the interfacefrom P-->Sconversions Observingsecondaryarrivalsdevoid of low frequency
of deepearthquakes in Tonga(Fig lb). Matsuzawa et al. components in Tonga,Barazangiet al. [1972]attributed
[1986;1987],usedtheseto mapout a low velocitylayer them to wavesconfinedto the high-velocity subducted
belowthe surfaceof the slabin northernHonshu,Japan lithosphere.Similar anomalous high-frequency arrivals
(Tohokudistrict). The layer is about6% slowerthanthe are also observedin S. America [Snokeet al.,
 HELFFRICH 217

than ambientmantle, whereasin Japanand Alaska it is

+.. + + J + 4.5 slower. In all cases,the layeringis on a scale<10 km.
•-'
Travel through a layer of low velocity material
-'-';-•,,
K•U explains shallow earthquaketravel times along strike-
parallelpaths< 60 km deepin centralJapan[Hori et al,
ß ; 1985], with the layer being 8% slower than mantle at the
..... •+ 40
same depth. The up-dip travel times observed by
+ +

Suyehiroand Sacks [1979] in the upper 350 km of the

plate MAT
•,
,
/ slab led them to proposea two-layer slab model with an
upper layer 40-50 km thick and -1% slower in P speed
than the remainderof the slab (a finding in detail at odds
K:'-::':':"•'•i
....
o--'•'•:•
........,'
...

+ 35 with the Matsuzawa studiescited earlier, but possibly a

consequenceof extending deeper in the slab). The
slab/mantlevelocity contrastthey found to be 5+1% in P
............
,/ p•½i• ', and 7+2% in S.
/' ' .

30
130 135 .140 145
MECHANISMS
o

so . 0.14 (SliK), / -• The slab of subductedlithospherediffers in tempera-

lOO
: 0.39 (KMU).-------•/ •J ture, bulk compositionand detailed mineralogyfrom the

-
mantle, any of which may affect slab wave speeds. Slab
1so thermal gradientsare largestperpendicularto its surface,
800 ,
differing from mantle temperaturesby as much as 400øC
10 km into the slab interior [Helffrich et al., 1989]. In
850
,
this direction, a successionof mineralogies is encoun-
@oo tered. For the moment confining our attention to anhy-
@so
drous bulk compositions,these dominantly contain mix-
tures of the phasesolivine (ol), orthopyroxene(opx), cli-
nopyroxene(cpx), plagioclase(pl), spinel (sp) and garnet
i i i i i i i i I i i L.,d"•lI I I I I I I I I IIIIJJlJ
I Ill Ill Ill IllJill Ill Ill IIII j
4oo
18oo 17oo 1800 1 go0 •.000 P.1 O0 P.P.00
DISTANCE IN KH (gt). Outsidethe slab, the mantle is garnetor spinellher-
zolite (ol+opx+cpx_•_+sp+garnet;+ here indicatesa phase
that may or may not be present). If the top of the sub-
Figure 2. Sites where ScSp is observedin Japanand observed
ScSp/ScS amplitude ratios at various depths along the slab- ducted plate resemblesthe oceaniclithosphereat all, it
mantle interface. ScS is convertedto P at - 60 km depth at should have a layer of gabbro (basalt) overlying a
both KMU and SHK; at DDR the conversiondepthis - 180 kin, harzburgiteresiduumfrom the mid-oceanridge differen-
and at MAT the conversiondepth is - 300 kin. Amplitudera- tiation event. Below this lies fertile (undifferentiated)
tiosmeasured fromseismograms andcorrected for slabfocusing mantle, resembling what overlies the slab. Thus, dif-
effectsand differential attenuation[Helffrich and Stein, 1993]. ferentiationgeneratesbulk-compositionaland mineralogi-
cal differencesin the oceanic lithospherewhich are car-
ried into the mantle via subduction.
apparentlyassociated
with deepearthquakes
but not shal- With depth,gabbro(ol+pl+cpx)will convertto eclogite
low ones in both regions. In Tonga,high frequency as increasingpressuredestabilizesplagioclaseand a suc-
energyarrivesearlyalongstrike-parallel
pathsfrom earth- cession of aluminum bearing phases (spinel and then
quakesin N. Tonga recordedin New Zealand [Anselland garnet+clinopyroxene) accommodatethis element [Ring-
Gubbins, 1986]. The waves' lower frequencycom- wood, 1972; Ahrens and Schubert, 1975]. Harzburgite
ponents presumably travel more slowly because the (ol+opx_•_+cpx)
has little aluminumwhich is borneby cli-
longerwavelength'sspeedsare influencedby the slower nopyroxene.With increasingdepth,bothopx and cpx are
mantle outsideof the slab. They suggest8-10 km thick incorporatedinto garnet and disappearby about 450 km
layering in the slab [Gubbinsand Snieder, 1991; Gubbins [Bina and Wood, 1984]. Meanwhile, olivine undergoesa
et al., 1994]. In Alaska low frequencyenergy arrives successionof isochemicalphasetransformations from {x-
beforehigherfrom earthquakes 100-150km depth,sug- olivine through 13-modified-spinel
to )-spinel [Akimoto
gesting 2-10 km layer thicknesses[Abers and Sarker, and Fujisawa, 1968]. These transformationsare both
1995]. Thus, the layer speedin the Tongaslab is faster pressureand temperaturedependentand occur at
218 SLAB VELOCITY STRUCTURE

lower depthswherethe slabis cooler[Turcotteand Schu- persist to greater depths during subduction. (This
bert, 1971]. assumption underlies the gabbro layer computation
By calculatingseismicwave speedsin thesedifferent described above.)But while temperaturesat shallowsub-
mineralogies it canbe shownthatneithertemperature nor ductionlevels are indeed low, oceaniccrust samples
bulk-compositional differencealone or in combination recovered from dredgesanddrill coresare hydratedand
can generatecontrastsas large as those observed serpentinized [Gubbinset al., 1994;Cannatet al., 1995].
[Helffrichet al., 1989]. A purelythermaloriginfor the Onethusmayquestion theassumption thatdryconditions
contrastsis ruledoutby theobserved ScSpvariationwith prevail duringthe gabbro-eclogite transformation, and
depth summarizedearlier. Thus, the mineralogical indeedwhetherthisis eventhe appropriate modelreac-
changes appearto dominatevelocitycontrasts observed tion to considerwhen seekingan explanation for the
seismically. velocitylayeringin shallowslabs,sincetheinitiallysub-
Calculated
velocities
in a gabbroic
layerin theshallow ducted
matehal
contains
hydrous
minerals.
parts
of subduction
zonesyieldcontrasts
in agreement SEISMIC
VELOCITIES
INMETABASALTS
with both the low velocity layers and the amplitudesof
ScSp generatedat thesedepths[Helffrichand Stein, Peacock[1993] examinedthe phaserelationsin the
1993]. The derivedlayerthicknesses summarized earlier hydratedmetabasalt systemwhichrepresents subducted
are virtuallyall _<10km, corresponding
to oceaniccrustal oceaniccrust. He optedfor a faciesapproach to the
thicknessestimates[Fox and Stroup, 1981], strongly problemof characterizing the mineralogyin this system
implyingthatthecrust'sinitiallayeringpersists
to signifi- (Table 1) on accountof the abundanceof specific
cant depths,at least 200 km and probablydeeper. If mineralogicreactionspresentwithinit. I will adoptthese
underplatingof slab material to the overridingplate facies boundariesand mineral proportionsto compute
occurs,it mustdominantlyinvolvesediments on top of seismicvelocitiesalongplausibleslabP-T trajectories at
the oceaniccrust,or mustoperatediscontinuously during shallow levels. A disadvantageof a facies-based
subduction.This is consistent with inferences drawn approach is that faciesclassifyrepeatedly encountered
from exposurepatternsof high-pressure metamorphic mineralassemblages [Turner,1968]whichare by their
rocks[Platt,1993]. Beingpresentin lavaseruptedabove nature rare for high-pressure, deeply metamorphosed
subductionzones as well as in near-trenchsediments rocks. This leadsto an absenceof recognized faciesat
approachingthem, short-livedcosmogenicisotopes pressures higherthanabout20kb,andlimitsquantitative
requiresedimentsubduction[Morris, 1991], furthersug- discussion
of the seismicvelocitiesto depthsof about65
gestingthat the oceaniccrustis subducted
intact. km.
The elastic data and sources are listed in Table 2
THE GABBRO-ECLOGITE TRANSITION IN SLABS (available via WWW URL
AT SHALLOW DEPTHS http://sun
1.gly.bris.ac.uk/-george/subcon.tab2.html).
Bina
and Helffrich's [1992] methodologyis used to compute
The successionof mineralogicaltransformations in slab the seismicwave speedsfrom this data. A guideto the
mineralogiesnot only affect velocitiesbut also density, relativevelocitiesof the constituent
mineralsis givenin
andthusthe forcesdrivingsubduction.The shallowest of Figure 3, which includesthe hydrousphaseslawsonite
theseis the so-calledgabbroto eclogitetransformation. (Lw), glaucophane (Gp), tremolite(Tr), zoisite(Zo), the
Thereis abouta 15% densityincreaseduringthisprocess, zeolitesprenhiteand pumpellyite(Pr, Pu), hornblende
roughlymodeledas (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 (olivine)+ CaA12Si308 (Hbl) and chlorite(Chl). The P wavespeedsin hydrous
(anorthite)-• Ca(Mg,Fe)2A12Si4Oi2 (garnet)[Ahrensand mineralsspan the range found in anhydrousminerals.
Schubert,1975]. The slab buoyancychangethis entails This suggeststhat the seismic velocity increasesin
may affectslabcouplingto theoverriding plateandthus changes to faciesbearingsignificantZo, Gp andLw may
themaximumdepthextentof earthquakes caused by fric- be as largeas the onein the gabbroto eclogitetransfor-
tional slidingon faults [Tiechlaarand Ruff, 1993] by mation in anhydrouscompositions.Keepingwith the
physically drawingdownthe slabawayfromtheoverrid- faciesconcept,the rangeof calculated velocitieswithin'
ing plate,andmayalsobe a sourceof seismicity in slabs eachis shownin Figure4. The low-Phigh-Tfaciesall
[Kirby et al., 1995], but thermodynamically predicted havevelocitiesbetween6.6 and7 km/sec.Velocitiesare
transformationdepthsfor thisreactionare quiteshallow, greaterthan7.5 km/sec(maximum-8.3 km/sec)in the
about20 km [Wood,1987]. Thereare goodreasonsfor blueschistand eclogite facies except in the epidote
thisreactionto proceedslowlyat thelow temperatures in blueschistfacies,whereit is transitional,7.2-7.3km/sec.
subduction zones[Ahrensand Schubert,1975],permitting Above pressuresof 10 kb, -5% increasesin P wave
the low pressure,andlow seismicvelocity,mineralogy to speedsare typical betweenthe hydrousfacies
 HELFFRICH 219

TABLE 1. Mineral Proportions

Facies Vol. % Mineral Facies Vol. % Mineral Facies Vol. % Mineral
58.1 Hbl 58.9 Hbl 60.0 Hbl
Albite
Epidote 11.9 Zo
6.0 Chl
High-T
Amphibolite
5.2 PY20Gr80
2.1 Di
Low-T 7.9 Zo
Amphibolite 4.6 Chl
Amphibolite
17.1Ab (AM) 28.6Ab40An60
(AM) 20.8 An20Ab80
(EA) 7.0 Qtz 5.2 Qtz 6.6 Qtz
18.5 Di 25.6 Hbl 48.3 Tr5oGp5
o
High P-T 19.6 Jd Low P-T 14.8 Zo Epidote 29.1 Zo
Eclogite 17.7 Gr Eclogite 17.7 Py Blueschist 11.8 Chl
(EC) 33.5 Py (EC) 33.0 Jd5oDi50 (EB) 10.0 Ab
10.8 Qtz 8.8 Qtz 0.7 Qtz

10.8 Fo 51.8 Hbl 29.6Tr

High-T
Granulite
8.7 En
15.1 Di
Low-T
Granulite
6.2 En
2.5 Di
Greenschist
25.2
17.9
Zo
Chl
(GN) 27.8Ab (GN) 36.5An50Ab50
(GS) 27.2 Ab
37.6 An 3.1 Qtz 0.1 Qtz

18.1 Gp 15.9 Tr 65 Fo90Fa10

Lawsonite 28.1 Lw 30.6 Pr Garnet 23 En66Di29Fs5
Prenhite
Blueschist19.1 Chl Actinolite 25.9 Chl Harzburgite
4 Jd41Di6En48Fs3
(LB) 29.3 Jd30Di70 25.6 Ab 8 Py
5.4 Qtz 2.1 Qtz
Source:Peacock[1993] exceptfor Garnet Harzburgite[Helffrich et al., 1989].

sively encounteredatop subductedslabs, though up to
15% variationsmay arise at lower pressures.
The trajectoryof P-T conditionsencounteredat the sur-
face of the subducted slab and the base of the oceanic
crustis of interestbecauseit controlsthe velocitycontrast
acrossthe progressivedehydrationfronts representedby
metabasaltfacies boundaries. Temperaturesare obtained
from a thermal model developedfor throughgoinglithos-
pheric thrusts [Peacock, 1993; Molnar and England,
1990], which applies to shallow subductionlevels before
slab heatingis dominatedby conductionfrom overlying
mantle, again limiting quantitativeanalysis. Using a 5
km crustal thickness,an average of the layer thickness
boundsyielded by observation,a thermalprofile is shown
for a moderate shear stress'c=0.6 kb on the plate boun-
dary fault (Fig. 5). In order for the slab face to leave the
lawsoniteblueschist(LB) field above6 kb pressure,shear
stressesmust be > 0.5 kb, yielding a P speedincreaseof
2 to 6% between the top and the bottom of the facies
layering. The high end of this range involvesthe epidote
blueschist (EB) facies, and would be even larger if
increased fault shear stresses moved the slab face into the
greenschist(GS) and amphibolite (EA and AM) fields.
Thus contrastsin slab facies are capableof creatingvelo-
city increasesin slab layers at shallow subductionlevels,
but require moderate heating at the fault. This may
explain low velocity layering down to •- 60 km [Hori et
al, 1985; Matsuzawa et al., 1986; 1987], but no deeper
becausethe epidoteblueschistfaciespinchesout (Fig. 5).
Overall, lawsonite blueschist should be the most com-
mon facies found during shallow subduction,present
perhapseven at the slab surfaceif shearstrain heatingis
low [Peacock, 1993]. Another mineralogyto considerfor
contrastingvelocities, therefore, is the mantle peridotite
(garnet harzburgite,Table 1), overlyingthe slab surfaceat
shallow levels. Relative to ambient mantle at 700øC and
20 kb (65 km depth, a guessof the point of contactwith
the mantle wedge along the Fig. 5 slab face trajectory),
lawsonite blueschist is 7% slower, and thus would consti-
tute a low velocity layer at the top of the slab, again con-
sistent with seismic observations. Thus, a low velocity
layer would persist to the depth where blueschist
transformsto eclogite by dehydrating. Lawsonite,one of
the principal phasesin this facies, Pawley and Holloway
[1993] showedto be stable in metabasaltcompositionsto
high pressures,30 kb or 100 km depth. Also presentin
theseexperimentswere a tremolitic amphibole(barroisite)
and a zoisite, both relatively low velocity minerals (Fig-
ure 3), so that the contrastmay be larger than 7%.
There is effectively no differencebetweenwave speeds
between eclogitesand mantle peridotites[Helffrich et al.,
1989], so the same mineralogical compositionmay
220 SLAB VELOCITY STRUCTURE

Metabasalt mineral velocities

MetabasaltFacies(Peacock, 1993)
g I • • • I Py 20
Jd .'

8.5 Fo 18

8
LwCs
Gp
Di
16
14
: .:....."
.'

_ ,...,./ _
7.5 TrZo 12
7
Pr Hbl
•
n
10 _ -
PuChl 8
6.5 Ab

61 Otz 6-: ,.,..."

- /' AM -

5.5 I I I I I I I I • • I • • • • • • I I
4
;
. kb,:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011
121314151617181920
P (kb) V 2
0 _.-'•
0
! I I I I I ! ! I
• oo •oo •oo 4oo •oo soo 700 aoo 9oo
,o.o- r-1

Figure3. P wavespeedscomputed in metabasalt

mineralsalong
a slab face geotherm[Peacock, 1993], convergencerate 10 T (•c)
cmyr-• andshearstress
•: 0.66kb. Thisconvergence
rateis Figure 4. Faciesboundarydiagramafter Peacock[1993], show-
characteristicof westernPacific subductionzones (Fig. 2). ing range of velocities encounteredin each. Facies names are
Phasesare albite (Ab), chlorite (Chl), coesite(Cs), diopside LB lawsoniteblueschist,EB epidoteblueschist,EC eclogite,GN
(Di), forsterite(Fo), glaucophane
(Gp), hornblende
(Hbl),jadeite granulite,AM amphibolite,EA epidote-amphibolite, GS green-
(Jd), lawsonite(Lw), prenhite(Pr), pumpellyite(Pu), pyrope schist,PA pumpellyiteactinolite.
(Py), s-quartz (Qtz), tremolite (Tr), zoisite (Zo). Velocities
generallydecreaseand then increasebecausetemperatureand
pressureboth increasealongthe path,with competingeffectson
P speeds. unstable[Pawleyand Holloway, 1993], but how this reac-
tion relatesto (1) is speculative,
perhapsinvolving
usedto comparewave speedsbetweenthe anhydrousslab
material below the hydratedmetabasaltand the hydrated lawsonite+ glaucophane
-->jadeite + diopside
layer. Here there is an 8% velocity increase from (2)
+ chloritoid
lawsoniteblueschistto garnetharzburgite,comparableto
the difference between the hydrous metabasaltfacies. Secondly,the high-pressurestability limit for lawsonite
This makes the upper surface of the slab slower than itself is unknown. Finally, many densehydratedmag-
either ambientmantleor eclogite,constitutinga low velo- nesium silicate (DHMS) phasesappearat low tempera-
city layer until blueschistceasesto persist. The model turesabove50 kb pressure[Liu, 1986] whoseequilibrium
reaction separatingthe lawsonite blueschist- eclogite phase relations are as yet unknown. While the slab face
facies is
would be too hot for their liking, DHMS phasesmay be
4 glaucophane + 3 lawsonite= 8 jadeite+ 3 diopside stable in the lowermost hydrated metabasaltlayer and
(1) influenceslab velocity contrasts.
+ 3 garnet + 7 quartz/coesite+ 10 water Looking outsideof the slab for layered structures,one
[Evans, 1990]. There is an -6% increasein P speedas again meets hydrousmineralogies. Tatsumiet al. [1994]
eclogiteis produced(neglectingthe evolvedwater, which attributedeep (>80 km) low-velocitylayeringabovethe
would leave the reaction site). Glaucophane+lawsonite slab to phlogopiteand potassiumamphibole(K-richterite)
compriseabout half the modal mineralogyby volume so createdby reactionof peridotitewith fluids liberatedby
the consequenceof the reaction would be to increase the slab. A shallow, in-slab low velocity layer progres-
speeds in the metabasalt by 3%. Nevertheless, this sively shifting with depth to one above the slab-mantle
coesite eclogite would still be 4% slower than mantle interface is in principle possible,and may explain the
peridotite. minimum in velocity contrastwith depth inferred from
Some significant uncertaintiesconfoundan attempt to slab refractions(Fig. 2). Ultimately, K-richteritestability
extend this analysisto even higher pressures,all minera- controls the depth through which this might work, and
logical. At higher pressures,sodic amphibole becomes experimentsto establishthis limit would be of
 HELFFRICH 221

MetabasaltFacies(Peacock, 1993) shallow, low-velocity waveguidesas well as deep high

20 ,,
velocity ones, both about the thickness of the oceanic
18- I •/•• • • crust. A straightforwardinterpretationof these observa-
tions would be that the oceanic crust is typically sub-
ducted whole.
Oceanic crust returns to the mantle during subduction
14
as gabbro/basalt. At some stage,its reversionto a higher
12 pressuremineral assemblageis expected. While the pri-
mary candidatefor this phasechangehas been the gabbro
• lo to eclogite transition, it appearsimprobablethat this, or
any other anhydrousreaction approximatesreality during
subduction. Hydrous phases most likely dominate the
6 elastic and chemical evolution of the slab as it subducts.
The computationspresentedhere indicate that the seismic
4 velocity contrastsobservedat shallow levels of subduc-
tion are consistent with those computed in metabasalt
2
mineralogies. If there is significantshearheating at the
0 slab surface,the juxtapositionof amphibolitefaciesrocks
0 1 O0 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 •ooo
with lawsoniteblueschistcan yield velocity contrastsup
1' to 14%. This mechanismcan only operateto pressures of
Figure 5. Facies diagram(solid lines), slab-faceP-T trajectory
-14 kb (-45 km depth) however. With less shear heat-
(dashed)and similar trajectoryfor a point 5 km below the slab ing, contrastsof 6-8% between metabasaltmineralogies
surface (dotted)for a faultshearstress of 0.6 kb, 10 cmyr-• sandwichedbetween the mantle and the anhydrousslab
convergence rate,0.05W m-2 heatflowat baseof lithosphere, can be developed,and they would decay with depth to
and fault dip 20ø, parametersdescribingW. Pacific subduction 3%. Thus, there is no need to appeal to dry or cool con-
of--80 Ma lithosphere[Peacock,1993]. Faciesdiagramas in ditions in the shallowpart of the slab to hinderthe phase
Figure4. For x<0.5 kb, the slabface P-T pathis to the left of transformations there, which is a central element in some
the EB field, whereasfor x>0.65 kb it passesthroughEA+GS. ideas concerningslab seismicity at intermediate(70-350
5 km into the slab remainsin LB, independentof velocity, un- km) depths [Kirby et al., 1995]. Moreover, major ele-
lessx is large,>0.8 kb. Even for x=l.0 kb, a path6 km into the ment differencesin oceanic lithosphereare not required
slab still lies in LB. Velocity contrastsbetweenthe top of the
in eclogite if it does not representthe observedshallow
slab and the bottom of the metabasaltlayer involve velocities
calculatedat corresponding points along the dotted and dashed low-velocity layers seen seismically [Gubbins et al.,
lines, offset by 1.4 kb in pressure. Contrastsbetween meta- 1994].
basaltand slab are calculatedalongthe dottedline, and contrasts
between the slab and the mantle are calculatedat the upper end Acknowledgements.I thank SatoshiKaneshimaand Takashi
of the dashed line. Mantle mineralogyis garnet harzburgite Iidaka for their help in retrievingseismograms
from the archives
(Table 1). of the EarthquakeResearchInstitute, Tokyo, and Selwyn Sacks
for encouragement and patience. The manuscriptbenefitedfrom
DISCUSSION thoughtfulreviews by Tetsuzo Seno and Geoff Abers. Part of
this work was done while a postdoctoralfellow at the Carnegie
Institutionof Washington.
The seismic velocity contrastbetween the subducted
slab and the overriding mantle wedge varies non-
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 Plate Structureand the Origin of Double SeismicZones

Geoffrey A. Abers

Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

Double seismic zones are seen in several but not all subduction zones. Two of the best-
studied such zones are beneath Honshu and beneath the Alaska Peninsula; their regional
microearthquake observations are re-examined here. Two subparallel planes of seismicity
occur at depthsbetween70 and 150 km and are separatedby 20-40 kin. The upperplane seems
to follow the top of the subductedplate, while the lower plane is within subductedmantle.
Several observations seen here and elsewhere are difficult to reconcile with the popular
hypothesisthat double zones representthe upper and lower bending fibers of a flexing plate.
These include the lack of noticeable curvature change at 70-150 km depth and focal
mechanisms in the Alaska Peninsula zone that show extension in both planes. As an
alternative, I speculatethat compositionalanomalies within subductinglithosphere are some-
how regulatingthe occurrenceof lower-zoneearthquakesmuch as subductionof crust may be re-
sponsiblefor the upper zone. For example, melt-rich regionsmay form near mid-oceanridges
at the base of a thermal boundary layer; this melt may occasionally crystallize into the plate
without ascending to the surface. Although the presence of such buried mafic zones is
speculative, compositional irregularities provide a viable alternative to purely mechanical
explanationsfor double zone seismogenesis.

INTRODUCTION ducted crust at the top of the downgoing slab, as is

observedin most placeswhere constraintsare good [e.g.,
Recentdocumentationof transformationalFaultingin the Matsuzawa et al., 1986; Engdahl and G•tbbius, 1987;
olivine-spinel system[Kirby, 1987; Green and Burtt!e),, Abers, 1992]. However, observations of double seismic
1989]hasdemonstrated a t•asiblemechanismfor producing zones(DSZ's), subparallelplanesof seismicity20-40 km
earthquakesdeeperthan 350 km by shearfailure. At inter- apart, require that at least some intermediate-depth
mediatedepths(50-300 kin), only the gabbro-to-eclogite earthquakes occurwell outsidethe subductedcrust,posinga
transformationsshow significant volume changes(~16%) challenge to most theories of intermediate-depth
which could producelocally high deviatoricstresses,but seismogenesis. One possibility,suggested by Abersl!992]
the transitionis probablytoo complexfor transformational and elucidatedhere, is that the secondzone revealsa region
faulting to be viable [Bttrnley et al., 1991; Kirby et of anomalous composition within subducting mantle
1991]. Still the associateddensitychanges•nay providethe lithospherewhereearthquakes arefavored.
driving stressesfor shear failure at intermediatedepths DSZ's in Japan[Hasega•va et al., 1978] and elsewhere
[Kirby et al., this volume], either directly or throughdehy- [e.g., Kawakatsu, 1986] are foundbetween70 and 250 km
drationprocesses [e.g.Meade and Jeauloz.,1991]. depth(Figure 1). Oftenthe upperplaneis contiguous with
Both dehydrationand gabbrophasechangesonly explain the shallowerregionof interplatethrusting,and the lower
intermediate-depthseismicityif earthquakesare near sub- planeis subparalleland20-40 km deeperintotheslab[e.g.,
Hasegawaet al., 1978;Rew•ersand Coles,1982].Several
DSZ's havebeenconfirmedwhile monitoringelsewherchas
Subduction:Top to Bottom shownonly oneseismicityplane[Bevisaud lsacks,1984;
GeophysicalMonograph96 Kawakatsu, 1986]. Thus DSZ's share a number of com-
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union mon characteristics
wheretheyare found.
224 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES

here to re-examine double zones beneath Honshu [Tsuboi,

1992] and the Alaska Peninsula[Abets, 1992, 1994].
50- The Japanese JUNEC catalogfor Honshu,providedby the
EarthquakeResearchInstitute,hasbeencompiledfrom the
100 -
numerousUniversity-operatednetworksin Japanandis ana-
.

lyzed for the 66-month period o1'data availability (July

ß

150
km w .D '. '.' ' E 1985 to December 1990). These events have been relocated
a,
I I I I !
after combiningarrival times from the different networks
-100 0 km 100 200 300
-
[Tsuboi, 1992]. A subsetof the events are usedhere, those
o ,

,
locatedby eleven or more stations,along a 600 km long
arc sectioncenteredon 39øN, 141øE,betweendepthsof 70
50-
and 150 km (shallowereventsare includedon Figure 1). A
100 160øW plungingcylindricalshellis fit to seismicityin orderto de-
,.

.-': • Max. Curvature

. fine the surfaceseparating
150-• ß;.'
km- ,
NW ß
'•
I I
b= -200 -100
Fig. ! ß Cross sectionsof double seismiczones, from reoionai
network observations. (a.)
Honshu,Japan, from EarthquakeResearchInstituteof Japan's
University Network Catalog, 1985-1990 [Ts,boi, 1992l.
Events selection described
141øE; events are projected4-0.5ø along strike from section.
(b.) Alaska Peninsula seismic zone, reprocessed from East
Aleutian Seismic Network data 1982-1989 [Abets 1992].
Section centered 55øN, 161.5øW. In both regions, solid bars
showregionspannedby local seismicnetworks,and V shows
location of trench. Events near trench are not beneath network
so their depth constraintsare relatively weak.
Recent improvements in teleseismic arrival time and
waveform matchinghave led to a numberof new DSZ's be-
ing identified [e.g., Contte and Sltdreg, 1994; Kao and
Chen, 1994;McGuire and Wietts,1995]. Unfortunatelythe
teleseismically-delineatedDSZ's are nearly all defined by
lessthan 20 eventsin at leastone o1'the planesover several
hundred km along strike, some by as few as one or two
events, so it is difficult to assessthe spatial completeness
of the zones (presumably, stringent requirementson data
quality limit the number of events). Also some known
DSZ's suchas the East Aleutian zone have not yet beende-
tectedteleseismicallyso thesetechniques do not yet provide
completesampling. Teleseismictechniquesare improving,
though,and the near futurean accurateand morecomplete
catalogof DSZ's is likely.
SEISMIC NETWORK
Data. By examiningaccuratemicroearthquake datasets,
the distributionof DSZ earthquakesis evaluatedin greater
detail.New regionalcatalogsandrecentre-analyses areused
thetwo seismiczones(seefigure
Change captions). Event distributionperpendicular to the surface
SE (Figure 2a) showstwo populationscorresponding to the
I I I
Okm 100 200 two planesof the DSZ. In map view (Figure3a) the lower
zone includes a few anomalous events far trenchward (east)
of the island(e.g., Figure l a). Oceanbottomseismograph
Seismic zone beneath North observations[Suyehiro and Nishizawa, 1994] show that
forearceventssuchas theseare often mislocatedby on-land
networksand most are actually thrust-zoneeventsnear 20
in text. Section centered 40øN,
km depth, althougha handful may be relatedto bending
seaward of the trench [Seno and Gonz.alez, 1987]. These
near-trench events are not discussed further.
The Shumaginor EastAleutiannetworkwasoperatedbe-
tween 1973 and 1992, recordingdigitally after 1982, and
consistedof 15-20 stationsat 25-50 km spacingin the East
Aleutian region [Abers, 1992;Reynersand Coles, 1982].
The digitally-recorded
eventshavebeenre-evaluated andre-
located in a series of inversions for three-dimensional veloc-
ity structureandhypocenters [Abers,1992; 1994]. A series
of numericalexperiments,togetherwith observations of
event clustering and l'ormal error analysis, suggests
hypocentraluncertainties are lessthan5 km for mostEast
Aleutianeventsdiscussed here. Similar procedures
as used
for the Honshuhypocenterswere usedto distinguishupper
zonefrom lower zoneevents(Figures2b, 3c and3d).
Resttits.Both regionsshowan upperplaneof intermedi-
ate-depthseismicitythatabutsthe zoneor interplatethrust
earthquakes, at depthsnear40-50 km (Figures1). The two
planesare separatedby 25 km in Alaska and 40 km in
Japan(Figure 2). The updipend of the lower zoneis near
70 km deepin Alaskaand90 km deepin Japan(Figure 1).
In Alaska, where scatter is smallest, earthquakesin both
zonesare in planesno thickerthan 10 km (Figure2b) and
OBSERVATIONS probably5 km thick locally[Abers,1992].In bothregions
the DSZ's are presentat depthswhereslabsare planarand
curvaturechangeslittle; slabcurvaturechangesare largest
near the trench and where the seismic zone is 35-50 km
deep. The two zonesappearto mergebelow 150-200
 ABERS 225

North Honshu pletelyabsentbeneaththe eastern100 km of the seismic

Length along strike: networkin the Alaska Peninsula(Figure2b) even though
[• 150 km
• I00 km monitoringis good [Hltdnuta•d Taber, 1987]. Beneath
I 50km Honshu the lower zone shows gaps 50-100 km across
E
(Figure3a). The time spanof availabledatais only 6 years
for Japanbut the gapsare observable for each2-yeartime
spanwithinthe availabledata(not shown),somay be sta-
10 tionary. The upperplane in Honshushowsno suchfea-
tures (Figure 3b). Such heterogcneity,along with the
globalobservation that DSZ's are not alwayspresent,sug-
geststhatthe conditionsnecessary for existenceof DSZ's
0 canvary over lengthscalesof 100 km or less.
-20 0 2O 4O
a. -40
Slab-normal distance, km DISCUSSION

Alaska Peninsula
Lengthalong strike' Bendinghypotheses.Severalprocesshavebeenproposed
80 E3 150 km to explaintwo zones,oftenassociating
themwith the top
:;,• 100 km
/ 50 km
and bottom of the subductedmechanicalplate that is un-
E
60 bending,sagging,or contracting[Engdahl and Scholz,
1977; Sleep, 1979; Hasegawa et al., 1978; House and
c 40
Jacob, 1982; Kawakatsu, 1986]. All theseprocessesinduce
DSZ's by a force couple,that createshigh stressesof op-
posingsignsat the topsand bottomsof flexing platesand
="=2O low stresses in the aseismic core. This stress state accounts
for the observation (in most west-Pacific subductionzones)
0 of downdipP axesin the upperplaneand downdipT axes
-20 -10 0 10 in the lower plane[e.g. Kawakatsu,1986;Kao and Chen,
1994].
Slab-normal distance, km
However the flexure modelsdo not explain the geometry
of fault plane solutionseverywhere.Focal mechanisms
Fig. 2. Abundance histograms of intermediate-depthevents
with distance normal to slab, for the two zones studied.
fi'om the East Aleutians [Abers, 1992] showboth planesin
Increased scatter for Honshu relative to Alaska is expected be- downdip extension, suggestingno stressreversal (also
cause Honshu hypocenters are from catalog while Alaska thosefi'om North Chile show downdip T axesin the upper
hypocentersare relocated. (a.) North Honshu;slab is defined plane and downdip P axesin the lower plane [Con,reand
as in Figure 3. (b.) East Aleutians. Abundancesare calculated SurSrez,1994]). Also, the largestflexural bendingstresses
in I km increments. Events are all between 70 and 150 km
(and hence the most seismicity) are expected where
depth for the two arcs. Positive slab normal distanceis up.
Three different along-strike sample widths are shown, all curvaturechangesmostrapidly,while mostDSZ's are asso-
beneath the centers of monitoring networks, to illustrate ciated with little if any curvature change (Figure 1).
heterogeneity. Unbendingstressesmay be generatedup dip from DSZ's
but appearto be insufficientto triggerseismicitythere;if
unbendingstresses generateDSZ earthquakes thenthe trig-
depthbeneathbotharcswherethe seismiczonesappearto geringmechanism mustbe morecomplicated thansimple
thicken. It is unclear if this is a real feature or an artifact of elastic loading. Although unbendingstressesmay be sig-
decreasing hypocenterqualityat greaterdepth.All of these nificant, other factorsseemnecessaryto trigger DSZ seis-
attributesare observedin otherregions,indicatingthat the micity.(A differentsituationprevailsnearthetrench,where
rangeof seismiczonespacing,depthextentof DSZ behav- curvaturechangesare well correlatedwith outer-riseseis-
ior, anda perhapsthe lack of curvatureare commonDSZ micity.) Finally, local mechanisms of intermediate-depth
characteristics. earthquakes showextremevariabilityover distancesof a
In plan view (Figure2) seismicityis relativelyuniform few kilometers,difficult to explain if seismicityis driven
alongthe upperzonewhile the seismicityin thelowerzone by a uniformstressfield [e.g.,Abetx,1992]. Henceevenif
showsheterogeneity. In Alaska the lower zone is com- flexing forcesare importantcontributorsto the stress
226 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES

in slabsthey seeminsufficientin themselvesto accountfor

DSZ's.
Failure criteria. Flexure modelsonly describestressorien-
0 •.•,.., •..o a:.,: :.o . ... •..• tation and do not explain how these intern•ediate-dcpth
earthquakes canexist.High pressures at intermediate
depths
make simple t¾ictionalfailure unlikely becausethe needed
difik•rential
stresses are manytimesthe ductilerockstrength

ß
.....:.
ß..,........
:.•;
'••
ß . . ß .. -..;•,. [Jeffreys,1929]. An increasingbody of evidencesuggests
-2• . .. .' •. •.:}' that single seismiczones and the upper planesot' double
zonescorrespondto the top of the subductingplate,!'ather
-3•
•Lower
Plane,1186events . .., ,..
than its cold core [e.g., E/lgdahl and Gubbins, 1987;Abets,
-200 0 200 1992]. As a result the subduction of oceanic crust is sus-
a= km,N10øE pectedof playing an importantrole in seismogenesis. The
large volume changesassociatedwith basalt --> eclogite
transformations may produce locally high deviatoric
stresses[Pennington, 1983; Kirby et al., this volume],and
dehydrationreactionsmay produceembrittlementandlarge
transientsin pore fluid pressures[e.g., Rayleigh, 1967;
Kirby et al., this volume]. Such phase changescannot
accountfor a secondseismiczonethat lies 20-40 km deeper
into the subductedmantle lithosphere,as oceaniccrust is
'2ø0
•Upp.
e_r
Plane, only 7 km thick.
Speculationson COnlpositiotlctlstratification.By analr)gy
-o_o
b. -200 0 200 with processesenvisionedto occur upon subductionof
-100
krn, N10øE crust,I explore the possibilitythat a compositionalaspect
of the subductingslab is inducingthe lower zoneof DSZ
-50
seismicity.Elsewherein this volulnethe ciTeors of volatile
enrichmentby plumesare c()nsidercd. Here, thepossibility
is exploredthat DSZ's are insteadproducts()f n()rmalvari-
• o ability in mid-ocean !'idee environments (Fioure 4)
z
Complexitiesof !nelt ascentnear ridgesmay producethe
• 50 necessarylithospherichcter()geneity withoutappealingto

lOO L '" latermodificationby plumes.For example,mariemagihas

could accumulateand crystallize below the surfacewithin

150
Lower
149Plane/N /
events oceaniclithosphere,perhapsin packets,whichwouldthen
behavelike crustuponsubduction. Were suchmaterialpre-
-lOO o lOO sent,it wouldundergolargedensitychangesoverthedepths
C. krn, N60øE where double zones arc found, and similar to subducted
-100• ,I o' I ' I --' crust may be a likely site for producingearthquakes.This

-50

Fig. 3. Map view of upper and lower planesof intermediate-

depth seismicity (70-150 kin depth). Upper plane seismicity

k0m
[:..'•'•'::
-f-.
. appears uniform in distribution compared to patchy lower-
plane distribution. (a.) Lower seismic zone of North Honshu,
July 1985 and December 1990. Surface separatingthe two
/ ß '- seismiczones is a sectionof a cantedcylinder, with a 1500 km
radiusof curvatureand a local dip of 25ø. (b.) Upper planeof
•oo Upper
Plane North Honshu. (c.) Lower plane of Alaska Peninsula[At;ers,
•5o events 1992]. (d.) Upper plane of Alaska Peninsula.Thin line shrews
coastline, thick line shows trench (in 3c and 3d trench is just

dß -lOO o
km, N•0øE lOO off plot, between 150 and 200 km S30OE).Note differencein
map scale between two
 ABERS 227

Subduction of oceanic crust and Intermittentridge processes that trap melt

other heterogenietiesin plate below near-ridge lithosphere

FocusingI D•-••-• ? Off-axis.

_
channels?
• Ji!i:
convection
?

Fig. 4. Some possibleways in which compositionalhcterogeneitygeneratednear ridges cotlid generatedouble

seismic zones. At spreadinocenters, some melt pending may occur as melt is focused toward the ridee crest.
Excessmelt near ridgesmight tend to I'orrnpreferentiallyat a singledepth(D), an isothermdefiningthe baseof a
less permeablelithosphere. Hcterogeneitiescreatedwhere excessmelt cools may then affect the lower planesin
doubleseismiczoneswhen the plate later subduers.The depthof the onsetof double-zoneactivity may represent
phase transformations,such as those involved in the basalt-to-eclogitetransition (B/E).

particular scenario is not necessarily right, but it
demonstrates how materialheterogcneity generatedat ridges
may be significant.
Studiesof oceaniccrustchemistrysuggestthat the melts
that form it are funneledat depthfrom a large region [e.g.,
Plank and La•gntuir, 1992l, and much lateral melt
transport is needed to supply ridge crests. A variety
mechanismshave beenproposedto transportmelt laterally
throughconvectionof partly molten rock [e.g. Buck a•d
Su, 1989; Scott and Ste•'e•so,, 1989]. Among the most
effective at focusing are the t'ormationot' high-porosity
channels where ascendingmelt collects just below an
impermeablelithosphere[Si•ttrksa•d Par, ten,tier, 19911.
Becausemelt pondsat a freezingboundary,a large fraction
can crystallize into the mantle lithosphere rather than
ascendto the ridge crest.Some melt may remaintrappedat
the base of the lithosphereoff the ridge axis and either
crystallizeat depth or act as a sourcefor off-axis seamt•unt
volcanism. Alternatively, off-axis convection ot' partly
molten mantle may lead to much accumulation o1' melt
aboveupwellinglimbs at the baseof the lithospherewhich
cannotescapeto the ridge [Tackler and Ste•'enson,1993].
Becausethe melt concentrations producedby eitherpr()ccss
are highly sensitiveto permeabilityand theology,and the
spatial scales of the processesare on the order of plate
thickness,either processcould have spatialhetcl*ogcncity
comparableto that of lower planesof DSZ's (Figures 3a,
3c).
Both of the melt concentration mechanisms discussed
abovelead to the pooling of melt in a high-porosityregion,
just below a freezing boundary that roughly follows an
isotherm.Such a boundarywould be a few tensof km be-
low the sea floor and relatively fiat except very near the
ridge, closerto the sea floor at fasterplate spreadingrates.
Isolated remnants of frozen melt could be later available to
later influencethe plate uponsubduction.Hencethe pt•tcn-
tial region of frozen melt is at depths similar to those
wherelower planeso1'DSZ's are found.
How earthquakeswould be thenproduceduponlatersub-
ductionis not clear, but lenticularpodsor l'illedcracksof
basaltare likely to producehigh stressesat their edgesas
they transform to eclogite [e.,, McGarr 1977'
Pennington, 1983]. The -70 km depth where DSZ's are
first observedis somewhatgreaterthandepthswherecclog-
ire formationis expected.The phasechan•esare slu•,,,ish
[Ahrensand Schubert, 1975], so suchearthquakescould be
distributedin depth.The melts may be sutTicicntlyrich in
volatiles that dehydrationreactionsmay be importantas is
suggestedfor earthquakesin subductedcrust[Kirby et al.,
this volume]. Volatile-rich early melts arc amongthe first
likely to reachthe fi'eezingfront. In any case.off-axis
collectionnearmid-oceanridgesmay play an importantrole
in influencingthe generationof doubleseismiczones.
Unfortunately,little observationalevidenceexiststo con-
firm or refute the existence of anomalous re,,ions 20-50 km
deepin oceanicmantle.As more DSZ's becomebetterdoc-
umentedit may be possibleto compareDSZ spacin,•,with
spreadingrates,whichshouldreflectridgethermalstructurc,
independent of othervariables Intri,,uin•,ly seismic(•bscr-
vationsareoccasionallymadeof rellcctorst•r refractors30-
60 km beneath sea floor [e.o Shit•tantura et ai. 1983]'
thesemay reflectsitesof potentiall'utureDSZ
228 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES
Acknowledgments. These ideas grew out of discussionsof
ridge structurewith M. Spiegelman,D. Sparks,and T. Plank. 1
thank S. Tsuboi for help with the ERI catalog,and the Lamont
Alaska group for collecting the Shumagin data. The
manuscriptwas substantiallyimproved by commentsfrom S.
Kirby, E. Kissling and an anonymousreviewer.
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seismic zone and upper-mantle structure in the northeastern
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House, L.S., and K.H. Jacob, Thermal stressesin subducting
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Kawakatsu, H., Double seismic zones: Kinematics,
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Sparks, D.W., and E.M. Parmentier, Melt extraction fronl the
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Suyehiro, K, and A. Nishizawa, Crustal structureand seismicity
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 PhaseEquilibriaConstraintson Modelsof SubductionZone Magmatism

JamesD. Myers and A. Dana Johnston

Department
ofGeology
andGeophysics,
University
ofWyoming,
Laramie,
WY

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,Universityof Oregon,Eugene,OR

Petrologicmodelsof subduction zonemagmatismcanbe groupedinto threebroadclasses:(1)

predominantly slab-derived,(2) mainlymantle-derived, and(3) multi-source.Slab-derived mod-
els assumehigh-aluminabasalt(HAB) approximates primarymagmaandis derivedby partialfu-
sionof the subductingslab. Suchmeltsmust,therefore,be saturatedwith somecombinationof
eclogitephases,e.g. cpx, garnet,qtz, at the pressures,
temperatures
andwater contentsof magma
generation.In contrast,mantle-dominated modelssuggestpartialmeltingof the mantlewedge
producesprimaryhigh-magnesia basalts(HMB) whichfractionateto yield derivativeHAB mag-
mas. In this context,HMB meltsshouldbe saturatedwith a combinationof peridotitephases,i.e.
ol, cpx andopx, andhaveliquid-lines-of-descent thatproducehigh-aluminabasalts.HAB gener-
atedin this mannermustbe saturatedwith a mafic phaseassemblage at the intensiveconditions
of fractionation. Multi-sourcemodelscombineslab and mantle componentsin varying propor-
tions to generatethe four main lava types(HMB, HAB, high-magnesia andesites(HMA) and
evolvedlavas)characteristic of subduction zones. The mechanismof masstransferfrom slabto
wedgeaswell asthe natureandfate of primarymagmasvary considerably amongthesemodels.
Becauseof their complexity,thesemodelsimply a wide rangeof phaseequilibria. Althoughthe
experiments conducted on calc-alkalinelavasarelimited,theyplacethe followinglimitationson
arc petrologicmodels:(1) HAB cannotbe derivedfrom HMB by crystalfractionationat the in-
tensiveconditionsthusfar investigated,(2) HAB couldbe producedby anhydrouspartialfusion
of eclogiteat high pressure,(3) HMB liquidscanbe producedby peridotitepartialfusion50-60
km above the slab-mantleinterface,(4) HMA cannot be primary magmasderived by partial
meltingof the subducted slab,but couldhaveformedby slabmelt-peridotiteinteraction,and (5)
many evolvedcalc-alkalinelavascouldhavebeenformedby crystalfractionationat a rangeof
crustalpressures.

INTRODUCTION to uselavasas probesof magmasourcesandthe physical

processesof magmaticevolution,i.e. the inverseapproach.
In the broadestsense,petrologicresearchon subduc- The majority of inversearc petrologicstudieshave been
tion zone magmatismis designedto answertwo funda- geochemicalinvestigations usingvariouscombinations of
mental questions:(1) What is the origin of primary arc major,traceandrare earthelementandisotopicdata. Such
magmas?,and 2) How is the variety of magmaseruptedin studieshavebeenparticularlysuccessful in identifyingthe
arcsproduced?One meansof addressing thesequestionsis contributions
of minor sourcecomponents [e.g. Tera et al.,
1986].
Experimentalstudiesof phaseequilibriarepresentan
Subduction:Top to Bottom alternativetest of arc magmaticmodels. Inverse phase
GeophysicalMonograph96 equilibriainvestigationsof near-primarysamplesprovide
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion first order constraintson the phasescontrolling
229
230 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

Table1: Averages
ofNaturalHigh-magnesia
Basalts
andCorresponding
Experimental
StartingCompositions
Subduction
Zone Experimental
Starting
Compositions
Aleutians Kermadec Tonga Mariana Scotia 7935g RZ6 ID16 SD438 TM0 MK15 AKT12b AKT12a
SiO2 48.50(2.07) 48.83(1.06) 45.88(4.36) 47.70 49.09 49.32 49.39 49.76 50.57 51.20 50.63 51.33
TiO2 0.75(0.21) 0.69(0.08) 0.33(0.15) 0.65 0.65 0.60 0.85 1.02 0.51 0.75 0.90 0.96
A1203 14.83(1.69) 15.21(0.91) 18.75(4.45) 18.60 15.09 15.84 15.70 15.48 14.48 15.69 15.05 16.13
FeOt 9.54(1.04) 9.75(0.80) 8.10(0.87) 8.53 8.97 8.81 9.76 8.87 8.36 9.21 8.51 8.43
MnO 0.17(0.01) 0.24(0.08) 0.13(0.05) 0.15 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.14
MgO 11.67(2.66) 10.11(1.18) 11.01(0.25) 9.92 13.34 11.35 12.05 11.68 12.64 9.64 13.23 10.62
CaO 11.18(1.38) 12.17(0.72) 13.13(0.16) 12.10 10.60 10.67 9.43 8.91 10.57 10.12 8.45 9.06
Na20 2.04(0.50) 1.68(0.04) 1.20(0.15) 2.25 1.77 2.10 2.33 2.60 1.95 2.77 2.44 2.61
K20 0.65(0.24) 0.58(0.36) 0.06(0.04) 0.07 0.20 0.51 0.34 1.28 0.65 0.92 0.49 0.53
P205 0.15(0.05) 0.10(0.06) 0.01(0.01) 0.05 0.09 0.10 - 0.22 0.10 0.21 0.17 0.19
Total 100.02 100.00 99.21 100.00 99.98 100.00 100.67 100.00 100.00

n 23 0 0 3 2
# basalts 366 20 6 68 67

retbrence 1 1 1 1 1 2,3,4,5 6 7 8 9 6 10 6 6
1 - references
canbe foundby viewingWWW pagehttp://www.uwyo.wdu/a&s/faculty/myers.htm; 2 - Groveet al. [1982];3 - Bartelset al.
[1991];4 - SissonandGrove[1993a];5 - SissonandGrove[1993b];6 - Tatsumiet al. [1994];7 - DraperandJohnston [1992];8 - Tatusmiet
al., [1983]; 9- Tatsumi[1982]; 10 - Gustand Perfit [1987]

magma compositionand the depthsof source-meltequili-
bration as well as the intensiveparametersof magma gen-
eration. At the same time, forward experimentsusing
likely protolithsdelineatethe compositionalrange of po-
tential primary liquidsas well as the natureof the solidre-
sidualsin equilibriumwith theseliquids. If samplesrepre-
sentingevolvedmagmasare used,inverseexperimentalin-
vestigationscan be utilized to: (1) determinethe phases
controllingderivativeliquid composition,(2) test proposed
fractionationschemes,and (3) identify the magmaticproc-
essesimportant in intermediateto shallow depth magma
chambers.Conversely,forwardexperimentscanbe usedto
determineliquid-lines-of-descent for differentparentalliq-
uids and combinationsof intensiveparameters. Because
every petrologicmodel dictatesa particularset of crystal-
liquid relations,phase equilibria studiesprovide a direct
meansof evaluatingarc magmaticmodels.
HMB, HAB and HMA
Typically, subductionzone magmaticsuitesare char-
acterizedby a compositionalrangeextendingfrom basaltto
rhyolite. Within this compositionalspectrum,petrologic
discussionsgenerally focus on four important lava types:
(1) high-magnesiabasalts, (2) high-alumina basalts,(3)
high-magnesiaandesites,and (4) evolvedlavas suchas ba-
saltic andesites,dacitesand rhyolites. High-magnesiaba-
salts(HMB) are typified by high MgO (> 9 wt %), Ni and
Cr and generallylow A1203(Table 1). Theserocks often
containonly ol phenocrysts[Nye and Reid, 1986]. In con-
trast,high-aluminabasalts(HAB) are highly porphyritic(<
25-40 % crystals)with phenocrystsof plag, ol, cpx, +sp.
Chemically,these lavas are marked by high A1203(18-22
wt %) and low MgO (< 6 %) and compatibleelementabun-
dances(Table 2). High-magnesiaandesites(HMA) are
more siliceous (55-60 % SiO2) but with unusuallyhigh
concentrationsof MgO (5-8 wt %) and compatibleele-
ments. Petrographically,theselavas are generallycharac-
terizedby a disequilibriumphenocrystassemblage oftenin-
cluding xenocrystsand xenoliths. Although quantitative
estimatesare difficult to make, HAB are volumetrically
muchmore abundantthan eitherHMB or HMA (Table 3).
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES AND THEIR
LIMITATIONS
As with any geologicproblem,questionsof subduction
zone magmatismcan be addressedusing either an inverse
or forward approach. Using an inverseapproach,one starts
with a sampleand utilizes its characteristics
to identifythe
processesby which it was formed. In contrast,a forward
investigationbeginswith a sampleand determineswhat can
be generatedfrom that sampleby differentpetrologicproc-
esses.Dependingupon the startingmaterial and studyob-
jectives,the samephaseequilibriaexperimentmay repre-
sentan inversestudy in one situationbut a forward investi-
gationin another.
A forward phase equilibria experimentbeginswith a
presumedsourcematerialand determinesthe natureof liq-
uids producedfrom it under different intensiveconditions.
The startingmaterial representsthe beginningpoint of the
igneousprocesssimulatedby the experimentaldesign. De-
pending upon the study objectives, the source, i.e. the
startingmaterial,may be a presumedprotolithor
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 231

Table 2: Comparisonof Natural HAB and ExperimentalStartingMaterials

Subduction Zone ExperimentalStmlingCompositions
Aleutians Kermadec Tonga Mariana Scotia AT-112 82-62 AT-1 SSS.1.4 82-66
SiO2 50.13(1.43) 49.87(1.26) 51.90(0.00) 50.15(1.59) 50.30(0.76) 49.00 49.30 49.89 50.26 51.20
TiO2 0.97(0.26) 0.74(0.23) 0.69(0.08) 0.81(0.10) 0.58(0.09) 1.02 0.95 1.02 0.54 1.01
A1203 19.34(0.96) 19.23(1.07)18.30(0.00)19.34(0.91)19.46(1.08) 19.00 17.70 19.43 18.46 17.30
FeOt 9.03(1.08) 9.70(1.66) 9.55(0.99) 9.34(0.93) 8.60(0.59) 9.47 9.02 9.45 7.61 8.66
mnO 0.17(0.02) 0.19(0.06) 0.18(0.03) 0.16(0.05) 0.17(0.02) 0.21 0.17 0.28 0.21 0.16
mgO 5.00(1.16) 5.17(0.79) 6.49(1.34) 4.51(1.00) 5.96(1.12) 6.18 8.61 4.79 7.32 7.47
CaO 10.51(0.93) 11.64(1.94) 12.10(0.42) 11.11(1.08) 12.04(0.62) 11.4 11.30 9.17 11.81 10.2
Na20 2.88(0.43) 1.83(0.38) 1.98(0.02) 2.47(0.41) 1.78(0.28) 2.56 2.58 3.39 1.80 3.11
K20 0.71(0.26) 0.32(0.10) 0.53(0.03) 0.72(0.43) 0.13(0.06) 0.65 0.30 0.76 0.25 0.70
P205 0.18(0.07) 0.09(0.10) 0.62(0.69) 0.15(0.10) 0.05(0.07) 0.11 0.11 - - 0.16
Total 99.60 100.00 98.18 98.62 99.97

n 228 10 2 28 34
# basalts 366 20 6 68 67

reference 1 1 1 1 1 2 3,4 5 6 3,4

1 - referencescanbe foundby viewingWWW pagehttp://www.uwyo.wdu/a&s/faculty/myers.htm; 2 - Bakerand Eggler
[1987]; 3 - Sissonand Grove [1993a];4 - Sissonand Grove [1993b]; 5 - Bakerand Egglet [1983]; 6 - dohnston[1986]

liquid. For the protolith, a solid sourceis postulatedto
have partially melted to producea primarymagma. These
experimentsgenerally focus on the p-T region near the
solidusand consistof melting experimentsat differentin-
tensiveparametersand degreesof melting. Compositional
similarityof experimentalmeltsand naturalsamplesrepre-
sentingprimary magmasprovidesevidencethat the condi-
tions of primary magma generationmay have been identi-
fied. In the othertype of forwardphaseequilibriaexperi-
ment,the startingmaterialis a derivativelava assumedpa-
rental to evolved lavasthroughdifferentiation. Thesefor-
ward experimentsconsist of crystallizationexperiments
concentrated on the near-liquidusregion(Figure 1). Com-
positionalsimilaritybetweenexperimentalliquidsandnatu-
ral lavasis permissive,but not conclusive,evidencethatthe
latter could have been formed by the processsimulatedin
the experiments. As these examplesshow, the factor de-
terminingwhetheran experimentemploysa forwardor in-
verseapproachis not its physicalnature,e.g. crystallization
vs. melting,but the objectiveof the experiment.
For an inverse experiment,the choice of a starting
materialis not protolithversusderivativeliquid but primary
versusderivativemagma. In this instance,the startingma-
terial representsthe end productof an igneousprocess,i.e.,
a primary magma produced by partial melting or an
evolved liquid generatedby differentiation. Unlike with
the forwardexperiments,the experimentalsetupis the same
for both startingmaterials. In both cases,experiments near
the liquidusdefinecrystallizationsequences over a rangeof
intensiveparameters(Figure 2). A proposedpetrologic
model is deemedfeasibleif the experimentallydetermined
phaseequilibriaagreewith thosepredictedby the model.
Suchagreementfurtherconstrains the intensiveconditions
underwhichthe processmay haveoccurred.
In most instances,the interpretationof inverseexperi-
ments is straightforward.For example,the liquidusap-
pearanceof a phaseindicatesthe sampleis saturated in the
observedphase. Conversely,the absenceof a phaseindi-
cateseitherthe samplewasnot saturatedor it was saturated
but the phasewas dissolving,not crystallizing,i.e. it was
reactingwith the liquid(Figure3). Inverseexperiments on
derivativeliquidslackingreactionrelationswill alwayscor-
rectly predict potentialevolutionarytrends. In contrast,
failure to recognizea reactionrelationbetweenliquid and
solid can result in seriousmisinterpretationof the petro-
logic importanceof experimentalphaseequilibria(Figure
3). When interpretinginverseexperimentalresults,the
possibilityof reactionrelationsmust,therefore,alwaysbe
considered.Experimentalteststo identify a reactionrela-
tionshipcan be performedby conductinga seriesof min-
eral-additionexperiments [Greenet al., 1979;BasalticVol-
canism1981,sec.3.1.4]. In suchexperiments, the potential
reactingphaseis addedto the startingmaterial. Because
experiments are generallyconducted isothermally, i.e. they
representa single point along a phaseboundarycurve
(Figure3), the addedphasewill persistthroughthe experi-
mentif the liquid is saturated,
but dissolveif it is not. For
arcmagmas,ol is themostlikelyphaseto exhibita reaction
relation.
A morerigoroustestof petrologic modelscanbemade
using inverseand forward experimentssimultaneously.
This procedureutilizes p-T diagramsfor the presumed
sourceas well as derivativelavas (Figure 4). Assuming
equilibriumbetween solids and liquid during
232 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

Table 3: High-magnesia
Andesites- NaturalExamplesandExperimentalStartingCompositions
SubductionZone ExperimentalStartingCompositions
Aleutians Kermadec Tonga Mariana Scotia KMA SD-261 KMA2 TGI
SiO2 56.50(1.04) 55.83(0.64) 57.04 57.13 57.32 59.44 59.59
TiO2 0.75(0.13) 0.74(0.04) 0.69 0.73 0.69 0.44 0.44
A1203 16.45(1.05) 17.50(0.75) 15.36 15.83 15.46 13.51 13.55
FeO t 6.98(0.67) 7.48(0.53) 6.03 6.33 5.96 6.27 6.32
MnO 0.14(0.02) 0.17(0.01) 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12
MgO 5.85(1.22) 4.78(0.41) 9.03 7.39 8.90 9.62 9.65
CaO 8.41(0.69) 8.98(0.69) 7.04 7.19 7.08 6.23 6.24
Na20 3.14(0.53) 2.88(0.36) 3.11 2.89 3.07 2.65 2.66
K20 1.30(0.41) 0.86(0.23) 1.76 2.27 1.84 1.30 1.30
P205 0.18(0.07) 0.15(0.06) - 0.14 - 0.13 0.13
Total 100.18 100.03 100.44 99.71 100.00

n 29 0 0 3 0
# andesites 350 3 12 50 51

reference 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 4 3
1 - referencescanbe foundby viewingWWW pagehttp://www.uwyo.wdu/a&s/faculty/myers.htm;
2 - Kushiroand
Sato [1978]; 3 - Tatsurni[1982]; 4- Tatsurni[1981]

phaseequilibriadefinedby inverseexperimentsmustmatch predominantlyslab-dominated,(2) mainly mantle-derived,

thoseof forward experiments. This kind of combinedex- and (3) multi-sourcemodels. Becausethey involve differ-
perimental setup is particularly useful because it ap- ent petrologicmechanisms,eachtype of modeldictatesdif-
proachesmelt extractionfrom both sidesof the reactionand ferentphaserelations. Thesedifferencesform the basisfor
betterconstrainsthe intensiveconditionsat which a process phaseequilibriatestsof arc petrologicmodels.
could have occurred.
Experimentalstudiesprovideonly permissiveevidence Slab-dominatedMagmatic Models
for the operationof a particularprocess. The failure of an
experimentalstudyto confirm a proposedpetrologicproc- Thesemodelsare conceptuallysimpleandbasedon the
esscan be interpretedin at leastthreeways. First, the pet- direct, observedlink betweensubductionand magmatism,
rologicprocessand associated endmembersmay havebeen i.e. when the former is absent, the latter does not occur.
correctlydeducedbut not the intensiveparameters.For ex- They assumehigh-aluminabasalts,the dominantarc lava,
ample, anhydrouscrystallizationexperimentson a basalt representprimary magmas(Figure 5) and their distinctive
are unlikely to reproduceliquid-lines-of-descentgenerated geochemicalcharacter,e.g. high-aluminaandlow MgO, are
from that parentunderhydrousconditions.Second,the end mostreadily explainedby partial fusion of the down-going
membersand intensiveconditionsmay be correctbut the slab, i.e. subductedsedimentand oceaniccrust [Myers et
experimentssimulatedthe incorrectpetrologicprocess.An al., 1986]. Earlier modelsimplicitly assumedpartial fusion
example would be using an experimentto test a crystal and melt extraction occurred at the slab-mantle interface.
fractionationmechanismwhen the lava was formed by Later modelssuggestedsmallto moderatedegreesof partial
magmamixing. Finally, identificationof the end members, meltingproducesa solid-liquiddiapir that beginsto ascend
i.e. the startingmaterials,may have been wrong. For ex- buoyantly[Brophyand Marsh, 1986]. As the diapir rises,
ample, crystallizationexperimentsare unlikely to producemelting increasesand a primary HAB magma is extracted
the observedfractionationtrend if the mafic parent was when the diapir has ascendedseveraltens of kilometers.
misidentified. Althoughdiscussedasthreeseparateandun- The preponderance of plag phenocrysts,
absenceof hydrous
related factors, the "failure" of an experimentalstudy to
phasesand paucity of explosive arc basaltic volcanism
confirm a model could result from any combinationof were interpretedas evidencethat primary HAB containlit-
these variables. tle water thereby making primary magma generationa
dominantlyanhydrousprocess.In thesemodels,the origins
ARC MAGMATIC MODELS AND PREDICTED PHASE of the volumetricallyminor HMB an.dHMA were not spe-
RELATIONS cifically addressed. Upon entering crustalmagma cham-
bers, parentalHAB magmasdifferentiateto form evolved
Models proposedto explain the origin of subduction lavas,e.g. basalticandesites,andesites,dacites,etc. (Figure
zone magmascan be groupedinto three broad classes:(1) 5). Recognizedcrustalprocesses includecrystal
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 233

I •t //

asource
ß b d•
2%H•0 / • /
/ Ca,.;'
/,•/
.

,.. • MgC)

• I liquid
• ,/['
•/.,' +L

• Temperature • • lava com :)osition • Temperature Tem•ra•re

Fig. l a. Diagrammaticrepresentation of a forwardexperimental Fig. 2a. Illustrationof the inverseexperimentalprocedureto test

studydesignedto determineif an assumedparentcouldhax•epro- the fractionationorigin of a derivativelava. If geochemicalmod-
duceda givenseriesof derivativeliquids,i.e. lavas. The p-T dia- eling, which suggeststhe lava was formed by fractionationof
gramfor the presumedparentis determinedby a seriesof crystal- phasesA, B and C, is correct,this phaseassemblage must appear
lization experimentsnearthe liquidus. on the lava's liquidus. The anhydrousphasediagram reveals a
liquidusmarkedby A at low pressuresand C at higher pressures
but no point of multiple saturation.Consequently,this lava could
Fig. lb. Experimentalliquidsat positionsI-IV on the sourcep-T not have been formed by fractionationof A + B + C underanhy-
diagramhave silica contentssimilar to someof the natural lavas, drous conditions.
i.e. they fall on or within analyticalerror of the 1:1 line on the ex-
perimentalliquid versuslava SiO2plot. Thesesimilaritiessuggest
the naturalsuite might be the productof crystalfractionationof Fig. 2b. The addition of a small amount of water depressesthe
the presumedparentat the experimentalconditions.This possi- stability of phaseA more than B or C and producesa point of
bility is evaluatedfurtherby consideringothermajor elementox- multiple saturationat point I (b). In systemswith 2 % H20, the
ides(c-e). For all oxides,the closecompositional agreementfor pressureand temperatureof this point representthe intensivepa-
liquidsI andH is consistentwith their proposedfractionationori- rametersat which the lava could have been formed by the pro-
gin. The markedlydifferentalumina,MgO andK20 betweenex- posedfractionationscheme.
perimentalliquid IV and its possiblenatural analogsuggestthe
latterwasnotproducedby crystalfractionationat the intensivepa-
rametersof the experiments. It could, however,have been pro- evolvedliquids. To testthis modelof magmagenesis,for-
ducedby fractionationat intensiveconditionsother than thosein- ward experimentsmust determineif eclogitemelting can
vestigatedexperimentally.The compositional agreementbetween produceHAB liquids (Table 4). The matching inverse
experimentalliquid and lava is not as good for liquid III but is
crystallizationexperimentsmust also show that the high
near analyticallimits. For this sample,determiningif the pro-
posedpetrogeneticschemeis valid is not straightforward.An ap- pressureHAB liquidusis definedby the samesolidassem-
proach similar to that describedhere could be used for a forward blage found in the forward experiments. A saturationas-
experimentalstudy relatinga protolithand its presumedprimary semblageof garnetand cpx at -30 kb would indicatepri-
magma. The major differencewould be the appropriatep-T dia- mary melt extractionnear the slab-mantleinterfaceafter
gramwould be determinedby a seriesof meltingexperimentsnear
the solidus.
small to moderatedegreesof partial fusion. In contrast,if
cpx alone occurson the HAB liquidus,melting musthave
beensufficientto eliminategarnetor the melt was extracted
tion [e.g. Stern, 1979; Perfit et al., 1980; Kay et al., 1982, from a rising diapir at depthsshallowerthan the stability
1983; Singeret al., 1992], magmamixing [e.g. Conrad et field of garnet[Brophyand Marsh, 1986].
al., 1983; Myers et al., 1995] as well as complexcombina- To understandevolvedlava generation,experimentsat
tions of crystalretentionand magmamixing [e.g. Brophy, low-pressure(_<10 kb) and variablewater contentsare nec-
1990]. For the evolved lavas, the absenceof hydrous essary(Table 4). Potentialstartingmaterialsfor inverse
phasesand great abundanceof plag have been interpreted experiments includebasalticandesites, andesites
or dacites.
as indicatorsthat crustal processesalso occurredat low To be consistentwith the slab-meltingmodel, these ex-
water contents[Marsh, 1982; Singeret al., 1992;Fournelle perimentsmust show that HAB liquids are multiply-
et al., 1994]. saturatedwith the phase assemblagesused in successful
These magmatic models are characterizedby two mass-balancebasedHAB fractionationmodels(Table 4) [
stages ofevolution' (1)primary HABmagma' generation by Kay et al., 1982; Myers et al., 1995]. ForwardHAB melt-
slabmelting,and (2) differentiationof theseparentsto form ing experimentsmust reveal an evolutionarytrend
234 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

A B

D C D

Fig.3a. Graphical
depiction
oftheeffectof a reaction
relation
ontheinterpretation
of inverse
experiments.
TheA-B-
C systemisa simple
ternary
withanintermediatephase,D, thatmelts
incongruently.
(a)Projection
oftheliquidus
sur-
face.LiquidI initiallycrystallizes
B whichmoves
theresidual
liquiddirectly
awayfromapexB. Whentheliquid
reaches
II, B begins
to reactwiththeliquidtoproduce
D andtheliquidsimultaneously
crystallizes
D. Continued
dis-
solution
ofB andcrystallization
ofD moves
theliquiddowntemperature
along
thereaction
curve
toward
theperitectic
at P. Whenall of B is consumed, the liquidcomposition
leavesthereactioncurveandmovesontotheD + L surface.
Crystallization
of a finiteamountof D movestheliquidawayfromD to III.

Fig.3b. Perspective
drawing oftheternaryliquidus
surface
illustrating
theeffect
ofthisreactionrelation
onthephase
equilibria
of derivative
liquids
L H andIII. Inverse
experiments
onI correctly
identify
B asitsliquidusphaseandre-
vealitspotentialliquid-line-of-descent.
Similarly,
experiments onliquidIII revealD asitsliquidusphaseandcor-
rectlypredicts
liquidtrendsproducedby fractionation
of thisphase.In contrast,
theinterpretation
of theinverse
ex-
periments
forliquidH ismorecomplicated.
Although
experimentsonthisliquidreveal
a liquiduscharacterized
byD,
theoriginal
liquidwasalsosaturated
withB. Because
thelatterwasdissolving
notprecipitating,
it does
notappear on
theexperimental
liquidus.
Thus,theexperiments
suggest
subsequentliquidevolution
wascontrolled bycrystallization
of D alonewhenin factit wasdetermined
by crystallization
of D anddissolution
of B.

to that of calc-alkalinesuites. In addition,the solid assem- NyeandReid,1986;GustandPerfit,1987],theyareneces-

blagescoexistingwith theseliquidsmust match,in kind sarilyassigned
primarymagmastatus(Figure5). Accord-
andcomposition,thatof the inverseexperiments.(Because ingtothese
models,
waterfromthedehydrating
slabenters
the mechanisms of evolved lava formation are similar in all thewedge
andlowers
theperidotite
solidus
thereby
permit-
the arc petrologicmodels,the experimental testsdescribed tingpartialfusionandprimaryHMB generation.Unlike
here apply to the othermodelsas well and are thereforenot latermodels,theselesscomplexmantle-dominated models
describedagain.) assignonly a fluxingrole to the slab-derived
fluid. Ascent
of HMB magmasis implicitlyassumed to be isochemical
Mantle-dominated PetrologicModels andthey do not differentiate until enteringsubcrustal
or
crustal
magmachambers. HereprimaryHMB magmas un-
Thesemodelsassumea priori peridotiteis the source dergool, cpx and plag fractionationat moderateto low
of arc magmastherebyfixing the mantlewedgeas that pressureto produceHAB liquids(Figure 5). This frac-
portionof subduction zoneswherearc magmatism origi- tionationsteprequiresremovalof as muchas 70-80 % of
nates. Becauseonly HMB satisfythe geochemicalcharac- theoriginalHMB [e.g.Kay et al., 1982]. Typically,the
teristicsdictatedby a mantlesource[Tatsumiet al., 1983; paucityof HMB andabundance of HAB (Tables1-2)
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 235

b derivative lava l

region of
A+B+L
stability
for
thesourceB+ L
A+B+• liquid Li
c derivative lava II d derivative lava III

region of region of

A+C+L
/
A+B+C+L
stabilityfor stabilityfor
the source ,,
/
/o
the
sour•
........
:?:•'"
.............
/ liquid
/

Fig.4a. Representationof a combined forward-inverse experimental approach.If p-T diagrams

areknownfor a pa-
rentalmagma(a) anditspresumed derivativeliquids(b-d),a combined experimental approach
canbeusedto testpro-
posedfractionation
models.Forthisexample,lavaI is presumed to havebeenformedby fractionation
of A + B, H by
removalof A + C andfractionation
of A + B + C is believedto haveproduced lavaIII.

Fig. 4b. The appearance of A andB on the liquidusof I indicates it couldhavebeenproduced by theproposed frac-
tionationscheme.Thispointof multiplesaturation alsolieswithinthe stabilityfield of A + B on the sourcep-T dia-
gram(pointI on a) therebyindicatingthe phasesrelationsof the presumed sourceare alsoconsistent with the pro-
posedfractionationscheme. Compositionalsimilaritybetweenthe solidsin equilibriumwith the source'sderivative
liquid as well as the phaseson the derivativelava's liquidusat theseintensiveparameters is furtherevidencethat the
proposedfractionationschemeis possible.

Fig. 4c. Similarrelationsfor lavaH alsosupportits proposedfractionationscheme.

Fig. 4d. The phaserelationsof lavaIII includea pointof multiplesaturation

in A, B andC that is consistent
with a
fractionation
origin(d). However,thepressure andtemperature
of thispointareremovedfromtheA + B + C + L field
of theparentalmagma(a). This observation pluscompositionaldissimilarity
betweensourceandderivativesolidsand
liquidsat the commonpoint of multiplesaturationindicatethe proposedfractionationschemeis not feasible. Al-
thoughthe fractionationschemesuggested by the geochemical
modelingmay be correct,it musthaveoccurredat con-
ditionsotherthanthosesimulated in theexperiments. Usingonlyan inverseapproach,
thelackof compatibility
be-
tweenthephaserelations of theparentandderivativeliquidwouldhavegoneunrecognized.Shadedregionsonb-d re-
presentthe sourcep-T fieldsfrom(a) of therespective
fractionating
phase
236 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

primary magmas

slab
{ high-alumina
basalt

basalt

basalt

high-alumina
basalt

Fig. 5. Diagrammaticrepresentation of idealizedliquid-lines-of-descent

for the maintypesof subduction
zonemag-
matic models. In all cases,a significantmagmaticcomponentmustbe derivedfrom the subductingslab. The manner
in which this component(s)is transferredfrom the slab(shadedregionon left) to the mantlevariesbetweenthe three
models. In slab-dominated and some multi-source models, this material is transferred via a silicate melt. For mantle-
derivedmodels,the transferis accomplishedby water but the natureof the fluid and its geochemicalcharacteristics
are
rarely explicitly stated. These casesrepresentprimarily earlier magmaticmodels and have generally evolved over
time. Many currentmulti-sourcemodelsattributethe slab-mantletransferto a hydrousfluid that movesa significant
numberof geochemicalcomponents.For all models,therearetwo possibleprimarymagmas,i.e. high-aluminabasalt
or high-magnesiabasalt(unshadedregion in center). In mantle-dominatedand somemulti-sourcemodels,the latter
undergoextensivecrystalfractionationto producehigh-aluminabasalticliquids. In one subclassof multi-sourcemod-
els, the primary high-aluminabasaltmagmaproduceshigh-magnesiabasalticliquid by interactionwith the mantle
during ascent. In nearly all the different magmaticmodels,evolved lavas, i.e. thosemore siliceousthan basalt, are
producedby somecombinationof crystalfractionation,magmamixing and/or crustalassimilation(shadedregion on
right). Typically, theseprocessesoccur and subsequentlavasare producedin intermediateto shallow level crustal
magmachambers.

attributedto crustal density filtering. The differentiated whereasthe complementaryinverseinvestigationsconcen-

HAB liquidsare parentalto the evolvedcalc-alkalinelavas trate on crystallizationof HMB. Becausewater servessim-
througha variety of magmaticprocesses that are broadly ply as a flux in these mantle-dominatedmodels, the for-
similar to those described for the slab-dominated models ward experimentsmustyield HMB partial melts in equilib-
(Figure5). As with the slab-dominated models,the origin rium with a peridotiteresiduum.To be mutuallyconsistent,
of HMA is not specificallyaddressed in thesemodels. inverseexperimentsmust show that HMB, at the samein-
Mantle-dominatedarc magmatic models can be di- tensiveconditions,are multiply saturatedwith the solidas-
vided into threemajor stages. Two of thesestagesdiffer semblageof the forwardexperiments.
from thoseof slab-meltingmodelsandnecessitate different The other unique stage of mantle-dominatedmodels
experimentalconditions. Generationof primary HMB involvesfractionationof HMB to produceHAB. Experi-
from the mantlewedgecan be investigated usingwater- mentsdesignedto reproducethis magmaticstagemust be
bearingexperiments conducted at highpressures (Table4). conductedat moderatepressureswith variableamountsof
The forward experimentsinvolve peridotite melting water (Table 4). Forward crystallizationexperiments
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 237

Table 4: ExperimentalPhaseEquilibriaTestsof Arc PetrologicModels

Magmatic Process Conditions Forward Experiments InverseExperiments
Starting PredictedPhases Starting Predicted Phases
Material Material

slab- 1. primarymagmageneration(HAB) 25-30 kb - anhydrous eclogite HAB liquidw/cpx,+gar HAB cpx,+gar

dominated

2. formation of evolved lavas _<10

kb - anhydrous
to HAB evolved
liquidw/pl, ol, evolvedpl, ol, cpx,+sp,+opx
moderateH20 cpx,+sp,+opx lavas

mantle- 1.primary
magma
generation
(HMB) 20-30kb- waterbearingperidotite
HMB liquidw/ol, cpx, HMB ol, cpx,+opx,+sp
dominated +opx, +_sp
2. petrologic
relation
between
HMB 15-25kb- waterbearingHMB HABliquidw/ol, cpx, HAB ol, cpx,+pl,+sp
andHAB +pl,+sp
3. formation
of evolved
lavas _<10
kb- waterbearing HAB evolved
liquidw/pl, ol, evolvedpl, ol, cpx,+sp,+opx
cpx,+sp,+opx lavas

multi-source 1. HAB generationby slabmelting 25-30kb- anhydrous eclogite HABliquidw/cpx,+gar HAB cpx,+gar
2. HMB origin: 15-30kb- waterbearing- - HMB ol,+cpx,+opx
peridotitepartialmelt + slab and free
mantle contamination of HAB

3. petrologicrelationbetweenHMB 20-30 kb - water bearing HMB HABliquidw/ol, cpx, HAB ol, cpx,+pl,+sp
and HAB and free +pl, _+sp
4. HMA generation: 15-30 kb - water bearing
slab melting andfree eclogite HMA liquidw/cpx,+garHMA cpx,+gar
w/mantle interaction
- HMA ol,cpx,+opx,
+pl,+sp
-

5. formation of evolved lavas _<10

kb - waterbearing HAB evolvedliquidw/pl, ol, evolvedpl, ol, cpx,+sp,+opx
and free cpx,+sp,+opx lavas

sistentwith thismodel shouldyield HAB derivativeliquids magmaticsources,nearly all recentmodelsincorporateslab

from HMB startingmaterials. The complimentaryinverse
experimentsmust documentHAB saturationwith the solid
assemblage of the forwardexperiments (Table4). Because
productionof HAB in nearly all mantle-dominated models
requiresremoval of ol, HAB must be saturatedwith this
phase. The presenceof ol on the liquidusprovessaturation
and would providepermissiveevidencefor a fractionation
relationbetweenHAB and HMB. Becauseof the possibil-
ity of a reactionrelation, the lack of ol is inconclusiveevi-
dencethat ol saturationdid not occur. Accordingly,ol ad-
dition experimentsshouldbe conductedwheneverol is ab-
sent from the liquidus [Nicholls, 1974; Draper and John-
ston, 1992]. Confirmation of a reaction relation would
provide permissiveevidence for a fractionationrelation
between HMB and HAB.
Multi-sourceMagmatic Models
Although some early petrologicmodels [e.g. Ring-
wood, 1974; Kay, 1978] envisioneda combinationof arc
and mantle wedge componentsin primary magma forma-
tion (Figure 5). The manner in which material is trans-
ferred from slab to wedge,the natureof primary magmas
andthe subsequent fate of thesemagmasdiffer markedly.
The most common multi-source models transfer slab com-
ponentsin a hydrous fluid of unspecifiedor unknown
physicalnature. Three alternativemodelsmovematerialas
a silicate melt, but the nature of the melt and its ultimate
fate vary substantially.
Fluid transfer models. The most widely accepted
models suggestmaterial is transferredin a hydrousfluid
producedby slabdehydration(Figure 5). Becausethe fluid
carriesa wide range of chemicalcomponents,it acts as a
masstransferagentaswell as a flux [e.g. Tera et al., 1986].
Thephysical
pathbywhich
thefluidenters
thewedge
dif-
fers considerablybetweenmodels [Tatsumi, 1989; Davies
and Stevenson,1992]. In the wedge, the fluid lowersthe
peridotitesolidustherebypromotingpartialfusionandgen-
erationof primary HMB magmas. Nearly all modelsas-
sume implicitly that HMB magmas reach
238 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

magma chamberswithout significantdifferentiation. At with peridotite,it doesnot distinguishbetweena melting

crustallevels,fractionationof ol (+otherphases)produces equilibriumor equilibrationof a primarymagmawith peri-
HAB [e.g. Kay et al., 1982]. Subsequent differentiationof dotiteduring ascent.
HAB in crustalchambersproducesboth calc-alkalineand Testingthe two HMA generationmodelsrequiresdif-
tholeiitic arc suites. ferent experimentalapproachesbecauseone model is an
Magma-mantle interaction models. Two modelsex- open-system processwhereasthe otheris closed. For the
plainingthe originof arc basaltssuggestprimarymagmas model of Defant and Drummond [1990], the forward-in-
do not ascendisochemicallyand that the diversityof arc verse experimental proceduredescribedfor HAB is appro-
mafic lavasreflectsthe interactionof primarymagmaand priate. The only modification requiredis that HMA must
mantle during ascent. In one of the earliest arc models, be substituted for HAB as the startingmaterial in the in-
Ringwood [1974] suggestedpartial fusion of the down- verse experiments (Table 4). Conversely, the HMA model
goingslabproduceda siliceousmagmathat interactedwith of Kay [1978] combines slab and mantle components there-
peridotiteduringascentto producearcbasalts.Myerset al. by making it an open-system process and rendering forward
[1985] retainedthe conceptof magma-mantleinteraction experimentsineffective.As with multi-sourceHMB gen-
but suggested the primarymagmawas HAB producedby eration, inverse crystallizationexperimentson HMA can
slab partial melting. Interactionof this primary magma show if these liquids ever equilibratedwith peridotiteas
with the mantle producedthe volumetricallyminor HMB predictedby the model(Table 4).
and HMA characteristic
of severalarcs [Myersand Frost,
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1994].
High-magnesiaandesitemodels. Slabmeltingalso
playsan importantrole in two modelsspecifically proposed Forward Experiments
to explainthe origin of the rare HMA found in arcsworld-
wide (Table 3). To accountfor the origin of an unusual Arc-related forward experimentscan be divided into
high-MgO Aleutianandesite,Kay [1978] suggested partial four classes:(1) characterizationof fluids producedby slab
melting of subductedcrust produceda dacitic melt that dehydration,(2) evaluationof sedimentmelting, (3) inves-
during ascentreactedwith peridotiteto produceHMA. tigationof primary magma(HMB or HAB) generation,and
Defant and Drummond[1990] namedthis specialclassof (4) examinationof evolvedlava petrogenesis.Dehydration
andesiteadakitebut suggested it representedprimarypartial experiments[Tatsumi and Nakamura, 1986; Tatsumiand
melts of the subductingslab. They also suggested such Isoyama, 1988; Tatsumiet al., 1986] are fundamentallydif-
melts could be producedonly from unusuallyhot, and ferentfrom phaseequilibriastudiesbecausefluid composi-
thereforeyoung,slabs. tionsare not buffered,i.e. fixed, by the phasespresent,but
Multi-sourcephase equilibria Multi-sourcemodel are dependentupon startingmaterial(solid and fluid) com-
issuesto be addressed experimentallycanbe summarizedin positionand how the fluid is introducedinto the experi-
five questions:(1) Can primaryHAB be generatedby slab ments,e.g. structurallybound, intergranular,etc. Accord-
melting?(2) How are HMB produced? (3) What is the pet- ingly, such experimentsare not discussed. Becausethe
rologic relation between HMB and HAB? (4) How are physicalnatureof sediment-basalt meltingis poorlyknown,
HMA generated?and (5) What processesare responsible sedimentmelting experiments[Stern and Wyllie, 1973;
for evolvedarc lavas? Of thesequestions,only (2) and (4) Huang and Wyllie, 1974; Johnson and Plank, 1993;
requirenew experimentaldesigns. Nicholset al., 1994] are alsonot reviewed.
Because HMB generation from multiple sourcesis Slab melting. Forwardinvestigations of slabmelting
necessarilyan open-systemprocess,there is no single must begin with eclogite or MORB (Table 4). Unfortu-
startingmaterial with which to conductforward experi- nately, most MORB melting experiments(anhydrousand
ments. For example,peridotitepartialmeltingexperiments hydrous)have beencarriedout at pressures(_<15 kb) below
cannotproduceHMB liquidsbecausethey lackthe compo- the eclogite stability field [e.g. Nicholls and Ringwoo&
nentsintroducedfrom the slab, e.g. K20. Consequently, 1973; Stolper, 1980; Wyllie and Wolf, 1993]. In one of the
only inverseexperimentscan be usedto testHMB genera- few high-pressurestudies,Johnston[1986] partiallymelted
tion within the contextof multi-sourcemodels(Table 4). three MORBs at 26-27 kb and 1430-1450øC. At these con-

InverseHMB crystallizationover a range of pressuresand ditions,the basaltsproducedthree different phaseassem-

water contentscan show if theseliquids ever equilibrated blages,liq + gar + cpx, liq + cpx and liq, despitesimilar
with a peridotiteresiduum.Whereasthe appearance of this bulk compositions.Liquids coexistingwith gar + cpx, are
assemblageis permissiveevidencefor melt equilibration broadly similar to HAB but exhibit seriousmismatches
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 239

CaO and FeO. Agreementbetweenexperimentalliquids ries of peridotitesandwichexperimentsat pressuresand

and HAB was better for thoseexperimentsproducingonly temperatures appropriateto "... shallowlevelsof themantle
a cpx residuum[Johnston,1986]. High-pressure(8-32 kb) wedge.... "At 12 kb with 5-6 wt % water,HMB-like par-
melting experimentsbetween 1000 and 1150øCwere car- tial melts were producedat 1250øCbut changedto low-
ried out by Rapp et al. [ 1991] and Rapp and Watson[1995] MgO HAB at 1150øCand4.4 wt % H•_O.Increasingwater
on three amphibolitescompositionallysimilar to MORB. contentproducedmoresiliceousliquids. Asidefromthe 12
These experimentscontainedbetween 1 and 2 wt % water kb experimentsof Kushiro [1990], peridotitemelting ex-
that was suppliedby the breakdownof amphibole. De- periments havefailedto produceHMB-like liquids,andthe
pendingupon pressureand temperature,the experimental compositional mismatchis considerable for thealkalis.
liquids ranged from 70 to 51% SiOn_.Siliceousliquids
were producedat the lowest degreesof melting (-10 %) Inverse experiments
whereasthe more extensivepartial melts were lessevolved
(51-55 wt % silica). Alumina contentscorrelateinversely Inversearc experimentalstudiescan be dividedinto
with silica contentand hencedegreeof melting. At higher four categoriesbasedon startingmaterial:(1) HAB, (2)
pressures,mafic compositionswere producedat smaller HMB, (3) HMA, and (4) evolvedmagmas. Startingcom-
degreesof melting. For example,andesiteswere produced positionsfor HMB, HAB and HMA experiments are pre-
at 32 kb after 20-30 % melting whereas40-50 % partial sentedin Tables 1-3 and for evolved lava investigationsin
meltingwasrequiredto producesimilarsilicacontentsat 8 Table 5. The experimentalconditionsfor theseexperi-
kb. (Becausethe maximum experimentaltemperaturewas mentsarelistedin Table6 andpointsof multiplesaturation
1150øC,the maximum degreeof melting attainedat high summarized in Table 7.
pressurewas less than 30 %.) Saturatingassemblages High-aluminabasaltexperiments. Severalinverse
rangedfrom amp + pl + opx + il at low pressures and tem- experimental studieson HAB havebeenreported(Table6).
peraturesto cpx + gar at highpressures andtemperatures. Theseinvestigations, which employedonly five different
Wedgemelting. Forward experimentsof wedge starting materials(Table2), wereconducted overa rangeof
meltingutilize peridotiteas the startingmaterial (Table4). conditions. In one of the first studies,Baker and Eggler
A large number of peridotitemelting experimentshave [1983] investigated the anhydrousphaserelationsof an
been conductedover a range of experimentalconditions Aleutian HAB. This basalthas an anhydrousliquidusde-
[Kushiro et al., 1972; Green, 1973; Kushiro, 1972, 1973; finedby plag below- 18 kb, is multiplysaturated with gar
Mysen and Boettcher, 1975; Mysen and Kushiro, 1977; + cpx+ plagnear 18 kb (Table7) andcrystallizes garnetat
Jaquesand Green, 1979, 1980; Baker and Stopler, 1994]. greaterpressures.The compositions of glassescoexisting
Becausemost were directedat questionsof MORB petro- with thesephaseswere not reported. At 2 kb, plag is the
genesis,many of these experimentswere performed at liquidusphaseup to 5 % waterwhenit wasreplacedby a
pressures well below thoseappropriateto arc magmagene- Fe-Ti oxide. In a follow-upstudyfrom 0 to 10 kb, Baker
sis. One peridotitemelting experimentwas, however,in- and Eggler [1987] determinedthe anhydrous phaserela-
terpretedin terms of arc petrogenesisdespiteits low pres- tionsof anotherAleutianHAB (AT-112) with 2 wt % more
sure. Nicholls [1974] producedandesiticliquids at 5 kb MgO andCaO. This samplewasnot multiplysaturated at
with 10 % water. In thesetypesof experiments,the small the intensiveparameters of the experiments (Table7) and
amountsof melt producedmade determiningmelt compo- below 8 kb its liquidusphaserelationsare similarto those
sitions extremely difficult. Moreover, loss of iron to Pt of the other Aleutian HAB. In anotherHAB study,John-
capsulesalmostcertainlyoccurredbut was not evaluated. ston[1986] determined the anhydrous liquidusphaserela-
By sandwichinga basaltlayer betweentwo peridotitelay- tions of a Scotiaarc basalt(Table 6). This basalthas less
ers, Takahashiand Kushiro [1983] generatedglasspools alumina,Na20 andK•_Obut higherMgO thanthe Aleutian
large enoughfor accuratemicroprobeanalysis. Using their HAB studied(Table 2). Its liquidusis characterized by
new technique,theseauthorsshowedthat underanhydrous garnetabove27 kb, cpxfrom27 to 17.5kb andplagbelow
conditionsperidotitepartial melts near the soliduschanged 17.5kb. Multiplesaturation withgar+ cpxoccursat 27 kb
from MORB-like at 10 kb to alkali picriteat 25 kb and did andwith cpx + plagat 17 kb (Table7). Sissonand Grove
not approximateHMB. In the samestudy,20% potassium [ 1993a]definedthewater-saturated phaseequilibriaat 2 kb
feldsparwas added to peridotiteto test multi-sourceperi- of two calc-alkaline basalts from Medicine Lake Volcano
dotite meltingø The added phase lowered the peridotite (Table6). At 2 kb, bothliquidsaremultiplysaturated with
solidus70-150øC, but near solidusmelts were leucitepho- ol + cpx+ pl at 1012øC(Table7). Thehydrousliquidsco-
nolites,not HMB. Kushiro [1990] performedanotherse- existingwiththesephases arelow-alumina basalts(< 18
240 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

Table5: Compositions
of StartingMaterialsusedin InverseExperiments
to Understand
EvolvedLavaPetrogenesis
sam# 79-38b AT-41 AT-29 AT-25 R-2 79-9½ MHA T101 FP1652 GRM-4 II-GRM I-GRM GRM-1 Ps-G P^-G
SiO2 54.50 54.70 56.80 57.20 58.63 58.90 59.10 59.14 60.50 61.07 64.07 65.40 66.18 68.49 69.05
TiO2 0.86 0.79 1.01 0.92 1.02 1.29 0.94 0.79 0.91 0.94 0.97 1.02 0.76 0.63 0.66
A1203 17.10 18.70 16.90 17.10 16.30 16.50 17.80 18.23 17.30 14.38 14.06 13.70 15.32 14.50 14.82
FeOt 8.21 7.90 8.03 6.98 9.00 7.91 6.43 5.68 4.30 9.01 6.65 6.48 5.14 3.88 3.56
MnO 0.18 0.31 0.17 0.21 0.20 0.17 - 0.11 - 0.22 0.19 0.28 0.08 0.11 0.06
MgO 5.85 3.29 3.09 3.32 2.96 3.04 3.05 2.50 3.80 2.96 2.36 2.00 1.64 0.74 1.06
CaO 8.39 7.96 7.05 7.07 7.37 6.08 6.85 5.92 6.30 5.86 4.36 4.01 4.74 3.24 3.65
Na20 2.65 4.10 3.99 3.90 3.39 3.04 4.27 3.81 4.30 3.66 3.87 3.72 3.76 4.26 3.59
K20 0.90 0.99 2.05 2.47 0.47 1.24 1.08 2.19 1.69 0.59 2.14 2.12 1.89 2.59 2.27
P205 - 0.25 0.28 0.16 0.12 - - 0.30 - 0.17 0.26 - 0.07 - 0.18
Total 98.64 98.99 99.37 99.33 99.46 98.17 99.52 98.67 99.10 98.86 98.93 98.73 99.58 98.44 98.90

reference 1 2 2 2 3 1 4 5 6 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 - Groveet al. [1982];2 - BakerandEggler[1987];3 - Sekineet al. [1979];4 - EgglerandBurnham
[1973];5 - SternandWyllie[1978];
6 - Eggler [1972]

%) that when consideredon an anhydrous basisare similar mate HAB. The anhydrousphase relations of another
to typicalarc HAB. For onesample,the sameliquidusas- Aleutian HMB were determinedby Draper and Johnston
semblagewas found at 1 kb but at a slightlyhighertem- [1992]. This sampleis multiply-saturated with ol + plag +
perature(1050øC)[Sissonand Grove,1993b]. Coexisting cpx + opx + sp near 12 kb (Table 7). Although high-
liquidswere, however,andesiticnot basaltic(againon an pressureglasseshave compositionssimilarto someHABs,
anhydrousbasis). The samplesusedin theseexperiments they do not approximatethe majority of Aleutian basalts
are compositionally unliketypicalarc HAB. In particular, and basalticandesites[Draper and Johnston,1992]. A re-
action relation between ol and melt was found at 10 kb and
theyaremuchlessaluminous thantypicalHAB (Table2).
High-magnesiabasaltstudies. Unlike for HAB, a low temperatures,but the resultantliquidswere enrichedin
variety of HMB have been investigatedexperimentally alkalis and depleted in CaO relative to typical Aleutian
(Table6). As partof a largerstudy,Tatsumi[1982] investi- HAB. The 1 atm crystallizationsequenceof a composi-
gatedthephaserelationsof a HMB. At low pressures (< 11 tionally unusualMedicine Lake HMB (Table 1) was deter-
kb), ol marksthe anhydrous liquidusbut is replacedby opx mined by Grove et al. [1982]. O1 and pl first appearto-
at higherpressures.The occurrence of cpxjust belowthe getherat 1228øCand are the only phasesto crystallizefor
liquidusat 11 kb led Tatsumi[1982] to suggest this HMB over 50øC. Barrels et al. [ 1991] investigatedthe phasere-
wassaturated with a threephaseassemblage at 11 kb and lationsof this sampleto 15 kb underanhydrous conditions
1305øC(Table 7). The additionof smallamountsof water and suggestit is multiply saturatedwith ol + cpx + sp +
(3.8 %) movedthe pointof multiplesaturation to 15.5 kb plagat 11 kb andapproximately 1285øC(Table7). Glass
and 1210øC,i.e. lower temperaturebut higherpressure.In compositions at 10 and 12 kb arebasalticbut arelessalu-
a laterstudy,Tatsumiet al. [1983] conducted experiments minousand more magnesianthan typical HAB. Under
on whattheytermeda "...primaryhigh-alumina basalt...(p. water-saturatedconditions, Sisson and Grove [1993a]
5820)." Examinationof their startingcomposition (Table foundthat at 2 kb the liquidusof thisMedicineLakebasalt
1) clearlyshowsthatthismaterialis, in fact,a HMB. Mul- ismarkedby the appearance of ol at 1050øC.If considered
tiplesaturation in a lherzolite(ol + cpx+ opx)assemblageon an anhydrousbasis,the coexistingliquidshave high
occursat 15 kb and 1340øC under anhydrousconditions alumina,but are more calcic and less alkalic than most
(Table7). The additionof 1.5 % waterdecreases the tem- HAB. At 1 kb, the liquidus temperatureincreasesto
peratureof saturationto 1325øCbut increases the pressure 1100øC and the phase assemblageremainsunchanged
to 17 kb. Unfortunately,glasscompositions were not re- (Table7) [Sissonand Grove, 1993b]. Coexistingliquids
portedfor eitherset of experiments.In anotherexperi- are crudelysimilarto HAB when recalculated on anhy-
mentalstudy,Gustand Perfit [ 1987] determined the anhy- drousbasisbut exhibitthe samecompositional mismatches
drousphaserelationsof an AleutianHMB (Table 1). This asthehigherpressure liquids.Compositionally, thesample
HMB is multiply-saturated with ol + cpxaround9 kb andis usedin theseexperiments is nota typicalHMB (Table1).
the onlyHMB investigated experimentally saturated with a It has lesssilica,MgO and K20 but more aluminathan
wehrlitic(ol + cpx) phaseassemblage (Table 7). In gen- mostnaturalHMB and HMB experimentalstartingmateri-
eral,glasscompositions werebasalticbut did not approxi- als. In a studyof Japanese arcbasalts,Tatsumiet al.
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 241

Table6 Summaryof Experimental

Conditionsof ImportantInverseExperiments
1 atm high-pressure
Study Starting
Material(s) T (øC) fo2 p (kb) T (øC) fo2 H20 (wt %)
High-alumina basalt
Baker and Eggler [ 1983] Aleutian HAB 1080-1150 NNO 2-20 900-1300 unbuffered 0-6
dohnston[ 1986] Scotia HAB - 10-31 1233-1500 unbuffered 0
Baker and Eggler [ 1987] Aleutian HAB 1060-1250 NNO 2-10 1000-1250 unbuffered 0-2
Sissonand Grove [ 1993a] Medicine Lake high-MgO, Iow-A1203HAB - 2 965-1012 NNO saturated
Sissonand Grove [ 1993b] MedicineLake high-MgO, 1ow-A1203 HAB - 1 1020-1050 NNO saturated

High-magnesia basalt
Tatsumi[1982] JapaneseHMB - 7-22 980-1340 unbuffered 3.8,7,2O
Tatsumiet al. [ 1983] syntheticHMB - 8-25 1295-1380 -NNO 0-1.5
Gustand Perfit [ 1987] Aleutian HMB 1175-1263 NNO 5-15 1175-1350 unbuffered? 0
Grove et al. [1982] MedicineLake high-Al•_O3HMB 1059-1234 QFM _

Bartels et al. [ 1991] Medicine Lake high-A1203HMB 1238-1270 9 10-15 1240-1370 unbuffered 0
Sissonand Grove [ 1993a] Medicine Lake high-A1203HMB - 2 1000-1050 NNO saturated
Sissonand Grove [ 1993b] MedicineLake high-A1203HMB - 1 1082-1100 NNO saturated
Draper and dohnston[1992] Aleutian HMB 1150-1257 NNO-1 10-20 1150-1475 unbuffered 0
Tatsumiet al. [ 1994] JapaneseHMB -

9-15 1280-1340 unbuffered 0

High-magnesiaandesite
Kushiroand Sato [1978] JapaneseHMA - 12-18 1000-1100 unbuffered 7,12-16
Tatsumi[ 1981] JapaneseHMA - 11-17 1000-1300 unbuffered 8, saturated
Tatsumi[1982] JapaneseHMA - 7-22 980-1340 unbuffered 3.8,7,20

EvokedLavas
Eggler [ 1972] Paricutin, Mexico andesite 1088-1216 QFM 0.5-8 900-1140 QFM 2,4.7,saturated
Eggler and Burnhan [1973] Mount Hood andesite _

0.5-8 900-1158 QFM 2,4.7,saturated

Sternand Wyllie [1978] Sierra Nevada tonalite -

30 850-1250 unbuffered 5-30

Sekineet al. [ 1979] Japaneseandesitesand dacites 1050-1200 range 0.5-1.5 900-1070 NNO saturated
Grove et al. [1982] Medicine Lake andesites 1059-1234 QFM -
Baker and Eggler [ 1987] Aleutian basaltic andesite to andesite 1060-1250 NNO 2.8 1000-1250 unbuffered 0-2

investigatedthree HMB. Two samples,TM-0 and RZ-6,
could have been in equilibriumwith mantle ol and were
usedas startingmaterial(Table 1). Becausethe third basalt
(AKT12) was deemed a fractionatedsample, ol and opx
were addedto createtwo startingcompositionsin equilib-
rium with ol of compositionFO89and Fo91 , respectively.
Thesesamplesare saturatedwith a harzburgitic(ol + opx)
phaseassemblageat pressuresrangingfrom 10 to 14 kb
andtemperatures from 1300 to 1330øC(Table 7).
High-magnesiaandesiteexperiments. Three experi-
mental studies [Kushiro and $ato, 1978; Tatsumi, 1981,
1982] have examinedthe phaserelationsof HMA (Table
6). In the earliest study, Kushiro and $ato [1978] found
that with 12-16 wt % water the HMA liquiduswas defined
by ol up to 16 kb but by opx above 18 kb. Basedon these
relations,they suggested the liquid was multiply saturated
with ol and opx between16 and 18 kb (Table 7). Tatsumi
[1981] conducted H20-saturated and -undersaturatedex-
perimentson anotherJapaneseHMA similarin MgO but 2
wt % more siliceousand 2 % lessaluminous(Table 3). At
water-saturatedconditions,this HMA is multiply saturated
with a harzburgite(ol + opx) phaseassemblage at- 16 kb
and 1080øC. In water-undersaturated experiments,the
saturationpoint shifted to lower pressures(approximately
12 kb) but higher temperatures(Table 7). Whereasthese
two HMA have very similar phase relations,those of a
HMA with 2 wt % less MgO are markedly different
[Tatsumi, 1982]. This HMA is saturatedwith a lherzolitic
(ol + opx + cpx) not harzburgiticphaseassemblage at 15 kb
and 1030ø C and water-saturated conditions. The point of
multiple saturationshiftsto higherpressureand lower tem-
peratureunderwater-undersaturated conditions(Table 7).
Evolved lavas. Historically, evolved calc-alkaline
lavas have been the subjectof considerableexperimental
interest [e.goEgglet, 1972; Egglet and Burnham, 1973;
Sternand Wyllie, 1978; $ekineet al., 1979]. Egglet [1972]
conductedwater-saturatedand undersaturated experiments
on an andesite(Table 5) from Paricutinvolcano. Multiple
saturationwith opx + plag occursat about6 kb with 2 %
H20 but does not occur below 10 kb (the maximum ex-
perimentalpressure)for water contentsof 4 %. When the
magmais water saturated,opx + plag appearanceshiftsto
about0.5 kb (Table 7). Experimentson a Mount Hood an-
desitethat is lesssiliceousand potassicbut more
242 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

Table7: Conditions
of MultipleSaturation
Definedby InverseExperiments
Composition Anhydrous Hydrous
Study sam
# SiO2 A1203MgO CaO T (øC) p(kb) phases
%H•O T (øC)P(kb) phases
High-alumina basalt
Bakerand Egglet [1983] AT-1 49.89 19.43 4.79 9.17 1300 18 gar+cpx+pl -
Johnston[1986] SSS.1.4 50.26 18.46 7.32 11.81 1330 17 cpx+pl -
1440 27 cpx+gar -
Bakerand Eggler [1987] AT-112 49.00 19.00 6.18 11.40 notmultiplysaturated
< 10kb 2 notmultiplysaturated
at 2 kb
Sissonand Grove [1993a] 82-62 49.30 17.70 8.61 11.30 - saturated 1012 2 ol+pl+cpx
82-66 51.20 17.30 7.47 10.20 - saturated 1012 2 ol+pl+cpx
Sissonand Grove [1993b] 82-66 51.20 17.30 7.47 10.20 - saturated 1050 1 ol+pl+cpx

High-magnesia basalt
Tatsumi[1982] SD-438 49.76 15.48 11.68 8.91 1305 11 ol+cpx+opx 3.8 1210 15.5 ol+cpx+opx
Tatsumietal. [1983] 49.39 15.70 12.05 9.43 1340 15 ol+cpx+opx 1.5 1325 17 ol+cpx+opx
Gustand Perfit [1987] MK-15 51.20 15.69 9.64 10.12 1310 9.5 ol+cpx -
Groveetal. [1982] 79-35g 47.70 18.60 9.92 12.10 1228 0.001 ol+pl -
Bartelsetal. [1991] 79-35g 47.70 18.60 9.92 12.10 1285 11 ol+cpx+sp+pl -
SissonandGrove [1993a] 79-35g 47.70 18.60 9.92 12.10 - saturatednotmultiplysaturated
at2 kb
Sissonand Grove [1993b] 79-35g 47.70 18.60 9.92 12.10 - saturatednotmultiplysaturated
at 1 kb
Draperand Johnston[1992] ID-16 49.32 15.84 11.35 10.67 1315 12 ol+cpx+opx+pl -
Tatsumietal. [1994] RZ-6 49.09 15.09 13.34 10.60 1330 14 ol+opx -
TM-0 50.57 14.48 12.64 10.57 1315 12 ol+opx -
AKT12b 50.63 15.05 13.23 8.45 1330 13 ol+opx -
AKT12a 51.33 16.13 10.62 9.06 1300 10 ol+opx -

High-magnesia andesite
KushiroandSato [1978] KMA 57.04 15.36 9.O3 7.04 12-16 1040 17 ol+opx
Tatsumi[1981] TGI 59.44 13.51 9.62 6.23 8 1120 12 ol+opx
saturated 1080 16 ol+opx
Tatsumi[1982] SD-261 57.13 15.83 7.39 7.19 7 1070 10 ol+cpx+opx
20 1030 15 ol+cpx+opx

Evolved lavas
Egglet[1972] FP1652 60.50 17.30 3.80 6.30 saturated 1080 0.5 pl+opx
2 1110 5.5 pl+opx
4 not multiplysaturated < 10 kb
Eggler and Burnham[ 1973] MHA 59.10 17.80 3.O5 6.85 - saturated 950 6 pl+opx
.

950 8 opx+amph
.

2 not multiplysaturated< 8 kb
.

4.7 1120 9 ol+opx

Stern and Wyllie [1978] T101 59.14 18.23 2.50 5.92 - 5-30 not multiply saturatedat 30 kb
Sekineet al. [1979] R-2 58.63 16.30 2.96 7.37 - saturated 1026 0.75 pl+opx+cpx
GRM-4 61.07 14.38 2.96 5.86 - saturated 1097 0.13 pl+opx+cpx
II-GRM 64.07 14.06 2.36 4.36 - saturated 1080 0.16 pl+opx
I-GRM 65.40 13.70 2.00 4.01 - saturated 1012 0.50 pl+opx
GRM-1 66.18 15.32 1.64 4.74 - saturated 1050 0.38 pl+opx+cpx
Ps-G 68.49 14.50 0.74 3.24 - saturated 950 0.80 pl+opx
P^-G 69.05 14.82 1.06 3.65 - saturated 981 0.88 pl+opx
Grove et al. [1982] 79-38b 54.50 17.10 5.85 8.39 not multiply saturatedat 0.001 kb .

79-9c 58.90 16.50 3.04 6.08 not multiplysaturatedat 0.001 kb

Baker andEggler [1987] AT-41 54.70 18.70 3.29 7.96 not multiplysaturated< 10 kb 2 not multiply saturatedat 2 kb
AT-29 56.80 16.90 3.09 7.05 not multiplysaturated< 10 kb 2 not multiply saturatedat 2 kb
AT-25 57.20 17.10 3.32 7.07 not multiply saturated< 10 kb 2 not multiply saturatedat 2 kb

thanthe Paricutinlava (Table 5) displayedslightlydifferent (Table 5) at 30 kb with 5 to 30 % H20. At thispressureand

phaseequilibria [Egglet and Burnham, 1973]. Under satu-
ratedconditions,the point of multiple saturationoccursnot
at 0.5 kb but at 6 kb and the assemblageis plag + amphi-
bole. In another inverse experimentalstudy, Stern and
I4/yllie [1978] examined the phase relations of a tonalite
all water contents,garnetis the liquidusphasefollowedby
cpx and the melt doesnot have a point of multiplesatura-
tion on its liquidus. Water-saturatedphaseequilibriato 1.5
kb of severalwhole rock and groundmass separatesamples
were studiedby $ekine et al. [1979].

thesematerialsranged from andesiteto dacite (Table 5).
These authors found that multiple saturationoccurredat
pressuresof less than 1 kb and the solid assemblagewas
eitherplag + opx + cpx or plag + opx (Table 7).
In a more recent experimental study, Grove et al.
[1982] determinedthe 1 atm crystallizationsequencesof a
Medicine Lake basalticandesiteand an andesite(Table 5).
For both samples,plag is the first phaseto crystallizeand is
followed by ol in the basalticandesiteand opx in the an-
desite. Glass compositionsdeterminedin these experi-
mentswere also used to locate phaseboundarieson pseu-
dotemarydiagrams. The higherpressurephaserelationsof
thesesampleshavenot beendetermined.Baker and Egglet
[1987] conductedinverse experimentson three Aleutian
samplesranging from basaltic andesiteto andesite(Table
5). Under anhydrousconditionsand up to 10 kb (the high-
est pressureattainedexperimentally),thesesamplesare not
multiply saturated. In all cases,liquidustemperaturesare
quitehigh, e.g. -1200øC [Bakerand Egglet, 1987], andre-
action between ol and andesiticmelt saturatedwith plag
producesaugite and opx. Addition of 2 % H20 at 2 kb re-
duces liquidus temperaturesby as much as 100øC and
greatly shrinks the crystallization interval but does not
changethe crystallizationsequenceor producea point of
multiple saturation(Table 7). The 1 atm phaserelationsof
theseAleutian lavas are markedly different from those of
the Medicine Lake samples[Grove et al., 1982]. Baker and
Egglet [1987] suggestedthese differencesmay be due to
compositionaldifferences between the starting materials
and notedthat they have importantramificationsfor possi-
ble liquid-lines-of-descentat low pressures.
_
Summary. Experimentshave shownthat HAB liq-
uids are saturatedin an eclogiteassemblage, cpx and gar-
net, at high pressure. In addition, ol does not occur as a
liquidusphaseunderthe anhydrousconditionsinvestigated.
At very low pressures,ol doesoccuras a liquidusphasein
a water-saturated,unusuallyprimitive HAB melt. Inverse
experimentson a variety of HMB have defineda rangeof
conditionsfor multiple saturationbut the natureof the satu-
rating assemblagevaries (Table 7). Multiple saturation
with a lherzolitic or harzburgiticassemblageoccursat 11-
15 kb and 1300-1330øCin water-free systems. Adding
water shifts multiple saturationto higher pressuresbut
lower temperatures. Only one samplestudiedexperimen-
tally, MK-15 [Gust and Perfit, 1987], was saturatedwith a
wehrlite assemblageand this occurred at 9.5 kb and
1310øC. A simple correlation between major element
compositionand saturatingassemblageis not readily ap-
parent (Table 7). As with HMB, high-magnesiaandesites
are multiply saturated(harzburgite or lherzolite) in the
MYERS AND JOHNSON 243
range 10-17 kb and between 1030 and 1120øCunderwater-
saturated and under-saturated conditions.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBDUCTION PHASE
EQUILIBRIA EXPERIMENTS
Becausea given experimentcanbe interpretedin either
a forward or inverse manner, individual phase equilibria
studiescan often be used to constrainseveralpetrologic
componentsof different arc magmaticmodels(Table 8).
As for mostgeologicstudies,theseinvestigationshavepro-
vided few definitive answersto the many questionsof arc
petrogenesis.However, they do imposeimportantrestric-
tionson plausiblepetrologicmodels.
High-magnesiaBasalt Generation
Inverseexperimentson a variety of HMB underdiffer-
ent experimentalconditionshave identified severalpoints
of multiple saturationwith lherzolite phase assemblages
(Table 7). For example, Tatsumi [1982], Tatsumi et al.
[ 1983], Bartels et al. [ 1991] and Draper and Johnston
[1992] have found points of multiple saturationunder an-
hydrousconditionsin the pressurerange11-12 kb and 1305
-1340øC. The addition of small amounts of water shifts
multiple saturationto higherpressures(15-17 kb) but lower
temperatures [Tatsumi, 1982]. Johnston and Draper
[1992] suggestedtwo interpretationsare consistentwith
theseexperimentalresults. The samplescould have been
generatedat 35 km by small degreesof meltingthat did not
exhaustany major phase. If this melting was initiatedby
fluid from the slab, the latter must be moved from the slab-
mantle interfaceto shallowerdepths. Alternatively, these
samplescould have been derivedfrom a melt (of unknown
composition)produced at greater depths but which last
equilibratedwith the mantle at 35 km. As noted above,
many forward experiments involving peridotite melting
have been conductedat pressurestoo low for arc magma
genesisor analyticalproblemshave renderedanalyzedmelt
compositions suspect.Suchexperimentsat a rangeof pres-
sures and intensive parametersmay provide, however, a
meansof choosingbetweenthe two petrologicpossibilities
consistentwith the inverseexperiments.
Other HMB experiments[Gust and Perfit, 1987; Tat-
sumi et al, 1994] have found pointsof multiple saturation
with ol + cpx or ol + opx (Table 7). The petrologicsignifi-
canceof theseresultsis uncertain. Assumingthe samples
investigatedtruly representprimary magmas,the liquids
couldhave beenproducedby: (1) largedegreesof lhezolite
melting, or (2) an unknowndegreeof partial fusionof de-
pleted peridotite, e.g. harzburgiteor wehrlite.
244 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

Table 8: Summaryof PhaseEquilibriaTests
ForwardExperiments InverseInvestigations
High-magnesiaBasalt Generation
Tatsumi[1982]; Tatsumiet al.
[1983]; Gustand Perfit [1987];
Groveet al. [1982]; Bartelset al.
[ 1991]; Sissonand Grove [ 1993a,b];
Draper and Johnston[1992]; Tat-
sumiet al. [1994]
High-alumina Basalt Generation
Johnston[1986]; Rapp et al. [1991];Johnston[1986]; Baker and Egglet
Rapp and Watson[ 1995] [ 1983, 1987]; Sissonand Grove
[1993a,b]
HMB/g-IAB Petrologic Connection
Tatsumi[1982]; Tatsumiet al. Johnston[1986]; Baker and Egglet
[1983]; Gustand Perfit [1987]; [1983, 1987];Sissonand Grove
Grove et al. [1982]; Bartelset al. [1993a,b]
[1991]; Sissonand Grove [1993a,b];
In contrastto this sample, the Aleutian HAB studiedby
Baker and Eggler [ 1983] was multiply saturatedat 18 kb, a
pressurethat would indicatea depthconsiderably abovethe
slab-mantleinterface. Theseresultscouldbe interpretedas
evidencefor the diapir ascentmodel of Brophyand Marsh
[1986]. The differencesin experimentalresultsmay also
suggestthat HAB are producedin a variety of ways.
The two forward experiments on MORB/eclogite
melting alsoprovidepermissiveevidencefor generationof
HAB by slabmelting. For example,the presenceof cpx +
gar on the eclogite liquidus is consistentwith this process
[Johnston,1986]. The compositionalsimilarityof experi-
mental liquidsand HAB in the cpx only runssuggestlarge
degreesof melting or melt extractionat shallowerlevels
[Brophy and Marsh, 1986]. Gar + cpx residuumin the
high-pressuremelting experiments(27 and 32 kb) experi-
__

Draper and Johnston[ 1992]; Tat-

sumiet al. [1994]
High-magnesiaAndesiteGeneration
Johnston[ 1986]; Rapp et al. Kushiroand Sato [1978]; Tatusmi
[1991]; Rapp and Watson[1995] [1981, 1982]
Evolved lava Evolution
Johnston[1986]; Baker and Eggler Eggler [1972]; Eggler and Burnham
[1983, 1987]; Sissonand Grove [1973]; Sternand Wyllie [1978];
[1993a,b] Sekineet al. [1979]; Groveet al.
[ 1982]; Baker and Egglet [ 1987]
mentsof Rapp et al. [ 1991] and Rapp and Watson [ 1995]
are alsoconsistentwith a slaborigin for HAB. None of the
liquid compositionsproducedmatch HAB compositions
but this may be due to the limited degreesof partial fusion
attainedin the experiments. Compositionaltrends at all
pressuressuggestthat at higher degreesof melting HAB-
like liquidsmay be produced. Theseforwardexperiments,
like the inverseones,suggestHAB could be generatedby
eclogitemelting in the pressurerangeof 25-35 kb andwith
little or no water.

tively, the samplesmay not representprimary magmas. The High-magnesiaBasalt/High-aluminaBasaltPetrologic

Ratherthey may be derivativeliquidsproducedby crystal Connection
fractionationor magma-mantleinteraction. Again the for-
ward peridotitemeltingexperimentsthat might providead- Becauseol doesnot occuron their anhydrousliquidii,
ditionalconstraints
are lacking. HAB can be generatedby fractionation of ol (+ other
phases)from HMB in water-free systemsonly under spe-
High-aluminaBasalt Generation cial conditions[Johnston,1986; Baker and Egglet, 1983,
1987]. In particular,a reactionrelationmustexistbetween
Becausethey havehigh-pressure anhydrousliquidii de- ol and HAB melt. In this case, ol could have been fraction-
fined by garnet and cpx (Table 7), the HAB studiedex- ated in earlier stages of magmatic developmenteven
perimentallycouldbe primary magmasderivedby eclogite thoughit doesnot appearon the derivativemelt liquidus.
partial fusion [Baker and Eggler, 1983; Johnston,1986]. Although the existenceof such a relationshiphas never
There is, however, a significantdifferencein the pressure beenspecificallyaddressed by ol-additionexperiments,the
of saturationfor the differentHAB (Table 7). The Scotia resultsof Draper and Johnston[1992] suggestthat an ol-
sampleis saturatedat pressures(- 27 kb) closeto thoseex- melt reactionmay be unlikely.
pectedat the slab-mantleinterface. Basedon theseresults Given the greatlyexpandedol volumein hydroussys-
and the observationthat most HAB have nearly flat REE tems, a fractionationrelationbetweenHAB and HMB may
patterns,Johnston[ 1986] concludedthat HAB "can be ex- be possiblein water-bearingsystems.Unfortunately,only
tractedfrom a MORB compositioneclogitesourceat 20-27 one water-bearingexperimentalstudyhas beenconducted
kb providingthe degreesof meltingare sufficient(ca. 50%) on typical HAB (Table 7). Baker and Egglet [ 1987] found
to totally consumegarnet,leaving only cpx in the residue that at 2 kb the additionof up to 5 % water failed to place
(p. 381)." Current thermal models of subductionzones do ol on the HAB liquidus. The hydrousexperiments of Sis-
not, however,predict temperaturesat the slab interfaceas son and Grove [ 1993a] did define a point of ol + pl + cpx
high as thosesuggestedby theseanhydrousexperiments. saturation,the phaseassemblage usedin most
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 245

fractionationschemes,e.g. Kay et al. [ 1982]. Althoughco- processescould include variationsin peridotiteprotolith,

existinghydrousmeltsare not HAB-like, when considered degreeof partial melting or intensiveconditionsof melting.
on an anhydrousbasisthey have high aluminacontentsbut In contrastto the othermodels,a melting origin for HMA
are enrichedin CaO and depletedin alkalis. Despitethese suggests the positioningof a criticalperidotitemelting iso-
compositionaldifferences,Sisson and Grove [1993a,b] therm and/ora changein the lithologicnatureof the mantle
suggestedHAB were producedfrom such liquids by de- at 30-50 km within the wedge. Given the rarity of HMA
gassingat shallowlevels. As notedabove,the startingma- (Table 3) it mustbe rememberedthat their occurrencesig-
terials for these experimentsare high-MgO, low alumina nals an unusual magmatic regime. Consequently,the
"HAB" that are compositionallyvery much differentfrom physical and thermal conditionssuggestedby the HMA
either HMB or HAB (Tables 1 and 2). Whether or not phaserelationsare unlikely to play a significantrole in the
HAB are producedby this fractionationscheme,the origin generationof typicalcalc-alkalinesuites.
of these unusual low-alumina calc-alkaline basalts is un- Two forwardeclogitemeltingexperimentsprovideim-
clear. portantconstraintson the typesof primarymagmasthat can
As described above, numerous HMB experimental be producedby slab melting. Large degreesof anhydrous
studieshave defined points of ol + pl + cpx saturation meltingat 27 kb yield basalticliquidscoexistingwith some
(Table 7). Thesetemperaturesand pressuresrepresentcon- combinationof cpx and garnet [Johnston,1986]. In con-
ditions under which HMB could fractionateto produce trast,smallerdegreesof partial fusionover a rangeof pres-
HAB-like liquids and suggestHAB generationmust occur suresand with small amountsof water producecomposi-
in magmachamberslocatedat depthsgreaterthan 30 km tions rangingfrom basalticandesiteto rhyodacite[Rapp et
(Table 7). In general,liquidscoexistingwith this phaseas- al., 1991;Rapp and Watson,1995]. Dependingupon pres-
semblagedo not, however, approximateHAB. Conse- sure,the solidresiduumcoexistingwith theseliquidsvaries
quently,the forward experiments,like their inversecoun- from amphiboliteto eclogite. Dacitic and andesiticliquids
terparts,have failed to confirm the proposedHMB/HAB with silica contentssimilar to HMA (55-65 wt %) have
relationship. In light of theseresults,HAB could be de- beenproducedat a varietyof meltingconditionsand small
rivative magmasof HMB only at conditionsnot yet ad- degreesof melting(10-20 %). Despitetheir similarsilica
dressedexperimentally,e.g. different pressures,higher contents,none of the experimentalliquidshave MgO con-
watercontents,differentprotoliths. tents as high as HMA. Consequently, the types of slab
meltsproposedby DefantandDrummond[1990]cannotbe
Origin of High-magnesiaAndesites producedat the conditionsinvestigatedexperimentally.
Differentdegreesof meltingor intensiveparameters might,
Because the HMA studied are not saturated with an however,producethe siliceous,high-MgOmelts. As with
eclogiteassemblage, they couldnot havebeengeneratedby the inverse experiments,the melting investigationsare
slab melting at the intensive parametersof these experi- broadlyconsistent with the modelsof Kay [ 1978] andMy-
ments (Table 7). The HMA are, however, multiply satu- ers and Frost [1994]. The phaserelationsdo, however,
rated with mantle phasesat moderatepressuresand high limit the conditions under which each model would be vi-
water contents(> 7 wt %). These phaserelationsare in- able. Productionof siliceousliquids [Kay, 1978] requires
compatiblewith the slab-meltingmodel of Defant and smalldegreesof melting at high pressures whereasmuch
Drummond [1990], but are consistentwith the interaction largerdegreesof meltingare requiredfor primaryandpa-
of magma with peridotite during ascent. Becausethe in- rentalHAB melts [Myersand Frost, 1994].
verseexperimentsrevealnothingaboutthe natureof the re-
actingmagma, either the model of Kay [1978] or that of Petrogenesis of EvolvedCalc-alkalineLavas
Myers and Frost [1994] could explain the observedrela-
tions. Both of thesemodelsimply the existenceof a litho- None of the andesitesinvestigatedby Baker and Eg-
sphericmagmatic plumbing systembetween the magma gler [1987] were multiplysaturated underanhydrous con-
sourceand crustal-levelmagma chambers. An alternative ditionsat pressures lessthan 10 kb (Table7). The addition
interpretationof the observed phase relations suggests of 2 % water at 2 kb did not producemultiplesaturationor
HMA are producedby peridotitepartialmeltingwith large alterthe orderof crystallization.In contrast,the high-SiO2
amountsof water in the pressurerange 10-17 kb. Because andesites crystallizepl + opx between5 and 8 kb with low
peridotitemelting is assumedto produceHMB in many arc watercontents[Eggler, 1972;Eggler and Burnham,1973]
models,a peridotitemelting origin for HMA would require anddacitesare multiply saturated with pl + opx + cpx or pl
a different melting regime. Differences in the melting + opx at very low pressures (< 1 kb) whenthe melts
246 ARC MAGMA PHASE EQUILIBRIA

water-saturated
[Egglet, 1972;$ekineet al. 1979]. Because 3. multi-sourcemodels:Becausethereare a varietyof
fractionation schemes for the formation of evolved lavas multi-sourcemodels each producingmajor arc mafic lava
generallyinvolveremovalof pl + ol/opx+ cpx + mt [e.g. types differently, the phase equilibria predictedby multi-
Myers et al., 1995], these experimentalresultssuggest sourcemodels are best summarizedindividually by lava
"crustal"magmachambers may be locatedovera rangeof type. Depending upon the model, high-magnesiabasalts
depths. Under anhydrousconditions,calc-alkalinesuites may be either primary or derivative liquids. Despitethe
musthaveevolvedat pressures greaterthan 10 kb thereby differencein origin, the samephaserelationsare consistent
placingcrustalchambersat depthsgreaterthan 30 km. with both models:(a) peridotitemelting will not produce
Conversely,fractionationfrom water-saturated magmas HMB liquids becausethey were formed by open-system
would requirevery shallow(- 3 km) plumbingsystems. processes,and (b) ol + cpx + opx must define the HMB
Intermediatewater contentswouldplacemagmachambers liquidii. In this instance,experimentalstudiescannotdif-
at moderatedepths. The positioningof thesechambershas ferentiatebetweena primary or differentiatedorigin. For
importantimplications for crustalgrowthmodelsaswell as the more mafic basalts,multi-sourcemodelsexplainHAB
thermal and physical models of crustal and subcrustal lavas as either primary or differentiatedmagmasbut pre-
structure. Additional phase equilibria studiesof evolved dictedphaseequilibria differ betweenthe two models. A
lavasand HAB are necessaryto determinewhich of these primaryorigin for HAB dictates:(a) eclogitepartialmelting
experiments areappropriate for the genesis of themajority mustproduceHAB liquids,and (b) HAB mustbe saturated
of evolvedcalc-alkalinelavas. Ratherthan usinggeneti- with somecombinationof cpx and garnet. Conversely,if
cally unrelatedsamplesas in the past,theseinvestigations they are derivativeliquids:(a) fractionationof HMB liquids
should focus on individual calc-alkaline suites. In this mustproduceHAB magmas,and (b) ol must appearon the
manner,the phaseequilibria resultscan be combinedwith HAB liquidus. Phaseequilibriapredictedfor HMA depend
other petrologicinformationto constrainbettermodelsof upon whetherthey are presumedto be primary or deriva-
magmaevolutionat "crustal"depths. tive melts. If they are of primary origin: (a) eclogitemelt-
ing at high pressuremust yield HMA-like liquids,and (b)
HMA mustbe saturatedwith somecombinationof cpx and
garnet. A differentiatedorigin suggests:(a) HMA liquids
SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS cannotbe producedby simpleforward experimentsbecause
of their open-system origin,and(b) ol + cpx+ opxmultiple
Every subductionzone petrologicmodel, whether de- saturationmustdefinethe HMA liquidus. The lattercondi-
rived from geochemical, isotopic or geophysical con- tion couldreflect generation of HMA by partialmelting
straints,implies a certain set of phase equilibria. These withinthe wedgeor interaction of a primarymagmaof un-
phaserelationsprovide additionaland independenttestsof knowncharacterwith the mantleduringascent.
the proposedmodels. For the three major classesof petro- Presently, the number of experimental phase
logicmodels,thesecriteriainclude: equilibriastudiesthat bear on the major questions of sub-
1. slab-dominatedmodels:(a) eclogitepartial melts ductionzonemagmatismis limited. For example,experi-
mustbe HAB-like in composition,(b) HAB musthavehigh mental studiesunder anhydrousconditionsexist for only
-pressureliquidii saturatedwith some combinationof ec- threeHAB. In addition,experimentaldifficulties,e.g. iron
logite phases,i.e. cpx and garnet; (c) HAB liquids must lossor quenchcrystallization,as well as significantdiffer-
produce calc-alkaline liquid-lines-of-descentat low pres- encesbetweenstartingmaterialsand typical calc-alkaline
sure, and (d) evolved calc-alkalinelavas must be saturated lavaslimit the generalapplicabilityof someexperiments.
with plag, ol, cpx, +opx. (Becausethe proposedgeneration Becausemostphaseequilibriastudieshave focusedon ge-
of evolved calc-alkaline lavas is the same for all three mod- neticallyunrelatedsamples,their potentialfor unraveling
els, this last condition also holds for the other two models the originof more evolvedarc lavas,e.g. basalticandesites
discussedbelow.) throughdacites,hasalsonot beenfully realized.
2. mantle-dominatedmodels: (a) partial fusion of Despite these limitations, phase equilibria studies
peridotite at high pressureand under hydrousconditions havebeenusefulin placingcertainconstraints on the origin
mustproduceHMB liquids,(b) HMB liquidsmustbe satu- of primary arc magmasand their evolution. Thesecon-
rated with some combinationof ol, cpx and opx underthe straints can be summarized as follows:
same conditions, (c) HMB liquid-lines-of-descentmust 1. HAB could be generatedby eclogite partial melting
produceHAB-like liquids, and (d) HAB liquidii must be underanhydrousconditionsat highpressure;
definedby ol (with or withoutotherphases). 2. HMB may be generatedby peridotitemelting
 MYERS AND JOHNSON 247

Table 9: PhaseEquilibriaStudiesNeededto TestArc Models Becauseof the limited experimentalresults(Table 8)

ForwardExperiments InverseInvestigations andthe complexnatureof arcpetrologicmodels(Figure5),
High-magnesiaBasalt Generation many opportunities exist for future phaseequilibriaex-
ß peridotitemeltingat moderate
to ß anhydrous
HMB studies
periments(Table 9). Theseexperiments can be grouped
highpressuresandwithvariable ßhydrous HMB experiments
H20 into four classeseach focusedon the origin of one of the
ß peridotite-HABsandwichexperi- main lava classesimportantin arcsworldwide.The utility
ments
of theseexperimentscan be greatlyenhancedby careful
consideration of the consequences of a varietyof petrologic
High-alumina Basalt Generation
models. In this manner,experimentsaddressing a variety
ß eclogitemeltingexperimentscov-ß anhydrous
HAB studies
eringa rangeof conditions
and ß HAB mineraladditioninvestiga- of objectivescanbe designed(Table9). Whereasprevious
startingcompositions tions investigationshave commonlyfocusedon individualsam-
ß hydrousHAB experiments ples or startingmaterialsthat are not geneticallyrelated,
future experimental investigationsof cogenetic calc-
HMB/•AB PetrologicConnection
alkaline suitesoffer a means of addressingarc petrologic
ß hydrous
HMB crystallization ß anhydrous
HAB studies
ß HAB mineral addition investiga- questionswithin a coherentand systematicframework.
tions
Such an approachpermits a close integrationof experi-
ß hydrousHAB experiments mental studieswith comprehensivegeologic,petrographic
High-magnesiaAndesiteGeneration
and geochemicalinvestigations.
ß anhydrouseclogitemeltingat ß anhydrous
HMA investigations
highpressure ß hydrousHMA experiments Acknowledgments. Unofficial reviews by Travis McElfresh,
ß peridotitemeltingat low to moder- Carol Frost,KirstenNicolaysenand SusanSwappand official re-
atepressuresandwith variable
H20
views by Simon Peacockand Jeffrey Ryan materiallyimproved
ß peridotite-HABsandwichexperi- this paper and are gratefully acknowledged. This project was
ments supported,in part, by NSF GrantsEAR 91-17809 (J.D. Myers)
ß peridotite-siliceous
meltsandwich and EAR 95-06045 (A.D. Johnston).
experiments

Evolved lava Evolution

ß anhydrous
HAB studies ß anhydrous
crystallization
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Myers, J.D., B.D. Marsh, C.D. Frost, and J.A. Linton, Petrologic
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Mysen, B.O., and A.L. Boettcher, Melting of a hydrousupper
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 MYERS AND JOHNSON 249

Nicholls,I.A., and A.E. Ringwood,Effect of wateron olivine sta- Takahashi,

E., andI. Kushiro,Meltingof a dry peridotite
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Perfit,M.R., H. Brueckner,J.R. Lawrence,and R.W. Kay, Trace high pressures,
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Ringwood,A.E., The petrologicallevolutionof islandarc sys- chemicalevolutionof the mantlewedgein the northeast Japan
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Sekine,T., T. Katsura,and S. Aramaki,Water saturatedphasere- Res., 99, 22,275-22,283, 1994.
lationsof someandesiteswith applicationto the estimationof Tatsumi,Y., M. Sakuyama,H. Fukuyama,and I. Kushiro,Gen-
the initial temperatureand water pressureat the time of erup- erationof arc basaltmagmasandthermalstructureof the man-
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Singer,B.S., J.D. Myers, and C.D. Frost,Mid-Pleistocenelavas 5825, 1983.
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Sisson,T.W., and T.L. Grove, Experimentalinvestigationsof the perimentsand natural rocks,d. Volcanol. Geotherm.Res., 29,
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1993a. dleton, Sedimentincorporationin island-arcmagmas:infer-
Sisson,T.W., and T.L. Grove,TemperaturesandH20 contentsof ences
from10Be,Geochem.
Cosmochim.
Acta,50, 535-550,
low-MgO high-aluminabasalts,Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 113, 1986.
167-184, 1993b. Wyllie, P.J., and M.B. Wolf, Amphibolitedehydration-melting:
Stern, C. and P.J. Wyllie, Melting relationsand basalt-andesite- sortingout the solidus,in MagmaticProcesses and Plate Tec-
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Mineral. Petrol., 42, 313-323, 1973. andC.R. Neary,Geol. Soc.Spec.Publ.76, pp. 405-416, 1993.
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1978.
Stem, R.J., On the origin of andesitein the Northern Mariana is- A.D. Johnston,Departmentof GeologicalSciences,University
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 DecipheringMantle and CrustalSignaturesin SubductionZone Magmatism
Jon P. Davidson
Departmentof Earth and SpaceSciences,UCLA, Los Angeles,CA 90095

A compilationof datafor arc volcanic rocksfrom modernsubduction zonesshowsthat they

are highly differentiated relative to probable mantle-derivedmagmas. When examined on a
volcano-by-volcanobasis, the differentiationof arc magmascan commonly be shown to be
open system, so that source geochemical characteristics may be obscured. When such
overprintingeffects are accountedfor, mantle-derivedcompositionsare shownto be enrichedin
fluid-mobileincompatibleelements,consistentwith the additionof a slab-derivedcomponent
to the arc source.The remaining incompatibleelements are depleted relative to MORB, and
suggestderivationfrom a wedgefrom which melt has alreadybeen recentlyextracted.

IN PURSUIT OF ARC MANTLE SOURCES
Fundamental questionsthat remain unansweredin arc
magmagenesis
are;
1. What is the (presubduction)compositionof the mantle
wedgesourceof arcmagmas?
2. To whatextentdoesit melt, andby whatprocess?
3. What is the compositionand amount of slab-derived
component addedto thewedge?
Clearly if we can sampleundifferentiatedmagmasthat
have comedirectlyfrom the subduction-modified wedge
thenwe canpotentiallyaddress the abovepoints.If we can
definitivelyestablishthe compositionof the wedge,then
mass balance considerations will enable us to constrain
questions2 and 3. With suchconstraintswe will be able to
addressquestions of the extentof crustalrecyclingat arcs,
the role of arc magmatismin generatingthe continental
crust, and the role of arc magmatismin controllingthe
evolutionof crustandmantlecompositions.
Why havetheanswers to theseapparentlystraightforward
questionseludedus for so long?Two principlelimitations
have confounded us:
1. The scarcityof near-primarymagmacompositionsat
arcs, and the realization that magmas have been
profoundly modified during ascent through the
lithosphere.
2. Arcs are dynamic systemsin spaceand time, suchthat
compositionalvariationsoccur in magmaseruptedat
differentedificesalong arcs,across arcs,throughtime
at one location, and between one arc and the next.
Some definitions:The term primitive is usedto describe
rocks that show limited effects of differentiation. Note that
this is a relative term, roughly equivalent to the term
"mafic". The termprimary is reservedfor undifferentiated
magmas- in this casethosewhichcanbe demonstrably in
equilibrium with mantle compositions.While primitive
magmas are erupted at some arcs, it is debatablewhether
any truly primarymagmasreachthe surface[e.g.Hart and
Davis 1978; O'Hara, 1968]. Commonlyusedacronyms
usedhereininclude;LILE = LargeIon LithophileElements
(large ionic radius,low ionic chargeelements,generally
alkaliandalkaliearthmetals;groupsI andII of theperiodic
table - Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr), REE = Rare Earth Elements
(the actinides;a geochemicallycoherentgroupwith atomic
numberscorresponding to La throughLu), HFSE = High
Field Strength Elements, small highly charged ionic
species - Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti. MORB and OIB refer to
different basalttypes - mid oceanridge and oceanisland
respectively.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY ARC MAGMAS
Experiments

Subduction:Top to Bottom The general consensusamong arc petrologistsis that

GeophysicalMonograph96 magmas are derived from the mantle wedge, with
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union magmatismtriggeredby lowering of the ambient

251
252 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES

through the addition of a fluid from the slab. This the 100-150 km depth beneaththe arc front at which the
fundamentalassumption formsthe basisof the subsequent slabcommonlylies andmay be a logicalstartingestimate
discussion,but deservesat least brief justification.Two for thedepthof melting,althoughconsideration
of prograde
importantlines of evidenceare offered;(1) high MgO arc metamorphic reactionsin the slabsuggest
thatdehydration
basalts,which appearto be parentalto many arc suites, probably takes place at shallower depths.Lateral fluid
cannotbe derivedby directmeltingof lower MgO oceanic migration by cycles of amphibole formation and break
crust,and (2) mostarc magmasare compositionally distinct
downin the convectingwedge[e.g.Daviesand Stevenson,
from thosethatcan be producedby meltingof amphibolite 1992] may be a more realisticscenario,implyingthat the
or eclogite [e.g. Wyllie, 1982]. In fact high SiO2 low Kactual depth of melting is shallower.Surprisinglyfew
rocks (adakites) found at some arcs where the subducted peridotite+ H20 meltingexperiments havebeenperformed.
plate is anomalouslyyoungand hot, havebeeninterpreted Some results are plotted in Fig. 1 and comparedwith
to representslabmelts [Defant and Drummond,1990]. The primitive arc data.
fact that these are chemically quite distinct from the Can we take theseexperimentallyproducedliquids as
majority of calc-alkalineand tholeiitic arc magmas(e.g. representative
of primary arc magmas?Perhaps,but with
they are stronglylight REE enrichedand have high Sr/Y some caveats.

ratios)might be takenas the exceptionthatprovesthe rule. 1. Melt composition is dependent on the mineral
It shouldarguablybe a simplematterto melt peridotite assemblage in theperidotite.The experiments
of Kushiro
with H20 at about30 kbar. This pressurecorresponds to [1990] use a spinel peridotite from Hawaii. The cpx
16 contentof peridotitein the wedgebeneatharcsmay well
A Tonga-Kermadec be considerablyless,basedon the observedmineralogyof
O Vanuatu
14 • O .+¸ + Aleutians xenolith suites from arcs [Maury et al., 1992;
O New Britain
[] Marianas
Kepezhinskas and Defant, this volume]. Some trace
• 12 ß Kuriles elementcharacteristicssuggestthe sourceis even more
X Lesser Antilles
depletedthan that of MORB (see below), so the source
.• 10 xd-++ 0 peridotite may be more depleted in cpx (and
garnet/spinel),thuslower in CaO andA1203 content.
¸ 8 2. Degree of melting may vary. Do compositionsvary
widely with % partial melting as in Jaquesand Green's
f,.,) 6
1

CVZ (a)
Fig. 1. (a) Compilation of CaO-MgO data for oceanic arcs.
Data from the central Andes (central volcanic zone = CVZ), an
5 10 15 20 25 30
arc built on thick continentalcrust, are shown for comparison
(from Davidson et al., 1990). Data sources in this and later
MgO (wt. %) figures; Bailey et al., 1989; Barsdell, 1988; Barsdell and
25
Berry, 1990; Brophy, 1987; Casteliana and Davidson,
L (b) unpublished; Eggins, 1993; Ewart and Hawkesworth, 1987;
• Fractionating assemblages: Ewart et. al., 1977; Fournelle et al., 1994; Gorton, 1977; Kay
1' ol
and Kay, 1985, 1994; Kersting and Arculus, 1994; Myers et

lpl 2:
ol
+cpx
20
3' cpx + plag + ol al., 1985, 1986; Nye and Reid, 1986; Romick et al., 1990;
iiiiiiiiiiiiii
i 4:plag
+cpx
>ol Singer et al., 1992a, b; Woodhead, 1989). (b) Comparisonof
arc CaO-MgO systematics with primary magmas produced
experimentally from peridotire + H20 [Kushiro, 1990], and
partial melts of anhydrousperidotire[Jaquesand Green, 1980].

7pt5
._•••_•'oO•.,.,o/•'"••'"
•"•
'••••ii
'" lherzolite
melts
t•10 Re'/':'"."::•iii!!•!!!•:•::'iiii}iiii•
•..... field
ofanhydrous The estimated primary magmas field includes primitive non-
cumulate basalts and calculated primary magmas from Plank
•y
magma(s)? and Langmuir [1988]. The diagram shows general fields for
common arc phenocryst phases; olivine, clinopyroxene and
...... field of
"*•O
tio
) plagioclase, to illustrate the effects of removal/ accumulation
?: arc
data
.om(a) ol of these phases in varying proportions. Also shown is the
10 20 30 40 effect of adding 20% bulk crust to a primitive arc magma.
Extrapolatingto 6% MgO (MgO6.0 line) may be ineffectivein
MgO(wt.%) distinguishingdifferent primary magma

[1980] anhydrousexperiments?Control may be through
variationsin the fertility of the peridotite, variationsin
the amountof fluid addedfrom the slab [e.g. Luhr, 1992;
Stolper and Newman, 1994], or variations in the
temperaturestructureof the wedge- which itself may be
a functionof the dynamicsof subduction.
3. The nature of the melting processmay have a large
effect on melt composition. Experiments produce
effectively an in situ batch melt. In reality small melt
fractionscould be continuallyextractedand aggregated,
melting may occur over a vertical column in which the
controllingfactors(P,T, sourcecomposition)change,or
melts may react with the mantle matrix as they migrate
[e.g. Myers et al., 1985; Navon and Stolper, 1987;
Keleman et al., 1990; Plank and Langmuir, 1992 ].
While simplemeltingexperimentscanbe usedas a guide
to evaluatewhethernatural samplesare primitive, they do
not help us greatly in constraining the trace element
characteristicsof primarymelts, which, for many elements,
will be dominatedby the inventoryfrom the slab.
Natural Primitive arc samples
Rare mafic lavas that have been sampledat somearcs,
along with experimentally derived liquids from hydrous
peridotiteare commonly>10% MgO. In contrast,(Figs. 1,
2) the majority of arc lavas are highly differentiated(MgO
<5%). Note that few data points correspond to the
experimentallyproducedcompositions. Differentiationhas,
at least in part, modified virtually all of the samples,and
the effects of crystal fractionation or accumulationcan
hardlybe deniedin mostarc suites.
Many attemptshavebeenmadeto accountfor the effects
of fractionation,suchas filtering datato includerockswith
> 5 or 6% MgO, or extrapolatingfractionationtrendsto an
arbitrary parental value of say 6% MgO [Plank and
Langmuir, 1988; Pearce and Parkinson,1993]. Although
these approachesimplicitly recognize the problem of
differentiationaffectingprimary compositions,they do not
constitutea realistic solution. This, compoundedwith the
probability that much of the protracted intra-crustal
differentiationof arc magmasis open system,rendersthe
majorityof arc databasesimpotentin the questfor well-
constrainedprimary compositions.
The approachof restrictingconsiderationto samples
with >5% MgO excludessome 75% of the arc data base,
and does not circumvent the possibleeffects of olivine
accumulation (Fig. lb). Furthermore, by virtue of
characteristicssuch as relatively low Mg numbersor
porphyritictextures,even thesesamplesappearto have
undergone considerable differentiation from primary
DAVIDSON 253
magmas.Correctingfor differentiationby extrapolatingor
interpolating data trends to some nominal primitive
composition is also ambiguous. From the CaO-MgO
compilation(Fig. 1), it is clear that the datado not project
directlybackto the experimentallyproducedmelts,perhaps
becausemelting involves the addition of H20, or involves
a differentphaseassemblage from that usedin experiments
to date. The turnoverin the CaO-MgO trendmay reflect a
change in the fractionating assemblage from olivine
dominated, to olivine + pyroxene + plagioclase. The
relative proportions of these minerals and the onset of
fractionation of each phase, will be pressure sensitive
[Grove and Baker, 1984] and shouldvary from arc to arc.
Note that there is a small but significantdisplacementto
lower CaO at a given MgO in the general field of
compositionseruptedthroughthick continentalcrust (the
central Andes) when comparedwith island arcs. This can
be, in part, explainedby fractionationat higher pressures
with earlier onsetof cpx crystallizationdepletingCaO (Fig.
lb). The alternativeexplanation,that the primary magma
in the central Andes representsa lower degree of partial
melting becausethe mantle columnis lessin extent [Plank
and Langmuir, 1988], does not accountfor the distinctly
different isotopic compositions, which reflect crustal
contaminationand underscorethe importanceof crustal
level processes.In fact, Plank and Langmuir [1988] show
that high pressurefractionationalone may not adequately
explain CaO-MgO systematics,suggestingthat additional
opensystemeffectsmay be operating(Figure lb).
TRACE ELEMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Arcs are characterizedby a distinct incompatibletrace
elementdistribution,with high LILE/REE and HFSE (Fig.
3). These characteristics (often referred to as the arc
"signature")are distinctfrom the traceelementdistributions
of mostothermagmas(MORB, OIB) andsuggestthat there
is a connection of causality between the trace element
compositionand the processof subduction[e.g. Pearce,
1982]. The consensusis that this patternis a reflectionof
fluid-controlled element partitioning from the slab to the
wedge.Theoreticaland experimental[Tatsumiet al., 1986;
Keppler, 1995] considerations predictthat LILE are fluid-
soluble relative to HFSE, so that in the simplestof cases
arc magmasmay be interpretedas simplymeltsof a mantle
comprising MORB source + LILE-rich fluid (Fig. 3).
Note, however, that many arcs are also characterizedby
light REE (LREE) enrichment,and it hasbeenclaimedthat
high LREE/HFSE (e.g. La/Nb) are also a fundamental
characteristic.Close inspectionrevealsthat, even though
the light REE may be more mobile than heavy REE
254 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES

15 60

Tonga-Kermadec 50 Aleutians

10 40

30

20

10 5 samples
12-20%MgO

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

20 50
Kamchatka Lesser Antilles

15
E• Klyuchevskoy 40
• Grenada
30
10
20

10

0 0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2O 12
Vanuatu Marianas
10
17 samples
15
12-20%MgO

lO 6

00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

MgO MgO
Fig. 2. Compilation of MgO contents for a number of intra-oceanic arcs, illustrating clustering around
differentiatedcompositions(largely <6% MgO). Kamchatkadata are included as the arc is developedon accreted
oceanic lithosphere, albeit thickened. Kluyechevskoy is distinguishedfrom other Kamchatka samples as it is
formed on the edge of the Central Kamchatka Depression, a back-arc rift. There may also be tectonic
complicationsat the southernend of the Antilles arc, such as the juxtaposition of South American lithosphere,
that influence magma compositionsto producedistinctlymore mafic lavas on Grenada.

fluids [Tatsumi et at., 1986], the most primitive arc
magmas are actually quite low in La/Nb (although still
high in Ba/Nb), and therefore the LREE enrichment
observed at some arcs may be a secondaryeffect (M.
Dungan,personalcommunication,1992).
Recent studies focusing in particular on B and Be
systematicshavemadeconsiderable progressin identifying
the natureof the slab-derivedcomponent[e.g.Morris et at.,
1990; Edwards et al., 1993; Leeman et al., 1994]. The
inventoryof bothelementsat arcsis dominatedby the slab-
derived flux. Boron has been identified as a particularly
slab-fugitiveelement,releasedfrom the subductedslaband
concentratedinto magmas at the arc front. Correlations
with løBe,whichis concentrated
in young(lessthan5
 DAVIDSON 255

1000. , I subducted sediment, indicate that both elements have short

-' MORB (a) mantle residencetimes and are effectively flushedthrough
¸ : Island arc tholeiite the lithosphere without significant modification, thus
•o• Continental crust providing robust indicators of slab contributions.
Nevertheless, most other trace elements reflect a more
• 100 complex inheritance, and cannot be used to determine
mantle or slab contributions without judicious
consideration of the effects of differentiation

DIFFERENTIATION- OVERPRINTING OF PRIMARY

CHARACTERISTICS

This sectionunderscoresthe importanceof recognizing

Island-arc tholeiite "secondaryeffects"- namelythoseof differentiation.It is
1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I clear from above that we cannot equate basaltic with
undifferentiated
or uncontaminated.
Ba RbThK NbLaCeSrNdSmZrTi Tb Y Yb
A major problemat continentalmarginarcs,is that the
crustsharesgeneraltrace elementcharacteristicswith arc
basalts(Fig. 3). Of course,thismay simplyreflectthe fact
that much of the crust was formed at subduction zones or in

100Island-arc
tholerite
MORB(b) subduction-likeenvironments.Other than to point out the
importanceof understandingarcmagmatism beforewe can

. evaluate the origins of the continental crust, the

implicationsof this observation
are beyondthe scopeof

• 10 arc -"'. ----- •-• this paper. But the similarity in trace element
characteristics means that the effects of crustal

• source/ contaminationon arc magmasmay be obscured.Trace

elementsignaturessuchas high Rb/Nb whichhavebeen
usedto fingerprintcrustaleffectson flood basalts[e.g.
• 1 Leeman and Hawkesworth 1986] are of limited use in
monitoringcrustalcontamination of arc basaltsfor which
high Rb/Nb is a primary characteristic.The isotopic

0.1 .NN.,•
,••_•
_•
m•__
partial 11
•",•1,'
ennchm""sze = -subduct•on
..... zone
Ba RbThKNbLaCe SrNdSmZrTi
Fig. 3. Traceelementdistributions in arcs. (a) comparison
of
islandarc, bulk continentalcrustand MORB distributions(data
sources; Sun, 1980; Taylor and McLennan, 1985.
Normalization constantsfrom Thompsonet al., 1984). The
trace element patterns of island arc tholeiite and bulk crust are
similar, with the exceptionof Ba, K and Sr, which appearas
"spikes" in arc lavas, and are subdued in the bulk crust
probablyas a result of feldsparand amphibolefractionationin
the more differentiated continentalcrust. (b) schematicmodel
for generating arc trace element distribution from a MORB
source. Subduction zone enrichment (sze) adds fluid-soluble
elements[cf Tatsumiet al., 1986] as shownby the shading.
This enrichedsourceis thenpartiallymelted(pm) to generatea
primitive arc tholeiite.
signatureof continentalcrust may serve as a simple
ent[1 identifyingtracer,buteventhismaybe of little valueif the
crustis sufficientlyyoungthata radiogenicisotopecontrast
Tb Y Yb hasnotdeveloped[Davidsonet al., 1987].
If we restrict consideration to oceanic island arcs alone
then surely we can circumventthe potential effects of
contaminationby continentalcrust.Unfortunatelythis is
not the case.Continentalsedimentsare foundthroughout
theoceans.The thickestaccumulations arenearthemargins
of the oceanic lithospherewhere island arcs tend to be
located.But canwe reallyexpecta relativelythinveneerof
sedimentto be a potential contaminantto arc magmas?
Many modelsof arc magmagenesis invoke of the order 1-
2% bulk subductedsedimentto explainmany of the trace
element and isotopiccharacteristicsof the volcanicrocks.
If the mantle melts by 10%, incompatible element
abundanceswill be a factor of-10 greater than in the
source,so 10 times as much sediment(10-20% bulk) will
be neededto causethesameeffectsby contamination
256 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES

differentiationas 1-2% sourcecontaminationß

This may not 15.9
be obviousfrom the major elementdata(Fig. lb). IO Mt Peleelavas
As an example, considera suite of samplesfrom a
15.8
.• Martinique
-
(other
centers) Localsediment •,.••.•.*..:.'..•:• -
typical
island
arcvolcano,
Mt.Pel•eintheLesser
Antilles.
A standard
2ø6pb/2ø4pb-2ø7pb/2ø4pb
isotopediagram
(Fig.
4) shows samplesfrom Mt. Pel•e defining an inclined
positive array, that could reasonably be interpreted as 15.7 . .o•,•.•'5ff•:::',7 \
dxq',•
•,xx•;/••l'•...'.•'_9•
ßß AllMartinique
"
reflecting
mixing
between
subducted
sediment
(represented
by the DSDP Hole 543 sediments)and the mantle wedge
noc•
oce•ic
crest
.•;'6•• '••
(representedby oceanfloor basaltsfrom the sameDSDP
15.6
hole).However,closerinspectionof the datarevealsa good
correlation between Pb isotope ratios and indices of
15.5 ß;':,':•:',:'•';':;:i.'," , , , , • ....
differentiation- suchas SiO2.Suchcorrelationsimply that
the isotoperatiosare modifiedduring differentiation,and a 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0
process of simultaneous assimilation and fractional
crystallization(AFC) is implicated.Again, this resultdoes
2ø6pb/2ø4pb
not precludeinitial sedimentcontaminationin the source, 19.6 ' ' ' I' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' '
such as described by Plank and Langmuir [1993], but
Mt Pelee(Martinique)
underscoresthe leverage that intra-crustalcontamination
may ultimately have on the compositionsof arc rocks. At 19.5
thisstage
thepoint
isnottosuggest
thisasanalternative o
to sourcecontamination,which on the basisof 1øBedata 19.4
alone must be a factor at many arcs [Morris et al., 1990]ß
e
The point is to recognizethe possibilityof crustal 19.3
contamination
duringdifferentiation,
whichmaymodifythe
inventoryof elements.
19.2 eee ß
CIRCUMVENTING THE SLAB COMPONENT: HFSE
o
CHARACTERISTICS 19.1 , ,, I, , , I , , , I,, , I , , , I ,, , I , , ,

50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Acceptingthe conventionalwisdomthat a slab-derived
fluid enrichesthe mantle sourceof arc magmas(Fig. 3), it
SiO:
will be difficult to constrain the relative contributions of
fluid-soluble elements from the slab and wedge Fig. 4. (a) Pb isotope data for the Lesser Antilles,
respectively.The inventoryof suchelementsin primaryarc emphasizing samples from a single volcanic edifice, Mt.
Pe16e. Arrow illustrates conventional interpretation of Pb
magmas will be a function of; (1) the mineral-fluid and
isotopes; mixing of subducted sediment (represented by
mineral-melt partition coefficients, (2) the element compositionsrecoveredfrom DSDP hole 543 just outboardof
concentrations in the slabandmantle,and(3) thedegreeand the arc) with the mantle wedge (representedby local oceanic
mechanismof partial meltingof the enrichedmantle.All of crust from the same hole). (b) Correlation between
thesefactorsarepoorlyconstrained, andcompounded by the 2ø6pb/2ø4pband SiO2 for comagmatic Mt. Pe16esamples,
possibleoverprintingeffects of crustalcontaminationfor indicating that significant modification of Pb isotopes,
which contaminantcompositions,phase assemblagesand generating
a range
in2ø6pb/2ø4pb,
occurs
during
intra-crustal
partition coefficients are equally vague. Limited differentiation. All samples< 50,000 years old. Data from
experimentaldata on traceelementpartitioninginto fluids Davidson[1986], andEllisor and Davidson[1992].
indicate that LILE and possibly LREE are fluid mobile
comparedwith heavy REE and HFSE [e.g. Tatsumiet al.,
1986; Keppler, 1995]. Basedon thesedata, andpredictions the elements Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Y, P, Yb, V and Sc will be
from known geochemicalcharacteristics,a suite of trace referredto as WC elements(Wedge-Controlled).If totally
elements can be identified, the distributions of which are incompatible, concentrations
in primarymagmaswouldbe
largely unaffected by the slab contribution, and are a function of simply source composition,degree and
controlledonly by melting of the wedge.For our purposes mechanismof melting. But most of the elements
 DAVIDSON 257

Fig. 5. (a) Histogram of Zr/Nb ratios for various primitive

(it) 35
I i i i i i i i i

MORB [] Vanuatu arcs, comparedwith rangesfor OIB and MORB. (b) Model
DIB
30 [] Aleutians
[] New Britain
examiningfeasibilityof producingthe range in arc Nb/Zr (and
[] Marianas therefore ZffNb as in (a)) ratios from a common sourcethrough
25
[] Kuriles silicate-melt fractionationprocesses.The y axis showsNb/Zr
[] Kamchatka normalized to a source ratio of 1, while the x axis shows the
difference in bulk distribution coefficient between Zr and Nb.
15 Model curves are constructed for a normalized Nb/Zr source
ratio of 1. Normalization enables comparison of Zr/Nb
10
systematics
regardlessof sourceratio. Horizontallinesmarked
5 for each arc indicate the maximum range in Nb/Zr, normalized
to the most primitive (lowest)Nb/Zr ratio in eacharc, which is
0
presumedto be closestto that of the source.In orderto explain
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 the large rangesin many arcseither (1) the degreeof melting
Zr/Nb must range to very low (<5%' F= 0.05) and Nb must be
0.1 perfectlyincompatible,and/or(2) the differencein distribution
(b)
//•.•
/I i
"./ Marianas
ic• • i / -.•i
Kuriles
coefficientsbetween Zr and Nb during mantle melting must be
large (>0.3). (c) Nb-Zr relationshipsshowinghow Zr/Nb may
be fractionatedduring meltingof a MORB source,given DNb =
/NewBritain
0 and Dzr = 0.1, 0.2 or 0.3. Comparisonwith selecteddata
[ Vanuatu
/ 0.25 suggests that Zr/Nb ratios do not vary much with
/Antilles/' differentiation, and are relatively high (arguing for a large %
meltingand/ora mantlesourcewith higherZr/Nb thanthat of
// /,•.. f;f....
.... Kamchatka Batchmelting 0.5 MORB). Rangeof MORB ZffNb givenby shadedband.
/ / /'.- ,-"
.- ,--"Aleutians •b=0.1
=0
data are available for primitive arc rocks. This deficiency
1.0 may be redressed soon with the application of ICP-MS
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
technology[e.g. Plank 1994].
Recentwork by Woodheadet al. [ 1993] andPearce and
Dzt-Db Parkinson [1993] has shown that the distribution of WC
(C)10.0 elements in primitive arc rocks is consistent with
derivationfrom a depletedmantle wedge -commonly even
more depletedin incompatibleelementsthan the sourceof
MORB. A simple comparisonof MORB and arcs can be
made usingZr/Nb ratios (Fig. 5a). In general,Zr/Nb ratios
in arcs are higher than those in MORB which, given
Dzr>DNb,suggeststhat the arc sourceis moredepletedthan
MORB sourceor/andthe degreeof partialmeltingat arcsis
higher than that at ridges. Furthermore, the actual
concentrationsof both Zr and Nb are low in primitive arc
0.1 lavas compared with MORB. This also argues against
small degreesof melting or significanteffectsof dynamic/
10 Zr lOO
fractionalmeltingprocessesthatarecommonlycalledon to
producesignificantfractionations
in incompatible
elements.
have non-zero distribution coefficients, and both the A first order model can be devised to examine whether

mineral assemblagein the source and the fractionating variations in Zr/Nb within arcs and between arcs and

mineral assemblageduring subsequentdifferentiationmay
significantly affect their distribution in arc magmas.
Virtually all of the highly incompatibletraceelementsare
fluid-soluble(e.g. Ba, K, Cs), with the exceptionof Nb and
Ta. Nb and Ta offer the greatestpotentialas geochemical
tracers, but are hampered in their use by analytical
difficulties - such that very little high quality Nb and Ta
MORB (and by analogy the overall variations in the
distribution of all WC elements) can be simply due to
variations in the degree of melting of a common source
givenDzr•DNb.In Fig. 5b Nb/Zr is calculatedasa function
of the differencein distributioncoefficientsbetweenthe two
elements(Dzr-DNb)for variousF values(degreeof partial
melting or residual melt during crystallization).
258 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES

10.0
expected,significantfractionationsof Zr from Nb require
significantdifferencesin D i and/orlow degreesof partial
melting. The range of Nb/Zr values for primitive rocks

from many arcs is too high to be explainedby derivation
from a commonsource.With a value of F = 0.1, arguably
a minimumdegreeof partialmelting,(Dzr-DNb)is required
to be _•0.3 for most arcs. While residual HFSE phases
couldeffectsuchfractionations in the wedgeit is considered
unlikely, becauseprimitive suitesfrom many arcs do not
show systematic changes in Zr/Nb with Zr or Nb
concentration(Fig. 5c). Examinationof HFSE systematics
relative to other incompatible trace elements has also
shownthat the relative depletionexistsin the wedgebefore
melting, and may be largely a reflection of relative
enrichment in elements other than HFSE that are derived
from the slab [Davidson and Wolff 1989; Thirlwall et al.,
1994]. It should be realized that the same analytical
difficulties alluded to above may have compromisedNb
data, and make the data shownin Fig. 5 qualitativeat best.
Similar considerations can be made for element ratios such
as Sm/Yb - modelscomparablewith Fig. 5b suggestthat
the rangesin Sm/Yb within individual arcsare unlikely to
result from simple variationsin wedge melting at a given
locality. The implicationis that arc sourcesdo not havethe
same distribution of WC elements as MORB, and vary
within arcs and from arc to arc.
Compilation of WC elementsfor a few representative
primitive arc rocks and comparisonwith MORB shows
depletion in the most incompatible elements relative to
MORB. The distributioncan be modeledto a first orderby
melting of a depletedMORB sourcefrom which 5% melt
has alreadybeenextracted(Fig. 6). Woodheadet al [1993]
suggest that the depletion occurs as a result of melt
extractionby back-arc magmatism,and advectionof the
depletedmaterialinto the wedgewhereit is fluxed by slab-
derived fluids to generate arc magmas. The possibility
deservesexploration and could be addressedsimply by
comparing arcs with and without back-arc systems,and
examining arc - back-arc systemsthroughtime. The most
primitive arc magmas do appear to be associatedwith
extensional lithospheric stresses.This in itself may be
furthersupportfor the role of the upperplatein modifying
magma compositions,since lithosphereunder extension
either through back-arc spreading or local intra-arc
extension, would both facilitate unimpeded passageof
primitive basaltsthroughthe crust [e.g. Singerand Myers,
1990] andpromoteback-arcspreading.
The contentionthat arc magmasare derivedfrom a melt-
depletedwedgewhichhasbeensubsequently metasomatized
by a componentfrom the subductedslab,is consistentwith
limited data from arc mantle xenolith suites.In general,
•10i•...:.:••,•
Partialmeltsof depletedMORB source
(5% melt extracted)
0.01
Nb La Ce Nd Sm Zr Tb Y Yb
Fig. 6. Incompatible trace element concentrationsin
primitivearc lavas(fromVanuatu),compared with modelmelts
of a 2-stagedepletedMORB source.Shadedbarsrepresent the
range in concentrationsof the arc lavas. Model melts were
calculatedfor batchmeltingfrom a MORB source,from which
5% melt has been previouslyextracted.Note that WC element
concentrationsin the arc lavas are reproducedby-• 20% melts
of the depletedsource.LREE showslightrelativeenrichment
in the arc lavas,and may includea contributionfrom the slab-
derived fluid.
mantlexenolithsare rare in arc lavas- in keepingwith the
overall differentiatednatureof the lavas. Where they have
been recovered, for instance in Kamchatka and the
Philippines,theyare depletedin basalticcomponents (low
modalclinopyroxene contents),butenrichedin fluid-mobile
traceelements[e.g.Maury et al., 1992;Kepezhinskas and
Defant, this volume].Althoughit cannotbe unequivocally
demonstrated thatthesesamplesrepresentthe sourcemantle
for arc magmas,the chemicalcharacteristics are certainly
similarto thoseof arc basalts,suggestingthat experiments
usingthesenaturalperidotitesmightprovidea betteranalog
for arcmagmagenesis thanthosepresented in Fig. lb.
USING ISOTOPE SIGNATURES TO DECIPHER
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS.
Isotopesof Sr, Nd andPb havetraditionally
beenusedto
identify contributionsfrom mantle sourcesand the
subductingslab (includingsediments).Pb is particularly
useful in this context because the concentration contrast
betweensubductedsediments(typically> 10 ppm) andthe
mantle (<0.5 ppm) is enormous,the isotopiccontrastis
generallysignificant(continental
sediments
haverelatively
high2ø7pb/2ø4pb) and small sedimentcontributions
 DAVIDSON 259

•Hf • •MORB
readily detectedin Pb isotopesystematicsfrom arcs [e.g.
Armstrong, 1971]. Sr, as a LILE, is expectedto be fluid-

+22 Arcs
mobile and the Sr budget in arc magmas should also be
dominated
by theslab-derived
component.
Indeed,87Sr/86Sr
of primitive arc rocks are uniformly higher than thoseof +20
MORB. The differencein 87Sr/86Sr
betweenprimitivearc
rocks and MORB source is not as great as would be
expectedif the slabSr is derivedpurelyfrom radiogenicSr
+18•
in the sediment,arguingthat a significantproportionof the
slab Sr comes from variably altered oceaniccrust rather
than subducted sediment. At the same time 143Nd/144Nd
ratios in arcstend to be lower than MORB. This too may
reflect Nd from the sediment component of the slab,
consistent with limited fluid mobility of the LREE
[Tatsumi et al., 1986]. On the other hand, the most
primitive arc rocksgenerallytendnot to be LREE enriched,
and it is equally plausiblethat Nd isotopesignatures(and
therefore also Sr and Pb) may also be modified by
contaminationin the upper plate (see Fig. 4). The Sr, Nd
• • • • •--
•elts
and Pb isotopesignaturesof arc magmasare thereforeof
dubious utility in establishingthe characteristicsof the
0 50 100 150 2 4 6 8 lO
wedge source,sincethey have beenmodified by additions
from the slab and/or crustal contamination. Time (Ma) n

Since Hf is a WC element, Hf isotope compositions

may help to document wedge characteristics.Hf in arc
magmasis likely to be derived from the wedge with very
little contribution from the slab or arc crust. The limited
data for arcs [Salters and Hart 1991; White and Patcherr,
1984] indicatethat primitivearc rockshave•76Hf/•77Hf
ratios indistinguishablefrom those of MORB, consistent
with derivationfrom a commondepletedsource.But it has
been arguedabove that arc sourcesare commonlymore
depleted in incompatibleelementsthan MORB sources.
176Hf/177Hfratiosmay thereforebe ableto constrainthe
timing of the depletion. Fig. 7 shows the Hf isotope
evolution of a source from which melts have been
extracted,fractionating Lu fromHf. The actualfractionation
of Lu from Hf will dependon the role of garnet during
melting[SaltersandHart, 1989],buttheoveralleffectwith
time, if DLu•:Di4
f, will be to generatedifferentHf isotopic
signatures betweenarc andMORB sources.The observed
similarityin œI4fsuggests thatdepletionof arc sourceswas
relativelyrecentandis consistent with back-arcprocessing
of the wedge,as suggested by Woodheadet al., 1993 and
Hochstaedter et al., 1995. This conclusion could be
modifiedgiven a morerepresentative
databaseand better
resolutionof Hf isotopedata.
CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS
Constraining
thepetrogenesisof arcmagmasis severely
impededby the paucityof primitivearc rocks.Protracted
Fig. 7. SchematicHf isotopeevolutionof melts and residues
from a MORB sourcemantle over 200 Ma, given DHf = 0.1 and
D Lu = 0.3. Hf isotope ratios are expressedas deviations
relative to a chondritic reservoir as EHf, where;
EHf ('(176Hf/•77Hf)mea
-•).104
= (176Hf/177Hf)cHu
R
CHUR = Chondritic Uniform Reservoir, representingthe bulk
silicate Earth)
For comparisonare rangeof EHf data for arcs (omittingthose
that may have been affected by crustal contamination)and
MORB [from White and Patchett, 1984, Patchett and
Tatsumoto, 1980, Salters and Hart, 1991]. Cross-hatching
corresponds to overlappingarc and MORB data - for instance
there are four MORB and one arc samplewith gHf between+8
and +10. Based on these limited data, there is no significant
differencebetweenMORB and arc EHf. If arcsare derivedfrom
more depleted sourcesthan MORB then the depletion must
have occurred relatively recently. If the depletion event
occurredin the uppermantleduringMORB extraction>100 Ma
ago we might expectEHfvaluesto be distinct.
differentiation at arcs, commonly open system, can
invalidatethe inversionof geochemicaldata to constrain
source contributions. Correcting for the effects of
differentiationto determineprimarymagmacompositions
canonly realisticallybe attempted
at individualvolcanic
edificesfor which a sufficientlydiversesuiteof rockshas
been erupted to enable magmatic evolution to
260 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES
quantitativelymodeled.Comparisonbetweensuchedifices
within andbetweenarcsmay help to constrainthe effectsof
variations in subduction zone geometry and thickness/
compositionof the upperplate [e.g. Luhr, 1992;Leemanet
al., 1994].
Qualitatively, primary arc magmasappearto have been
derivedfrom extremelydepletedsources.The composition
of the wedge sourceand the natureof the meltingprocess,
may, in principle be understoodby considerationof the
distribution of non-fluid-mobile (HFSE and heavy REE)
elements. Depletion likely occurs as a result of melt
extractionfrom the wedgein the back-am,shortlybeforearc
magmatism.
Acknowledgments.This contributionis a crystallizationof
ideas and personal dogmas accumulated through work on
magmatismat a number of arcs. Marge Wilson, John Wolff,
Richard Arculus, Chris Hawkesworth, Marc Defant, Mike
Dungan,Terry Plank, Bill Leeman,JulianPearce,Huw Davies,
Jon Woodhead, Bill White, Julie Morris, Matthew Thirlwall,
Todd Feeley, and many of the authorsincludedin the reference
list have significantly influenced my understandingof arcs -
but should not be held responsiblefor any of my heretical
claims. Insightful commentsand suggestionsfrom B. Singer,
M. Defant and an anonymousreviewer greatly improved the
manuscript. I am extremely grateful to the organizers of
SUBCON for providingus with an engagingand fertile forum
for the discussionof subductionzone processes,and to NSF
(EAR 9303791, 9405340) for financial support.
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Nye C.J., and M.R. Reid, Geochemistryof primary and least
fractionated lavas from Okmok Volcano, central Aleutians:
Implications for arc magmagenesis,J. Geophys.Res., 91,
10271-10287, 1986.
DAVIDSON 261
O'Hara, M.J., The bearing of phase equilibria studies in
synthetic and natural systems on the origin of basic and
ultrabasic rocks, Earth Sci. Rev., 4, 69-133, 1968.
Patchett,P.J. and M. Tatsumoto, Hafnium isotopevariationsin
oceanic basalts, Geophys.Res. Lett., 7, 1077-1080, 1980.
Pearce, J.A., Trace element characteristics of lavas from
destructive plate boundaries, in Andesites: Orogenic
Andesites and Related Rocks, edited by R.S. Thorpe, pp.
525-548, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1982.
Pearce, J.A. and I.J. Parkinson, Trace element models for
mantle melting: application to volcanic arc petrogenesis,in
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Pub. Geol. Soc. London, 76, pp. 373-403, 1993.
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Marianas (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU, 75(44), Fall Meeting
Suppl., 730, 1994.
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variations in the major element chemistry of arc basalts,
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Romick, J.D., M.R. Perfit, S.E. Swanson and R.D. Shuster,
Magmatism in the eastern Aleutian Arc: temporal
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from the Seguam volcanic center, central Aleutian arc:
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petrogenesis
of MarianaTroughmagmas,Earth Planet.Sci.
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Sun, S.S., Lead isotopicstudy of young volcanicrocks from
mid-oceanridges,oceanislandsand islandarcs.Phil. Trans.
R. Soc., A297, 409-445, 1980.
Tatsumi Y., D.L. Hamilton and R.W. Nesbitt, Chemical
characteristicsof fluid phase released from a
262 DECIPHERING MANTLE AND CRUSTAL SIGNATURES
lithosphere and the origin of arc magmas: evidence from
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Hollings, J.P. Davidson, and R.J. Arculus, High Field
Strength Element Anomalies in Arc Lavas: Source or
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in
JonP. Davidson,Departmentof Earth and SpaceSciences,
UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
(email: davidson@
 DescribingChemicalFluxesin Subduction
Zones'Insightsfrom "Depth-
Profiling" Studiesof Arc and ForearcRocks

JeffRyan1,JulieMorris
2, GrayBebout
3, andBill Leeman
4
Trace elementsystematics in convergentmarginmetamorphicand volcanicrocks show that
subductingslabsreleasefluidsof changingcomposition asa functionof depth. Volcanictransects
acrossarcsrecorddeclines in H20-solubleelements(B, Cs,As, andSb) withincreasingdepththat
paralleldeclineswith increasingmetamorphicgradein "subductioncomplex"associations.These
paired,prograde
declines
pointto decreasing
inputsof H20-richfluidsfromthe subducting
slab.
UniformK, Ba,REEand10Belevelsacross
arcssuggest
thatslab-derived
fluxesof different
compositionspersistto greaterdepths. Slabsreturnedto the mantle via subductionshouldhave
profoundly
fractionated
chemical
signatures,
andsubstantial
fluid releases
shouldoccurthrough
forearc regions. Serpentinitesfrom the Marianas forearc show elevated B contents,and
fractionatedtrace element signaturessuggestinginputs of fluids like those released from
metamorphosed slabsat low temperatures.

1. INTRODUCTION evolutionof subducting platesrequiresan understandingof

the chemistryof subduction:what speciesleaveslabsand
In the pastdecade,geologistsstudyingsubductionzones enterthe mantle,do theseinputschange,andhow do these
have come to believe that melting at arcs occursin the additions aff•t arcmagrnatism?
mantle in response to material additions from the We have addressedthese questionsthrough "depth
subductingplate. Currentmodelsview theseadditionsas profile"geochemical studiesof subduction zonemagmatic
fluids releasedfrom the slab, thoughit is suggestedthat and metamorphicrocks. We have examined the trace
meltingis triggeredwhen hydratedmineralsin the mantle elementsystematics of rock suitesreflectingspecificdepth
(formed through reactions with slab-derived fluids) rangesin the subductioncycle to discoverhow and where
decompose [Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995; Davies and different speciesare liberatedfrom the slab. From these
Stevenson,1992]. Insightsinto the compositions of such observations, we can begin to describethe mobilephases
fluids, or into how slab and mantlecompositions change released from the slab at different depths. Below, we
with fluid exchangearelimited. By contrast,
modelsfor the integrate results from several diffrerent studies of
isotopicevolutionof themantleinfera subducted originfor subducfion-relatedvolcanicand metamorphicsuites. Our
certainchemicalsignaturesin intraplatelavas, implying combinedresultssuggestthat slab inputsto the mantle
that the "fingerprint" of subductedmaterials can be occurover a wide depthrange. Trace elementabundance
preserved in the mantle [Hart 1988; Hofmann 1988). levels changewith slab depth, suggestingprogressive
Reconcilingintraplate"slabsignatures"with thepetrologic changesin the compositionof the slab flux. Our results
alsoshedlight on the controlsover meltingbeneatharcs,
•Department ofGeology,University
ofSouth
Florida,
Tampa, FL andintocrust-mantle chemicalrecyclingprocesses mediated
2Department ofEarthandPlanetary
Sciences,
Washington by subduction.
University,St. Louis, MO
2. CROSS-ARC ELEMENTAL VARIATIONS
3Department
ofEarthandEnvironmental
Sciences,
Lehigh
University,Bethlehem,PA
4Department
ofGeology
andGeophysics,
RiceUniversity, The complex nature of slab-mantle exchangesis
Houston, TX apparentin the elementalvariationpatternsobservedin
lavasfrom volcanoesalignedperpendicular
to the strikesof
volcanic arcs. These "cross-arc transects" offer a means to
see if trace element enrichmentsin arc sourceregions
Subduction:Top to Bottom changewithprogressive subduction.Cross-arc
geochemical
GeophysicalMonograph96 data are available from several arcs: Bismarck [Gill et al.
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union 1993], the Aleutians, Izu-Bonin [Ryan and Langmuir,
264 GEOCHEMICAL DEPTH PROFILES

1993; Morris et al., 1990], Central America [Walker et al.,

1995] the Cascades[Leemanet al. 1990], and mostrecently
the Kurils [Ryanet al, 1995].Of theseall but theCascades
andIzu-Boninlavascontain
> 106atoms/g
10Be,indicating
materialinputsfrom subducted trenchsediments
to sub-arc
sourceregions [Tera et al.. 1986]. We focuson results
from the Kurils, and to a lesser extent Bismarck and the
Aleutians,as in thesecaseslavaserupt throughrelatively • • O .....
:'::i:ii:ii:ii:!i:iiii!!i!i!ii!
.....
thin (-15 kin) oceanic crust. Crust-magmainteractions
should thus be minimized, and primitive lavas should
preserve
elementalsignatures
thatmoredirectlyreflecttheir
mantle sources.
Figure 1 plotselementratiosversusBenioffzonedepth
for mafic lavas from the Kuril, Aleutian, and Bismarck arcs.
The concentration of a trace element in an arc lava relates
• 4 3
::•

both to the mantle source abundance of that element, and to O • ...............

::::::::::::::::::::::::
........
the extentsof melting and crystallizationinvolved in its
magmatic evolution. To see through crystal/melt
fractionation effects, we ratio the elements of interest to
others with similar solid/melt distribution behaviors, but
o
muchlower apparentsolubilitiesin H20-rich fluids,such
as mightbe liberatedfroma subducting
slab. Variationsin 4o
these ratios will thus reflect the extent of mantle
contamination by slab-derived
fluidphases.
Two generalcross-arc variationpatternsappear:
30
1. High ratiosrelativeto oceanridge(MORB) or ocean {• 20
island(OIB) basaltmantlesources at the arcvolcanicfront
(VI•, with a progressive declinein ratiosbehindthe front 10
(BTF) towardMORB andOIB values(Figurela).
2. No significantchangesin elementratiosacrossthe I
arc, though ratios may range from values similar to
100 260 . 250
MORBs to highlyelevatedvalues(Figureslb, c). Depth to Benloft Zone, krn
These cross-arc elemental enrichment patterns are
difficult to reconcilewith subductionzonemeltingmodels Fig.1:Plotsof element
enrichment
patterns
versus
Benioff
that assume"point source"slab input eventsassociated zone depth for cross-arctransects. Data from Ryan et al.
[1995]; Morris et al. [1990]; andRyan and Langmuir [1993]
with specificmineralbreakdownreactions[e.g., Tatsumi
Kuril arc data: black triangles:Lvinaya transect;light squares:
1986], as someelementsshowprogressivedeclineswith Medvhyzia transect;black circles: Chirpoy transect;white
depth,suggesting a progressively"distilled"slab;andothers circles: Chirinkotan transect; white triangles: Onekotan
show strong enrichment, but no changeswith depth. transect;black squares:Paramushir-Alaidtransect. Shaded
Elementalfractionations duringthetransportof slab-derived trend representsBismarcktransect(Pago-Ulawan,Makalia,
materials [Davies and Stevenson1992] will be controlled Garove), and and striped trend representsOkmok-Bogoslof
by mantle/fluidor mantle/meltequilibria. However,all of transectin the Aleutians. Hatchedfields representenrichment
the elementsdiscussedabovebehavehighly incompatibly levelsof MORB andOIB sourcemantle. Eachdiagrampresents
in arc lavas,and many(Cs, Rb, Ba, K, B?) showmobility a pcross-arcenrichmentpatternshownby a subsetof trace
in fluidsduringserpentinite dehydrationreactions,suchas elements:
a) decliningenrichment
with depth,shownby B, Cs,
mightoccurin the mantle[Tatsumiet al. 1986; Tatsumi As, and Sb; b) constanthigh enrichmentrelative to other
and Eggins 1995]. Models that assumesedimentmelt mantle sources,
(K, Ba,Rb,and10Be);c) littleenrichment
inputsfrom the slab [Plank 1992] can explainK, Ba and relative
tomantle
sources,
(LREE,Th,9Be,andZr).
REE enrichment pattterns,but havedifficultiesproducing
variable,depth-dependentenrichmentsof B andCs. lavas. Metamorphic
massifs
fromaroundtheworldshow
declinesin B contentwith increasing
grade,evenunderlow
3. EVIDENCE FROM SUBDUCTION-RELATED pressure
andtemperature
conditions
(grinschistfaciesor
METAMORPHIC ROCKS 1ower)[Moranet al., 1992;Beboutet al., 1993;Truscottet
al., 1985;Leemanet al., 1992]. Thisearlymobilizationof
Trace element data from metamorphicrocks suggest B contrasts with the behavior of K, Rb, and Li during
that in key waysparallelthoseseenin arc metamorphism,
fractionations whichall showdepletionsonlyin
 RYAN ET AL. 265

subductingplates, we view the patterns of elemental

Increasing
Devolatilization
• ._ variation in Catalina rocks as broadly representativeof
200
devolatilizingslabs.
B, ppm B/Be
4. DISCUSSION

100
4.1 A ChangingSlab Flux

K•O,%wt.
o Data from subduction-related igneousandmetamorphic
rocks strongly suggest that slab-derived fluid phases
K:•o/Be mobilize elements selectively as a function of changing
pressureand temperatureconditionson the slab. Elements
like B and Cs, which have affinities for lower temperature,
H20-rich fluids, are mobilized in the early stagesof
subduction. The inventories of these elements decline
rapidly as the slab metamorphoses,
so thatat the depthsof
arc sourceregions,thesespeciesare presentin diminished
o o abundances. B contents in arc lavas account for <30% of
L• •B E• E• • L• L'B E• E• • the boron subducted in marine sediments and ocean crust

Fig. 2: Element concentrationand ratio plots of prograde reachingtrenches[Ryan, 1989;Moran et al., 1992]. This
metasedimentaryrocks from the Catalina Schist. Data from degreeof attenuationsuggestsslab conditionsthermally
Beboutet al. [1993; 1995]. Shadedfieldsrepresent rangesof equivalentto amphibolitefaciesCatalinarocks.
samplevalues at a specific metamorphicfacies: each field Nonetheless,in many arc lavas, B enrichmentsare
includes6-15 samples.X-axis legendare metamorphic facies, pronounced.Figure 3 plotsB/Be versusLa/Sm for mafic
arrangedin orderof increasingP-T conditions.LA: lawsonite- lavas from the volcanic fronts of several arcs. La/Sm is
albite; LB: lawsonite-blueschist;
EB: epidoteblueschist;EA: stronglyaffectedby changesin extentsof partial melting,
epidoteamphibolite;A: amphibolite.Each pair of diagrams but is little impactedby changesin slabfluid inputs;while
presentstypical variations of subsetsof elements. a,b) B B/Be is a sensitiveindicator of slab inputs, but is little
contentandB/Be vs. grade(B, Cs, As andSb). c,d) K20 and changedby melting processes.Figure 3 demonstrates a
K20/Be vs. grade(K, Ba, Rb, LREE).
relationshipbetweenslab inputs,and the degreeof partial
melting: the greater the flux from the slab, the more
faciesrocks[Sighinolfiand Gorgoni, 1978]. The Catalina extensive the melting event. While other slab-derived
Schist, a "subduction complex" metamorphic massif, speciesshowsimilarcorrelations (i.e., Ba/Lain somearcs),.
includesmetasedimentary andmetamaficrockswhichrange none show it as prominently as B, which implies that
in gradefrom lawsonite-albiteup to amphibolitefacies inputs of H20-rich fluids from the slab may act as a
(P--0.8-1.2 GPa; T--300-650øC)[Bebout et al., 1996]. primarycontroloverarcmelting.
Rocks of all facies in the Catalina are heavily veined, Melting behind the volcanic front are less clearly
indicatingthepassage of largevolumesof fluid. associatedwith an H20-rich flux, as enrichmentsof B and
Trace element variations with increasing grade in like elements are much lower in these lavas. However,
Catalina Schist metasedimentsand veins show patterns consistently
highabundances
of K andBa (andin somearcs
similar to thoseobservedin the Kurils: B and Cs (also As 10Be)[Morrisand Tera, 1989]in lavaseruptedbehind
and Sb) contentsdecline steadily with increasinggrade, volcanicfrontsindicatesignificant,but differentslabinputs
while K and Ba showlittle changein concentration savea to thesesourceregions. Alkaline elementcontentsin arc
slightincreasein amphibolitefaciesrocks[Beboutet al., lavasgloballyshowcorrelations with abundances in modern
1996]. Declines in B and Cs contents correlate with trenchsediments[Plank and Langmuir 1993], suggesting a
declinesin H20, suggestingan H20-rich fluid was the sediment-dominatedsubductioncomponent. Melting of
medium in which thesespecieswere removed [Beboutet slabsediments,inducedpossiblyby muscovitebreakdown,
al., 1996]. or inputs of pegmatite-like fluids generatedon slabs at
Pegmatites,which occur only in amphibolitefacies highermetamorphic grades,may serveto addK, Ba, REEs
Catalina rocks, show trace elementsignaturessimilar to and like speciesfrom slabsedimentsto the mantlewithout
theirmetamorphosed hosts.Thesepegmatites mayrepresent strongly fractionating them, as solid/melt distribution
a highertemperaturecomponentof the slabflux in which coefficients for many species in high-SiO2 magmatic
elementsthatare relativelyinsolublein H20-rich fluids(K, systemsapproach 1 [Henderson, 1982; Plank, 1992;
Ba, REE?) may be liberated. Althoughthe CatalinaSchist Johnsonand Plank, 1993]. Elementssolublein higher
reflectshottermetamorphicconditionsthan are typical of temperature,SiO2-richfluids/meltsareliberatedlaterin
266 GEOCHEMICAL DEPTH PROFILES

150

ForearcOutputsof
I-I20-rich
fluid km
• 100
Aleutians

• 50 Kamchatka

Georgia Grp.
-'75

0 3 6 9
LMSm
of SiO2-rich
beneath arcs
and deeper

Fluid
Partial Melting ag H20
Inputs Inputs
from to Slab Fluid
the Additions
Slab
To the deepmantle:dry, depletedslabs
Fig. 4. Profile of a subductionzone depicting model of
varying slab-mantleexchangesdescribedin the text. Dotted
contoursrepresenttypical subductionzone isotherms;shaded
Increasing Extents of Partial Melting and speckledarrows,respectively,representH20- and SiO2-
rich fluids releasedfrom the slab at differentdepths. The source
Fig. 3a. B/Be vs. La/Sm for mafic VF lavas from severalarcs. regions of arc lavas are contaminatedby a mixed slab flux in
Data sourcesare Ryan and Langmuir [1993]; Ryan et al. which the proportionof H20-rich fluids decreasesas a function
[1995]; and Austin et al., in prep. Individual data points of subduction-related metamorphism.
representVF basaltsfrom the Kuril arc; fields are as marked.
3b. Explanatory schematic of 3a., outlining relationship
betweenslabinputsand degreeof meltingdescribedin text. 4.2 Implicationsfor Deep Slabs,andForearc Fluid Fluxes

The model for slab-mantleexchangesoutlinedabove

subductionprocess, so significant inventoriesshould will result in pervasive chemical modification of
remain on the slab to contaminate mantle sources behind subductingplates.Deepslabswill be highlydevolatilized,
arc volcanic fronts. andstronglydepletedin H20-solublespecies like B andCs.
Slab inputsto arc sourceregionscan thusbe described The degreeto whichmore"refractory" traceelements like K
as a mixture of at leasttwo components: one rich in H20, and Rb are released from the slab is unclear, as these
and anotherwhich may be rich in SiO2. The proportions speciesshowlittle changewithin the zone of meltingin
of these componentsvary as a function of progressive arcs. Back-arc basin lavas may preserve elemental
subduction,suchthat forearcand volcanicfront inputsare signatures derivedfrom deepslabs,thoughdisentangling
H20 dominated,and behind-the-frontsourcesseea more the effects of such inputs from those of fluid/mantle
SiO2-rich flux (Figure 4). Implicit in this model is the interactionsmay be difficult. Stolperand Newman[ 1994]
ideathatslab-mantlechemicalexchanges occurovera wide recognizedin the trace element systematicsof Marianas
rangeof depths,andthatelementalfractionations inducedby Trough basaltsadditionsof a phasehigh in H20, but
mantle/meltor mantle/fluidequilibriaarenegligiblerelative enrichments in K, Rb, and Ba smaller than those seen in
to thoseproducedby the metamorphicevolutionof the Marianasarc lavas,whichtheydescribeasinputsof a slab-
slab. While high pressuremantle/fluidand mantle/magma derived fluid which has undergoneextensivechemical
interactionsmay be viablefor generatingHFSE depletions exchangewith the mantle. The modestK, Rb, and Ba
in arc lavas [e.g., Kelemen et al., 1990], such processes enrichmentsof Troughlavascouldalsoreflectinputsfrom
need not be invoked to explain most of the elemental an evolvedMarianaslab,asmetamorphic processing should
fractionationsobservedin arcs. Arc lavas preservetrace diminishslabinventoriesof thesespecies.Distinguishing
element systematicsconsistentwith elementalpatterns slab- and mantle-induced elemental fractionations in the
inferredto developon the slabas a resultof subduction- back arc is difficult given currentknowledge,and both
inducedmetamorphism. processesmaywell be

= 16 ppm B
lO
lOO
3.5 ppm Li
lO
lOOO
lOO
lO
= 65 ppm K
100 200 3oo
Depth in Core, m
Fig. 5. Plots of element abundanceversuscore depth for
ConicalSeamountserpentinitesamplesfrom Hole 779A, ODP
Leg 125. Data from Mattie and Ryan, in prep. Dashedlines
refer to meanabundancelevelslistedin eachdiagram. Shaded
fields representprimitive-to-depletedmantle abundancelevels
based on data from Ryan and Langmuir [1987; 1993] and
McDonoughand Sun [1995].
A second implication of our model is that large
amountsof H20 (and entrainedH20-soluble elements)
must leave the slab in forearc regions. As mentioned
above, >60% of the boron subductedat trenchesleaves the
slabbeforereachingarcs. However,the only largeoutput
flux of B in the forearc, desorptivefluid releasesfrom
sedimentsin accretionaryprisms[Spivack, 1986; You et
al., 1992; 1995], returns only ~10% of the subductedB
budget. Largeamountsof B (andH20) mustfollow other
paths.
Serpentiniteseamounts in the MarianasandIzu-Bonin
forearcsmay reflect this unseenforearcflux. The Conical
Seamount in the Marianas forearc is an active mud volcano,
ventingfluidsand serpentinite
clastsandmuds[Fryer et al.,
1992]. Pore fluid compositions from Conical show
elevated B and Rb contents, and slightly elevated K
contents relative to seawater, which along with low
RYAN ET AL. 267
chlorinity, and high levels of volatile hydrocarbonsand
ammonia, strongly indicate a subductedorigin [Mottl,
1992]. Conical Seamountcore samplescollectedon ODP
Leg 125 are serpentinizeddunitesand harzburgiteswith
high B contents,modestlyelevatedLi contents,and K and
Ba contentsindistinguishable from depletedmantlesources
[Mattie and Ryan, 1994](Figure 5). While elemental
distributions in Leg 125 serpentinitesare still being
examined,thesepreliminaryresultssuggestinputsof an
H20-rich fluid high in B and low in K and Ba, similarto
fluidsreleasedby low-gradeCatalinaSchistmetasediments.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Through the study of geochemical"depthprofiles"
across subduction zones, we have come to view the slab
input processas a spectrumof slab/mantle exchanges
occurringover a range of depths. The compositionsof
slab-derivedfluids changedue to progressive
metamorphic
evolutionof slabsedimentsandoceancrust. Highly H20-
soluble trace elements(B, Cs) mobilize early, showing
depletionsin low grademetamorphic rocksandenrichments
in forearc fluids; and subduct poorly, showing little
enrichmentat volcanoessitedabovedeepslabs.The role of
subduction in the chemical evolution of the mantle is still
imperfectlyunderstood.Furtherstudyof chemicaltransport
processesboth deeperand shallowerthanseenin arcswill
help quantifythe effectsof subduction
on bothmodemand
ancient mantle sources.
Aknowledgments. Thanks to A. Tsvetkov for providing
samplesand data from the Kuriles, and to Steve Shirey, Brady
Byrd, and Dave Kuentz for their aid in analyzingKuriles and
Catalina samples on the ICP at DTM. Thanks also to C.
Edwards, D. Miller, T. Plank, A.F. Hochstaedter, M. Defant,
and P. Kepezhinskasfor discussions which led to insights,and
for helping to create a ferment of subductionthinkingthrough
which the first authorhashad the pleasureof swimmingfor the
past ten years. This work was supportedby NSF Grants
EAR90-04389 to Morris and Tera, EAR91-19110 to Leeman,
and EAR92-05804 to Ryan, Hochstaedter,andDefant.
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geochemistryof the lower crust: evidencefrom granulite
terranesand deep crustalxenoliths. Geochim.Cosmochim.
Acta, 56, 775-788, 1992.
Leeman, W.P., Smith, D.R., Hildreth, W., Palacz, Z., and
Rogers, N., Compositional diversity of Late Cenozoic
basalts in a transect across the southern Washington
Cascades:implicationsfor subductionzone magmatism.J.
Geophys.Res., 95, 19561-19582, 1990.
Mattie P.D., and Ryan, J.G., Boron and alkaline element
systematicsin serpentinitesfrom Holes 779A, 780C, and
784A, ODP Leg 125: describing fluid mediated slab
additions. EOS Suppl., 75, 352, 1994.
McDonough, W.F. and Sun, S.-s., The compositionof the
Earth. Chemical Geology, 120, 223-253.
Moran, A.E., Sisson,V.B., and LeemanW.P., Boron depletion
during progressive metamorphism: implications for
subductionprocesses. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 111, 331-
349, 1992.
Morris, J.D., Leeman, W.P., and Tera, F., The subducted
component in island arc lavas: constraints from Be
isotopesand B-Be systematics. Nature, 344, 31-36, 1990.
Mottl, M.J., Pore waters from serpentiniteseamountsin the
Mariana and Izu-Bonin forearcs,Leg 125: Evidence for You, C-F., 5pivack, A.J., Gieskes,J.M., Rosenbauer,R., and
volatiles from the subducting slab. In Proc. ODP,
Scientific Results, 125, College Station, TX, Ocean
Drilling Program, 373-385, 1992.
Plank,T., Mantle Melting and CrustalRecyclingin Subduction
Zones. Ph.D. dissert., Columbia Univ., 1992.
Plank, T. and Langmuir, C.H., Tracing trace elementsfrom
sediment input to volcanic output at subductionzones.
Nature, 362, 739-742, 1993.
Ryan, J.G. The Systematicsof Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron
in YoungVolcanic Rocks,Ph.D. Dissert., Columbia Univ.,
313 pp., 1989.
Ryan, J.G., and Langmuir, C.H., The systematics
of lithium
abundances in young volcanic rocks. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 51, 1727-1741, 1987.
Ryan, J.G. and Langmuir, C.H., The systematicsof boron
abundances in young volcanic rocks. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta,.57, 1489-1498, 1993.
Ryan, J.G., Morris, J.D., Leeman, W.P., Tera, F. and
Tsvetkov, A., Cross-arc geochemical variations in the
Kuril arc as a functionof slab depth. Science,270, 625-
627.
5ighinolfi, G.P., and Gorgoni, C., Chemicalevolutionof high
grade metamorphic rocks: anatexis and remotion of
material from granulite terranes. Chem. Geol., 22, 157-
176, 1978.
5pivack, A.J., Boron Isotope Geochemistry. Ph.D. dissert.,
Woods Hole-MIT, 1986.
5tolper, E. and Newman, 5., The role of water in the
petrogenesisof Mariana Trough magmas. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett., 121, 293-325, 1994.
Tatsumi, Y., Formation of volcanic front in subduction zones.
Geophys.Res. Lett., 13, 717-720, 1986.
Tatsumi, Y., Hamilton, D.L., and Nesbitt, R.W., Chemical
characteristicsof fluid phase released from a subducted
Boron lithosphereand origin of arc magmas:evidencefrom high-
pressureexperimentsand naturalrocks. J. Volc. Geotherm.
Res., 29, 293-309, 1986.
Tatsumi, Y., and Eggins, 5., Subduction Zone Magmatism,
211pp., Blackwell Science,Cambridge,MA, 1995
Tera, F., Brown, L., Morris, J., Sacks, 1.5., Klein, J. and
Middleton, R., Sediment incorporation in island-arc
magmas:
inferences
from10Be
' Geochim.
Cosmochim.
Acta, 50, 535-550, 1986.
Truscott, M.G., Shaw, D.M., and Cramer, J.J., Boron
abundance and localization in granulites and the lower
continental crust. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 58, 169-177,
1986.
Walker, J.A., Carr, M.J., Patino, L.C., Johnson, C.M.,
Feigenson,M.D., and Ward, R.L., Abruptchangein magma
generationprocessesacrossthe Central American arc in
southeasternGuatemala: flux dominatedmelting near the
baseof the wedge to decompression melting near the top of
the wedge. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 120, 378-390, 1995.
You, C-F., A.J. Spivack, J.H. Smith, and J.M. Gieskes,
Mobilization of boron in convergent margins:
implications for the boron geochemicalcycle. Geology,
21, 207-210, 1993.
Bischoff, J.L., Experimental study of boron geochemistry:
implications for fluid processes in subduction zones.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 59, 2435-2442, 1995.
J.G. Ryan, Departmentof Geology, University of South
Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave. Tampa,FL
 Boron and Other Fluid-mobile Elements in Volcanic Arc Lavas'
T..,.,..,.1 ' ,-, ,-,•-.: ....•, • .,c....,. •..1.. •.. •.: •_ n•
1111•11CatlUl13 IUI OUUHUgLIUII [IUg•88•8

William P. Leeman

Keith-Wiess
Geological
Laboratory,
RiceUniversity,
Houston,Texas

Thispaperemphasizes
theutilityof fluid-mobile
elements
(B, As, Sb,Pb)in evaluating
the
transferof materialfrom subductedslabsto sourcesof arc magmas- whichin mostarcsare
believedto residein the overlyingmantlewedge. Correlatedenrichmentsof suchelements,
along
with10Be
' relative
tofluid-immobile
elements
inmafic
arclavas
strongly
suggest
that
the modeof transferis via an aqueous fluid inasmuch
asmeltingprocesses alonedo not seemto
producethe observedelementalfractionations.This line of reasoningleadsto the views that
[1] enrichmentlevels of fluid-mobileelementsin arc magmasultimatelydependon the
efficiencyof subduction of hydratedmaterials,and [2] this efficiencyis directlyrelatedto
physicalaspectsof subduction thatcontrolratesand loci of dehydration reactions- namely
subduction rate, slab temperature, etc. A direct linkagebetweenphysicalconditionsand
chemicalsignatures suggests that a spectrumof volcanicarcsexists- rangingfrom 'hot and
dry' (e.g.,Cascades) to 'coldandwet' (e.g.,Japan)endmembers. Otherfactors,suchas amount
and type of sedimentsubducted, may influencethe composition of arc magmasourceswith
respectto some elementsor isotopes,but are unlikely to be the dominantcontrol for fluid-
mobile element composition.

INTRODT ICTION actual fluxes of such componentsor to determine how

these fluxes are influenced by various physical and
kinematicparameters.
The origins of subduction-related magmasremain con- One of the mosteffectivetracersis the cosmogenic
iso-
troversial despite many man-years of effort on this tope10Be,for whichtheonlysignificant
source
is the
problem. In part this uncertaintyreflectsreal diversityin atmosphere. This isotopeis concentratedby adsorption
boundaryconditions,massfluxes, etc. from one volcanic onto soil and sedimentparticles,and its only knownmeans
•c to another. Also, many characteristics of primitive arc of reachingthe mantle is via subductionof oceaniclitho-
magmasmay be overprintedby processes attendingmagma sphere [Tera et al., 1986]. Becauseof its short half-life
ascent,storage,and eruption,thuscomplicatingefforts to (1.6m.y.),thereis negligible
accumulation
of 10Bein the
understand the fundamentalmelt-formingprocesses.There deepmantleotherthanenrichmentsassociated
with subduc-
are relatively few geochemical'tracers'that can be inter- tion.Theamount
of 10Bethatcanaccumulate
in a given
pretedunambiguouslyas signifyingtransferof subducted subductionzone is limited by a quasisteady-state
balance
materialinto sourceregionsof arc magmas[cf. Davidson, betweenthe rate of supplyandradioactivedecay. Under
1994]. It is evenmoredifficult to describeandquantifythe optimalconditions,the entirecyclefrom initial subduction
toeruption
mustoccurwithinabout8-10m.y.for 10Beto
bedetected
in arcmagmas.Thefactthat10Beisdetected
Subduction:
Top to Bottom in young lavas from most volcanicarcs, yet is below
GeophysicalMonograph96 detection limits for fresh lavas from non-subduction tec-
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion tonic settings,providesconvincingevidencefor involve-
270 FLUID-MOBILE ELEMENTS IN ARC LAVAS

ment of a subductioncomponentin arc magmas[Morris

and Tera, 1989]. Other geochemicalparametersthat oc
correlate
strongly
with10Bein young
arcmagmas
may ...........................
'• oceanic
sediments
also be derived from subducted material. The element PC

boronis a good example,but other fluid-mobileelements lower

continental
crust(< 5 pptn)
display
analogous
correlations
with10Be[Leemanetal.,in • volcanic
arcbasalts
(2-35ppm)
preparation].
A significant
advantage
ofusingB and10Be
as petrogeneticindicatorsis the fact that 'normal' mantle within-plate
basalts
(< 3 pptn)
and lower crust rocks contain very low concentrationsof
freshMORB
(< 1.5ppm)
both;thus,wheremagma-wallrockinteractions occur,they
likely exert only a small dilution effect on the contentsof upper mantle (_( ~0.1 ppm)
thesecomponents and no effecton theirratio. !

100 200 300

BORON IN ARC LAVAS AS AN INDICATOR OF Boron Concentration(ppm)

SLAB PROCESSES

Fig. 1. Ranges in boron concentrationin various reservoirs.

Boronis enrichedin pelagicsedir..,ents
andalteredoceanic
crust,whereasdata for oceanicbasalts[Leeman,unpub.;
Ryan and Langmuir, 1993] and high grademetamorphic
rocks [Leeman et al., 1992] indicate that its abundanceis
very low in tl:e mantle (away from subductionzones)and
'-athe lower crust(cf. F!g. 1). However,high P contents
are observedin basaltsfrom most arcz and, where 3affic•.ent
dataareavailablefor lavasfrom specificarcs,B enrichment
correlates
strongly
withthatof 10Be[Morrisetal., 1990]. margins,offscrapingor underplating
Thisrelation
suggests
thatB and-•0Beenrichments result accretionarywedgeformationmayleadto mechanicalfrac-
from addition of a rather homogeneous,yet distinctive
subduction
component
foreacharc. B and10Beenrich- to the exact composition of the sedimentarymaterial
ment levels dependupon the specificnatureof the down-
goingplate and the physicalconditions(e.g., temperature
distribution)attendingsubduction
in eachcase;sparsedata
precludedetailedevaluationof along-strikevariationsfor
thesecomponentsat most arcs(but seediscussion below).
The nearuniformity
of 10Be/Bratioswithineacharc
suggestthat bothelementsare controlledby the sameslab-
to-mantletransferprocess. A fluid transfermechanismis
virtuallyrequiredfor B [cf. Leemanet al., 1994], but Be is
not very solublein aqueousfluids (at leastat near-surface
conditions). As an alternative mechanism, melt transfer
has been considered to account for the behavior of Be; as
discussed
below,thereareproblemswith thisview.
Another importantfactor concernsthe extent to which
subductedmaterialsactually resembletheir inventoriesin
oceaniccrustand sedimentson the incomingplate. Mass
balancecalculations
for the CentralAmericaarcimply that
the10Be/Bratioof thesubduction
component
thereis
similarto the average(time-corrected)compositionof the
entire incoming sediment pile; that is, these materials
appear to be subductedmore or less intact with little
mechanicalfractionationby selectiveaccretionor under-
plating [Leeman et al., 1994]. At other convergent
Data sources: Leeman et al. [1992], Ryan and Langmuir
[ 1993], Leemah et al. [ 1994], Chaussidonand Jambon [ 1994],
Leeman (unpublished data). Average boron content is esti-
mated to be ca. 26 ppm for basaltic oceanic crust and ca. 120
ppm for clay-richpelagicsediment(Leeman,unpublisheddata;
Moran et al., 1992).
processes
relatedto
tionationof incomingsediment,hencesomeuncertaintyas
actually subducted. This is particularlyproblematicin
placeswherethesediment columnis characterizedby wide
lithologicdiversity.
Cross-arc transects for several arcs show that B/Be
typicallyis highestin lavasfrom the volcanicfront and
decreases towardbackarcregions[Morris et al., 1990;Ryan
et al., 1996]. Similar relationsare seenfor ratiosof boron
to other incompatibleelements(e.g., B/Zr, B/La, B/Nb;
[cf. Ryan et al., 1995]). Theseratiosare expectedto vary
little during closed systempartial melting or magmatic
differentiationprocesses owingto closesimilaritiesin bulk
solid/melt distribution coefficients. It is inferred that the
cross-arcdecreasein boron enrichmentreflectschanging
compositionof the subducted slab(e.g., decreasing
B/Be)
as it descendsand warms. This seeminglyrequiresopera-
tion of a non-igneousprocessto accountfor the observed
elemental fractionations [cf. Hart and Reid, 1991]. It is
inferred [Morris et al., 1990; Moran et al., 1992; Ryan et
al., 1996] thatB is selectivelyandprogressively
mobilized
and removedfrom the slab via solutionin aqueousfluids
releasedduringprogradedehydrationreactionsinvolving
phyl!osilicates,amphiboles,and possiblyotherhydrous
phase:[of. P•,ley, 1994;S,,,anscn,1904•- p."immily
 LEEMAN 271

thesedimentandoceaniccrustupperportionsof subducted Volcanic Arc

slabs. Figure 2 schematicallyillustratesthisconcept.

Studies of metamorphic suites reveal that boron is
systematicallydepletedas temperature increases[Moran et
al., 1992; Bebout et al., 1993, 1996; Bebout, 1994].
BecauseB •s hosted mainly in phyllosilicates(even in
s ..... 1'--• L• : •1,-\ :s.-_'!...._,..,1__
•,Ull LI Ull•U

'•,",,."•1
• __
900øC
I_..•_•
largelyby progressive devolatilization
reactionsinvolving
thesephases. Suchreactionsclearlycontrolthe releaseof
aqueousfluids and apparentlythe distributionof fluid-
mobileelements(B, As, Sb, Pb), all of whicharestrongly
depletedin most high grademetasediments [Beboutet al., •1200oc

1996;W. LeemanandV. Sisson,unpublished

temperature-dependent
data]. The
depletionof theseelementsfrom •• fluid
flow
< 300øC
partial
melt
zone

subducting slabsimpliesthatif theuppermost slabexceeds

upperamphiboliteconditions(ca. 700øC)it is unlikelyto • 300-450øC
450-650øC

retainsufficientamounts of B (andprobablytheotherfluid-
mobile elements) to match their estimatedoutputsat 650-800oc
> 800oC

typical ('cool') arcs [Moran et al., 1992]. In most cases,

meltingof oceaniccrustis highly improbable[Peacock,
1994; Peacock et al., 1994], and even sediments are
unlikely to melt unlesswater-saturated conditionsprevail
[Nicholset al., 1994]. In otherwords,directslabmelting
is unlikely to play a significant role in transferring
subductedcomponentsinto the mantle wedge unlessan
unusuallywarmslabis involved- for example,wherevery
young lithosphere is subducted. Moreover, significant
dehydration of theslabwill occurastheresultof a seriesof
progrademetamorphicreactions;thesewill be more pro-
nouncedin warmersubductionzones. In sedimentaryand
upper crustal parts of subductingslabs (i.e., the main
reservoirsfor B and otherFMEs) dehydrationand break-
downof hostminerals(clays,micas,chlorite)may be quite
advancedand FME inventorieslargelydepletedby fluid
transferbeforesolidustemperatures arereached.If melting
occurs,it is likely to be at fluid-undersaturated
conditions
[cf. Rushruer, 1994] unless fluids are provided from
dehydrationof deeperpartsof the slab. For example,in
serpentinized oceanicmantle,reactionof antigoriteto form
forsteriteand enstatiteat ca. 25 kb can releaseup to 13%
water [Ulrnerand Trornrnsdorff1995];talc may provide
anotherrepositoryfor waterin subducted
slabs[Pawleyand
Wood,1995]. Releaseof suchfluidscouldpromotelocal-
ized water-saturatedmelting in some subductionzones.
But migmatitesfrom the Catalinasubduction complexare
demonstrably depleted in B and FMEs [Bebout et al.,
1997]; if they are representative,it appearsthat deep
subductionfluids do not introducesignificantamountsof
FMEs. It is fair to say that there remainsconsiderable
uncertaintyconcerningthe importance of slabmeltingwith
regardto slab-to-mantletransferof FMEs.
Fig. 2. Schematiccross-sectionof a subductionzone showing
generalizedisotherms[cf. Abbottand Lyle, 1984]. Sediments
and altered oceaniccrust (especiallythe upper few km of the
subductedslab, but here exaggeratedin thicknessfor clarity)
will contain the bulk of inventoriesof alkalies, B, As, Sb, Pb,
and water; the underlyingpredominantly ultramaficpart of the
slab is expectedto be a minor reservoirfor thesecomponents.
Progrademetamorphismof the upper layer - from greenschist
to eclogite facies - will result in progressivedehydration,
recrystallization, and selective lossesof water and aqueous-
soluble elements [Moran et al., 1992; Bebout et al., 1993,
1995]. At temperatures above-750øC, the residualupperlayer
may be extensively alehydratedwith only a small fraction of
the original water retainedin suchhost phasesas amphibole,
phlogopite, or lawsonite. In detail, stabilities of phyllo-
silicates(B, Ba, alkalies), sulfides(As, Sb, Pb), epidote (St,
REE) with respectto P-T trajectoriesalong the top of the slab
will dicta•.e the release patterns of fluid-mobile elements.
Actual melting of the .3labm,•v rarely occur,and then .v:,iyin
subd::vtior,,zcnes with very warm slabs; this is because
meltingwill involvethe dehydratedresidaalupperlayer, which
is far removed from the water-rich material first subducted.
Along-s•rike
variations
in B enrichment
seenin some
arcsprovidestrongevidencethat the natureand amountof
subductedmaterialmay significantlyinfluencethe compo-
sition of arc magmas. In Central America, high B/La is
characteristic of most mafic lv_easfrom Nicaragua to
Guatemaia,
whereas
low P/La (andnegligible
i0Be)
typifieslavasfrom CostaRica [Leemanet al., 1994].
272 FLUID-MOBILE ELEMENTS IN ARC LAVAS
latterregionis characterizedby low-anglesubduction of the
Cocos Ridge and relatively young, warm oceanic litho-
sphere. Becauseof tectonic•hctors,sedimentsubduction
ratesare inferred to range significantlyalong the Middle
Americatrench- from very low off CostaRica to signifi-
cantly higher off Guatemala. Subductioncontributionsto
arc magmasourcesappearto be minimalbelow CostaRica
and increasein other partsof the arc in proportionto the
amount of sediment subducted. In the Aleutians, B/La
ratios(also87Sr/86Sr
ratios)
arestrikingly
higher
in the
Seguam-Yunaska sector of the arc, where the Amlia
fracture zone has been subducted[Singer et al., 1996].
This observationis consistentwith a higher than usual
subduction flux of altered oceanic crust and sediment
associatedwith relatively extensivewater-rockinteraction
in the Amlia fracturezoneas comparedwith othersectors
in the arc. Thus, somealong-strikevariationsin the com-
position of arc lavas apparently are inherited from
heterogeneitiesin the subducting
plates.
The Cascades arc is one of the least-enriched arc 'end
members' recognized so far in that its basaltshave no
10Be,lowB/La,B/Zr,andsimilar
ratios,
andgenerally
resemble many oceanic island basalts [Leeman et al.,
1990]. For this arc, sedimentoffscrapingto form the
Cascadiaaccretionaryprismprobablylimits the amountof
sediment subducted Iron Huene and Scholl, 1991]. Also,
becausethe subductedJuan de Fuca plate is young and
warm, thermal maturation, metamorphism, and fluid
release will deplete the upper slab of B well before it
reaches a sub-arc position [cf. Abbott and Lyle, 1984;
Jambon and Zimmerman, 1990; Peacock, 1993, 1994].
The westernTrans-MexicoVolcanicBelt providesanother
exampleof a warm subductionzone;the subducting plate
thereis youngandthe arc is in incipientstagesof rifting.
Calcalkaline lavas from this arc exhibit low B-enrichments
and associatedalkaline volcanic rocks are negligibly
enriched[Hochstaedteret al., 1996].
ENRICHMENTS OF BORON AND OTHER FLUID-
MOBILE ELEMENTS IN ARC MAGMAS
Predictably,the chemistryof lavasfrom 'hot' arcs will
provide the most direct compositionalrepresentation of
mantle wedge materials that have been minimally meta-
somatizedby fluid inputsfrom the subducted plate. Such
lavas exhibit little or no significantenrichmentof fluid-
mobileelementsandcan be modelledasbeingderivedfrom
a mixed OIB-MORB source [cf. Leemah et al., 1990,
1994]. At cooler arcs, variable slab-derived fluid fluxes
may enhance the wedge in B and other fluid-mobile
elements. This view is basedon the assumption that B is
largely slab-derived - as indicated by the now familiar
correlation
of B with10Be[Mort':,etal., 1990;Ryanet
al., •95]•.nc•the i;,?!iheed that r•ormal mantle (< 0.1
ppm B) and lower crustal rocks (< 1 ppm B) are not
adequatesourcesfor B-rich arcmagmas[cf. Leemahet al.,
1992]. The following providesa qualitativediscussion of
relations between B and other fluid-mobile elements.
Figure 3 summarizesanalyticaldata for Ce, As, Sb, Pb,
and B for oceanic basalts, island arc lavas, sediments and
metasediments,
and severalimportantgeochemical'reser-
voirs'. Most data are from Newsom et al. [1986], with B
determined on many of these same samples(Leeman,
unpublished);estimatedreservoircompositions are from
Taylor and McLennan [1985] and Leemanet al., [1992].
Key observationsare as follows: (1) As/Ce, B/Ce, Sb/Ce,
and Pb/Ce ratios in MORB and OIB sampleslargely
overlapand define restrictedranges(in the caseof B, the
variationmay be largelydueto analyticaluncertainty); (2)
arc lavas, like sedimentsand average upper crust and
pelagic clay, are variably enrichedin As, Sb, Pb, and B
relativeto MORB and OIB. As for manyotherelements,
these data show that subductedsedimentsprovide a
potentialsourcefor the excessAs, Sb, Pb, andB foundin
arc lavas. How thesecomponentsare transferredto arc
magmasourcesis a fundamentalquestion.
Assuming(for the moment) that bulk solid/meltdistri-
butioncoefficientsare similarlylow for theseelements,the
Ce-normalizedratiosin MORB andOil3 samplesshouldbe
representativeof those ratios in the respectivemantle
sourceregions;this is generallyconsistentwith the lack of
systematic variationin theseratioswith concentrations of
the numeratorelements.Approximateratiosestimatedfor
the suboceanicmantle are as follows: As/Ce (0.01), Sb/Ce
(0.001), Pb/Ce (0.04), and B/Ce (0.05). The higher esti-
mates for these ratios in primitive upper mantle (PUM;
[Taylor and McLennan, 1985]) are basedon analysesof
severalspinellherzoliteswhich may havebeencontami-
nated(W.F. McDonough,personalcommunication,1989);
in any casethey are quitedifferentfrom valuesin MORB
and OIB and are unlikely to representviable sourcesfor
thosemagmas. It is alsounlikely that arc lavascouldbe
derivedfrom MORB- or OIB-sourcemantle. This possi-
bility would require that bulk solid/melt distribution
coefficientsfor As, Sb, Pb, and B be significantlysmaller
than that for Ce. That this clearly is not the casefor Pb is
well established[cf. Hofmann, 1988]. As and Sb parti-
tioning will be influencedby the stabilityof sulfidesand
perhapsotherhostphases,whichif presentwouldensure
that these elementswould be less incompatiblethan Ce.
Under these conditions it is difficult to reconcile
 LEEMAN 273

101 .................. , .......................... 102

100 101 alteration

Peridotites

Peridotites
&••'ßPC
10-1

//Sediments
diments •

10-2 10-1

• MORB
&OIB • MORB
&ßlB
......................... 10-2 ........ i ........ I ........ i .......

101 10 2 10 3 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3

AS B

10o 101
+ SEDS
i• METASEDS
& IAV
10-1
ß MORB Sediments
10o
o OIB
ß PERID
10-2 .-
Peridotites .Sediments

10-1
10-3

't.....•• MORB
&OIB & OIB

10':• 10"• 10'; 100 101 102 1010

2 -2 10 -1 ......
10 o 101 10 2

Sb Pb

Fig. 3. As-B-Sb-Pbsystematicsin selectedislandarc (IAV) and non-arc(freshand alteredMORB; OIB) volcanics,

varioussediments(SEDS) and metasediments (METASEDS). Averagesare shownfor pelagicclay (PC), upper
continentalcrust(UC), and estimatedprimitiveuppermantle(PUM) [Taylor and McLennan,1985]; As, Sb, Pb,
and Ce data for MORB and OIB samplesare from Newsomet al. [1986] and Leeman(unpublisheddata);borondata
are analysesof the samesamples(Leeman,unpublisheddata). Data for peridotitesare from Higgins and Shaw
[1988]; note that the Ce-normalizedratios for thesesamplesare too high for theserocks to representsourcesof
MORB or OIB magmas. Arrows showthe effectsof seawateralterationin increasingB, As, and Sb contentsof
MORB.

of arc magmasourceswith a strictlyigneous(e.g., silicate aroundsilicic intrusionsand hydrothermalveins, and they

melt-related)transferprocess.
As, Sb, Pb, and B have in common the fact that all are
highly solublein aqueoussolutions. They are enriched
together in many natural geothermalfluids, they are
common metasomaticcomponentsin alteration haloes
are enriched together in many epithermal ore deposits
[Weissberget al., i979; Shearere: al., i984; G•dbreather
al., 19øo8;Peucker-Ehrenbrink et ai., 1994]. In these
environments,the aqueoussolubility of light rare earth
elements(LREE; e.g., Ce) andhighfield strength
 274 FLUID-MOBILE ELEMENTS IN ARC LAVAS

(ttFSE; e.g., Zr) is usuallynearor below detectionlimits Table 1. B/Zr ratios in selected basalt suitesa
[Michard, 1989; Bau, 1991]. Thus, a more plausible
explanationfor the enrichmentsseenin arc lavasinvolves Volcanic arcs B/Zr-10b
selective fluid transport of As, Sb, Pb, and B from
subductedslabsinto overlyingmantlewedgedomains. Andes (18-22øS) 0.117

Suchmetasomatic enrichment
processes canproducethe Middle America

uniquesources neededto generate

arcmagmas.Noll et al. central Costa Rica 0.066

[1996] report that enrichmentsof theseelementsin arc Arenal, Costa Rica 0.175

lavasalsoarecorrelated
with10Be,
thussupporting
their Mexico 0.059
derivation from subducted materials. Cascades

The extent of sourcemetasomatismwill strongly Medicine Lake 0.055

influence enrichment levels for fluid-mobile elements in arc Mount St. Helens 0.057

magmas. A relativemeasureof thiseffectis givenby Mount Adams 0.063

B/Zr ratios in selected arcs as determined for a common B Aleutians

concentration(10 ppm) from regressions of availableB- eastern 0.135

B/Zr datafor eacharc segment(Table 1). Sourceenrich- central 0.182
ment dependson available fluid flux and slab chemical Kurile-Kamchatka 0.160
inventories- factorsthat hinge on thermalstate of the NE Japan 0.283
subductingplate and on typesand amountsof sediment, Marianas 0.181
degreeof alterationof oceaniccrest,etc. in the subducted Lesser Antilles

slab(Leeman,in preparation).An importantcorollaryof northern 0.115

these results is that preferentiallossesof fluid-mobile central 0.153

elementsalmostcertainlymodifythe slabchemistryand S. Sandwich 0.146

limit the efficiencyof their recyclinginto deepmantle

regions.Quantification
of thesefluxesis an important Oceanic basalts AverageB/Zr Range
goal for futurestudies.
avg OIB (n=16) 0.012 + 0.003 0.007 - 0.015
CONCLUSIONS avg MORB (n=49) 0.015 + 0.005 0.004 - 0.029
•itere• MORB I,n=25) 0.248 •- 0.390 0.028 - 1
Boronandcorrelated
10Beenrichments
in arclavasare
interpretedastheresultof directinvolvementof subducted a Arcandoceanic
basalt
datafromLeeman
(unpublished
data)
sediment
andoceancrustcomponents
duringmagma and Ryan [ 1989].
generation.Basedonanalogstudies
ofmetamorphicrocks, I• Valueinterpolated at B = 10ppmfromregression of B
versus B/Zr for available basaltic rocks from each arc
thisislikelytoinvolvemass
transfer
of these
components
fromslabs tomantlewedgedomainswhere occurs. (Leeman, in preparation).
melting
A majorquestionconcerns the mechanism(s)of mass
transfer. The followingconclusions
leadto the view that
subduction
zonemagmatism
islargely'fluid-modulated'
in 2. Additionalinfc,rmationconcerning
slabcontributions
to
response
to several
fundamental
controllingfactors,
eachof arcmagmasources
is prov!dedby theotherfluid-mobile
which exhibit some latitude.
traceelementsdiscussed
hecc(As, Sb, I:h). œnfici,,ne:.,,•s
of
1. The role of silicatemeltsin modifying
arcmagma theseelements(andB) in arclavas,compared
to elements
sources seems minimal in all but the warmest of (LREE, HFSE) that are not readily solublein aqueous
subduction
zonesbecause,
at temperatures
approachingfluids,ate easierto reconcilewithmasstransferpredomi-
melting conditions,volatiles and fluid-mobile element nantly via aqueousfluids rather than silicate melts. A
inventories
in theslabarelikelyto betoolow to balance detailedinventoryof how theseelementsare distributedand
theirobserved
enrichments
inarcmagmas. Directmelting detailsof hostmineralstabilityin subductionzonesarenot
ofoceanic
cresttoformarcbasalts
isnota viable
process. availableat present.
If fluid-saturated
conditions
are attained,sedimentmelts 3. Exceptionallyhot subductionzones(e.g., Cascades,
may form in somesubductionzonesand act as transfer Mexico)producebasalticmagmasthatin manyrespectsare
media
fora number
ofelements
thathavelowsolubility
in indistinguishable
from OIBs. Theselavasmay be derived
aqueousfluids. from domainsconsistingessentiallyof mixturesof
 LEEMAN 275

andMORB-sourcemantlewedge;theminimaloverprintby Bau M., Rare-earth element mobility during hydrothermaland

subductionfluids in these places allows more direct
assessment of mantlewedgecomposition.In the Cascades
for example, nearly twofold ranges are observedin
Bebout, G.E., Fluid processesdeep in subductionzones - the
concentrationsof many incompatibleelements(e.g., Sr,
Ba, La, Th, Ta, Zr, Hf) in basalticrocks of similar MgO
content near 8 wt. % [Leeman et ai., 19!)0]. This obser-
vationis unlikelyto be relatedsimplyto variationsin flux
of subductedsedimentas hasbeenproposedby Plank and
Langmuir [1993]; compositionalheterogeneities inherent
in the mantle wedge (e.g., due to varied proportionsof
OIB- and MORB-source material) must also be considered
as contributingto this variability.
4. Superimposed on suchheterogeneities
are theeffectsof
fluid infiltration from subductingslabswhich may range
from little or none for the Cascades (low B/Zr) to
significantfor the Japan,Marianas, and South Sandwich
arcs (high B/Zr). Local or regional differencesin the Davidson, J., Source contribution to arc magmas: Problems
compositionand flux of slab-derivedfluidscanbe ascribed
to physicalattributesand thermalmaturityof the subduct- Galbreath, K.C., E.F. Duke, J.J. Papike, J.C. Laul, Mass
ing slaband the mechanicalefficiencyandcompositional
natureof sedimentsubduction.Relationshipsbetween
these factors remain to be established.
5. Finally, extraction of fluid-mobile elements from
metamorphic fluid-rock interaction and the significance of
the oxidation state of europium. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 93,
219-230, 1991.
record in high P/T metamorphic terranes. SUBCON
abstracts. 175-177, 1994.
Bebout, G.E., J.G. Ryan, and W.P. Leeman,B-Be systematics
in subduction-relatedmetamorphic rocks: Characterization
of the subductedcomponent. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
57, 2227-2237, 1993.
Bebout, G.E., Ryan, J.G., Leeman, W.P., and Bebout, A.E.,
Fractionation of trace elements by subduction-zone
metamorphism: significance for models of crust-mantle
mixing. Geochim. Cosmochim.Acta (in press) 1997.
Chaussidon,M. and A. Jambon, Boron content and isotopic
composition of oceanic basalts: geochemical and
cosmochemicalimplications. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 121,
277-291, 1994.
and prospects.SUBCON abstracts,253-255, 1994.
transfer during wall-rock alteration: An example from a
quartz-graphitevein, Black Hills, SouthDakota. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 52. 1905-1918, 1988.
Hart. S.R., and M.R. Reid, Rb/Cs fractionation: A link

subductingmaterialslimits their recyclinginto the deep between gr.... alite •½.•:norpi•:sm •,•_a the S•p:oces:.
Geochim Cosmochim Acta .55, 23•'9-23•3, 1991.
mantle. Rather,theyare concentratedin themantlewedge
Higgins, M.D., and D.M. Shaw, Boron cosmochemistry
at convergentmargins,and transferredto shallowerlevels
interpreted from abundancesin mantle xenoliths. Nature
via fluids or arc magmas. Thus, theremay be long-term 308, 172-173.
depletionof these elementsfrom the upper mantle and Hochstaedter,A., J.G. Ryan, J.F. Luhr, and T. Hasenaka,On
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Acknowledgements.
This paperis basedon researchfundedby Hofmann, A.W., Chemical differentiation of the Earth: the
the National Science Foundation (Grants EAR85-12172,
relationshipbetween mantle, continentalcrust, and oceanic
EAR90-14802, EAR90-18996, and EAR91-19110). It builds
on collaborativeefforts over the years with the following crust. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 90, 297-314, 1988.
colleagues:Jeff Ryan, Julie Morris, FouadTera, Jinny Sisson, Jambon, A., and J.L. Zimmerman, Water in oceanic basalts:
Hort Newsom, Phil Noll, Gray Bebout, and Ann Moran- Evidencefor dehydrationof recycledcrust.Earth Planet. Sci.
Bebout. This does not imply that they fully subscribeto my Lett, 101, 323-331, 1990.
views, but they have all contributedto my understandingof Leeman, W.P., D.R. Smith, W. Hildreth, Z. Palacz, and N.W.
subductionprocesses.Also, I thankBill White who provided
samplesfor this study that previouslyhad been characterized Rogers, Compositionaldiversity of Late Cenozoic basalts
for As, Sb, and Pb. Some of the As, Sb, and REE data used in in a transect acrossthe southernWashington Cascades.J.
Figure 3 were obtained at the Oregon State University Geophys. Res. 95, 19561-19582, 1990.
RadiationCenterthroughtheir reactor-sharing
program. Leeman, W.P., V.B. Sisson, and M.R. Reid, Boron
geochemistryof the lower crust: Evidence from granulite
terranesand deep crustal xenoliths.Geochim. Cosmochim.
W.P. Leeman, Keith-Wiess Geo!egical I.•orat. ories, MS Acta 56, 775-788, 1992.
126. Rice University, Houston,TX '/7005; leeman@ricc.edu Leeman, W.P., M.J. Carr, and J.D. Morris, Boron
geochemistry of the Central American Volcanic Arc:
Constraints on the genesis of subduction-relatedmagmas.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58, 149-168, 1994.
Michard A., Rare earth element systematicsin hydrothermal
Abbott, D., and M. Lyle, Age of oceanicplates at subduction fluids. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 745-750, 1989.
and volatile recycling. Geophys. Res. Lett. 11, 951-954, Moran, A.E., V.B. Sisson,and W.P. Leeman, Boron depletion
1984. during progressive metamorphism: Implications
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J.,andF.Tera,
F.,10Be
and9Beinmineral
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sedimentsubduction.Geochim.Cosmochim.
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Morris, J., W.P. Leeman, and F. Tera, The subducted
component in island arc lavas: Constraints from Be
isotopesand B-Be systematics.Nature 344, 31-36, 1990.
Newsom, H.E., W.M. White, K.P. Joehum, and A.W.
Hofmann, Siderophileand chalcophileelementabundances Ryan, J., J. Morris, G. Bebout, B. Leeman, and F. Tera,
in oceanicbasalts,Pb isotopicevolutionandgrowthof the Describing chemical fluxes in subductionzones: insights
Earth's core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, 80, 299-313, 1986. from "depth-profiling"studiesof arc and forearcrocks.This
Nichols, G.T., Wyllie, P.J., and Stern, C.J., Subductionzone
melting of pelagic sedimentsconstrainedby melting
experiments. Nature 371, 785-788, 1994.
Noll, P.D., Newsom,H., Leeman,W.P., andRyan,J., The role
of hydrothermal fluidsin the production
of subduction zone
magmas:Evidencefrom siderophileand chalcophiletrace
elementsandboron.Geochim.Cosmochim. Acta, (in press)
1996.
Pawley, A.R., Experimentalconstraintson dehydrationof
mafic systems.SUBCON abstracts, 247-249, 1994.
Pawley,A.R., and B.J. Wood, High pressurestabilityof talc
and 10-Angstrom phase:potentialstoragesitesfor H20 in
subduction zones. Amer. Mineral. 80, 998-1003. 1995.
Peacock,S.M., Large-scale
hydrationof the lithosphere
above
subductingslabs. Chem. Geol. 108, 49-59, 1993.
Peacock, S.M., Thermal structures of subduction zones.
SUBCON abstracts, 172-174, 1994.
Peacock,S.M., T. Rushruer,and A.B. Thompson,?,•rtial
melting of subduct:rigoceaniccrust.Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
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Peucker-Ehrenbrink,B., A.W. Hofmann, and S.R. Hart,
Hydrothermal lead transfer from mantle to continentalcrust:
the role of metalliferous sediments. Earth Planet. Sci. Leti.
I25, 129-142, 1994.
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sed,•mentto volcanic output at subductionzones. Nature
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Christian, Pegmatite/wallrock interactions, Black Hills,
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2563-2579, 1984.
Singer,B., W.P. Leeman,W.P., M. Thirlwall, and N. Rogers,
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Sorensen, S.S., Subduction-related K-Rb-Ba metasomatism of
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 Craig E. Manning

Departmentof Earth and SpaceSciences,Universityof California,LosAngeles,California

Where sedimentsare presentat the slab-mantleinterfacein subductionzones,most migration

pathsof aqueoussolutionswill resultin chemicalinteractionbetweensedimentandfluid. The abil-
ity of sedimentto influencefluid composition
canbe appreciatedby examiningaqueousSi concen-
trationswith a modelchemicalsystem,K20-A1203-SiO2-H20, for threesubduction-zone pressure-
temperature trajectories(PT paths).Analysisof mineral-melt-H20phaserelationsasa functionof
aqueousSi concentration
showsthat metasedimentary
mineralassemblages
fix dissolvedsilica
contentsat or nearthoserequiredby quartzsaturation,evenin the absenceof quartz.Changesin
dissolvedsilica contentwith pressureandtemperatureare muchgreaterthanthoserequiredby the
rangein plausiblemineralassemblages. Sediments thusinfluenceSi transportin subductionzones
by bufferingfluidsat the slab-mantle
interfaceat or nearquartzsaturationaspressureandtempera-
turechange,and,asa result,maximizingaqueousSi concentrations alongthe slab-mantleinterface.
Changesin pressureandtemperature alongmodelslabtrajectories resultin increases
in Si content
ofporefluids
by-103and-105times
along
thelowest
andhighest
temperature
paths,
respectively.
The spatialgradientin dissolvedsilicaconcentration
alsoincreaseswith depth,andis greaterfor
higher temperaturePT paths.Most Si redistributionwill occurin the deep portionsof high-
temperature subduction zones,andfluid-sedimentinteractiondictatesthatthe amountof aqueous
silicatransported
from the slabto the mantlewedgeat any pointalongthe slab-mantleinterfaceis
maximizedif equilibriumis attained.

1. INTRODUCTION Studiesof volcanic arcs and subductioncomplexessug-

gest that sediments exert an important control on the
Subduction zones can be divided into those that accumu- petrology,magmaticevolution,and aqueousgeochemistry
late, or accrete, sediments, and those that do not Iv on of convergent margins [e.g., Church, 1976; Kay et al.,
Heune and Scholl, 1991]. In non-accretingmargins, all 1978; Sun, 1980; Whitford and Jezek, 1982; White and
ocean-floorsedimenttransported to the trenchis subducted; Duprd, 1986; Tera et al., 1986; Morris et al., 1990; Ernst,
in accretingmargins,a d•collementdevelopsin the sedi- 1990; Peacock, 1990; Beboutand Barton, 1993; Philippot,
mentary section,below which all material transportedto 1993;Plank and Langmuir, 1993]. The physicalandchem-
the trench is subducted. The d•collement most likely ical mechanismsby which sedimentsinfluencesubduction
developsnearthe interfacebetweenocean-floorsediments processesremain poorly understood,but redistributionof
and the overlying clastic wedge [Moore, 1975; Plank, chemicalcomponentsby aqueousfluids providesa viable
1993; Plank and Langmuir, 1993]. Downgoing slabsare hypothesisfor materialtransportin this environment[e.g.,
thereforemantled by a veneerof ocean-floorsediments, Tatsumi, 1989; Bebout and Barton, 1989, 1993; Bebout,
which may be hundreds of meters thick [Plank and 1991;Daviesand Stevenson,1992]. As illustratedin Figure
Langmuir, 1993]. 1, sedimentsmay mix mechanicallywith mantle material
along the slab-mantleinterface,or with other components
of the subductinglithosphere.Fluids will be liberatedby
Subduction:Top to Bottom metamorphicdevolatilizationreactionsin eithersediments
GeophysicalMonograph96 or mafic and ultramafic portionsof the subductingplate.
Copyright1996by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion Wide variationsin possiblepressureandtemperature

277
278 SEDIMENT SUBDUCTION AND SILICA METASOMATISM

entsin subductionzones,coupledwith stronglyheteroge-

neous permeability-fields, imply that low-density fluids
may have flux vectorswith directionsrangingfrom subver-
tical to updip alongthe slab.Figure 1 showsthat of the po- mantle

tential flux directions,only fluids liberatedin, and remain-

ing in, oceanicbasementrocks will not interact with sedi- • z"" -""
ments. In cases where the slab melts, movement of the re- Z• .,--,
-'2•-.__-.-
•'., . ,_ _
.,--,

sulting magma into the mantle wedge will also require

chemicalinteractionwith subductedsedimentarymaterial. b i,,:,
.... :,;'::-','
;'-:-',-:
Recent studieshave addressedthe role played by sedi- g /.-..,....,z•,,•.
(/) •.--,.,-
• . ..:
:-:,-., .%..-,_'
•--• .,-- •.--•.
ments in the redistribution of chemical componentsby
ß,,:•,
.-.i
"- ,' ,--.
-- i \ , •---.i .... , ,
aqueous fluids during subduction [Bebout and Barton, ', 'T•,,'•, ', '•,,'• ,,,,

1989, 1993; Ernst, 1990; Peacock, 1990; Bebout, 1991]. As ,,

noted by Bebout and Barton [1993], suchstudiesare hin-
dered by the lack of experimental data or theoretical
models for mineral solubility at subduction-zone
conditions.However, new experimentaldevelopments now
allow the acquisition of these data [Ayers and Watson,
1991, 1993; Brenan and Watson, 1991; Brenan, 1993;
Manning, 1994, Manning and Boettcher, 1994], which can
be incorporated into coupled reaction and fluid-flow
models of subductingslabs and the mantle wedge [e.g.,
Manning, 1995]. I have combinedthis approachwith phase
equilibrium calculationsin the model systemK20-A1203-
SiO2-H20 (KASH) to illustratehow sedimentmay control
the concentration and transport potential of a major
element, silicon, in subductionzones.
2. METHODS
As a model for sediment-fluid interaction, I evaluated
phaserelationsin the KASH systemassumingthe presence
of an A1 or A1-Si mineral and H20. This providesan ap-
proximationof subductingAl-rich pelagicsediment,which
is dominatedby micas, aluminosilicateclays, and quartz,
and allows illustration of the first-order consequencesof
subductionof this sedimenton elementtransportby aque-
ous solutions.
Analysisof phaserelationsin a modelsystemis a simpli-
fication limiting the bulk compositionsaddressedby the
calculations.For example,subductingsedimentarymaterial
may be a mixture of pelagic,terrigenous,and arc-derived
sediment [e.g., von Heune and Scholl, 1991]; such sedi-
ments would be better approximatedin the KASH system
by assumingthe presenceof K feldsparinsteadof an A1 or
A1-Si mineral. In addition, this analysisignoresbiogenic
carbonate,which couldlead to significantdissolvedcarbon
species.This is reasonablefor modem subduction,in which
little biogenic carbonateis consumed[e.g., Plank, 1993];
but it limits applicability to subductionenvironmentsrich
in CO2. Finally, pelagic sedimentsrange widely in com-
•t hypothetical8ire of devolatilization
0 hypotheticalsiteof magmagenesis
Fig. 1. Schematicillustrationof the effect of sedimenton material
transportin subductionzones.Bold arrowsare schematicH20
flux vectors;crossesdenotemagma.The only transportpaththat
doesnot involve interactionwith sedimentis aqueousfluid liber-
atedfrom mafic crustand migratingupdip within its source.This
conceptualmodel is based on Bebout and Barton [1989, 1993]
and Bebout [ 1991].
position[e.g., Kyte et al., 1993; Plank and Ludden,1992;
Plank and Langmuir, 1993]. Important componentsnot
consideredhere include Na and Mg. On average,pelagic
sedimentshave subequalmolar concentrations of Na and
K, and increasingMg leads to the formation of chlorite,
smectite,and/or phengiterather than aluminosilicateclays
and muscovite. Model KASH sediment therefore corre-
spondsto an aluminous,potassic,Mg-poorendmemberof
the spectrumof pelagic sedimentcompositions.Similar
analysesof phaserelationsin Mg- and Na-bearingmodel
systems(C. E. Manning, unpublisheddata) shows that
varying chemicalcomponentsdoesnot significantlyalter
conclusionsabout Si dissolution,transport,and precipita-
tion.
Phaserelationswere computedfor threemodel subduc-
tion zonesfrom Peacock [1993]. The steady-stateincrease
in pressureand temperatureat the slab-mantleinterface
with depthin the subductionzone, or PT path, was calcu-
latedfor subduction
at 10cmyr-1at anangleof 20øfor
rockdensities
of 3000kg m-3 (Figure2). ThethreePT
pathsare distinctin thattemperatureat a givendepthfrom
0 to •-70 km decreasesfrom Path 1 throughPath 3. They
canbe viewed as illustratingthe rangein pressureandtem-
peratureconditionsresultingfrom differentsubduction sce-
narios.For example,Path 1 representsthe PT regimeto be
expectedwhen youngoceaniccrustis subducted,
 MANNING 279

2.0
I I•' ' I ' •1'
• [ , [ [ [ [ , [ [
I+h20 ...

1.5

-2
I / •'•'\
\\

,•1 I I • I I I , I • I , I •
200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature (øC) Temperature (øC)

Fig.2. Pressure-temperature
diagrams withPT paths1-3(boldarrows)fromPeacock[1993](seetext).(A) Phaserela-
tionsin thesystem K20-A1203-SiO2-H20 andin thepresence of H20. All phases assumedto be stoichiometric,
with
unitactivityø
Mineral-H20equilibria calculated usingBerman[1988(1992extension)] andHaar et al. [1984];mineral-
melt-H20equilibriaarefromStorreandKarotke[1972]andHuangandWyllie[1974].Abbreviations: and,andalusite;
co,corundum; di, diaspore;
ka, kaolinite;ky, kyanite;qz, quartz;sil, sillimanite;
w, water.Reactionboundaries labeled
withcircled
letters
keyed
toTable
1.(B)Isopleths
oflogmsiO2(aq)
calculated
using
theequation
ofManning
[1994].

Path 3 probably best reflectsconditionslikely in a long- Along Path 1, dehydrationof hydrousA1 and A1-Si
lived, steady state subductionzone. Although different, mineralsoccursat low pressures
in the upperlevelsof the
more complexPT pathsmay resultfrom consideration of subductionzone, suchthat muscovite+ kyanite will be the
the brittle-ductile transition [Peacock et al., 1994] or alter- stablemineral assemblagein the presenceof quartz and
native numerical analysesof heat and masstransfer [e.g., H20 from -0.4-1.1 GPa (14-37 km depth). Below this
Davies and Stevenson,1992], the pathsusedhere serveas a point,a KASH melt forms(equilibriumm, Table 1). Note
simpleframeworkto illustratehow changesin pressureand that the assumptionof the presenceof an aluminosilicate
temperatureinfluenceaqueousmasstransferof Si from the mineralpreventsthe stableexistenceof K feldsparwith
Earth's surface to 2 GPa. muscoviteat high pressures,which leads to the water-
saturatedsolidusgeometrydefinedby equilibriak andm
3. PHASE RELATIONS IN THE MODEL SEDIMENT (Figure2a, Table 1). Meltingin thepresence of K feldspar
insteadof kyanitewouldproducethemorefamiliarsolidus
Figure 2a shows equilibria relevant to high pressure geometryand would occur at 32 km, which is 5 km
metamorphismand melting in the KASH system,with the shallower,or 15 km updip, of the melting positionin
PT pathsof the threesubductionzones.Equilibriain Figure Figure2a. Neithercasecorresponds to thetemperature of
2a are listed in Table 1. Not shownfor simplicity are the meltingof naturalpelagicclay in the presenceof H20
ot-[3 quartz transition, low-pressurehigh-temperature (-650øC, Nichols et al. [1994]); but, despite this
equilibria involving leucite and melt, and low-pressure discrepancy,the effect of melt on metasomaticphase
low-temperature reactions involving silica and clay relationscan still be evaluatedfrom the equilibriain Figure
diagenesis. 2a (see below).
Each path traverses different regions of the P T AlongPath2, themaximumdepthof dehydration
of hy-
projection, which results in contrastingphase relations. drousA1 andA1-Siminerals(equilibriae,f, andh, Table
280 SEDIMENT SUBDUCTION AND SILICA METASOMATISM

TABLE1.Relevant
Equilibria
in theKASHSystem silica polymorphswould include stability fields for illite
and amorphoussilica at shallow levels along all paths;
A12Si205(OH)4+ 2SiO2 = A12Si4010(OH)2+ H20 (a) thesewould be limited to temperaturesof lessthan-200øC.
kaolinite quartz pyrophyllite
In general,the changein thermalregime from Path 1 to
2A12Si2Os(OH)4 = 2A1OOH+ A12Si4010(OH)2+ 2H20 (b) Path 3 makesthe path of the slab-mantleinterfacesimilar
kaolinite diaspore pyrophyllite to the Clapeyronslopesof dehydrationequilibria(e.g., e-h,
Table 1). This meansH20 may be storedin sedimentsto
A12Si205(OH)4= 2SIO2 + 2A1OOH+ H20 (c) greater depths along cooler PT paths [Peacock, 1990,
kaolinite quartz diaspore 1993]. Since H20 is the principal solvent for material
transport,this will resultin metasomatic
reactionsproceed-
2A1OOH + 4SIO2 = A12Si4Olo(OH)2 (d)
diaspore quartz pyrophyllite
ing at substantiallygreaterdepthswhenphysicalconditions
favor cool PT paths.However, mineral solubilitiesgener-
6A1OOH+ A12Si4010(OH)2 = 4A12SiO5 + 4H20 (e) ally decrease with decreasing temperature at constant
diaspore pyrophyllite pressure,sothe extentof metasomatism may be low.

A12Si4010(OH)2= 3SiO2 + A12SiO5 + H20 (f) 4. PHASE RELATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF

pyrophyllite quartz DISSOLVED SILICA CONTENT

2A1OOH + SiO2 = A12SiO5 + H20 (g)

diaspore quartz Theconcentration
of aqueous
silica(SiO2(aq))
in H20 in
equilibrium with quartz has been determinedexperimen-
2A1OOH = A1203 + H20 (h) tally by Manning [1994] at 0.5-2.0 GPa and 500-900øC.
diaspore corundum These experiments,combinedwith previouswork, allow
KA13Si3010(OH)2 + SiO2 = KA1Si308+ A12SiO5 + H20 (i) calculation
of theconcentration
of SiO2(aq)
in equilibrium
muscovite quartz K feldspar
with quartz from 25øC, 1 bar to >2 GPa and -1000øC.
Predicted
SiO2(aq)
molality
(msiO2(aq)
atquartz
saturation
KA13Si3010(OH)2= KA1Si308 + A1203 + H20 (j) are shown as a function of pressureand temperaturein
muscovite K feldspar corundum Figure2b with the threePT paths.Below -0.6 GPa andat

KA1Si308+ A12SiO5 + SiO2 + H20= Melt (k) hightemperature,

msiO2(aq)
issensitive
tosmall
changes
in
pressureat constanttemperaturebecauseof correspond-
K feldspar quartz
ingly large changesin the densityof H20 with pressure.
KA1Si308 + A1203 + H20 = Melt (1) Above1 GPa,isopleths
of SiO2(aq)concentration
have
K feldspar corundum steepnegativeslopes.This indicatesthat high-temperature
paths,whichtraverseisoplethsat a high angle,will resultin
KA13Si3010(OH)2 + SiO2 + H20 = AI2SiO5 + Melt (m)
muscovite quartz
largerchanges
in quartz-saturated
SiO2(aq)
concentration
alongthe slabthanlow-temperature
paths.
KAI3Si3Oi0(OH)2 + H20 = KA1Si308+ A1203+ Melt (n) Bycomputing
msiO2(aq)
along
Paths
1-3,theSiconcen-
muscovite K feldspar corundum trationsrequiredby specificmineral assemblages
may be
determined, even if they do not include quartz. The
Phaseassemblageon left-handsideof equilibriumis stableat low concentration
of SiO2(aq)in equilibriumwith quartz
temperaturerelative to assemblageon right. (Figure 2b) can be used to constrain such an analysis
becauseequilibrium between pure quartz and aqueous
silica,
is greater than along Path 1 by a factor of about two.
Melting in themodelsystemin thepresence of aluminosili- SiO2= SiO2(aq) (1)
cate and H20 occursat >2 GPa becauseof the lower tem- quartz
peratureintersectionof Path2 andequilibriumm. Path3 is
characterizedby suchlow temperatures to 2 GPa that wa- requiresat constant
pressure
andtemperature
that
ter-rich aluminous minerals (kaolinire and diaspore) are
stableto greatdepths,andmeltingin themodelsystemwill AGøsiO2(aq)
= AGøquartz
- RTInasiO2(aq) (2)
not occur. As noted above, an analysisallowing for com-
positionaland structuralvariationsin white micas and whereAGø is the standardmolal Gibbsfree energy
 MANNING 281

2.0
encebetweena reference
state(25øC,105Pa)andtheP 1 ooo
and T of interest,R is the gas constant,a is activity. In this
study,standardstatesfor mineralsand water are unit activi-
n 1.5 PATH1melt+
comelt o

800 ,•
ties of the pure phasesat any pressureand temperature. ,- 1.0
Thermodynamic properties of the aqueoussolution are corundum • •• •x
600 ß
takento be thoseof pure H20.
Theactivityof SiO2(aq) to itsmolality Q''"'•'
canbeequated u+di•..••• mu
+py 4006
becauseSi formsa neutralhydratedspecieswith an activity 0 ,,,•==•½•-,,,,m,u,+,k,a,,
.... ,,,, A 200
•- , I , , , , I , , , ,

coefficient of one over a wide range in pH [Walther and -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Helgeson,1977]. Equation(2) thusbecomes 2.0

A
GoSiO2(aq)
= AGøquartz
- RTInmsiO2(aq) (3) Q' 1.5 kalsilite / ./ /,• 0
+ / mu+co/ / mu'+kv 600o,_,
which allows calculation of the standard molal Gibbs free
,- 1.0 corundu•.•///• ......' •
energy of aqueoussilica at the P and T of interestfrom . • ,• / oua•½ 500•
AGøquartz
andmsiO2(aq)
asgivenbyexperiments
andcom- .e 0.5
pilations
ofthermodynamic
data.ThevalueofAGøSiO2(aq) • •mu•••it
e •o••11ite E
muscovite
+ kaolinite B 200 •
may then be combinedwith thermodynamicdata for min- 0
, I , , , , I , , , , I , , , , I , • , , I , , , , I , , ,

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5

eralsand H20 to determinemetasomaticphaserelationsas
a functionof silica concentrationin the fluid. For example,
the equilibrium between kaolinite and pyrophyllite at a PATH
given P and T, •
Q' 1.5 •• musc+ov,
te •/' 400
•
,_.
[ •l• diaspore /%
A12Si205(OH)4
+ 2SiO2(aq) •'• • "ks+di / quartz '•

ß
kaolinite
= A12Si4010(OH)2 + H20 (4) • 0.5 200 E
pyrophyllite • • muscovite
+kaolinite •
• c. lOO
leads to o ....... .... '''
logmsio2(aq)
InmsiO2(aq)
= (ArGø(4))/2RT
= (AGøpy
+ AGøH2
¸ - AGøka Fig. 3. Phaserelationsin the systemK20-A1203-SiO2-H20asa

_2AG
oSiO2(aq))/2RT (5) function
ofSiO2(aq)
concentration
andPTpath.Lightlinesrepre-
sentphaseboundaries
betweenstablemineralsin the subsystem
A1203-SiO2-H20;heavylinesrepresentphaseboundaries be-
whereArGø(4)is thedifference
between
standard
molal tween stableK-bearing phases.The phaseboundaryinvolving
Gibbsfree energiesof reactantsandproductsfor equilib-
KASH melt (heavydashedline) is inferredfrom Huang and
rium (4).
Wyllie[Figure3, 1974].Abbreviations
asin Figure3, except:mu,
Figure3 showscalculated phaserelationsalongPaths1-3
muscovite;py, pyrophyllite.
assuming thepresence of an A1- or A1-Si-bearingmineral.
Thesephasediagramsdiffer from conventional diagrams
describingSi metasomatism [e.g.,Hemleyet al., 1980]in phaseto the assemblage, and are thereforeunivariant.
that pressureand temperaturecovaryalongthe ordinate. Fluids coexistingat equilibrium with three additional
The diagramsillustratestabilityboundariesamongbothK- phasesmust adjusttheir compositionas pressureand
bearingphases(heavy lines) and K-absentphases(light temperaturechange,if they are to remainon the phase
lines).Thus,fieldsin Figure 3 representthe rangeof pres- boundary. Finally, four phasescoexist with aqueous
sure,temperature,and fluid composition over whicha K- solution at phase-boundaryintersections,which are
bearinganda K-absentphasecoexistwith aqueous solution invariant:any changein pressure,temperature,or fluid
of varying Si concentration.Fields in Figure 3 are compositionrequiresloss of one phasefrom the as-
divariant, because pressure and temperature are not semblage.
independent, and the system has four components. Melting in the KASH systemoccursalongPath 1 at <2
Similarly, phaseboundariesrepresentthe additionof a GPa (Figure2a). The stabilityof a KASH melt as a
282 SEDIMENT SUBDUCTION AND SILICA METASOMATISM

alongPath1 is shown pressureand temperature.Si masstransferin sedimentsin

tion of SiO2(aq)concentration
schematicallyin Figure 3a. Si-rich bulk compositions
con- subductionzones can thereforebe reasonablyassumedto
taining quartz have the lowest solidustemperaturein this occur at, or very closeto, quartz saturation,which means
system(reactionsm and n, Figure 2a). Melting will there- thatmsiO2(aq)
will be maximized
in thepresence
of
fore occur at the shallowest levels of warm subduction sediment.The rarity of silica undersaturated
phases,like
zones where aqueousfluids contain high dissolvedsilica corundum and kalsilite, in exposedmetasedimentsfrom
contents (Figure 3). The depth of melting increasesas subduction-zonesettingssupportsthis conclusion.
msiO2(aq)
decreases,
andthetotalmelting
interval
defined
5. IMPLICATIONS
byvariations
in msiO2(aq)
corresponds
toa depthrangeof
-•10 kin, or 29 km of slablength.Note that,unlike minerals
in Figure 3, the KASH liquid hasvariablecomposition. Phaserelationsamongmodel KASH sedimentand aque-
Figure3 represents a setof chemicalmapsthatshowhow ous fluid (Figure 3) illustratethreeimportantpointsabout
phase assemblageand fluid compositionmust changein material transportand metasomatismin subductionzones.
model metasediments at the slab-mantle interface for dif- The first is that, for Si redistribution, the dissolved silica
ferent subduction scenarios. Along each path, the contentof pore fluids in metasediments,
and its changeas
maximummolality of SiO2(aq)isdefinedby quartz subductionproceeds,dependsstronglyon the PT pathfol-
saturatione
Any metasedimentcontainingquartzmustlie on lowed by the subductionzone. As shown in Figure 3,
the phase boundarieslabeled "quartz saturation,"along msiO2(aq)
in equilibrium
withquartz-bearing
assemblages
which muscoviteor KASH melt coexistwith quartz and a increaseswith temperature.This indicatesthat conditions
K-absent, Al-bearing mineral at equilibrium (Figure 3). which lead to high temperaturesin subductionzones(e.g.,
Fluids with greater Si contents are metastably young oceanic crust, incipient subduction, high shear
supersaturatedwith respectto quartz,andmustprecipitate stress, low slab velocities) maximize the potential for
sufficient
quartz
todecrease
msiO2(aq)
untiltheylieonthe aqueoustransportof silica.A particularlywell-documented
quartz-saturation
boundary.
FluidswithmsiO2(aq) below naturalexampleillustratingthisobservationis describedby
quartzsaturationcannot coexistwith quartzat equilibrium. Bebout and Barton [1993] on Santa Catalina Island,
These fluids will be in equilibrium with quartz-absent California.

phase assemblages,such as muscovite+ corundum,or The secondimplicationof Figure 3 is that increasesin

kalsilite + diaspore.Note that Figure 3 illustratesthe well- SiO2(aq)
mustbeachieved
bydissolving
silicafromcoex-
known incompatibility certain mineral assemblagesat istingminerals.Thus,as modelKASH metasediments are
equilibrium;for example,the Si-poorphaseskalsilite or subductedalongdifferentPT paths,theirbulkcompositions
corundumwill never be in equilibriumwith quartz under will becomeprogressively depletedin Si with depthin the
the conditionsconsidered,as they will reactwith quartzto presenceof a static pore fluid. Like the amount of
form interveningmuscoviteor kyaniteinstead. dissolved silica, the magnitude of the shift in bulk
Foranybulkcomposition,
msiO2(aq)
incoexisting
fluid compositionwill be greaterfor highertemperature
paths.In
increasesstronglywith increasingdepth(and correspond- addition, if metasediment is returned to the surface,
ingly, temperature)alongeachsubductionpath.For exam- dissolvedsilicain staticporefluidsmustdecrease,leading
ple,msiO2(aq)
in equilibrium assem- to precipitation
withquartz-bearing of silica-richphasessuchasquartz.
blages
along
Path3 willincrease
bya factor
of--103(10-4 Finally, alongwith lithologicallycontrolledbulkcompo-
to>10-! molkgH20-!) between0 and70kin;alongPath sitional differences,the changesin dissolvedsilica with
1,anevengreater
increase
of--105times
willoccur(Figure pathanddepthrepresentthedrivingpotentialfor Si meta-
3). Below quartzsaturation,all univariantphaseboundaries somatismby flowing fluid (Figure 1). As porefluidsmi-
buffer
msiO2(aq)
along
theslab-mantle
interface,
andtheir grateindependently of the rockmatrixin a modelKASH
positiveslopesindicatethat they similarlyrequireincreas- metasediment,their compositionsmust adjustat equilib-
ingmsiO2(aq)
withdepth
forquartz-absent
assemblages. rium as required by the relevant phaserelations[e.g.,
Figure3 showsthatthe presenceof two or moreSi-bear- Figure3]. This will lead to shiftsin bulk composition of
ingminerals
in theKASH system
requires
SiO2(aq)
con- varyingmagnitudein the rocksthroughwhichthe fluid
centrationswithin several tenths of a log unit of quartz flows.For fluidsmigratingfrom the slab-mantleinterface
saturation. This implies that at a given pressureand into the mantlewedge,thepresence of sedimentwill max-
temperature,the absenceof quartz, or its loss through imize the amount of dissolved silica redistributed form slab
dissolution, in SiO2(aq) to mantle,regardless
will resultin onlyminorchanges of the depthat whichthefluidsleave
concentrationcomparedto those attendingvariation in the slab [seeManning,
 MANNING 283

, , [ I i [
Fluids may also migrate updip alongthe slab-mantlein-
terface.The potentialfor Si transferbackup the slabalong
a sedimentveneercanbe assessed by evaluatingthechange 0.03 _

inmsiO2(aq)
atquartz
saturation
along
eachpath.Figure
4a
_

showsthequantity
dmsiO2(aq)/dz,
where
z isdistance
in
kilometers along the subductingslab for Paths 1-3. This 0.02
quantity was obtained from finite difference derivativesof
_

quartz solubility as a functionof pressure(Figure 3), with

pressuretransformedto distanceusing a rock densityof o.o
3000kgm-3 anda 20ø slabangle.
Thechange
in quartz
solubilitywith positionin the slabis greaterfor highertem-
peraturepaths,just as absolutesolubilitiesarehigheralong
highertemperaturepaths(Figure2b). Becausethe change
[ •
in solubilitywill requirequartzprecipitationor dissolution 0.5

at equilibrium, higher temperaturepaths have a signifi-

cantlygreatercapacityto redistributeSi thancoolerpaths. ---"1

The magnitudeof this differencecan be appreciatedby 0.4 -

integrating
dmsiO2(aq)/dz
overthelength
oftheflowpath 03
alongthe slab.For example,assumingthatquartz-saturated
H20 beginsmigratingupdipin sedimentsat a depthcorre-
spondingto 185 km along the slab surface, and that this 02
fluid remains in equilibrium with quartz along its flow
•. 01
path,the volumeof quartzprecipitatedduringupwardflow -- --2
totheEarth's
surface
willbe-0.4 cm3 kgH2O-1,-0.1 cm3
kgH2O-1,and•-0.01cm3 kgH2O-1alongPaths1,2, and 0'---3
3, respectively (Figure 4b). In addition, most of the 50 100 150 200
increasein the amountof quartzprecipitatedoccursin the Slab length (km)
deeppartsof the slab. Veins of quartz,which are common
in subductedmetasediments[e.g., Bebout and Barton, Fig. 4. (A) Changein concentrationof aqueoussilica in equilib-
1989; Ernst, 1990], requireremoval of Si from the fluid in
riumwithquartz
(dmsiO2(aq)/dz)
withdistance
along
slabfor
responseto solubilitydecreases alongits flow path.Figure different PT paths (1-3). (B) Volume of quartz producedby
4 impliesthatfor constantflux, the greatestvolumeof vein quartz-saturatedH20 migrating updip along Paths 1-3 185 km
quartzshouldbe expectedto originatein the deeperpartsof from the trench.
any givensubduction zone,andthathigh-temperature paths
will resultin larger volumesof precipitatedquartz. Acknowledgments. This study was funded by NSF EAR-
In conclusion,this analysisshowsthat becausemostflux 9405999. Thanksto M. Barton,G. Nichols,and P. Vrolijk for in-
trajectoriescarry aqueousfluids throughsedimentat the sightful reviews. M Grove, K. Knesel, and D. Rothsteinread and
slab-mantle interface (Figure 1), chemical interaction be- improvedan early draft of the manuscript.
tween sediment and fluid must be taken into account in
consideringaqueousmasstransfer.For Si, it is likely that
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 Flux andMantle Melting in Subduction
Zones?
Trace Element Evidence from Aleutian Arc Basalt

Bradley
S.Singer
•,William
P.Leeman
2, Matthew
F.Thirlwall
3, Nicholas
W.Rogers
•

New traceelementdatafrom 57 Aleutianarc basaltsamples,includingB, Be, Cs, Nb, Zr, La

andYb concentrations
areusedto examinealong-arcvariabilityin magmasourcecompositions and
processes.
Thelargeranges
in ratios
of Nb/ZrandLa/Ybareconsistent
withanoriginof most
basaltsthroughdifferentdegreesof partialmeltingof a broadlysimilarmantlewedge.
Concentrations
of thefluid-mobileelementB (>20 ppm)andratiosof B/La (>3), B/Be (>25) Cs/La
(>0.16)and87Sr/86Sr
(>0.7035)aredistinctly
elevated
inthose
basalts
forwhichweinferthehighest
degreesof mantle
melting.Thesesamples arefromSeguam Islandin thecentral
Aleutianarc,
beneathwhich the Amlia fracturezone in the Pacificplate was subducted
in the past 1 Ma.
Strongly
correlated
B/BeandB/Laratios
aremodeled
asa mixture
ofmantle
andslab-derived
fluid;
themantlebeneath Seguam Islandmayreflecta two-to five-foldincrease
in thefluxof subducted
sedimentrelativeto regionsunaffected
by fracture
zonesubduction. We propose thattheAmlia
fracture
zoneprovided a channelwayfor subduction
of exceptionally largequantities
of sediment
andwaterintothesubarc
mantle.Release
of a largevolume
ofB- andCs-rich,
high87Sr/86Sr
fluid
fromtheslabmayhaveloweredthemeltingtemperature
of themantle,thereby
promoting
more
extensivepartialmelting.

INTRODUCTION andLangmuir[ 1988]and Kelemanet al. [1990]andin the

Aleutiansby Kay et al. [1982], Myerset al. [1985], and
Since Coats [1962] suggestedin a pre- plate tectonic Singeret al. [1992a],few studies
haveexplored theeffects
PacificOceancrust of structural
paperthatdehydrationof theunderthrust or compositional
variationsin the downgoing
initiated mantle melting beneath the Aleutian arc, the plate on the generationof arc magma. Quantifying
Aleutianshave been importantto understandingchemical elementalfluxesthroughsubductionzoneswill, however,
fluxesandmagmagenerationat subduction zones.Although requiremovingbeyondsimplemodels[e.g.,Plankand
the potentialrole of overridinglithospherein modifying Langmuir,1993] that tend to obscurethe variability
ascendingarc magrnaswas emphasizedglobally by Plank observed in both the column of crust plus sediment
subductedand the lavas erupted along many arcs [e.g.,
Varne, 1994].
•D6partment
deMin6ralogie,
Universit6
deGen•ve,Switzerland. Somearcsshow extremetopographyon the subducting
2Department
of Geologyand Geophysics,
Rice University, platewhereoceanic
plateaus
or youngoceanridgesystems
Houston, Texas, U.S.A. arebeingsubducted,
for examplesubduction
of theCocos
3GeologyDepartment,Royal Hollowayand BedfordNew Ridgebeneath
theCentralAmericanvolcanicarc [Leeman
College,Universityof London,U.K.
et al., 1994] or the Chile Risebeneaththe southernAndean
nDepartment
of EarthSciences,
The OpenUniversity,Milton
Keynes,U.K. arc[Kayet al., 1993]. Althoughsuchtopographic
features
are rare, fracture zone structuresinfluence 10-20% of
Pacific ocean crust [Mammerickx, 1989; Atwater and
Severinghaus, 1989]andby virtueof theirunusual structure,
Subduction:Top to Bottom sedimentdistribution,basementlithology,andalterationmay
GeophysicalMonograph96 exerta disproportionateinfluenceon the chemicalflux of
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical
Union subductedcrustal componentsinto the subarc mantle.
286 FRACTURE ZONE SUBDUCTION AND ALEUTIAN BASALT

I' Quaternar•vølcaniccenterl
' 18b
•;:•
ß Intra-arc
summit
basinI ..
• Eocene-Miocene
arc
rocks
I North
American
Plate ,," Shishatd/••'
!
- ' Intra-arc
deformation
limit
I •• Akutan • ,"'l
--'. Bathymetric
contour I, ,• . . . • ,• -' I
_l.........
Marinemagnetic
anomaly
I • • • • • I.'
!. - - " .•% ", ; ...... •' • _-'• •';'
i X', ............ '
[ •, ; •_ ', Yunaska',
.., '• •• ._.' •'-,•;'

'•=•:'.._. . ,
%• -- , ' -" --" •0 •:•' ß',/-
........
! ' ........ ...........................
........
,,.............

I •
...•E•[...
•'•".- • •
'•vZ'•,ZE.__
<'•C•:•=.-• ••• m.::,.:•4?3•:•9•ø•
'•'•:•.•:•-:.:.•--,•
.... .-....
•.....•'-•....••'-(Thick
.•?•'•':•'•
---- _.,
87....................
'" • • 4:•2...•-
•-•..•.
.................................
trench
k•m.y.- ..................
sediments
]?'•'"" ....• .........
.28 .......
...............................................................................
..........
5•-

so- *• :•w._..:•.•0• • •::'"• .................

•,........................................
• ..............................................................
•o...................
PacificPlate • .....................
• .............
•s................................................................
E ..............................
•s.....................
• ...........................................................................
a•.................................
2s ....................
Rat • "' Adak • •Amlia
fracture . fracture '
:r:s:ure
.............
......................
zone............................
".............................
zone 0 .00
Fig.1.Structure
of theAleutian
arcafterGeistetal. [1988].Thenarrow
island
crested
ridgeisfragmented
intofive
structuial
blocks;
in thewakeof eachrotated
blockis anintra-arc
basin.
TheAmliafracture
zoneoffsets
marine
magnetic
anomalies
220km[Hayes
andHeirtzler,1968],andhasa 0.5-1.0kmescarpment
defining
itswestern
wall
[Schollet al., 1982]. Turbiditycurrents
carrysediment
fromtheGulf of AlaskaintotheAleutiantrenchsouthof the
Seguam
volcanic
center.Thisterrigenous
sediment
overlies
200-300
mofpelagic
sediment
andistypically
2-2.5km
thickin thetrenchfloor.WheretheAmliafracturezoneintersects
thetrench,thesediment
is, however,3.7-4.0km
thick[Scholl
etal., 1982].Arrowgives
relative
plateconvergence
direction
andvelocity.
Since
subduction
ishighly
oblique,
theAmliafracture
zonewasbelowYunaska
3 Ma andbeneath
Seguam
1 Ma.

Fracturezonewallscanexposelargevolumes
of water-rich Ta, Nb, plus Rb, Ba, Cs, U, Th, Pb, Be, and B in 57
(13wt%)serpentine[Bonatti
andCrane,1984]thatmaybe representative basaltsamples(45-53% SiO2;4-16% MgO)
stableto depths
of 150-200km [UlmerandTrommsdorffi,from ten volcaniccentersalongthe Aleutianislandarc. Of
1995]. Moreover,intensefaultingand hydrothermalparticularimportanceare new B, Be, and Cs concentration
alteration in fracture zones will increase the surface area determinations. Our resultssuggestthatlateralvariationsin
uponwhichdevolatilizationreactionsoccur[Tatsumiet al., the traceelement,isotopic,andpossiblythe majorelement
1986; Beboutet al., 1993]. Thesefactorsmay greatly compositions of Aleutianbasaltreflectalong-arcdifferences
enhance fluid transfer from subducted crust into the mantle in the quantityof sedimentand water subductedbeneaththe
wedgebelowarcs. Thus,theglobalimportance of fracture arc.
zonesubduction
to elementrecycling
is probably
seriously
neglected. Recent geophysicalwork in the Aleutian arc TRACE ELEMENTS IN ALEUTIAN BASALTS
[Scroll et al., 1982; Geist et al., 1988; Geistand Scroll,
1992]providesanexceptional opportunityto testtheeffects In attemptingto use basaltcompositionsto explorearc
of fracturezonesubduction
on arc magmageneration
and magmasources,the absoluteabundances of incompatible
elementalfluxes (Figure 1). trace elementscan be misleadingas they are strongly
Despitemanygeochemicalstudies,concentration datafor affectedby crystallization
or contamination
duringascentof
key traceelements in Aleutianbasaltsareeitherlackingor themagmathroughthe lithosphere.Concentration ratiosof
fragmentary at best.To address thisproblem plusquestions incompatibleelementswith similar or slightly different
concerning the relativerolesof the mantle,crust,andfluids, distribution
coefficients,
in conjunction
with isotopicdata,
andto testthehypothesis thatfracturezonesubduction may canhowever,provideinsightto variationsin magmasource
impact arc-wide chemical variations,we have undertaken composition, degreeof mantle melting, and additionsof
concentrationmeasurements of rare-earthelements,Zr, Hf, subducted crustalcomponents to themagmasource prior
 SINGER ET AL. 287

melting. Our resultsarethereforediscussed

mainlyin terms
of salient trace element ratios. A
[]
The rare earthelementsLa andYb andhigh field strength •v
elements Nb and Zr are relatively immobile under •v
hydrothermalconditionsand are stronglyfractionatedonly ©, m+
during melting or magma mixing processes. Different
partitioncoefficientsfor theotherwisegeochemically
similar
La andYb or Nb andZr in clinopyroxeneandgarnetpermit crystallization
the La/Yb and Nb/Zr ratios to be used as monitors of the
degreeof partialmeltingof the mantle[e.g.,Thirlwall et al., 1 increased
1994]. Chondrite normalized La/Yb ratios generally partial
decrease from about 4 to 1 as La decreases from 11 to <3 0 melting• • • I

ppm. Similarly,Nb/Zr ratiosdecreasefrom 0.040 to 0.015 0 5 10 15 25

as Nb decreasesfrom 3 to 0.5 ppm (Figures2a and b). La ppm
ThesegeochemicaltrendssuggestthatmostAleutianbasalts
can be related to a broadly common mantle source i i i I

compositionby varying degreesof partial melting of this 0.05 B

mantle. Samplesfrom the central Aleutian arc volcanic
centerof Seguam(Figure 1) are amongthosefor which we

0.04
infer an originvia the highestdegreesof melting(Figure2). 1• LittleSitldn
In contrastto rare earth or high field strengthelements, fractional ß Kanaga

• 0.03
i ••t.,)/ crystallization
experimentaldata [You et al., 1995] indicatethat B is (.• Seguam
stronglypartitionedinto aqueousfluidsduringdehydration •X Yunaska
of mineralsat temperatures below350øC,thusit recordsthe [] Recheshnoi
progressivedevolatilizationattending metamorphismof /• Okmok

subductingoceancrust[Moran et al., 1992; Beboutet al., 0.01 increased O Makushin

partial
1993; You et al., 1993]. Similar partitioncoefficientsfor melting
I Akutan

the highly incompatibleelementsB, Be, and La [Ryanand 0.00 ' ' ' •1• Shishaldin
0 2 4 6 •- ColdBay
Langmuir, 1988; 1993], coupled with the very low
concentration and short residence time of B in the mantle Nb ppm
and lower arc crust [Moran et al., 1992; Leeman et al.,
1992] predictthat B/La and B/Be in arc basaltsare largely I I I I I I I

unaffected by crystallization or contamination of the .............. •. increased

slabC
ascendingmagmas. Cesiumis a fluid-mobileelementthat component
shouldexhibit geochemicalbehaviorsimilarto B [Leeman
et al., 1992], henceCs/La ratiosare usedhere to strengthen
argumentsthat rely mainly on B.
4
Ratios of B/La and B/Be are strongly correlatedwith
løBe/9Be ratios and thus serve as useful indicators of
subductedsedimentin arc magma sources[Morris et al.,
1990; Edwards et al., 1993; Leeman et al., 1994]. Boron 1 increased
concentrations in Aleutian basalt samplesvary nearly ten- partial
melting
fold from 3 to 28 ppm; their B/La ratiosrangefrom 0.6 to I I I
0 I I I I
>7.0 (Figure 3a). Samplesfrom the centralAleutian arc 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
volcaniccentersof Seguamand Yunaskahave the highest B/•
B contents(>20 ppm) and B/La (>3), B/Be (>25), and
Cs/La (>0.16) ratios observed(Figures3a, 3c and 4). The
Seguam
basaltsamples
alsohavethehighest ratios Fig. 2. Trace elementplots of Aleutian basalticlava samples
87Sr/86Sr
illustratingeffects of partial melting. (a) chondrite-normalized
measuredin the Aleutianarc [Singeret al., 1992b] (Figure
La/Yb vs. La. (b) Nb/Zr vs. Nb. (c) chondrite-normalizedLa/Yb
3b). Assumingan initial subarcmantle wedge that was vs. B/La. La and Yb (and Cs) were determinedby INAA at the
broadly uniform in composition,the relationsbetweenB, OpenUniversity,Nb and Zr by XRF analysisat the Universityof
B/La, B/Be, Cs/La,and87Sr/86Sr suggestthat additionof London, B by prompt gamma neutron activation at McMaster
greater
quantities
of a fluidrichin B, Cs,and87Srmayhave University. With the exceptionof high Nb and La samplesfrom
imprinteda larger signatureof subductedsedimenton the Shishaldin,the samples in (a) and (b) define steep arrays
sourceof SeguamandYunaskabasaltsthanat othercenters suggestiveof relationshipsvia partial melting. Samplesfrom
(Figures3c and 4). Seguamare consistent with the highestdegreeof
288 FRACTURE ZONE SUBDUCTION AND ALEUTIAN BASALT

30 DISCUSSION
A i i i i i i (•
Basalt samplesfor which the quantity of slab-derived
crustal componentadded to the mantle wedge was
20
apparentlylargestcorrespond to thosethat we infer to have
originatedvia the highestpercentages of mantlemelting
- +• (Figure 2c). These basaltsare from the Seguamand
10 •_•ll• • Increased
slab Yunaskavolcaniccenters(Figure4). The Aleutianarccrust
westof Shishaldinvolcano(Figure 1) consistsof deformed
Eocene-Pliocenearc rocks plus older oceaniccrust and
probablyvarieslittle in thickness[Geistand Scholl,1992].
•Mantle • • • • • It is unlikelythatcontamination processesduringmagma
ascent obscuredthe imprint of source characteristicsin
0.7038 I I I I I I I
Seguambasaltfor three reasons. First, combinedSr, Nd,
B Pb, and O isotopedata from basalticthroughrhyodacitic
0.7036 (50-71% SiO2) lavas at Seguamstronglysuggestthat
ll• LittleSitkin
ß Kanaga
basaltic
mammas crystallized
withlittlecontamination
during
0.7034- ß + Increased
slab ß•' Adak-Atka
ascentthroughthe arc crust [Singer et al., 1992a and
1992c]. Second, since the B and Be contents of lower

•l•l component
(• Seguam
crustalandmantlerocksarevanishinglylow [Leemanet al.,
0.7032 •X Yunaska
•-• Recheshnoi 1992;Beboutet al., 1993],magma-mantleor magma-lower
/"x Okmok crust interactions would lower the B/La ratio with a
0.7030 - • O Makushin negligibleaffect on the B/Be ratio (Figure3c). Finally,
• * I Akutan assimilationof enormousquantitiesof mantleor lower crust
0.7028 I I I I I ß Shishaldin wouldberequired
toexplainthearc-wide
rangeof 87Sr/86Sr
ß-[- ColdBay ratios[Singeret al., 1992a]and impossiblylargequantities
60
to explainthe ten-foldrangein B concentration (Figure3a).
I i

c The Seguam and Yunaska volcanic centersoverlie a

- Crustal or Mantle -
Contamination 2% region of the mantle into which the Amlia fracturezone
40
wassubducted obliquelyoverthe past3 Ma. As the Amlia
fracturezoneoffsetsmagneticlineationsby at least220 km,
it is the only one of the three fracture zones subducting
beneaththe Aleutian arc that has a significanttopographic
20 -
•(}
[]
z•-{-
1%•x
Fluid-Mantle
Mixing _ expressionas a 30 km wide, 1 km deep troughin the
Pacific oceancrust (Figure 1). Seismicreflectionprofiles
I•/•= .•ooI _ [Scholl et al., 1982] show that an extra kilometer or more
lB/Be= 2000
I of terrigenoussedimentoverlies 200-300 m of pelagic
I I I I I I sediment in the Aleutian trench east of the Amlia fracture
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 zone. The east-facingescarpmentsof the Amlia fracture
B/La zone reflect older Pacific ocean crust to the east and have
acted to pond west-flowingterrigenoussedimentin the
Fig. 3. Trace elementand Sr isotoperatio plots of Aleutian trench(Figure 1). This escarpmentwould almostcertainly
basalticlava samplesillustratingeffectsof addinga subducted preventmuchof the pelagicandterrigenous sedimentfrom
crustalcomponent to the mantlewedge.(a) Boronconcentration beingscrapedoff below the accretionarywedgeand may
vs.B/Laratio.(b) 87Sr/a6Sr
vs.B/Laratio.(c) B/Beratiovs.B/La juxtapose abundant water-rich serpentinite[Ulmer and
ratio.Berylliummeasured by ICP-MS at theUniversityof South Trommsdorff, 1995] with thesesedimentsat mantledepths.
Florida. The mixing line in (c) assumesmantle and fluid end We propose that the larger quantity of slab-derived
memberssimilarto thosein Leemanet al. [ 1994]andMorris et al. components involved in magma sourcesfor Seguam(and
[ 1990]. Tick marks show 0.5% incrementsof fluid in the mixture.
possiblyYunaska) basaltsreflects efficient focussingof
Datasources
for 87Sr/86Sr
ratiosandtheLa valuesusedto calculate
terrigenousand pelagic sediment into the mantle via
B/Laratiosfor AdakandAtkasamples
aregivenin Singeret al. subduction of the Amlia fracture zone. Extra fluid released
[1992b].
into the mantle wedge from the excess sediment and
serpentinite
in the Amlia fracturezonemay have(1) locally
increasedby two- to five-fold the amount of crustally
derivedelements(e.g, B, Cs, radiogenicSr and other
 SINGER ET AL. 289

Amlia Fracture IMPLICATIONS

presentday•. Zone • 3 Ma
I I I I I' ! I I I L--!--!--I I I I I I I I I

6
Seguam
basalt
isdistinctively
lower
inK20,
TiO2,
and
totalFeO thanotherAleutianbasalts[Singeret al., 1992b],
consistentwith an origin via higher degreesof mantle
r. melting. If the degreeof partial meltingreflectsthe
4 quantityof slab-derivedfluid addedto the mantlewedge,
•r ß - • /X then,as suggested
by Luhr [1992],the smallbut variable

Ill • * •-•"•
• •l •?• have
quantities
of
fluid
liberated
from
the
subduct
plate
can
2

0 aprofound
, , , , , , , , , •-•--• effect
on
bulk
magma
composition
Our i • conclusionsthat the flux of subduetedsedimentis quite
variableand that the degreeof mantlemeltingmay reflect
60 , , , , , , , , , . -, , , , , , , , , differences
in sedimentflux are at oddswith Plankand
Langmuir's[ 1988]conclusion
thatbulkmagmacomposition
•. - and degree of partial melting in arcs are determined
40 primarily
by crustal
thickness.
Traceelementdatafrom the centralAleutianarc imply a
/• strong
linkbetween
slab-mantle
chemical
exchanges
andthe

a8 •r
20 a8 • • products
ofarc
directlyvolcanism.
either
the
slabSingle
stage
models
ormantle
wedge
areof
meltin
ruled
out
as
0 •' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ß ' :l:• •• these
would
owing lead
to
to severe
approached
(1)
very
lowofB
B-depletion contents
any inthe melt,
protolith
its meltingtemperature,
as it
and (2) decreases of K
.3 I I I I I I I I I I---t--t-•I I I I I I I I I and B contents in magrnas produced by increased
percentages of melting. Neithercaseis observed.Increased
Seguam Yunaska
availabilityof waterin the presenceof a thickenedcolumn
0.2 of subducted B-rich sedimentcanpotentiallystabilizelarger
quantitesof hydrousmineralsin the shallowreachesof the

o.1
180 175
Longitude
Fig. 4. Plotsof B/La, B/Be, and Cs/La ratiosof Aleutianbasaltic
lava samplesvs. longitude. The ruled areashowspositionof the
Amlia fracturezonebetween3 Ma andthe presentday (Figure1).
The volcanic centers of $eguam and Yunaska overlie subarc
mantle that was in contact with this fracture zone and have the
highestratios. Data sourcesfor La andCs valuesusedto calculate
B/La andCs/Laratiosfor Adak,Atka, andKasatochisamplesare
givenin Singeret al. [1992b]. Symbolsas in Figure3.
ion lithophile elements) transferredfrom the slab to the
mantlewedge,and (2) loweredthe meltingtemperature of
the mantle, thus increasingthe extent to which partial
melting proceeded[e.g., Luhr, 1992]. Intra-arcextension
(Figure 1) may also have promotedmore extensivemantle
melting [Singer et al., 1992b], however the amount of
lithosphericattenuationis probablysmall [Geistand Scholl,
1992] and extensionalone cannot explain the high B
contentsor B/La, B/Be, Cs/La and87Sr/86Sr ratiosobserved
at Seguam.
••1•
mantle wedge [e.g., Tatsumi et al., 1986]. Selective
partitioning into these hydrous mantle minerals will
accomodateonly a fraction of the subductedB (and Cs);
upontransportto the depthsof melt generation[e.g.,Davies
and Stevenson,1992] the higher modal concentrationof
170 165 hydrousmineralswill releasethiswaterto the mantlewhich
thenmeltsto a greaterextentthan otherwisepossiblein the
absenceof the fracture zone. Simple two component
mixing calculations(Figure 3c) suggestthat the the flux of
hydrousmineralsto the depthof meltingin the mantlemay
vary by a factor of two to five along the Aleutian arc.
Despitethe complexpathwayof subductedfluid to the
depth of melting and the large apparent variation in
sediment flux, the B/La-B/Be correlation (Figure 3c)
indicatesthat the fluid compositionmust be remarkably
uniform below 1400 km of the arc. This seems to be true
in all arcs where similar data exist [Morris et al., 1990;
Edwardset al., 1993; Leemanet al., 1994] and implies,
with respect to B, Be, La, and Cs at least, effective
homogenizationof the subductedsedimentcomponent
duringevolutionof the fluid.
The shortresidencetimespostulatedfor B (and Cs) in the
mantlewedge [Morris et al., 1990] are confirmedby the
lower B/La, B/Be, and Cs/La ratios at Yunaska, where the
Amlia fracturezone interactedwith the mantle wedge 3
million years ago. Changes in the flux of subducted
sedimentmay producesubtle transientsignalsin the
290 FRACTURE ZONE SUBDUCTION AND ALEUTIAN BASALT

volcanoes,in this casereflectingobliquesubduction

of the crustal xenoliths. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 775-788,
1992.
Pacific plate.
Leeman,W.P., M.J. Cart, and J.D. Morris, Boron geochemistry
of the Central American Volcanic Arc: constraints on the
Acknowledgements.
Supported
bySwiss
NSFgrants
21-36509.92
and 20-42124.94 (Singer) and U.S. NSF grant EAR 91-19110 genesisof subduction-related
magmas.Geochim.Cosmochim.
Acta, 58, 149-168, 1994.
(Leeman). Samples upon which this study is based were
generouslyprovidedto Singerby Jim Brophy,JohnFournelle, Luhr, J.F., Slab-derivedfluids and partial melting in subduction
JamesMyers, ChrisNye, Mike Perfit, and GeorgeSnyder. Jeff zones:insightsfrom two contrastingMexicanvolcanoes(Colima
and Ceboruco). J. Volcanol. Geotherm Res., 54, 1-18, 1992.
Ryan kindly providedthe Be analysesdiscussed here. We thank
Mike Dunganfor his enthusiastic supportof this project. Dave Mammerickx,J., Large scale underseafeaturesof the northeast
Scholl, Gray Bebout, and Steve Kirby are applaudedfor Pacific, in: Winterer, E.L., D.M. Hussong,and R.W. Decker,
eds., The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii. Geol. Soc. Amer.
envisioningthe SUBCON forum and stimulating exchangeof
ideas acrossdisciplines. Insightfulreviewsby John Davidson, The Geologyof North America,v. N, pp. 5-13, 1989.
Moran, A.E., V.B. Sisson, and W.P. Leeman, Boron in subducted
Geoff Nichols,and Jeff Ryan are greatlyappreciated as they
helpedto clarifymanypointsandto improvethe presentation. oceanic crust and sediments:effects of metamorphismand
implicationsfor arc magmatism.Earth Planet Sci. Lett., 111,
331-349, 1992.
Morris, J.D., W.P. Leeman, and F. Tera, The subducted com-
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J.L. Bischoff, Experimental study of boron geochemistry: M.F. Thirlwall, Geology Department,Royal Holloway and
implicationsfor fluid processesin subductionzones.Geochim. BedfordNew College,Universityof London,EghamHill, Egham,
Cosmochim. Acta, 59, 2435-2442, 1995. SurreyTW20 0EX, U.K.
You, C.-F., A.J. Spivack,J.H. Smith, and J.M. Gieskes,Mobil- N.W. Rogers, Department of Earth Sciences, The Open
ization of boron in convergentmargins:implicationsfor the University,Milton Keynes,MK7 6AA,
borongeochemicalcycle, Geology,21, 207-210, 1993.
 J_•A[.Yk•1111
lk•11I.Cll l¾1k•l I.lii• •id,•,i• OF-.,UJJIIF_.,IIL? k,_•t)llbtli:llllt•5 F•C:IC:Vi:ilIL tO

Subduction

Geoffrey T. Nichols
MacquarieUniversity, GEMOC,Schoolof EarthSciences,
Sydney,
New SouthWales,2109,Australia,and
CaliforniaInstituteof Technology,
Divisionof Geological
andPlanetarySciences,
Pasadena,CA. 91125,U.S.A.

PeterJ. Wyllie
CaliforniaInstituteof Technology,
Divisionof Geological
andPlanetarySciences,
Pasadena,
CA. 91125,U.S.A.

Charles R. Stem

University
of Colorado,Department
of GeologicalSciences,
Boulder,Colorado,CO. 80309, U.S.A.

Theexperimental
meltingrelations
of pelagicredclaywithwaterindicatea low temperature
solidus,closeto 650øC.This is significantasthe redclaywatersolidusis lowerthanthe solidus
of gabbrowith water,to depthsof at least 140 km. Sucha solidiconfiguration allowsfor
meltingof sediments,
whilstgabbroiccrustdehydrates, in moderate-temperature steady-state
subductionregimes.
Thisnewexperimental evidencelendssupport to (1) thesediment melting-
gabbrodehydration
hypothesis,recentlyproposed on independentgeochemical criteria,and(2)
mayplacerelativelynarrowlimitson temperatures of the upperslab-mantle boundary, overa
considerabledepthinterval,an aproposconstraintfor thermalmodellingof steady-state
subductionregimes.

by meltingat deeperlevelsandhighertemperatures
where
1. INTRODUCTION
residualmicaexperiencedvapor-absent
dehydration-melting.
Many calculationsfor the thermal structuresof subduction
Sedimentaryinputinto subduction
zonesas proposedin zonesduringthe 1970'spresented
isotherms
requiringpartial
the 1960's by Coats [1962], Armstrong [1968], and meltingof subductedsediments(seeGill [1981]), however,
OxburghandTurcotte[1968], but was later disputedby geochemistsin general failed to find evidence for the
Pankhurst [1969], and Oversbyand Ewart [1972]. Stern involvementof sediments in the generation
of arc-magmas.
[1973]studiedthemeltingrelationships
of pelagicredclay The prevailing opinion throughthe 1980's was that the
to 30 kbar, and publishedthe 30 kbar resultsin Sternand main materialsourcefor arc magmaswasperidotitein the
Wyllie [1973]. Huang and Wyllie [1973] usedthe phase mantle-wedge, but that fluids of uncertain source and
relationshipsof a muscovite-graniteas a model for the characterhadtransferredspecificisotopeandtrace-element
partial melting of pelagic sedimentsin subductionzones, signatures from the subducted slabto the meltingregionin
drawingattention to theprospectof two stagesof melting, the mantle-wedge.By the 1990's,evaluationsof the thermal
oneat shallowerdepthsassociated with porefluids,followed structureof subductionzones (e.g. Peacock[1991])were
emphasizingthat temperatures were normallytoo low for
meltingof oceaniccrust(e.g. Daviesand Stevenson[1992]),
Subduction:Top to Bottom andthat aqueousvaporswere the dominanttransferagents
GeophysicalMonograph96 for thecharacteristic
trace-elementsignatures
of arcmagmas.
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical Union However,in 1990,DrummondandDefantpresented evidence
294 SUBDUCTION RELATED SEDIMENT MELTING EXPERIMENTS

Table1.Comparisonof RedClayCompositions
andNormative
MineralProportions
RedClay#256 volatile
free Average Ocean volatile
free RedClayb volatile
free
Claya
SiO2 48.79 57.31 53.70 57.60 52.77 57.54
TiO2 0.83 0.97 1.00 1.10 0.84 0.92
A1203 17.90 21.02 17.40 18.70 14.67 16.00
FeO c 5.62 6.60 0.5 ! 8.5 0.5 ! 9.1 7.39 8.06
MnO 0.58 0.68 0.80 0.90 1.24 1.35
MgO 3.05 3.58 4.60 4.90 3.29 3.59
CaO 2.06 2.42 1.60 1.70 2.40 2.62
Na20 2.61 3.07 1.30 1.40 4.33 4.72
K20 3.49 4.10 3.70 4.00 3.58 3.90
P205 0.21 0.25 0.10 0.10 1.20 1.31
C1 1.90 .....

H20+ 7.79 6.30

H20- 1.05
CO2 1.70 0.40
S 0.06 -
LOI 0.40 8.30
Total 97.64 100.00 100.00 100.00 91.71 100.01
Norms

Qz 14.6 39.3 1.1

Ab 44.2 20.3 62.7
Or 41.2 40.4 36.2

Qz 12.4 34.7 0.9

Ab + An 52.6 29.8 65.2
Or 35.0 35.6 33.9

a [Seibold and Berger, 1982]

b composition
usedby Johnson
andPlank[1993]
c Fe expressedas FeO or FeO ! Fe203
for the derivation of silicic volcanics (adakites) froxn the
partial melting of subductedhydrousgabbro,using trace-
element considerations.
Renewed supportfor the involvementof sedimentshas
arisen with evidence from Sr, Pb and Be isotopes[Kay et
al., 1978; Whiteand Duprd, 1986; Tera et al., 1986], as
well as from trace-elements Hawkesworth et al., [1991 ], and
studiescombiningthis evidencewith massflux calculations
[Plank and Langmuir, 1993]. Abundancesof Be and Th in
arc-derivedmagmas have led several workers [Ryan and
Langmuir, 1988;Plank and Langmuir, 1992;Reaganet al.,
1994] to concludethat not only are theseelementsrecycled
efficiently, but that the recycling agent is probably a
sediment-melt (with or without additional hydrous fluids)
since Be and Th are not known to partition into hydrous
fluids.
Experimentsdescribedhere,are aimedat understanding
the
phase relations of a typical ocean pelagic sediment, at
conditions relevant to subduction,and investigating the
chemistryof melts generatedthroughthe melting interval.
Johnson and Plank [1993] are engaged in similar
experimentsat higherpressures.
2. APPARATUS AND STARTING MATERIAL
Our experimentswere conductedin 1/2 and 3/4 inch
piston-cylinderapparatus
with anAtlanticOceanpelagicred
clay,collectedfrom a waterdepthof 5949 m, approximately
1560 km east of Miami. This red clay has a composition
closeto that of many ocean-pelagicred clays(Table 1) and
hasan initial mineralogyof quartz,muscovite,illite, albite,
halite, minor kaolinire, and probably orthoclase. We
conductedthe experimentsin gold capsulesusing the red
clay (which has8% H20 boundin hydrousminerals)andin
separaterunsadded20% H20; in oneexperimentwe added
only 3% water. Our data are thereforerelevantto red
 NICHOLS ET AL. 295

with 8%, 11%, and 28% total water,over the rangeof 35

pressuresfrom 2-30 kbar, and temperaturesfrom 550-
1200øC.
30 a)'•11
;z•,'•y
' '/• Cp:-Out
I i8•o
•2;I
Mi Ky/ GaCpxL / /I • -

• 25
O__aC_pV/. ....
3. EXPERIMENTAL PHASE RELATIONS qzMiKy IQzBiKyX*e ]1 •
GaCpx I m Ga X ///

3.1. Sub-solidus and Solidus Relations Hb

V•• Lx
10 QzMi• •• ••----L+V
The red clay reactssub-solidusto producepredominantly P,V
quartzandmicas(muscovite,illite, and minor biotite); with
mafic minerals,including cordierite,amphibole,garnet and
clinopyroxene,
depending
onthepressure.
Ourexperiments 0
35

b)lQ•
•QizBi•l•,
i , i [•8•O
•2•[
both with addedand without addedwater (Figs l a and b),
define solidi close to that of the granite-H20 system [e.g. 30 MiKylYGaCpxL • 1, [ -
Boettcherand Wyllie, 1968], between630 - 675øCat 10 and GaCpx•1 V li Bi-•t
30 kbar.Johnson
andPlank[1993]reporta higher •' 25 Qz • Ky %(•z Bi Ky • l•cp•t
temperaturesolidus at 30 kbar close to our Bi-out curve. • 20
This discrepancyin solidi temperaturesmay, in part, be
causedby thedifferingnormative
quartzcontentsof theclays • 15
used, with Johnsonand Plank's [1993] clay having only
-1% calculated
normative
quartzcompared
with - 13% 10
I X • •••p•ut
normative
quartz
fortheredclayusedin these
experiments
(Table 1).
• 4 • , I • I • I
5 00 600 7• 800 900 ' 1000 1100 1200
3.2. Melting Interval Relations Temperature(øC)

Figure 1. Experimental phase diagrams showing the melting

Above the solidusthe primary mineralogy is dominated
by quartz and biotite, with positionsof the phase-fieldsof
clinopyroxene,amphibole, garnet and plagioclasevarying
with pressure[Nichols et al., 1993]. Through the melting
interval,bothquartzandbiotiteoccuras largecrystals(-40 -
60 gm) along the lower capsule margins. At 650øC,
immediately above the solidus,fine-grained quartz occurs
throughoutthe lower half of the capsules,and •-5 gm garnet
occursin the upperhalf.
3.3. SuperliquidusRelations
In runs interpretedto be within the superliquidusfield,
above 850øC (at 20 kbar), experimental-meltsquench to
wide glassrims (-400 gm) which surrounda core of glass
crowded with -3-5 gm garnets. Occurring between the
centralgarnet-richregionand the glassrims, is a transitional
zone of glasscontainingatoll-shapedand skeletalgarnets.
The garnetschange form gradationallyfrom atolls nearest
the glassrims, to euhedralhabitsnearestthe centre. Along
with the euhedralgarnetsin the centralregion,are rare areas
of fine-grainedspinifex-texturedquenchedkyanite. In these
experimentsno crystal-settlingis observed.Combining the
observationsof gradationalchangesin garnetmorphology,
relationsof red clay in experimentsrun with a total of 8% water
(a), and 28% total water (b). Interpretation for the figures is
basedon the combineddata from 64 experimentsconductedover
the P-T range of the plot. The lower temperaturebold curves
labelled S are the red clay solidi, and are identical for both 8%
and 28% water experiments; higher temperature bold curves
labelled Lq are the liquidi surfaces.Mineral abbreviations:B i
biotite, Cpx clinopyroxene, Crd cordierire, Ga garnet, Hb
hornblende,Ky kyanite,L liquid, Mi mica, PI plagioclase,Qz
quartz, V vapor.
the lack of garnet-settling(comparedwith quartz and biotite
settling in lower temperature runs), and the associated
spinifexquenchedkyanite,leadsus to the interpretationthat
thesegarnetsgrew from liquid duringquench[Nichols et al.,
1994]. In further supportof this conclusion,we compared
the compositionsof garnetswithin eachexperiment.Garnets
do not display the characteristicbipartite compositional
groupings that are usually useful to discriminate quench
from primary minerals. Garnets do, however, display the
usual variations in Fe, Mg and Ca characteristic of the
temperaturesat which they beganto form.
Figures 1a and b comparethe phasediagramsof red clay
with 8% and 28% total water. They show the
296 SUBDUCTION RELATED SEDIMENT MELTING EXPERIMENTS

interpretationscombiningearly experimentswhich were CompositionalVariationsof Red Clay Glasses

crushed and examined under immersion oils, with the latest
polished runs examined by SEM and analysedusing a
microprobe.The solidusfor red clay with 8% water (bold,
2.0 - Red
Clay
Fig. 1a) is identicalto thatdeterminedfor red clay with 28% . 95011% 1
water (Fig. lb), indicatingthat with 8% H20 there is free 1.5
vaporremainingafter saturationof the partial melt nearthe
solidus. The liquidi surfaces(in bold) are similar at low
pressure,but deviate at higher pressureswhere the Bi-out
curve (liquidus)in the red clay-28% H20 systemcurvesto
lower temperatures at pressuresabove20 kbar.At pressures
above15 kbar,bothquartzandclinopyroxene melt at lower
1•650
28%
0.5 I-- IX •. -

temperatures in theredclay-28%system,thanin theredclay 28%

8% system(cf. Figs la andb). [.•-•X I ,• , x,750
0.0
3.4. Glass Compositions
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
The experimentalglassesdisplaylarge and systematic wt% SiO2
compositionalvariationsthroughoutthe melting interval, Figure 2. Silica and chlorine compositional variations of red
with variationsstronglydependent on run temperatures.
In clay glassesfrom experimentsbetween 15 and 20 kbar. Data are
experimentsimmediately above the solidus (650øC, 20 subdivided into two trends; one trend displays data from
kbar),glassrims are very narrowandare compositionally experiments with excess vapor (28% total water, dashed line),
heterogeneous; these glasseshave variable K20, and low and the other trend shows data from runs with 8% and, for one
SiO2 (-50 wt%, Fig. 2), and thereforeprobablyrepresent run 11%, water (solid line). Except for the disequilibriumglass
disequilibrium meltsproducedfrom the partialmeltingof compositions from a 650øC run, data define trends which
micas. At higher temperatures,750 - 800øC, glassesare approachthe red clay startingcomposition(black square), with
rhyolitic(SiO2 -75 wt%), peraluminous (A1/ Na+Ca+K -1 increasing temperature.
- 2.7), and have low C1 -0.1 - 0.4. From 825 - 950øC,
glassesbecomeprogressivelylesssilicic (SiO2 --75 - 60),
lessperaluminous (-1.5) and becomeincreasinglyC1 rich 4. SIGNIFICANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
(0.5 - 1.7 wt%, Fig. 2).
Compositions of experimentalglassesalsodependon the
4.1. Thermal Regimes
degreeof vapor saturation.Figure 2 displaysdata from
experiments run at 15-20 kbar with total water contents Davies and Stevenson [1992] reviewed current thermal
ranging from 8% to 28%. The data define two trends,one modelsfor subductionzones,concludingthat shearheating
from vaporsaturatedexperiments(28% totalwater)andone doesnotcontributesignificantlyto theheatbudget(contrary
trendwith glassesfrom vaporpresentruns(8 and 11% total to Molnar and England [1990]), and thereforedespitethe
water).The glasses produced in experiments withlessvapor large calculatedrange in possiblethermalregimes,viable
containmoreC1and,at a giventemperature, aremoresilicic modelswere generallycool. Peacock[ 1991] andPeacocket
(Fig. 2). Excess vapor thus effectively enhances C1 al. [1994] determinedthatfor similarsubduction parameters
partitioningintothe vapor,depletingthecoexistingglass. (slab velocity, dip angle, age and no shearheating)P-T
Chlorine stronglypartitionsinto the vapor phase(in trajectories were also cool. These thermal models thus
agreementwith the work of Websterand Holloway[1988]) predictno melting of the oceaniccrustduringsteady-state
at lower experimentaltemperatures alongwith the alkalis, subduction,exceptin rarecircumstances whereshearheating
whereas at higher temperaturesC1 (and the alkalis) are is significant,or whenyoung,hot oceaniccrustis subducted
progressively redissolvedinto the coexistingmeltsthereby slowly.
reducingthemelt'speraluminosity. WebsterandHolloway Figure 3 comparesthe currentthermalmodelsof Davies
[1988], in additionto determiningthat C1 favors H20 and and Stevenson[1992] (labelled DS), and one of the P-T
H20+CO2 vaporsmore than coexistingmelts, found that pathsfrom Peacocket al. [1994] (labelled PRT), with the
this partitioningbehaviorincreasedin more peraluminous solidusof red clay-H20 as well as the solidi and dissociation
melts,andalsodemonstrated thatC1partitioning intovapor curves of other subduction zone lithologies. For both
increased withtemperatureandpressure. calculated paths (DS and PRT), only slight
 NICHOLS ET AL. 297

Temperature
(øC) Also depictedon Figure 3 is the deducedvapor-absent
0 . 500 1000 1500 solidusfor red clay, equivalentto the vapor-present
liquidus
0 ....... •_...,..•_.;,,,,,=• .... 0 surface of red clay with water. The relatively high
"•"
'
. ; '... serpentinite\ [ l/
' 'xx• '• \lhtrzolitt temperature positionof thiscurve(-850-900øCat pressures
>12 kbar) suggests that sedimentswould not melt in many

.':.,
10
.-'\ .. \\\I•IB...
'....... - 40•
moderatetemperaturesubduction regimes,if suchregimes
are entirely vapor absent.For vapor-presentsubduction
conditions,without sufficient fluid for saturation(<8% total
water),the actualsolidusof red clay will be bracketedby the

20- '-, ......

• • PRT" "'. 80
g redclay-H20 solidusandthededucedvapor-absent red clay
solidus. For realistic conditionshowever, some H20 vapor
wouldbe present,producedby the dehydration
of hydrous
- portlanditt+. ", I

30
.hydrousCa-silicatt
'..
I"[
/ !
minerals such as mica, amphibole and serpentine. For
ß [.
example,up to pressuresof-20 kbarmuscovite dehydration

4o_- 112ø occursat temperaturesbelow (but close to) the inferred

Figure 3. Pressure-temperaturediagram comparing recent
thermal models for the top of subductingoceaniccrust from
Davies and Stevenson[1992] (DS), (slab dipping 30ø, velocity
7.2 cm yr-1, no shearheating),and Peacocket al. [1994] (PRT),
(slab dipping 26.6ø, velocity 7.2 cm yr-1, no shear heating),
with solidi and dissociation curves for
lithologies.The lower temperaturecurve in bold is the solidus
for red clay-H20, and the highertemperaturecurve (in bold) is
the deduced vapor-absentsolidus of red clay (vapor present
liquidus surface). Between the points labelled B and A
amphiboliteundergoesdehydrationmelting. Curves from the
following references: serpentinite, Wyllie [1979]. The recent
antigorite stability experimentsof Ulmer and Trommsdorff
[1995] extend the serpentinite stability field to temperatures
higher by -100øC; calcite+portlandite+hydrousCa-silicate,
Boettcher and Wyllie [1969]; gabbro-H20 and amphibole
dehydration,Wyllie and Wolf [1993]; calcite+quartz,Huang et
al. [1980]; lherzolite, Takahashi [1986]; and lherzolite-H20,
Green [ 1973].
vapor-absentsolidusof redclay [Huangand Wyllie,1973].
Serpentineand amphibolealso undergodehydrationat
temperaturesbelowthe deducedvapor-absentsolidusof red
clay.
Theseexperiments providefurthersupportfor Plankand
Langmuir's [1992] deductionthat sedimentsmelt, while
subduction zone gabbro dehydrates.This analysismay provide a unique
temperatureconstrainton theupperslab-mantle boundary,a
regimedifficult to model,and indicatesthat duringsteady
state subduction the interface remains between -650 and
-750øC, for a significant depth interval [Nichols et al.,
1994].
Acknowledgments: We thank Dr. Emiliani, University of
Miami, for the Red Clay used in our experiments.We thank
James Myers, Terry Plank and Tracy Rushmer for helpful
reviews. This work has been funded by the National Science
Foundation, grant EAR-9303967. Publication 59 in the Key
Centre for GEMOC.

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solidus. Such temperatureincreaseswould produce a
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melting:sortingout the solidus,in Magmatic Processesand
Plate Tectonics,edited by H. M. Prichard,T. Alabaster,N. B.
W. Harris,and C. R. Neary, Geol. soc. sp. Pub., 76, 405-416,
1993.
G. T. Nichols, Macquarie University, GEMOC, Schoolof Earth
Sciences,Sydney,New SouthWales, 2109, Australia.
P. J. Wyllie, California Institute of Technology,Division of
Geological and Planetary Sciences, Pasadena,CA. 91125,
U.S.A.
C. R. Stern, University of Colorado, Departmentof Geological
Sciences, Boulder, Colorado, CO. 80309,
 The Influenceof DehydrationandPartialMelting Reactionson the Seismicity
andDeformationin Warm SubductingCrust

Tracy Rushmer

Departmentof Geology,PerkinsHall, University

of Vermont,Burlington,Vermont,05405-0122

In subductionzonesinvolvingyoung,warm lithosphere(< 20 Ma) most all the observed

seismicityis shallowandlocatedin theupperpartof thedowngoing slab,or, seismicityis absent.
The top portionof the slab is composedof mainly basalticoceaniccrustand as it subducts,
dehydrationand, in somecases,partial meltingtakesplace. In this paper, the resultsfrom an
experimentaldeformationstudyon basalticamphibolitewhichinvestigatedthe effectsof mineral
reactionson deformation,are appliedhereto youngsubducting
oceaniclithosphereandthe role of
metamorphicreactionsin accommodatingdeformationin the slab is explored. Pressure-
temperature-time(PT0 pathswhichcalculatethechanging pressure
andtemperature conditionsof
the uppermostportionof the slabas it subductsare alsopresented,togetherwith experimental
results.Between15 and75 km, mostwarmPTt pathsintersectmineralreactioncurvesof not only
hornblende,but of otherhydrousmineralssuchas zoisite,lawsoniteand chloritoid. The specific
depth at which thesereactionswill occur increaseswith age of the slab. By combiningthe
calculatedPTt pathswith theexperimentally determinedstabilitycurvesfor high-pressure hydrous
phasesand the experimentaldeformationresults,potentialeffectsof dehydration/hydration and
partial meltingreactionson deformationwithin the upperportionof the downgoingslabcan be
proposed. The formationof micron-sizedproductphases(both hydrousand anhydrous)from
dehydrationreactionscanlocalizeductiledeformationinto broadshearzonesby masstransferand
grain-boundary sliding. Thisis onepotentialmechanism(a reaction-enhanced ductilityprocess)by
whichstresscanbe accommodated in warmslabs.This mechanism wouldsuppress seismicityand
may be activein subduction zoneswhich are characterizedby relativelyaseismicbehavior(e.g.
Cascadia). At high temperatures, or duringunusual"hot"subduction, meltingof the slabmay
producelocal brittle failure. Punctuatedshallowintraslabseismiceventsin subductionzones
involvingyoungoceaniclithosphere couldbe broughton by rapiddehydration-or melt-enhanced
embrittlement.

INTRODUCTION conditionswhere the downgoingoceaniccrustis "hot",

suchas duringthe subduction of very youngoceaniccrust
One of the major consequences of subductionis the or at the initiationof subduction, partialmeltingof theslab
transformation of the downgoing oceanic crust into may occur in addition to dehydration[Drummond and
blueschist,amphiboliteandeclogiteby progradereactions Defant, 1990; Defant and Drummond,1990;Kay et al.,
[Peacock, 1993]. It is consideredthat these reactions are 1993; Peacocket al., 1994;Molnar and England,1995].
the likely sourceof waterwhichtriggersarcmagmatism in Theseprogrademineralreactionsnot only haveimportant
the overlyingmantlewedgeandcan contributeto seismic geochemicalconsequences, but as subductionzonesare
activity [RaleighandPaterson,1965; Gill, 1981]. Under one of the tectonic environments where strain rates are
relatively high, mineralreactionsmay also influencethe
rheologicalbehaviorof the uppermost portionof the slab,
includingtriggeringintermediate-depth intraplateearth-
Subduction:Top to Bottom quakes [Kirby et al., this volume].
GeophysicalMonograph96 In more typical subductionregimes,wherethe slab is
Copyright1996by theAmericanGeophysical Union olderthan20 Ma, Shimamoto et al. [1993] havesuggested
300 DEHYDRATION AND PARTIAL MELTING IN SUBDUCTION CRUST

that the relativelyaseismiczonethat is commonin many EXPERIMENTAL DEFORMATION INVESTIGATION

subductionzones along the subductingplate boundary
downto ~ 30 km is dueto thereleaseof largequantifies of An experimental deformation studyof a naturalbasaltic
free H20 during dehydrationthus promotingductile amphibolite hasbeencarriedout to exploretheeffectof
deformationby solution-transfer processes. Shimamotoet mineral reactions on active deformation mechanisms. An
al. [1993] further suggestthat the intermediate-depth in-depth discussionof the deformationexperimental
earthquakes,which begin at greater than ~30 km, are procedureand resultsis presentedin Rushruer[1995].
causedby dehydrationembrittlementprocesses because Therefore,the deformationbehaviorof the amphiboliteat
circulationof free H20 is notlikely at thesegreaterdepths the lowest temperatureinvestigated,where no reaction
andthe ductiledeformation promotedby theavailabilityof occurs,andtwo experiments (N 768 andN 711) performed
free fluid is dampened.Kirby et al. [1991, 1994]andKirby at higher temperatureswill be the only experiments
et al. [this volume] also propose that dehydration discussed here. Theamphibolite is a metamorphosed alkali
embrittlementmay be responsiblefor intermediate-depth basalt and is composedof mainly hornblendeand
seismiceventsbut include reactivatingfossil faults by plagioclasewith minor quartz. The grain size of the
mineral reaction,combinedwith the stresscausedby the samples rangebetween200 and250 •tm. Theexperiments
totalvolumechangeduringthebasaltto eclogitetransition. were all performedin a solid-media Griggs'apparatus at
During warm andhot subduction (wherepartialmelting 1.8GPaconfiningpressure (equalto approximately 60 km
of the slabmaybe possible)seismicpatternsare different depth) withdeformation strainratesequal to10-5seconds -1.
than those observedin subductionzones involving old, There is no addedfree water in the experiments,so the
cold lithosphere. Dominantlyshallow seismicactivity breakdown of hornblende in thepresence of plagioclase
+/-
(<100 km) is observed,with earthqt•es locatedjustbelow quartz is the solidus of the sample (fluid-absentor
thetop surfacesof the slabs[Kaoand Chen,1991;Kirby et dehydrationmelting). Experimentswere performed
al., 1991; Kirby et al., this volume]. In additionto the between650øC and 1000øCso the amphibolitecouldbe
shallow seismicity,somewarm subductionzonesare also deformed at conditions much below and above the fluid-
characterizedby aseismicbehavior all along the slab- absentsolidus(be•een 800øCand 850øC).
mantle interface(e.g. Southernmost Chile; or Cascadia,
Pacificnorthwes0[Acharya,1992]. Aseismicdeformation Summaryof results
of the warm slab may be due to massivedehydration
keeping slab deformationductile by solution-transfer At 650øC(N 725) the amphibolitedid not undergoany
processes but this will only be true at very shallowlevels. mineral reactions. Under theseconditions,the deformation
What mechanisms couldbe activeat deeperdepths? When observed on the macroscopic scaleis ductile. The sample
seismicactivitydoesoccurin thetopportionof thesewarm deformsmainlyby homogeneous flatteningof plagioclase
slabs,is it dueto an embrittlement process?Observations and quartz and both phasesshow strong undulatory
made in an experimentalinvestigationfocusedon the extinction.Slip alongcleavageplanesin hornblende and
rheologicalchangesin basalticamphibolite asit undergoes plagioclasegrains is also observed,but no localized
partialmeltingandto lesserextent,dehydration/hydration fracturingis present. In the experimentswhichdo not
reactions,havebeenusedto explorepotentialdeformation undergomineral reactions,hornblendeis alwaysmore
mechanismsactive during mineral reactions[Rushruer, brittle than the plagioclaseand often grainshave small
1995]. Some of these results, which are presentedin a cracksorientednear-parallelto the compression direction.
condensedform below, providepotentialanswersto the Grain boundariesare not broken,and no through-going
questionsregardingseismicityand deformationin the fracturesor cracksare present.
upperportionof warmslabs.By combiningthePTt paths In experimentN 768 at 850øC,the beginningof the
calculatedin Peacocket al. [1994] for warm downgoing hornblende-breakdown reaction is observed. Maximum
oceaniccrest (0-20 Ma) with experimentallydetermined yieldstrength is 1/4 of thesubsolidus experiment (N 725)
meltinganddehydration reactions to describedaboveandmostof thedeformationin thissample
in basalt,it is possible
showwhich potentialdehydration/hydration reactionscan is takenup in a singleductileshearzone(Figure1). No
occur at a given pressureand temperaturealong the melt is observedin the shearzone itself,but is presentin
subducting plateinterface. Thesereactionstogetherwith dilatant cracks in the hornblende(<5 vol %) which are
the experimental deformation results show how orientednear-parallel to the shortening direction.Within
deformationin the slab may be accommodated in some theshearzone,veryfine grained(0.1-10.0•tm)clinozoisite
knownwarm, subduction zoneregimes. + albite aggregates are foundin a matrixof
 RUSHMER 301

Fig. 1. SEMbackscatter
photomicrograph
of experiment
N 768at 850øC.A singleductileshearzonedominates
the
deformationin the entiresample.Extensivereactionof anorthiticplagioclase(plag) to albite+ zoisiteis observed
within the shearzone (seeFigure2) anddeformationis likely accommodated by a combinationof grain-boundary
slidingand masstransfer.Hornblende(hbd)containsmelt (g) in dilatantfracturesparallelto compression direction
(orientedtopto bottomin thisphotomicrograph).
Reflectivephasesaretitanite.

plagioclase(Figure2). Neitherhornblende
normelt appear is usuallyfoundat grainboundaries betweenplagioclase
to be involved in this reaction. The zoisite and albite
andhornblende(Figure3).
phasesare attributedto the reactionof anorthiteand H20, The resultsfrom the highertemperatureexperiments,
N
where the H20 hasbeenproducedduringthe dehydration 768 at 850øC and N 711 at 935øC, emphasize the
of alteredgrain-boundaryphasesor of sericitepresentin importanceof mineral reactionson deformationstyle.
someplagioclasegrains. A reaction-enhanced deformation Below the solidus(at 650øC) no reactionis observedand
process(Ruble,1983)appearsto havecauseda pronounced the samplesdeformmacroscopically ductiley,mainlyby
weakeningof this sample,notthepresence of melt. the flatteningand flow of quartzand plagioclasegrains
At a higher temperature (N 711, at 935øC), melt perpendicularto the compression direction. As mineral
fractions of ~ 10-15 vol% are achieved and melt-enhanced reactionsoccur however, deformation becomeslocalized.
embrittlementhaslocalizeddeformation.A conjugateset In experimentN 768, deformation is focusedalonga shear
of broadshearzones(300-500 gtmin width)orientedat an zone partly composedof very-fine grained reaction
approximateangle of 45ø to the compression
directionis products. The very-fine grained aggregatesdeform
the main deformation observed. The increased melt ductiley,mostlikely by both grain-boundary slidingand
fractionis likely due to the more extensivebreakdownof masstransferprocesses [Rushruer& Stiinitz,1993]. The
hornblende+ plagioclaseat this temperature. Abundant combination of the dehydration of partly altered
evidence for reaction is found in the shear zones and plagioclase(by either grain-boundary phasesor sericite)
hornblendeis strongly,cataclastically
deformedwhichmay and the subsequent hydrationreactionwhich forms the
havein turnpromotedmorereactiondueto the decreasein zoisite+ albiteaggregatesdoesnotproducelargequantities
grain size and the increasein surfacearea. Overall, the of free fluid. There is some melt presentwhich locally
deformation observed within the shear zones is considered fracturesthe hornblende,but overall deformationis not by
to be mainlybrittle. Outsideof thesheared areas,garnet embrittlement,but by a combinationof ductileprocesses.
5 vol %), variousquantitiesof melt (5-12 vol %), accessory Embrittlement is not observed until melt fractions are
titanite (3 vol %), zoisite (~1 vol %), and hornblende higher,as in experimentN 711. Here the sampleexhibits
alteredto clinopyroxene(50-54 vol %) are observed.Melt localized brittle deformation and cataclastic textures
302 DEHYDRATION AND PARTIAL MELTING IN SUBDUCTION CRUST

Fig. 2. SEM backscatter

photomicrograph showingdetailof very fine-grained zoisite(zoi) andalbite(alb) forming
fromthereactionanorthiticplagioclase
(plag)+ H20. FreeH2¸ mayhavebeenreleased duringtheexperiment by the
breakdownof alteredphaseson grainboundaries.Fe-Ti (fe-ti) oxidesarealsoobservedin theshearzone.

developed
in theshearzones.Thedevelopment
of melt crust between the ages of 0 and 20 Ma convergingat a
overpressurewhich fractures the rock is termed melt-
enhancedembrittlementand in theseexperiments,at melt
fractionsbetween 5-15 vol.%, it appearsto be the main
modeof deformation.This typeof embrittlement, induced
by increasingpore fluid pressure,can also occurduring
dehydrationreactionswhich producelarge quantitiesof
free fluid as shown in earlier experiments[Raleigh and
Paterson, 1965].
DISCUSSION
Strain rate, pressureand temperature,type of mineral
reaction (solid-solid, dehydration/hydration, partial
melting) and kinetics are clearly major factors in
determining how mineral reactions will influence
deformation. Application of these experimental def-
ormationresultsto a specificdeformationstyle in warm,
subductingoceanic lithosphererequiresa knowledgeof
strain rates at the subductingslab interface,the pressure
and temperatureconditionsalong the upperportionof the
slaband the approximatestabilityrangeof hydrousphases
presentin the basalticcrust. Figure4 is a compilationP-T
diagram which shows the current experimentally-
determinedstability of severalimportanthydrousphases
suchas lawsoniteand chloritoid,in additionto amphibole.
It alsoshowsthe PTt pathsfollowedby subducting oceanic
relativelyslowrate of 3 cm/yr from Peacocket al. [1994].
Figure 4 allows the location of severalspecifichydrous
mineralreactionsto be determinedin P-T spacefor a given
slab age. It is difficult to establishstrainratesalong the
down-goingslab interface. Shear stressesare certainly
amongthe highestof Earth'sactive tectonicenvironments
and haveled to the proposalof frictionalheatingalongthe
slab interface (e.g. Molnar and England, 1990). The
natural strain rates are certainly slower than the
experimental
strainrateof 10-5 second-1,
however
the
relatively high naturalstrainratesmay allow deformation
processes observedexperimentallyto readilyoccurin this
environment.
Potential Hydrous Mineral Reactions In Young Oceanic
Lithosphere
Pressure-temperature-time
(PTt) pathscalculatedfor the
top of youngdowngoingbasalticoceaniccrust(5 - 20 Ma)
will intersectthe stability curvesof severalhigh-pressure
hydrous phases [Peacock et al., 1994, Figure 4].
Hornblende,zoisite, Mg-chloritoid and lawsoniteare all
potentialhydrousphasesfound in basalticcompositions
which may surviveat depthduring subduction[Poli and
Schmid, 1995]. Currently the stability of high-pressure
phasesin downgoingoceaniccrustis underdebate.Recent
experimental work on basalt compositions'by
 RUSHMER 303

Fig. 3. At 935øC,meltfractionincreases
to 10-15vol%.SEM backscatter
photomicrographshowshowhornblende
grains(hbd+ cpx)becomecracked anddeformed by cataclasis.
Shearzoneshaveformedat approximately
45ø angle
to thecompressiondirection,whichis topto bottomin thephotograph.The bottomright-handcorneris thetop portion
of oneshearzoneandgarnet(gar,themorereflectivephases), melt(g) andzoisite(very fine-grainedreflectivephases)
are foundin more abundanceandhornblendegrains-sizeis reducedin this area.Deformationis dominantlybrittle in
thissample.

[1989];PawleyandHolloway[1993];Poli [1993];Poli lithosphereis 10-14 Ma and it convergesat a slowrate of

and Schmid [1995]; Schmid and Poll [CASH-system, •-2.0 cm/yr. The Cascadiasubductionzone (Juande Fuca
•1994];Pawley[CASH-system, 1994]andThompson and plate) is 3-10 Ma andis alsoconvergingat a slowrateof ~
Ellis [1994] have suggestedthat hydrousphasessuchas 2.0 cm/yr. This subductionzone is currentlyconsidered
lawsoniteand zoisite may be stableto pressuresgreater relativelyaseismicwith, possibly,a very narrowportionof
than 7.0 GPa. However, Bohlen et al., [1994] and Liu et the downdipsubductionthrustfault locked[Hyndmanand
al., [1995]suggest that thesephases maybe only Wang, 1995]. Figure 4 showsthat the surfacesof the two
metastable,as the equilibriumpressure-temperature con- plateswill approximatelyfollow pathsA (10 Ma) andB (5
ditionsneededto experimentally duplicateconditions in the Ma).
downgoingslab are difficult to achieve.It is considered For Southernmost Chile, path A will parallel and then
here,as shownin Figure4, that thereare potentialhigh- intersect(markedby filled circles),the lawsonsite-in curve
pressure hydrousphasesstablein additionto amphibole. experimentallydeterminedin a natural basaltfrom Poli
Figure 4 also illustrateshow the age of the slabwill and Schmidt[1995] at 1.8 GPa, 475øC. Then the pathwill
determineat which deptha specificreactionwill occurin crossthe zoisite-outcurve at 2.3 GPa, 550øC [Green, 1982]
the uppermostportionas it descends into the mantle. The and the lawsonite-out curve at 3.0 GPa and 700øC [Poli
PTt paths (A and B) of two warm aseismicsubduction and Schmidt, 1995]. The basalt wet solidus will be
zonesare givenhereasexamplesto illustratethepotential intersectedat ~3.3 GPa. The depthof reactionwill also
dehydration/hydration reactionsthatmay occurin thetop depend, of course, on variations in the startingbasalt
portionof the slaband their possiblerole in suppressing chemistrybut the overall path showsthat between~1.8
seismicity.Data from Kao and Chen[1991] andAcharya GPa and 3.0 GPa severaldehydration/hydration reactions
[1992] show that the subduction zone in Southern Chile can take place, but no partial melting of the uppermost
which involves the Antarctic-Scotiaplate at Tierra del portion of the slab will occur until ~>_.3.3GPa
Fuego is relatively aseismic. The age of the oceanic (approximatelyat 100
304 DEHYDRATION AND PARTIAL MELTING IN SUBDUCTION CRUST

4.5
Path A
20 Ma 10 Ma

4.0 Path B
5 Ma

Mg-Chlor-out
3.5

Path C
Law-in
3.0 0 Ma

& s)

2.5

Zoi-out
2.0 (G) Amph-out

1.5

Mg-Chorite-out
1.0

0.5
Basalt
wet
solidus
solidus
/
Chlorite-out /
0.0

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Fig.4. Thispressure-temperature
phasediagram
whichshows
thestability
curves
determined
experimentally
for
severalhigh-pressure
hydrous
phases
in basalticcompositions.
Thebasaltwet solidusandhornblende
fluid-absent
melting
curve arealsogiven.Paths A-Care10Ma,5 Maand0 Maoldsubducting oceaniclithosphere,
respectively.
20 Mais alsomarked onthediagram (fromPeacock etal.,1994).Filledcircles
show where thedifferent
agesin
subductingoceaniccrustwill intersect
potential
dehydration,hydrationandpartialmelting reactions
(seetext).
References
fortheexperimental data:Amph-out,amphibolite-out
[Rushruer,1993];Zoi-out(G),zoisite-out
[Green,
1982];
Zoi-out(P& S),zoisite-out
[PoliandSchmidt,1995];
Law-in,
lawsonite-in[PoliandSchmidt,1995]Mg-Chlor-
out,Mg-chloritoid-out
[Schreyer,
1988];Mg-Chlorite-out
[Tatsumi,
1989].

The Cascadiasubduction zonewill followa slighter 750øC. Hornblende mostlikelycomposes a largeportion

hotterpath(B, 5 Ma) andwill firstintersect (filledcircles) of the basaltso this reaction(evenabovethe basaltwet
chlorite-out[Poli, 1993] at ~1.2 GPa, 575øC and zoisite solidus)will producea pulseof additional fluid(melt). For
will be a stablehydrous phaseaccording to thedatafrom this path, mostreactionswill occurbetween~1.0 and 2.5
Green[1982]. At 1.8GPaand675øC,theMg-chlorite-out GPa(approximately 75 km deep).
[Tatst•ni, 1989] curvewill be crossed,thenthe zoisite-out As the slabsdescend andreact,deformation maybe
reaction[Green, 1982] at ~2.3 GPa, 700øC. The basaltwet initiallyaccommodated by a reaction-enhancedductility
solidus is reached at approximatelythesamepressure and mechanismbecauseboth dehydrationand hydration
temperature for thispath. Thispathwill alsointersectthe reactions canoccurin thispressure-temperature regime.
amphibole-out[Rushmet,1993] curveat -2.3-2.5 GPa, As H20 is released, somemaybe usedto crystallize

hydrousphasesstill stableat pressuresbetween0.5-3.0
GPa. The formationof the very-finedgrainedzoisite+
albiteaggregates observedin theexperimental studyshow
that these reaction productscan be very effective in
focusing deformation, ductilely. Reaction-enhanced
ductility has been describedby Ruble [1983] who has
shownthat localizationof deformationcanbe causedby
progrademineral reactionswhich producefine-grained
reactionproducts. He suggests that it is the presenceof
these new phases which significantly effects the
mechanicalpropertiesof the rocksby enhancingtheir
ductility and ability to deform. In an experimental
deformationstudy,RutterandBrodie[1987] showthatthe
slow dehydration under controlled pore-pressureof
serpentine formsvery-finedgrainedolivine+ talc+ H20.
Shearzonesobservedin the samplesare lined with the
fine-grainedolivine which,in turn,deformby a diffusion-
accommodatedgrain-boundary-sliding mechanism.The
authorssuggestthat the this reactionof serpentinemay
suppress seismicitybelowthe400øCisothermin oceanic
transform faults.
The formationof micron-sizedreactionproductsduring
subduction of youngoceaniclithosphere mayalsosuppress
seismicityin someof thesewarm subduction zones. The
exampleof the Southernmost Chile and Cascadiashows
that below 100 km (--3.3 GPa) and 75 km (--2.5 GPa)
respectively,severaldehydration/hydration reactionsare
encountered duringsubduction.If new, hydrousreaction
products such as zoisite and lawsonite are formed
subsequent to dehydration,thendeformationin the slabto
intermediatedepthsmay be accommodated by reaction-
enhancedductility processesrather than the free H20
inducingembrittlement.Massiverapiddehydration which
releaseslarge quantitiesof water will, more than likely,
overwhelm the ductility processes and induce
embrittlementand may produceseismicity[Kirby et al.,
this volume]. However, steady progressive slow
dehydrationaccompaniedby rehydrationand ductile
deformationmay be a majormechanism activein someof
these warm aseismic subduction zones.
Partial Melting in YoungSubducting
OceanicLithosphere
Previouswork hasshownthatpartialmeltingof down-
goingoceaniclithosphere is possibleonlywhenthe slabis
very young, < 5 Ma [Peacock et al., 1994, Molnar and
England, 1995]. Path C on Figure4 is an exampleof a
"hot"path, equivalentto ridge subduction.During ridge
subduction, the oceaniccrustis meltingandthe ageof the
lithosphereis 0 Ma. For thispath,chlorite-outis crossed
at
very shallowlevels,0.3 GPa and 550øC[Poll, 1993],then
RUSHMER 305
the basalt wet solidus[Green, 1982] is reachedat 0.5 GPa,
at 750øC. Again the amphibolite-outreaction is en-
counteredat higher temperatures, which will producea
pulseof fluid.
Ridge subductionis observedin SouthernChile, where
the ChileanRidge is currentlythrustingunderthe South
Americanplate. Melting of the oceaniccrustis likely
occurringin thisenvironment andsyntectonic deformation
may inducefracturingalongupperportionof the hot slab.
Whetherthiswill induceseismicactivityis notclear,asthe
presenceof melt may attenuateseismicity. However,
microseismicity datawith earthquake magnitudesranging
between0 and4 havebeenreportedat thissiteby Muride
et al. [1993]. Their suggestionis that the shallow
seismicityis the responseof continuedoceanicspreading
of the subductedridge-transformsystem. Syntectonic
meltingin theupperportionof theslabmayalsocontribute
to shallowbrittle deformationof the downgoingslabby a
melt-enhancedembrittlement process similar to that
observedin the experimental study at melt fractions
between 5 and 15 vol.%.
CONCLUSIONS
The thermal structure in warm subduction zones
(involving oceaniccrustlessthan 20 ma) will causethe
upperpart of the down-goingslabto intersectmanyof the
dehydration/hydrationreactionsincludingpartial melting
of basalt between 0.5 and 3.0 GPa. Interaction of these
reactionswith on-goingdeformationmay ultimatelytrigger
some of the shallow seismicityobserved. However, the
focusing of deformation into ductile shear zones by
dehydrationfollowed by hydrationreactionsmay allow
much of the deformationto be accommodated by ductile
shearing,withoutinducingfracture. A reaction-enhanced
ductility process may be an important deformation
mechanism operative in warm downgoing oceanic
lithosphere. This would accommodatestressin the slab,
but by ductileshearingandthereforeaseismically.
Acknowledgments. This work was supported by
SchweizerischerNationalfonds
project2-77-590-92to K. Hsii and
R. Schmid/R. Schmid and Jean-PierreBurg. I wish to thank
SteveKirby, SimonPeacockfor manyhelpfuldiscussions andthe
SUBCON committeewho generouslyprovidedthe supportto
attend the SUBCON conference in June, 1994.
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 ContrastingStylesof Mantle MetasomatismAbove SubductionZones'
Constraints From Ultramafic Xenoliths in Kamchatka

Pavel Kepezhinskasand Marc J. Defant

Departmentof Geology,Universityof SouthFlorida, Tampa,Florida

Whole-rock and mineral-trace element data from a suite of ultramafic xenoliths collected
from several young volcanoesalong the Kamchatkaarc suggestat least two stagesof
mantle-wedgemetasomatism.Fluid-inducedcrypticmetasomatism (stageI) was causedby
shallow-levelslab devolatilizationwhich introducedseveralfluid-dependenttrace elements
(light rare earthelements- LREE, Ba, U, platinumgroupelements- PGEs) into the sub-arc
mantle wedge without changingthe compositionof the mineral phases. This metasomatism
is mainly governed by metamorphicreactions and trace element partitioning in the
downgoingslab. Melt-inducedmodal metasomatism(stageII) resultedin the formation of
new, trace-element enriched mineral assemblagesand glasses under mantle wedge
conditions.Thesemetasomatic changesare stronglydependenton the age of the subducting
slab and are causedby hydrous siliceousmelts derived from young and hot slab or
carbonated,alkaline melts derivedby partial melting of old slab (carbonatedbasalt and/or
carbonatesediment). The ultimate result of multi-stageslab-inducedmetasomatismis the
creationof a hybridizedveinedmantlewedgecapableof generatinga varietyof arc magmas.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. ISLAND ARC MANTLE PRIOR TO

METASOMATISM
It is a generallyacceptedparadigmin subduction-zone
Pre-metasomaticclinopyroxenesoccur as primary-
geologythatsupercriticalaqueous fluidsexpelledfrom the
texturedporphyroclasts associated with deformedolivine
downgoingslabtransportselectedincompatible elements
andorthopyroxene. Theseclinopyroxenes havelow Ti, Na,
intotheoverlyingmantlewedge[Gill, 1981;Morriset al.,
AI, andhighMg andCr concentrations coupledwith rather
1990]. Subsequent metasomatism of the island-arcmanfie
uniform LREE depletions(Table 1). Pre-metasomatic
by slab-derivedfitfidscreatesa mantlesourcecapableof
clinopyroxenesdisplaynegativehigh-fieldstrength element
generatingprimitive arc magmas[Maury et al., 1992;
Hawkesworthet al., 1993; Beboutet al., 1993]. However,
(HFSE - e.g., Ti, Zr) anomalieson chondrite-normalized
graphssimilarto clinopyroxenes from depleted(MORB-
becausemantle xenolithsare extremely rare in arcs,
type) residualmantle (Fig. 2). Primary clinopyroxene
modellingof the compositionof the arc mantlewedgeand
sourceprocesses havereliedprimarilyon inferences
made geochemistry suggests that the mantlewedgeis depleted
from arc lavas.We have collectedmantlewedge-derived with respectto HFSE and LREE throughoutthe 1000-km
ultramafic xenoliths from several localities in the length of the Kamchatka arc and, therefore, any
Kamchatka volcanic arc (Fig. 1) that give us the
enrichmentsignaturesin Kamchatkaxenolithscan be
attributed to metasomatism.
opportunityto testvariousisland-arcmodels.

3. FLUID-INDUCED (CRYPTIC) SUB-ARC

METASOMATISM - STAGE I

Subduction:Top to Bottom
GeophysicalMonograph96 Modal mineralogy (very low modal clinopyroxene
Copyright1996by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion contents
- all peridotitenodules
areharzburgites
or dunites)
308 CONTRASTING STYLES

LEGEND

TIVE
SUBDUCTION
0 1 O0 200
I I I
Scale in Kilometers

ß
AClrlVE
$UBDUCTION
ACTIVE VOLCANOES
A ERODED NORTHERNVOLCANOES

VOLCANIC ZONES AND VOLCANOES:

EVF - F_.AS•RN VOLCANIC FRONT

CKD - CENTRAL KAMCHATKA DEPRESSION
WF - VALOVAYAM VOLCANIC FIELD
SH - SHEVELUCH
KZ - KOZELSKY
AV - AVACHINSKY
KP - KUPOL
BK - BAKENING

SEA OF
OKHOTSK

SEA

5-25•a

ISLAND, •

9C•/'rR •
J100-120
Ma]

Fig. 1. Tectonicsettingof Kamchatkaarc alongwith mantlexenolithlocations,positionof activeand fossilsubductionzonesand

trenches.Agesfor the Komandorsky BasincrustandPacificlithosphere are adoptedfrom Baranovet al. [1991]. Boundarybetween
northern and southernsegmentsis manifestedby major transcurrentfaults and crustaldiscontinuities and is adoptedfrom
Hochstaedter et al. [
 KEPEZHINSKAS AND DEFANT 309

Table 1. Trace-element
concentrations
(ppm) in clinopyroxenes
andglassesfrom selectedKamchatkaxenoliths

Segment Northertt
Xen. suite Valovayam
Sample Val 58/2 Val 32/8 Val 58/1 Val 55/7 Val 55/7 Val 55/12 Val 55/12 Val 55/4

Phase Prim.Cpx Prim.Cpx Prim.Cpx Met. Cpx Met. Cpx Met. Cpx Met. Cpx Glass

Ti 1761.8 287 8.7 1580.2 5636.1 10037.4 7045.5 13686.3 1855.3

V 259.4 327.8 207.9 258.3 389.9 355.7 413.4 8.9
Cr 1012.8 1089.1 1403.3 2203.9 2657.9 875.3 258.7 348.6
Sr 38 40.1 35 99.5 86 65.2 122.1 1736.1
Y 6.2 7.5 5.2 18.7 25 23.9 29.4 6.1
Zr 10.2 15.2 9.9 90.2 151.4 128.4 84.4 30.4
Nb BDL BDL BDL 2.2 2.2 1.1 2.2 13.2
La 0.41 0.52 0.61 7.94 12.68 6.78 3.78 66.58
Ce 2.36 2.91 2.22 19.99 32.95 20.81 13.93 114.2
Nd 2.68 3.72 2.69 15.14 19.48 14.07 12.21 37.61
Sm 1.6 2.18 1.48 5.29 6.52 4.23 5.21 8.29
Eu 0.43 0.63 0.47 1.71 1.84 1.61 1.67 2.67

Dy 1.29 2.03 1.52 4.36 5.27 4.61 5.31 4.99

Er 0.88 1.08 0.82 2.26 3.15 2.48 2.51 3.17
Yb 0.91 0.87 0.61 2.09 2.58 1.87 2.21 2.92

Segment SoutherIt
Xen. suite Bakening
Sample Bak 48-50 Bak 48-74 Bak 48-74 Bak 48-109 Bak 48-60 Bak 48-60 Bak 48-109 Bak 48-109

Phase Prim. Cpx Prim. Cpx Prim. Cpx Met. Cpx Met. Cpx Met. Cpx Glass Glass

Ti 2652.6 2176.7 1821.1 4408.7 1218.9 1014.6 516.8 683.6

V 332.5 310.6 293.2 404.8 210.1 203.1 18.3 148.6
Cr 2705.7 2689.9 3070.6 367.6 3288.8 2964.2 113.2 50.9
Sr 46.6 29.4 29.6 89.5 63 67.9 1171.3 1040.6
Y 11.8 9.4 8 16.5 6.8 6.7 17 18
Zr 16 11.9 9.8 44.2 45.3 45.6 233 270.1
Nb BDL BDL BDL 1.1 BDL 1.1 23.1 35.1
La 0.46 0.81 0.29 3.87 3.32 6.06 98.88 125.25
Ce 1.79 2.66 1.42 13.37 6.39 12.24 198.32 253.18
Nd 2.41 3.2 2.1 11.14 4.73 6.12 95.87 107.75
Sm 0.96 1.49 0.96 3.52 1.49 1.56 25.42 21.61
Eu 0.37 0.52 0.32 1.51 0.34 0.58 7.23 5.33

Dy 1.43 1.96 1.81 4.05 1.87 1.57 14.32 12.36

Er 0.75 1.15 1.29 2.17 1.31 1.21 5.91 5.18
Yb 0.69 0.89 1.31 1.98 0.66 0.81 4.94 4.21

Note.Prim.cpx- primaryporphyroclastic clinopyroxene, met. cpx- metasomaticdisseminatedclinopyroxene.

Traceelements in mineralphasesandglassfrom the ultramaficxenoliths
wereanalyzedusinga CamecaIMS 3f ion
microprobe at WoodsHoleOceanographic Institution.The accuracyandprecisionof theresultsarewithin 10%for
Ti, V, Cr, Sr, Y, Zr, Dy, Er andYb, 20% for Ce, Nd, Sm andEu, and40% for La. BDL- belowdetection
310 CONTRASTING STYLES

lOO Sub-arc mantle

Kamchatka ultramafic xenoliths lOO

Valovayam
Avachbtsky
10 Kozelsky

lO

La Ce Sr Nd Zr Sm Hf Eu Ti Dy Y Er Yb
0.01 I
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta
PMM
xenoliths
(harzburg
K La Ce Sr Zr Hfsm'ri Eu Tb Yb

Fig. 2. Chondrite-normalized
traceelementpatternsfor primary
(pre-metasomatic) porphyroclastic clinopyroxenes from
Kamchatka ultramafic xenoliths. Chondrite normalizing values
are from Anders and Grevesse [1989]. Sub-arc mantle
lOO

andrefractorymineralchemistry(highCr/(Cr + AI) ratios lO

of spineIs,high Mg# of olivinesand orthopyroxenes) of

Kamchatl• peridotite xenoliths suggesttheir overall
depletionin mafic componentsand that they represent
mantle residualafter melt extraction. However, the bulk- •/ •:/ Valovayam

[ Kozels,•
rockgeochemistry of thesexenolithsindicatesthepresence 0.1

of an enrichedcomponentrepresentedby relativelyhigh
bulkLREE/HREE ratiosandpositiveBa andU anomalies •I Metasomaticxenoliths(pyroxenite$)
on chondrite-normalized graphs(Fig. 3). This cryptic
I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I
0.01
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta K La Ce Sr Zr HfSm'ri Eu Tb Yb
enrichedcomponentis furthermanifestedby high bulk-
xenolithcontents
of Pt, Pd, andRh (10-35 ppm)suggesting
that considerable bulk addition of these fitfid-mobile
platinumgroup elementstook place prior to any modal
Rear-arc mantle
metasomaticeventin the Kamchatl• mantle[Kepezhinskas 100
and Defant, 1994]. Ba, U, LREE, and platinumgroup
elements(especiallyRh, Pd, and Pt) are the elements
commonlytransported by water [Kay, 1980; Gill, 1981; lO
Crocket, 1981; Morris et al., 1990]. Consequently,this .:-

crypticenrichment
of modallydepleted peridotite
xenoliths r-'
0

in fluid-controlled trace elements is attributed to slab o 1

devolatilization below the Kamchatka arc. This is further

supportedby high boronconcentrations of 0.16 to 0.61 0.1
ppmin Kamchatka ultramaficxenolithsreportedby Austin
[19951.ThesexenolithsalsodisplayelevatedB/Be ratios
Metasomaticxenoliths(pyroxenites)
of 16 whichsuggestthat thesenodulesunderwenta recent 0.01 • i • i i i • I •
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta K La Ce Sr Zr HfSm Ti Eu Tb Yb
subduction-related
boron enrichment.Ryan et al. [19961
estimatedboroncontentsin depletedandprimitivemantle
reservoirsto be 0.08 ppm and 0.15 ppm respectively. Fig. 3. Chondrite-normalized
whole-rockrare earthpatternsfor
Elevated boron concentrations in Kamchatka xenoliths primitiveandmetasomatic xenolithsfrom Kamchatkasub-arcand
indicate that the metasomatic events in sub-arc mantle are rear-arcmantle. Chondritenormalizingvaluesare from Sun and
likely relatedto the recentsubduction
processes. McDonough
 KEPEZHINSKAS AND DEFANT 311

4. MELT-INDUCED (MODAL) SUB-ARC Bakening ultramafic suite

METASOMATISM - STAGE II 10,000

...... Metasomatic
glasses:
4.1. MantleMetasomatism
Associatedwith the YoungSlab samoatrvlacaonam /x 90SAVl-1
hotspot <> ,an1-9
/ [] TBA4-11
The northern segmem of the Kamchatka arc was / \ _- Bak 48-109(1)

produced in responseto subductionof the young

KomandorskyBasin lithosphere[Baranovet al. , 1991; U •oo
Hochstaedter et al., 1994] (Fig. 1). Ultramaficxenoliths
from thissegmentdisplayabundanttexturalandchemical
signatures of melt-induced mantle metasomatism • •o _
[Kepezhinskaset al., 1995]. Felsic glass veins and
associatedmetasomaticclinopyroxenes in thesexenoliths
exhibit high Na, Si, A1, Sr, and low Y and Yb
1
L•
CyM,
Ce
PO,
SIT,
IO,NS•,
Sr Nd Zr Sm Hf Eu Ti Dy Y Er Yb
concentrationscoupledwith highLa/Yb andZr/Sm ratios
(Table 1). Felsic veins are compositionallysimilar to Fig. 4. Chondrite-normalized
trace-elementpaterns for southern
siliceousmelts derived by melting of young subducted Kamchatka xenolith glasses (open symbols) compared to
lithosphere,
e.g. adakites[DefantandDrummond,1990]. metasomaticglasses from the Samoa-Macdonaldhot spot
xenoliths(filled symbols).The latter are believedto represem
4.2. Mantle Metasomatism Associated with the OM Slab carbonatitemetasomatism in the oceanicuppermantle [Hauri et
al., 1993]. Chondrite-normalizingvaluesare from Anders and
Grevesse [1989].
The southernsegmemof the Kamchatkaarc is associated
with the subductionof old Pacific lithosphere(Fig. 1).
Avachinsky harzburgites commonly host amphibole H20-CO2 fluids producedthrough slab devolatilization
pyroxenite veins which, based on their textures, which resultedin pervasivecrypticmetasomatism of the
precipitatedby reactionwith mafic melts. Metasomatic down-draggedmantle wedge peridotitealong the slab-
clinopyroxenes exhibitLREE andHFSE depletions similar wedgeinterface.This stageI metasomatism is detectedin
to primaryclinopyroxenes. all analyzedperidotite xenolithsindependentlyof their
BakeningVolcanoxenolithscontainmelt pocketswith locationalongthe Kamchatkaarc (Fig. 1) or geometryof
apatite, amphibole, and phlogopite. Clinopyroxenes subductionandis thereforeindependentfromthesubducted
associated with theseglasspocketsexhibitenrichments in slab age. Since primary mineral phasespresem in
Cr, Mg, A1, Ti, and Na and diverge from the typical peridotite xenoliths do not display any chemical
metasomatic trendscausedby silicatemelts(Table 1). Ion- enrichments, we believe that the slab-derived, fluid-
probeanalyses of glassesrevealhigh Sr, Nb, Zr andREE inducedcomponentresidesin the intergranularinterfaces
concentrations (Table 1) coupledwith high La/Yb, Zr/Hf, or fluidinclusionstrappedin primarymantleminerals.The
Sr/Sm, andNb/La and low Ti/Eu andY/Er ratios(Fig. 4) latter is confirmedby a direct laser ablation ICP-MS
similar to carbonate-richmelts [Rudn/ck et al., 1993]. analysisof primary H20-CO2 fluid inclusionstrappedin
Theseglasses eitherdirectlyrepresentcarbonate-richmelt deformedolivineporphyroclasts in Kamchatkaperidotitc
introducedimo the lithosphericmantleor haveoriginated xenolithswhichrevealedsignificantconcentrations of La,
through decompositionof primary mamle carbonates Ce, Pr, Nd (light REE) and Sr and Rb (large-ion
during xenolith transport. Elevated Na comems of lithophiles)
in a trappedfluid [Clagueet al., 1995]. These
clinopyroxenesand amphiboles suggest that the are the elements which are believed to be introduced into
metasomatizing melt wassimilarto a sodiccarbonate-rich themanfiewedgeby a sulxluctionfluid component
derived
liquid ratherthan to typicallow-Na calciticor dolomitic from thedowngoingslab[Gill, 1981;Hawkesworthet al.,
carbonafite. 1993; Ryan et al. , 1995].
Further enrichment of the sub-arc mantle below
5. MANTLE WEDGE METASOMATISM: A Kamchatka (stage II) occurred through melt-induced
SUBDUCTING SLAB CONNECTION crystallization of new mineral phases (modal
metasomatism) in the mantlewedge. The compositionof
Two stages
of metasomatism
are recognized
in themantle thenewmineralassemblages in themodallymetasomatized
wedgebelow Kamchatka. StageI is probablycausedby sub-arcmantlealongwith associatedfelsicglasses
312 CONTRASTING STYLES

A. Kamchatka northern segment: subductionof young slab

W
Valovayam Volcano E

50
.•.,;.,......•,....•!;
• Komandorsk7
•::•'•'•'"'•i
•,, • basin
crust
(15-25
Ma)
Slab devolatilization(StageI)

Slab melting(StageII)
km 100

Mantle metasomafized
by slab-derivedmelts(ariakites)

B. Kamchatka southern segment: subduction of old slab

Bakerting Avachinnky
W Volcano
Volcano E

4• platecrust(100Ma)

50
I
Slab devolatilization and
mantle fluxhag(StageI)
km 100

Melting of carbonated basalt and/or

carbonate-rich sediment(StageII)

Mantle wedgemetasomatized
by carbonate-rich,
slab-derivedmelts

Mantle wedge metasomatizedby "frozen"mafic melts

Fig. 5a and b. A schematiccartoonshowingproposedmodelsof contrastingmantlewedgemetasomatismabovethe Kamchatka

subductionzone as a function of the age of subductedslab. Ages for the KomandorskyBasin crust and Pacific plate crust are
adoptedfrom Baranovet al.
 KEPEZHINSKAS AND DEFANT 313

metasomatizing melts)is stronglygovernedby the age of
the downgoingslab.
In arcs(or arc segments) relatedto youngslabsubduction
(nonhemKamchatl•), slabmeltingat depthsof 60-70 km
will introduce REE and LILE-enriched, water-saturated
adakitemagmascausing pervasivemodalNa-metasomatism
in the overlyingmantlewedge(Fig. 5A). Metasomatism
appearsto be shallow(35-45 km) within the plagioclase
stabilityfieldin the sub-arcmantleandthepresence of Na-
plagioclasestableundertheseP-T-conditionswill govern
trace-elementpartitioningamong metasomaticmineral
phases(Fig. 5A).
Hydrousfluidsexpelledfrom theold slabbelowsouthern
Kamchatlmare capableof introducingLREE and LIL
elementsinto the wedge.Thesefluids are also likely to
cause local mantle fluxing and melting [Arculus and
Powell, 1986] (Fig. 5B). Interactionbetweenthesemelts
and the mantlewill potentiallyresultin the creationof a
variably veinedmantle, like the one below Avachinsky
volcano(Fig. 5B). Melting of carbonatedbasaltand/or
carbonate-rich sedimentat depthsof approximately100-
120 km [Mclnnesand Cameron, 1994] will producea
carbonatedsiliceousmelt (Fig. 5B). Sincemeltingof the
carbonated basaltoccursdeeperthanslabdevolatilization,
a portionof themantlewedgemetasomatized by carbonate-
rich felsic melts will underlie the rear-arc (Bakening)
ratherthanfrontal-arc(Avachinsky)volcanoes(Fig. 5B).
This is consistent with the observed location of mantle
xenolithsuitesin the southernKamchatkaarc (Fig. 1).
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. Metasomatism in the mantlewedgeabovesubduction
zonesis causedby slab-derivedH20-CO2-C1fluids(first
stage)and siliceousmelts (secondstage). Fluidsmainly
cause cryptic metasomatismand introduce large ion
lithophile,rareearth,andvolatileplatinumgroupelements
which are concentratedin intergranularfilms or fitfid
inclusions trappedin mantleminerals. Siliceousmeltsare
responsible for modal metasomatismindicated by
crystallizationof new phases,e.g. clinopyroxenesand
amphiboles.
2. Fluid-inducedmetasomatism is pervasivein the sub-
arc mantle wedgeand is not dependenton the slab age.
Slab devolatilization mainly introduces fluid-mobile
elements intothe sub-arcmantle,e.g. Ba, Sr, Rb, U, light
rare earth elements.
3. Melt-induced sub-arc metasomatismis strongly
dependenton the subductingslab age. In arcs (or arc
segments)relatedto youngslab subduction,slab-derived
adakiticmeltscausepervasiveNa-metasomatismin sub-am
mantle. Arcs associated with subduction of old slab can
experience
meltingof carbonatedbasaltand/orcarbonate-
rich sedimentwhich will result in productionof a
carbonated,Ne-normativemelt. Both typesof siliceous
melts introduce melt-mobile elements into the sub-arc
wedge, such as heavy rare earths. Slab melt-mantle
interactionmay alsoresultin selectiveenrichmentof sub-
arc peridotites
in highfield strengthelements(Nb andTa)
resultingin creationof local "OIB-like" mantledomains.
It remains to be seen whether these diverse mantle
compositions
give rise to the suiteof arc magmaserupted
at Kamchatkan volcanoes.
Acknowledgements. This paper benefitted from numerous
discussions
with Mark Drummond,ReneMaury, JulieMorris and
Jeff Ryan. Detailed constructivereviewsby JonDavidsonand
Brad Singersignificantlyimprovedthe manuscript.This work
was supportedby NSF grant EAR-9304105 to Marc Defant,
Mark Drummond,Julie Morris, and Pavel Kepezhinskas.
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75, 730, 1994. of slabdepth,Science,270, 625-627, 1995.
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metasomatism in the islandarc mantleby slabmelt-peridotite Boronsystematics of intraplatelavas:implicationsfor crust
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Sci. Universityof SouthFlorida, Tampa, FL
 Suprasubduction
Mineralization:
Metallo-tectonic Terranes of the SouthernmostAndes

Eric P. Nelson

Department
of Geology
andGeological
Engineering,
Colorado
School
ofMines,Golden,
Colorado

Thesuprasubduction environment,
heredef'med asanycrustabovea subduction zone,is oneof
themostprolifictectonic environments
fortheformation of oredeposits.Mineralization in this
environmentiscontrolled bythreeprincipal
factors:(1) suprasubduction
magmatism (forearc, arc,
and backarc),(2) majorfaults,and (3) the platetectonicregime.Ore deposits in the
suprasubductionenvironment are classified
hereinto forearc,arc, and backarc types.The
southernmostAndeshasbeena suprasubduction orogenat leastsincethe late Paleozoic, and
steady-state
subduction hasbeenpunctuated at timesby diachronous and episodic orogenic
events.Although majormineralresources areknownin thecentralAndes,mineralexploration
hasbeenneglected in thesouthernmost
Andesbecause of realandperceivedlogisticalproblems
includingdifficult weather,vegetationcover,and poor infrastructure. Six metallo-tectonic
terranesare deftnedon the basisof petrological character and tectonichistory,and are
characterized
byassociationsof knownor inferredmineralresources: I Paleozoic-early
Mesozoic
forearc; 1I Triassic?-Jurassic
volcano-tectonicriff and Jurassic-Cretaceous
intra- and backarc
basins;
Ill Jurassic
toearlyTertiary
Patagonianbatholith;
IV Mesozoicmarginalbasin;V Tertiary
intra-arctranstensional
basins;VI Tertiary-Recent
volcanicarc.Recognitionof suprasubduction
environments anddef'mition
of metallo-tectonic
terranescanbe usefulin designing
exploration
programsin suchfrontierregions.

INTRODUCTION Although many suprasubduction orogenshave a

historyof successful
mineralexploration
andproduc-
Many ore deposits,includingsomeof the largest tion, a number of frontier regionsin this tectonic
known,formed,or weretectonically emplaced, in what settingremainto be explored.For suchregions,where
is heretermedthe suprasubduction environment.The few resourcesare known, a first approachin
term suprasubduction was first usedin the ophiolite exploration
planningis to predictthetypesof deposits
literatureto refer to ophioliteswith geochemical thatcouldexist. Oneapproach is to compare tectonic
characteristics
indicatingan originabovea subduction evolutionmodelswith depositclassifications
basedon
zone (originally"supra-subduction",Alabasteret al., tectonicenvironment. For example,C•rus-type
1982). Here the suprasubduction environmentis massive sulfide deposits,which are classified as
broadlydefinedasanycrustalregionthatwas,at some formingin exhalative hot-springsystems on oceanic
time during its evolution, above a subductionzone.
spreading
ridges,arepredictedto existin ophiolites.
This environment is thusassociated
with convergent The southernmost Andes is an exampleof an
plateboundaryorogenicbelts[Burchfiel,1980],and orogenic
belt with a tectonicevolutiondominated by
includes
forearc,arc,andbackarc
regions. convergentboundarytectonics,and with a historical
recordof little exploration.To analyzethe mineral
potentialof this poorly explored,but potentially
Subduction:
Top to Bottom mineral-richorogenicbelt, the orogenis here divided
Geophysical
Monograph96 into metallo-tectonic terranes. Such terranes are
Copyright1996by theAmerican
Geophysical
Union similarto tectono-stratigraphic
terranes[Coneyet al.,
316 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION
1980; Howell et al., 1985], but are defined here as
regions characterizedby distinctive associationsof
known or inferredmineral resources,predictedon the
basis of the tectonic evolution of each terrane. This
paper first outlinesimportant factorscontrollingthe
occurrenceof ore depositsin the suprasubduction
environment,then proposesa classificationof ore
deposits based on tectonic setting within this
environment. The tectonic evolution of the southern-
most Andes is outlined, and six metallo-tectonic
terranesare described.The mineral potentialof each
terrane is then given in terms of the depositstypes
predictedfromthe depositclassification.
FACTORS IN SUPRASUBDUCTION
MINERALIZATION
Mineralizationin the suprasubduction environment
is controlledby threeprincipalinterrelatedfactors:(1)
suprasubduction magrnatism(forearc,arc, and back-
arc); (2) major structures;and (3) the plate tectonic
regime. Magrnas are a sourceof heat, fluids, and
probablymetals. Metal sourcesassociated with mag-
mas may includesubductedoceaniccrust,the mantle
wedge above the subductingslab, and crustal wall
rocksalongthe path of rising magrnasand circulating
hydrothermalfluids. The petrochemical characteristics
of magrnas have been correlated with some ore
deposits.For example,Sillitoe [1981] usedthe I- and
S-type granitoid classification[Chappell and White,
1974; White et al., 1977], and the magnetite- and
ilmenite-seriesgranitoidclassification[Ishihara, 1980,
1981], to correlatepetrochemical/petrological features
and metallogenic character of granitoid rocks in
magmaticarcs. For example,tin and tungstendeposits
aretypicallyassociated with S-typegranitoidsand I- or
S-typeilmeniteseriesgranitoids.Also, Cu-Fe-Mo-Au-
Ag depositsin magmaticarcsare typicallyassociated
with I-type granitoids.
In the upper crest, major brittle to brittle-ductile
structurescan act as important fluid conduits, as
permeable zones for mineral deposition,and as
controls on magma intrusion [Sibson et al., 1988;
Bursnail, 1989]. In the lower crust,ductileshearzones
may act as inverted, elongatefunnels along which
incompatibleelementsand metals migrate upward.
Such migration is accomplishedby fluid flow
combinedwith diffusion along chemical potential
gradientsat a high angleto isothermalsurfaces,and is
assistedby crystal plastic and pressure solution
deformationmechanisms,and by seismicpumping
within the brittle-plastictransitionzone [Sibsonet al.,
1988]. Major structuresinclude suture zones, arc-
parallel strike-slip faults, transverse segmentation
structures,arc-parallelnormalfaults,thrustfaults,low-
anglenormalfaults [Doblaset al., 1988;Roddyet al.,
1988; Beaudoin et al., 1991], and calderacollapse
structures.
The plate tectonic regime of the suprasubduction
environmentis controlledby tectonicparametersthat
are potentially important in mineralization. These
includeslabdip, convergence vector,ageof subducting
plate, forearc accretionaryprism developmentvs.
tectonicerosion,and collisionof oceanicbathymetric
highs (ridges,plateaus,seamounts,etc.). Changesin
any of theseparametersmaybe especiallyimportant.
PLATE TECTONIC CLASSIFICATION OF ORE
DEPOSITS
A numberof ore depositclassifications basedon, or
incorporating,
platetectonictheoryhavebeenproposed
[e.g., Pereira and Dixon, 1971; Guilbert, 1981;
Mitchell and Garson, 1981; Sillitoe, 1981; Hutchison,
1983; Sawkins,1984; Cox and Singer,1987]. Someof
the main classifications are summarized in Table 1.
Note that, althoughthereare somesimilaritiesbetween
theseclassifications,there existslittle correspondence
betweenthe major categories.One of the most exten-
sive classificationswas that proposedby Guilbert
[1981; revised in Guilbert and Park, 1986], which
includesapproximately109 deposittypesin five major
tectonicsettings(Table 1). Guilbert's classification
includes even those depositswhich lack immediate
plate tectonicinfluence, such as placer depositson
stablecratonicinteriors. Sawkins'classification[1984,
updated1990], which containseight main categories,
is a mixtureof depositsrelatedto bothtectonicsetting
and tectonicevents(Table 1). Cox and Singer[1987]
made an extensive "lithotectonic" classification with
approximately90 deposittypes (Table 1). Although
their main categoriesdo not easily fit into a plate
tectonicframework,each of their descriptivedeposit
models includes a depositional environment and
tectonicsetting.
Although classificationof ore depositsin a plate
tectoniccontext is an important and logical step, a
numberof problemsare inherentwith this approach.
Suchproblemsincludejuxtapositionand superposition
of terranesand associateddeposits,the evolutionof
tectonicand metallogenicprocesses in time, and the
non-steady-state nature of sometectonicprocesses at
convergent
 NELSON 317

TABLE 1. Selected
PlateTectonicClassifications
of OreDeposits:
Main Categories.
Guilbert(1981) Sawkins(1984) Mitchell and Garson Hutchison(1983)
(1981)
Mid-oceanridges/ocean Oceanic-typecrust Oceanicsettings Oceaniclithosphere
floor Principalarcs Subduction-related Sea-floor sulfides
Consuming,subducting Innersidesof principal settings lntmcratonic basins
margins arcs
Collision-related
settings Otherepicontinentalsea
Ensialic-ensimatic back- Collisional events Passive continental lntmsive bodies in stable
arc basins lntracontinentalhotspots, marginsandinterior cmtonic terrain
Cratonicopenings anorogenic magmatism basins Batholith-associated
Cratons Continentalrifting;early Continentalhot spots, Epigeneficvolcanicand
vs. late stages rifts, aulacogens epizonalplutonic
Arc-related rifts Transform faults and associations
Otherarc-relateddeposits lineaments in Archean-style
continental crest Proterozoic-style
Surficial continental

Metallogenicjuxtapositionand superposition principle of uniformitarianism can most likely be

Classificationof ore depositsis compounded by the
complex history of convergent boundary orogens.
Tectonic provinces can be juxtaposed and
superimposed, as can the depositsthat typify them.
Sillitoe [ 1981] notedthat "metallogenic
juxtaposition"
can resultfrom accretionof ophiolites,arc terranes,or
other oceanic or continentalfragments. Thus, ore
depositsformed in allochthonousterranes can be
attachedto a continent by terrane suturingand the
distinctionbetweenforearc,arc, and backarcthereby
obscured. In addition, some ore-forming processes
may be associated with suturingevents. For example,
metamorphicfluids, segregatedduring suchaccretion
events, may act as epigenetic ore-forming agents
[Sillitoe, 1979; Kerrich and Wyman, 1990]. If
collision and crustal thickening are great enough,
anatexismay occur,forming lithophile suitedeposits.
Also, the migration of magmatic arcs in responseto
slab dip changeswill causesuperposition of different
magmatic and related metallogenic systems. For
example,the well documentedsweepof volcanismin
the westernUnited Statesand northernMexico during
the Cretaceous-Tertiary [Coneyand Reynolds,1977;
Clark et al., 1982] caused arc-type magmatism to
occurover vast regionsthat previouslyhad been in a
backarcsetting.
Evolution ofplate tectonicsin time
As poimedout by Guilbert [1981], one weaknessof
platetectonicclassifications
thatincorporate
all deposit
types is in projecting plate tectonic processes,as
interpreted today, back into the Archean. The
appliedto tectonicsin the Phanerozoic andmuchof the
Proterozoic. However, Archean and possiblyearly
Proterozoictectonicsystems may not have operatedin
an analogous fashion to the tectonics of today
[Sangster,1979; Barley and Groves, 1992; Hutch-
inson, 1992;Abbott et al., 1994]. Somedifferencesin
tectonic processeshypothesized for the Archean
include a higher geothermalgradient [Bickle, 1978],
greater oceanic ridge length [Burke et al., 1976;
Hargraves, 1986], increasedspreadingrates [Burke
and Kidd, 1978], thicker oceaniccrust,and shallower
subductiondip [Abbott et al., 1994]. Hutchinson
[1992] pointedout that mineral depositshave evolved
along with tectonicprocesses.He notesa remarkable
decline of certain earlier deposit types, such as
komatiite-hostedNi and Superior-typeFe, and the
appearance, proliferation,and diversificationof certain
new deposittypes(suchasporphyry-type deposits).
Although plate tectonic processescan operate in
steady-stateover long periods, some processesare
episodicand/or diachronous,and thereforeaffect the
temporal and spatial distributionof related deposits.
For example,lode gold depositsare most abundantin
the late Archean, lower Paleozoic and Mesozoic,
becausetheseare times of extensiveCordilleran-style
terrane accretionand associatedtranspressivedefor-
mation [Kerrichand Wyman,1990;Kerrich, 1993]. In
anotherexample,Bradley et al. [1993] and Haeussler
et al. [1995] have documented the diachronous
developmentof gold-quartzvein mineralizationin the
forearc of southern Alaska in responseto ridge
collision and lateral migration of the related triple
junctionalongthe continental
318 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION

TABLE 2. PlateTectonicClassifications
of OreDeposits:Convergent
PlateBoundaries.
Guilbert (1981) Sawkins(1984) Mitchell and Garson Sillitoe (1981)
(1981)
Consuming,subducting
margins Principalarcs Submarine trenches and Principalarcs
ß obduction Inner side of outer arcs Inner sideof principal
ß ocean/ocean -island arc- principalarcs Magmaticarcs arcs:Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu-(Mo-
'eugeosynclines' Arc-related rifts Outer arc troughs Fe)
ß ocean/continent,trench/arc, Other arc -related Back-arcmagmaticbelts Back-arc basins

Cordilleranorogenics deposits and thrust belts Arc-related rifts,

ß ocean/continent extension Back-arccompressive lithophilesuite:Mo-F-U-
cmtonic basins Be-(Sn)
(unique[?]to SW N. America)
Ensialic-ensimatic back-arc Back-arc extensional Arc-related rifts,
basins cmtonic basins base/precious-metal
ß volcanic tendencies - outboard Back-arcmarginalbasins suite

(arc) side andinter-arctroughs Forearcs:Sn-W-(Cu)

ß sedimentarytendencies- Non-magmaticback-arcs:
inboard(continent)
side U-V-Cu-(Pb-Zn-Ag)

CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS IN States,many of which formedin the Tertiary during

SUPRASUBDUCTION SETTINGS
Most tectonic classifications of ore deposits
incorporatedeposittypes found at convergentplate
margins (Table 2). Mitchell [1976] subdividedore
depositsrelatedto Andeanand islandarc magmatism
into pre-, syn-, and post-collision types, and
distinguishedcalc-alkalinefrom alkaline/peralkaline
associations. He further subdivided subduction-related
ore depositsbased on upper vs. lower plate, on
emplacementlocationrelative to continent,and on the
nature of the host rocks and major faults. Sillitoe
[1981] specificallyclassifiedore depositsformed at
convergentmargins and noted that subductionstyle
influences the magmatic and metallogenic
characteristics of resultant Andean and island arcs.
The interrelationof subductionstyle, petrochemical
characterof granitoidrocks,andmetallogenyhasbeen
noted by Ishihara [1980, 1981], Keith and Swan
[ 1987], Uyeda and Nishiwaki [ 1980], Sillitoe [ 1981],
and others. Three fundamental end-member classes of
subduction styleare recognized[UyedaandKanamori,
1979; Dewey, 1980]: (1) typically intraoceanic,ex-
tensionalarcswith backarcbasins,underlainby steep
Benioff zones,(2) typically continental,contractional
arcswith backarcthrustbelts,underlainby flat Benioff
zones,and (3) neutral arcs. Sillitoe [1981], however,
emphasizedthat certain depositsare associated with
transitionalstagesbetweenthese end-memberclasses
(Figure 1). This is bestillustratedby deposittypesin
the Basin and Rangeprovinceof the westernUnited
the transition between a contractional arc-backarc
settingand a neutralor extensionalsetting. Many of
these deposittypes are somewhatunique, and are
placed in special categoriesin some classifications
(e.g., Table 2; 'Other arc related deposits',$awkins,
1984).
Proposedclassification
The followingsimplifiedclassification(Table 3) is
partly basedon a numberof previousclassifications
[Guilbert, 1981; Mitchell and Garson, 1981; Sillitoe,
1981;$awkins,1984], and focuseson depositsfoundin
the suprasubduction environment.I emphasize found
in this environment,as somedepositsmay not have
formed in this environment,but may have been
emplacedthere tectonically. For example,podiform
chromite is usually formed by some magmatic
concentration processduring the formationof oceanic
lithosphere,but is often foundin ophiolitesin forearc
or suturezone settings.
In the proposedclassification,depositsare classified
into forearc,magmaticarc, andbackarcsubdivisions of
the suprasubduction environment,and oceanic(island
arc) and continental (Andean arc) settings are
distinguished (Table3, Figure2). This classification
is
usefulas it is basedon recognitionin the rockrecordof
calc-alkalinemagmaticrocksof arc affinity. However,
recognition of these tectonic environmentscan be
complicatedby many factors(discussed below). The
proposed classification omits deposits
 NELSON 319

A number of benefits result from this new

Cu-F•-Mo-^u-^o
classification. The main tectonic subdivisions are
'N'%'% ..•.:.:.:.;
...... simplified over previous classifications and are.
A
consistentwith modem tectonic terminology. In
geologicallylessknownfrontierregions,recognitionof
forearc,arc, and backarcgeologyshouldbe relatively
easy in most cases. In addition, the depositclassses
Mo-F-U encompassmost major ore deposittypes;many sub-

•_F•-Z..n-/k,•-Cu
• h / Cu-U-F•-Zn
classesor minor deposits[cf., Cox and Singer, 1987]
INACTIVE
ARC ,,"\,,",," are omitted. Thus the classification will be useful in
B
.................
• .............
.•
•.'.',:•.•&.•..•..?.•.
.........:.:..•...::•::•
ß: •••.• DUCTILE
designing explorationprogramsin frontier regions
within suprasubduction orogens.
SHEARING, The proposedclassification is notperfectin a number
ATEXI$ of aspects.First,oredepositterminologyis historically
complex,and tendsto be a mixtureof descriptive and
TRANSFORM genetic terms. For example, "massive magnetite"is a
FAULT INACTIVE ARC Mo--F--U
\ \ _/ .,,- descriptive designation, whereas "exhalative Mn" is a
geneticdesignation.Termsreferringto a typelocality,
;.;.;:..•.:;:::;:;:;.
•;:•.-..:.:.:.:.:.;.
,•
,................,,
C
suchas "Kuroko-typedeposits",althoughdescriptive,
may carry a genetic implication. The proposed
'•. UPWELLING
• ASTHENOSPHERE classificationincludes both genetic and descriptive
terminology,but is fundamentallydescriptive,as it
Cu-P'b-Zn- RIFT.BIMODAL groupsdeposittypesby wheretheyoccur.Nonetheless,
VOLCANISM BACKARC
'A0-'•u • / BASIN depositsin the classification includethoseformedby
D magmatic, hydrothermal,metamorphic,metasomatic,
and sedimentaryprocesses, as well as thoseemplaced
by tectonic processes. For example, most porphyry
depositsare foundin a magmaticarc setting,and are
assumedto form in a magmatic-hydrothermal system.
Fig. 1. Schematic relationship betweenstylesof subduction In addition, a Suiteof other deposit types,including
and metallogeny(from Sillitoe, 1981). Black = oceanic epithermal veins, mantos, skams, and pipes or
crest;light gray= continentalcrest;v - volcanicrocks;+ = I- chimneys, are associatedbroadly with magmatic and
typemagma;x = S-typemagma;darkgray= A-typemagma. hydrothermal processesin the magmatic arc [e.g.,
A) Moderateto steepsubduction; neutralstressregime. B) Arribas et al., 1995].
Shallowsubduction; contractional regime. C) Steepening of Second, the origin of some deposit types is
detachedslabfollowingridge collision(with transformfault controversial. For example,a numberof deposittypes
possiblyformed);extensional regime. D) Steepsubduction ascribed to an epigeneticreplacementorigin, suchas
andcommencement of intra-arcrifting;extensional
regime. skarn, mamo, and disseminatedCarlin-type, also have
been interpretedas having a modified syngenetic
origin [Hutchinsonand Burlington, 1984; Kerrich,
1993].
Third, the classificationof depositsin forearc,arc,
restricted to Archean and early Proterozoic rocks and backarc environmentsis compoundedby the
because,as noted earlier, tectonic processeshave variabilityof suchenvironments, and by a numberof
evolved since the early history of the earth. The factors which affect the evolution of such environ-
proposedclassification alsoomitsdepositsformedas a ments. Examples of variability include: (1) some
result of continental collision, because continental modernforearcregionshave an extensiveaccretionary
collision shuts off subduction. Note, however, that prism (e.g., Alaska), whereas others have no
most collisional orogenic belts had a history of accretionaryprism (e.g., Peru), and (2) somebackarc
convergentmargintectonicsprior to collision,and will regionsare contractional(e.g., centralAndes),whereas
thereforecontainsomeof the depositsincludedin the others are extensional(e.g., western Pacific arcs)
classification
presentedhere. [Uyeda, 1983]. Factors affecting the evolution
320 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION

TABLE
3. Classification
ofOreDeposits
inSuprasubduction
Settint•.
FOREARC RELATED ORE DEPOSITS

la
accreted
oceanic
terranes:
Cyprus-type
exhalative
deposits,
distal
exhalative
Mn,ophiolite-related
podiform
Cr and Ni laterites
lb epithermalAu, Hg veins,andSn-W-Cuveinsandskamsassociated
with intrusions

MAGMATIC ARC RELATED ORE DEPOSITS

2a
epizonal
calc-alkaline
systems
(Cu,Mo,Au.,+ Pb,Zn,Ag),including
porphyry
andrelated
breccia
pipes,
epithermalveinsandhotsprings,skams,andmantos
2b batholith-related
systems
(pegmatites,graniticU)
2c, Kuroko-typeexhalativedepositsin submarine
intra-arcbasins
2d lodegold,shearzoneassociated
2e massivemagnetite

BACKARC RELATED ORE DEPOSITS

3a alkaline
igneous
systems(e.g.,Au-tellurides,
Mo-porphyries,
andotherlithophile
suites)
3b tin-tungsten
systems
(porphyries,
veins,pipes,skams,
greisens)
3c disseminated
sediment-hosted
Au (Carlin-type)
3d. Besshi-type
exhalativedeposits
in backarcbasins
3e metamorphic
corecomplex
('detachment-hosted')
ß = islandarcaffinity,otherwise
Andeanarcaffinity

suprasubduction
environments
include:
(1) stateof
stressin the upper plate, (2) nature of crust in the
upperplate,(3) relativeandabsoluteplatemotions,(4)
age of subducting
lithosphere,
and (5) prior tectonic
history. Becauseof thesefactors,the distributionof arc
and backarcregionscan be difficult to determine. For
bxample,during the period between70-55 Ma,
subduction-related
magmas in the western United
Stateseruptedovera vastareain whathadpreviously
beenthe backarc[Burchfieland Davis, 1975; Coney
andReynolds,1977]. Subsequently, in the Oligocene,
magmatismsweptwestwardin a widespread, nearly
simultaneous volcanicevent. Althoughmanyof the
magmasproducedduring this "flare-up"were fund-
amentallycalc-alkalinearc-typemagmas,the dispersed
natureof the magmatism overa relativelyshortperiod
of time, and the transitional to extensional tectonic
regime, affected the nature of mineralization in the
region.
Althoughsuprasubduction settingsnormallyevolve
through processes associated with steady-state
subduction,most are affectedby episodiceventssuch
ascollisionof seamounts, aseismicridges,andactively
spreadingridges [e.g., Nelson and Forsythe, 1989].
Theseepisodiceventscan affectthe metallogenyof
suprasubduction settings.
SOUTHERNMOST ANDES: EXAMPLE OF A
SUPRASUBDUCTION OROGEN
The Andessouthof about42øSlatitude(Figure3)
have been a suprasubduction orogensemi-continually
at leastsincethe late Paleozoic[Mpodozisand Ramos,
1990], although steady-statesubductionhas been
punctuated at times by diachronousand episodic
orogenicevents(Figure 4). Tectonic developmentof
the southernmostAndes began in the late Paleozoic
with formationof a forearcaccretionarycomplexalong
the marginof Gondwanabetweenthe Late Devonian(?)
and Triassicto Early Jurassic[Forsythe,1982; Dalziel
and Forsythe, 1985; Davidsonet al., 1987; Mpodozis
and Ramos,1990]. This complex,exposedmostlyin a
Pacificcoastalbelt, formedwestof a magmaticarc and
includes submarine fan turbidites, pelagic chert,
broken formation (shearedsandstone,mudstone,and
conglomerate),foraminiferal limestone,pillow lava,
ultramafic rocks, mica schist, and greenschist.
Metamorphic grade is generally zeolite to middle
greenschistfacies, with local exposuresof blueschist
and amphibolite facies rocks. This complex is
interpretedto representaccretionof oceanicterranes
mixed with continental and arc detritus along the
convergentmarginof
 NELSON 321

Cyprus-type
A odiformCr, exhalative
epithetreal
porphyryCu
(subvolcanic)
i laterite veins, breccias
Mo-porphyrys
Au veins assoc. with skarns, mantos
forearcplutons
(ridgecollision)

lO

20-

30- messthermal shear granophile

or batholith-
zone Au related systems
(fin-W-U-Ms)
40-

50-
km

Cyprus-type epithe•mal
exhalative veins,breccias

B podiform
Cr, • skarns,
mantos porphyry
Cu-Au
Ni laterite x \ x /
• • Besshi-type
• / ?/ Kuroko-type

20-

30-
km

I I I I
0 100 200 300 km

Fig.2. Schematic
cross
sections
of supmsubduction
settings
showing
majordeposit
typesthatform,orareemplaced
tectonically
in, A) Andean-type
orogens
andB) oceanicislandarc-type
322 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION

changein the Middle to Late Jurassicas the magmatic

arc shifted westward to intrude the late Paleozoic
25 40 accretionarycomplex. With resumptionof normal
ß I -35
subduction,the calc-alkaline Patagonian batholith
I developedbetweenlatest Jurassicand Tertiary time
[Herv• et al., 1984; Nelson et al., 1986; Bruce et al.,
1991].
NAZC^ ', North of 490 S, ephemeralmarinetransgressions in
PLATE ', ! intra-arc basins deposited sandstone,shale, and
limestone interbedded with andesitic, dacitic, and
SOUTH rhyoliticrocks[Haller andLapido,1982;Ramoset al.,
AMERICAN 1982; Niemeyer et al., 1984]. Weak deformation,
: PLATE represented by openfoldsand normalfaults,occurred
'
in the backarc zone during the Mesozoic. The
Liquifie-Ofqui fault system, a major arc-parallel
LOF lineament,developedby the Miocene in responseto
oblique subduction,and appearsto have localized
-45 Miocene and Quaternary eruptive centers [Herv•,
1976; Skarmeta, 1976; Bartholomewand Tarney,
1984, Forsythe and Nelson, 1985] during trans-
tensionalphases.
Southof 49øSduringthe Early Cretaceous, pyfitic
blackshalewasdeposited on a stableshelfcratonward
of an ophiolite-floored, flysch-filledmarginal basin
[Dalziel et al., 1974; Sudrez and Pettigrew, 1976].
- 5O The Andeanorogenybeganin the mid-Cretaceous and
involvedshorteningand cratonwardthrustingof the
2 cm/a marginalbasin [Bruhnand Dalziel, 1977; Nelsonet
al., 1980; Dalziel, 1986] and developmentof the
ANTARCTIC Magallanes foreland basin [Winslow, 1979]. At
PLATE approximately 15 Ma the Chile Risespreading center
collidedwith the margin forming two triple junctions
- 55
[Herron et al., 1977; Herron et al., 1981]. The
I I i southerntriple junctionis todaya diffuse,complex
80 75 70 65 zone of faultingnear Tierra del Fuego,and involves
theMagallanesfault zone[Fuenzalida,1976],a major
Fig. 3. Tectonicsettingof southernAndes. Black dots = lineamentand possiblestrike-slipstructure whichcuts
activevolcanoes.GP = Golfo de Penas;LOF = Liquifie- diagonallyacrossthe main cordillera. The northern
Ofqui fault system.Dotted and dashedlines on oceanic triple junction has migratednorth along the cont-
plateslabeledwith ageof magneticanomalyin Ma. Arrows inental margin [Herron et al., 1981; Candeet al.,
on oceanicplatesshowrelativeconvergence
vector. 1987]to its presentpositionat 46.5øSlatitudewhere
the activelyspreadingChile Rise is beingsubducted
[ForsytheandNelson,1985;Nelsonet al., 1994].
Following
a Period
of upliftanderosion,
and
coincidentwith early rifling of the SouthAtlantic in Recenttectonics
of thesouthernmost
Andes
the LateJurassic[RabinowitzandLa Brecque,1979],a
widespreadvolcano-tectonic riff provincedeveloped Today, the southernAndes can be subdivided
with voluminous bimodal, but mainly silicic, longitudinallyinto two zonesseparatedby the triple
volcanismand minor S-typegranitoids[Bruhnet al., junctionregionat 46.5øS(Figure3). North of the
1978; Nelson and Elthon, 1983; Gust et al., 1985]. triple junction, obliqueconvergence
occursat approx-
This event coincidedwith a major paleogeographic imately9 cm/a andthe orogencontainsa well
 NELSON 323

40----

120--

160--

200---
Ma

Fig. 4. Tectonichistoryof southern

Andes,mostlytakenfromsouthof 49ø S. Gray= oceaniccrest;dashed= older
continentalcrest;+ = magmaticadditionsto continentalcrest;verticallines = ophioliticmarginalbasincrest;dots=
sedimentary rocksin forelandbasin. Plateaubasaltsshownin backarcregionin ~10 Ma cross
324 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION

magmatismand emplacementof the PlioceneTaitao

Andean
be__l
t
ophiolitein the forearc[Nelsonet al., 1994]. Southof
the triplejunction,subduction
hasslowedto lessthan 2
cm/a and arc volcanismis nearlyextinct(Figure3)
10 ø [Stem et al., 1976].

METALLO-TECTONIC TERRANES AND

MINERAL POTENTIAL OF THE SOUTHERNMOST
ANDES

Althoughmajor mineral resources are knownin the

20 ø
-30 ø
-40 ø
50 ø
Fig. 5. Ore depositsin the central and southernAndes
(compiled from Petersen,1990). Note the paucity of
depositsin the southernmostAndes. Symbolsrepresent
varioustypesof ore deposits.
forearc, arc, and backarc (generally contractional).
Near the triple junction, forearctectonicsare affected
by ridge collisionand obliqueconvergence [Forsythe
and Nelson, 1985; Nelsonand Forsythe,1989]. Two
major tectonicfeaturesaccommodate movementof an
elongateforearcsliver: (1) normal faultsin the Golfo
de Penasforearcbasin (GP, Figure 3), and (2) the
Liquifie-Ofquiright-normalfault system(LOF; Figure
(3). Magmaticeffectsof ridge collisionincludesilicic
centralAndes,mineral explorationhas beenneglected
in the southernmost Andes because of real and
perceived logistical problems including difficult
weather, vegetationcover, and poor infrastructure.
Nearly all maps showing the distributionof ore
deposits
in Chilearetruncatedsouthof about370400
S latitude [e.g., Ruiz, 1990; Davidsonand Mpodozis,
1991]. The few maps that do includethe southern
regionindicateveryfew knownore deposits(Figure5)
[e.g., Ruiz, 1965; Frutos and Pincheira, 1986a;
Petersen,1990]. Nonetheless,analysisof the tectonic
development of the regionsuggeststhat it haspotential
for majordeposits.
Indeed, someresourcesare known in the southern-
most Andes [Ruiz, 1965; Frutos and Pincheira,
1986b],and explorationactivityhas increasedin the
past few years. Known resources includestratiform
Zn-Pb in the Toqui district [Wellruer et al., 1983],
epithermalAg-Au in the Fachinal district [Little,
1993], the Cutter Cove Cu-sulfidedeposit[Thomas,
1973; Arias, 1985], massive sulfides in bimodal
volcanicsin Tierra del Fuego[Anonymous, 1994], and
gold placersin Chilo6 [Frutosand Pincheira,1986b;
Emparan et al., 1985], and in Tierra del Fuego
[Heylmun,1993].
In order to aid explorationdesignin the region, six
metallo-tectonicterranes are recognized(Table 4).
Metallo-tectonic terranes, which are similar to
tectono-stratigraphicterranes [Coney et al., 1980;
Howell et al., 1985], are here defined as having
distinct petrologicalfeatures and tectonic histories.
They are further definedas regionscharacterized by
associationsof known or inferred mineral resources,
predictedon the basisof the tectonicevolutionof each
terrane. Someterranesare allochthonous (e.g., much
of terraneI), althoughmosthaveformedessentially in
place or have been affected by subduction-related
processes.Terranecharacteristics are summarizedin
Table4 and terranesare locatedin Figure6. Predicted
mineraldeposittypesfor eachterrane,takenfromthe
classificationin Table3, are alsogivenin Table
 NELSON 325

TABLE 4. Metallo-tectonicTerranesin the Southernmost

Andes. Deposittypesin Table 3.
TERRANE DESCRIPTION DEPOSIT
TYPES

Late Paleozoic-earlyMesozoicaccretedforearctermne(includesQuaternaryridge- la, lb, 2c?, 3d?

collisionrelatedrocks)

Triassic?-Jurassic
volcano-tectonic
riff terrane(bimodalvolcanics),andJurassic- 2a, 2c, 3a, 3b,
Cretaceousvolcanic-sedimentary
intra-arcandbackarcterranes(includesearlyCretaceous 3c, 3d?, 3e
shalebasinsouthof 49øS)

111 Jurassic
to earlyTertiaryPatagonian
batholithandvolcanicroofpendants 2a, 2b, 2c, 3c

IV Mesozoicmarginalbasinterrane:ophiolitesandvolcaniclastic
flysch la, 2c?, 3d

V Tertiaryintra-arctranstensional
basins:
maficpillowlavas,ultramafics
(includes
sheared la, 2c, 2d, 3d
rocksalongLiquifie-Ofquifaultzone)

Tertiary-Recent
volcanic
arc 2a, 2e?

With this approach,exploration programsfor certain
deposittypescanbestbe directedto specificterranes.I
give two examplesof areasin the southernAndes
which showmineral potentialin the field consistent
with the potentialpredictedby the terraneanalysis.
First, within terraneII in the CordilleraDarwin region
of Tierra del Fuego(~69.4øW,54.4øS;A in Figure6),
a belt of altered, pyritic Jurassicrhyolitic rock is
exposed for a strikelengthof over30 km. The geology
of thisbelt suggests a Kuroko-typesetting(deposittype
2c), howeverthe volcanic sequence,known as the
Tobifera Formation, is poorly mapped and no
information on mineral contenthas been published.
Nonetheless, the exposureof intenselyalteredrock is
vast and an obvioustarget for exploration. Second,
within terraneV in the Llancaqu6area (~72.6øW,
42.1øS;B in Figure 6) a belt of shearedfelsic'and
mafic volcanic rocks is associated with fuchsite-
ankeritealteration,an associationindicativeof lodeAu
deposits
(deposit
type2d). Again,although
muchof
this areais poorlymapped,the geologyalongportions
of the Liquifie-Ofquifault zone(Figures3 and 6) is a
likely targetfor exploration.
The apparentpaucityof somedeposittypesin the
southernmost Andes may be related to geological
factors,not just lack of exploration. For example,
erosionlevel may be a factor as the southernmost
Andes generallyexposemore deeplyerodedlevels
toward the south. This is certainly true for the
predominantly
CretaceousPatagonian
batholith,from
which most epithermalsystems
probablyhave been
eroded. The erosionmay reflect a combinationof
increasedPleistoceneglaciation toward the south as
well as increased uplift causedby subductionof young
oceaniccrest and ridge collisionto the southover the
past 14 Ma or so [Candeet al., 1987;Delong andFox,
1977]. Nonetheless,a numberof epithermalsystems
in Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic and subvolcanic
rocks in the less-erodedbackarcregion have shown
indications of mineralization. Another factor could be
the likely lack of Precambrianbasementrock belowthe
southernmostAndes, which could limit the sourceof
somemetals.Note, however,that the presence of large
Tertiary epithermal depositsin the western Pacific
magmatic arcs [e.g., Lihir (Au), Moyle et al., 1990;
Vatukoula(Au), Andersonand Eaton, 1990; Bougain-
ville (Cu-Au), Clark, 1990] indicatesthat an anciem
basementis not required as a sourcefor younger
deposits.
Despitethe apparentpaucityof ore depositsin the
Andes south of 42øS, definition of metallo-tectonic
terranes,using tectonicanalysisof the orogenand
tectonicclassificationof ore deposits,showspotential
for exploration. This potemialis supportedby the
existenceof somedepositsin the southernmost Andes,
and the increasedexplorationactivityin the pastfew
years. Indeed, given the long historyof convergent
margin tectonics,punctuatedby episodicextensional,
transpressional,and transtensionalphases, it is
predictedthat the southernmost Andesshouldhousea
wealth of mineral
326 SUPRASUBDUCTION MINERALIZATION

III

ARGENTINA

50 ø

CHILE

.+

+ +
72 ø
+ -
68 ø
_956 ¸

Fig.6. Metallo-tectonic
terranes
ofthesouthern
Andes.SeeTable4 forexplanation

Acknowledgments. Dick Hutchinson,Cliff Taylor, and Steve
Turnerwere extremelyhelpfulin discussions concerning ore
depositclassification
and formation. Studyof numerousore
depositsoverthe yearson field trips led by the energeticand
enthusiastic Dick Hutchinson was invaluable. I thank
Bradley Hacker, Craig Manning, Steve Turner, and an
unknownreviewerfor thoughtfulandhelpfulreviews.
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 Hazardsand Climatic Impact of Subduction-ZoneVolcanism:
A Global andHistoricalPerspective

RobertI. Tilling

VolcanoHazardsTeam,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,MenloPark, California

Subduction-zone volcanoesaccountfor morethan 80 percentof the documented eruptionsin

recordedhistory,eventhoughvolcanism--deep and,hence,unobserved--along the globaloceanic
ridgesystemsoverwhelmingly dominates in eruptiveoutput. Becausesubduction-zone eruptions
canbe highlyexplosive,theyposesomeof thegreatestnaturalhazardsto societyif the eruptions
occurin denselypopulatedregions. Of the six worstvolcanicdisasterssinceA.D. 1600, five have
occurredat subduction-zone volcanoes: Unzen, Japan(1792); Tambora, Indonesia(1815);
Krakatau, Indonesia(1883); Mont Pe16e,Martinique (1902); and Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia
(1985). Sulfuricaciddropletsin stratospheric volcaniccloudsproduced by voluminous explosive
eruptionscan influenceglobalclimate. The 1815Tamboraeruptioncausedin 1816 a decreaseof
severalCelsiusdegreesin averagesummertemperature in EuropeandtheeasternUnitedStatesand
Canada,resultingin the well-known"Year Without Summer." Similarly, the eruptionsof E1
Chich6n (Mexico) in 1982 and of Mount Pinatubo(Philippines)in 1991 lowered average
temperatures for the northernhemisphereby as muchas 0.2 to 0.5 øC,respectively.However,
eruption-induced climaticeffectsof historicaleruptionsappearto be short-lived,
lastingat mostfor
only a few years.

1. INTRODUCTION
Beginningin 1980, a numberof eruptionsat subduction-
zone volcanoes--suchas Mount St., Helens (U.S.A., 1980),
Powerfulexplosiveeruptionsare awesomeculminations E1 Chich6n(Mexico, 1982), Galunggung(Java,Indonesia,
of the magmatic and tectonic processesoperative in 1982), Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia, 1985), Redoubt
subductionzones,and they can have severeadverseeffects (Alaska, U.S.A., 1989), Mount Pinatubo (Philippines,
on civilizations. Although subduction-zonevolcanism 1991), and Unzen (Japan,1991)--havecausedfatalitiesand
producesonly about 15 percent of the averagedglobal (or) substantial economic loss, gaining notoriety and
volcanic output (- 4 km3/yr),
it accountsformorethan80 capturingthe attentionof scientists,publicofficials,andthe
percentof documentedhistoricaleruptions(Figure 1). This populace worldwide [Tilling, 1989; Yanagi et al., 1992;
is simplybecausethe vastmajorityof eruptionsoccursight Wolfe, 1992; Chester,1993; Tilling and Lipman,1993]. In
unseen along the global oceanic ridge systems that addition to wreaking devastationlocally, some of these
crisscrossthedeepoceanfloor. To date,noneof thesedeep- eruptionsmay have influencedglobal climate [Simarski,
sea eruptionshave been observedin real time, whereas 1992; Johnson, 1993].
subduction-zone andothersubaerialeruptiveactivityrarely
goesunreported. 2. VOLCANIC HAZARDS: DIRECT AND INDIRECT

Since A.D. 1600, more than 260, 000 peoplehave died

Subduction:Top to Bottom from eruptions (Figure 2), overwhelminglyinvolving
GeophysicalMonograph96 volcanoes in subductionzones. In the 17th-19th centuries,
Copyright1996 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion most deaths were from indirect volcanic hazards, most
332 HAZARDS AND IMPACTS OF SUBDUCTION-ZONE VOLCANISM

Global volcanic
Historical eruptions 11600- 18991 I]900- ]9861
output
Total 186,000 76,000
n = 5337 ~ 4 km3/year Deaths/Year 620 880
(Average)

•Subduct•on
•
Pyroclastic Famine, _ _
flow disease O•ther

..-_ Intraplate-• ........... d,,ow

R•ft Tsunami
mJ

Fig. 1. Comparisonof historicaleruptionswith global volcanic

output apportioned to tectonic regimes: subduction zone,
intraplate(hotspot),and rift (includingspreadingcenters). [Data
sources:Crisp, 1984; Sirekin,1993]. Fig. 2. Eruption-related
fatalitiesapportioned
to principalcause
for theperiods1600-1899and1900-1986.[Datasources: Blong,
1984; Tilling, 1989].
notably tsunami and post-eruption famine and disease.
However, in the 20th century, the principal killers were
directhazards
commonly
associated
withsubduction-zone
hazard will inexorably become more severe with the
volcanoes: namely, pyroclastic flows and surges and continuingincreasein air travel,becausemanyinternational
volcanicdebrisavalanches andflows(mudflows).The large air routes cross zones of active volcanism [Casadevall and
reductionin fatalities from indirect hazardsin this century Thompson, 1995]. Since the early 1970s, more than 60
reflectstwo factors: 1) the existenceof modern,rapid airplanes,mostly commercialjetliners,have beendamaged
communications anddisaster-relief
deliverysystems;and2) by suchencounters,with severalof them experiencingtotal
the non-occurrence (to date) of any large volcanogenic power loss,necessitatingemergencylandings. During the
tsunami. Most of the deathsin the 20th centuryresulted 15 December 1989 eruptionof RedoubtVolcano, Alaska, a
from only two events,the 1902 eruptionof Mont Pe16e, new Boeing 747-400 was heavily damagedby in-flight
Martinique, and the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, encounterwith ashand incurredrepaircosts,whichincluded
Colombia(Figure 3). A comprehensive review of volcano- the replacementof all four engines,exceeding80 million
hazardsmitigation, includingrelevant demographicand dollars! [Casadevall,1992].
socio-economicfactors,is givenby Tilling [ 1989].
Of the six deadliesteruptionssinceA.D. 1600 (Figure4), 3. CLIMATIC IMPACT OF EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS
only the Lakagfgar (also called Laki) in Iceland did not
involvean explosiveeruptionof a subduction-zone volcano. A connectionbetweenvolcanismand climate changeis
TheRuizeruption,
which
produced
onlyabout
0.03km3 of nowwell demonstrated
andgenerallyaccepted
[e.g.,Robock,
magma,alsotragicallydemonstrated that even a very small 1991; Simarski, 1992; Johnson, 1993]. The prevailing
eruptioncan causemany fatalities(> 25,000), especiallyif view is that the amountof gas (principallySO2)--not the
thereis potentialfor significantinteractionbetweeneruptive tephra--injected into the stratospherelargely determines
activityandice andsnow. By contrast,the 1912eruptionof whether an explosive eruption might affect climate. The
Novarupta(Katmai, Alaska)--the most voluminousto date SO2 forms an aerosollayer of sulfuric acid droplets;this
inthiscentury
(-- 13km3 ofmagma)--produced
noknown layer tends to cool the troposphereby reflecting solar
deaths and only minimal property damage because it radiation,and to warm the stratosphere
by absorbingradiated
occurredin a sparselypopulatedregion. Earth heat. With the single exceptionof the Laki fissure
Beginning in the 1980s, anotherhazard of subduction- eruption in 1783, which occurred in a divergent plate-
zonevolcanism--beyond imaginationat the beginningof the boundary rogime, all other known historical climate-
20th century--becamea cause for concern: encounters influencing eruptions have been from subduction-zone
betweenvolcanic ash and jet aircraft and airport facilities volcanoes,includingTambora (Indonesia,1815), Krakatau
[Casadevall,1992, 1993, 1994]. This modern-dayvolcanic (Indonesia, 1883), Santa Marfa (Guatemala,
 TILLING 333

1990-93
Nevado del Ruiz, 13 November 1985
1980-89 ......... •,• . •;..;,;•,,,•;•,:,;•;;.,,,,;;•,,;.,.;.., ........ .:;.•.,... ,..::..,...... . ........ . ...... • ....... . .. ..... .. ::.• .....:.:....: :.:..:

1970-79

1960-69

1950-59

1940-49
U.I 1930-39 I
1920-29

1910-19
Mont Pel•e, 8 May 1902
1900-09

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

NUMBER OF FATALITIES PER DECADE

Fig. 3. Volcano-related
fatalitiesby decadefor the 20thcenturythroughMay 1993;shadedbarsshowfatalitiesfrom
thetwo deadliestevents. [From Tilling andLipman,1993,Figure 1].

Novampta(Katmai, U.S.A 1912),Agung(Indonesia,1963), by atmosphericscientists.For example,the globallevel of

El Chich6n (Mexico, 1982), and Mount Pinatubo carbonmonoxide,which hadbeensteadilyincreasing,began
(Philippines, 1991). The stratosphericvolcanic cloud to level off and downturn with the Pinatubo eruption
associatedwith the 1815 Tambora eruption--thelargest in (Figure7); similarpatternshavealsobeennotedfor carbon
recordedhistory--resultedin the well-documented"Year dioxideandothercloselymonitored"greenhouse" gases.
Without Summer" (Figure 5) in the following year
[Stommeland Storereel, 1983].
The 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption apparently had 4. REDUCING VOLCANO RISK IN
minimalclimaticimpact,producingonly negligiblechange SUBDUCTION-ZONE REGIONS
(0 to-0.1 øC)in averagesurfacetemperature
for thenorthern
hemisphere.In contrast,the 1982E1Chich6nandthe 1991 Not only are the subduction-zone regionshighlyproneto
Pinatuboeruptionsloweredsurfacetemperatureby 0.2 to earthquakeand volcanohazards,they also are amongthe
0.5 øC [Simarski, 1992]. Significantly, the Mount St. most denselypopulatedparts of the world. By the year
Helensmagmacontainsmuch lesssulfurthan thoseof E1 2000, the populationat risk from volcanichazardsis likely
Chich6nor Pinatubo,which containanhydrite(CaSO4) as a to increaseto at least500 million; about90 percentof these
primary phase(Figure 6). Interestingly,the 1985 Ruiz peoplelive alongthe subduction zonesof thecircum-Pacific
eruption,
despite
itsverysmall
magma
volume
(0.03km3), region [Tilling, 1989; Tilling and Lipman, 1993]. It is
was exceptionallyhigh in releasedSO2 [Williamset al., soberingto notethatthe people(> 500 million)currentlyat
1986]. riskrepresents the entireworldpopulation at thestartof the
While the 1991 Pinatuboeruptionclearly perturbedthe 17th century.
atmosphere, the effectseemsto be relativelyshort-lived,as Althougheruptionfrequencyandhazardsseverityhave
demonstratedby measurementof ozone levels in the not increased in recent centuries [Sirekin, 1993], the
northernhemisphere.The greatlyaccelerated erosionof the problemof reducingvolcanoriskinexorablybecomes more
ozonelevel in the springof 1993 causedby Pinatubohad acute with continuing explosive population growth,
largely dissipated by spring of 1994 [Stone, 1994]. especiallyfor many developingcountriesrimming the
However, the effectsof Pinatuboare not clearly understood PacificOcean. Againstthisdauntingscenario,Tilling
334 HAZARDS AND IMPACTS OF SUBDUCTION-ZONE VOLCANISM

EJECTA ERUPTION Erupted Sulfur in SO 2 PrimarySO2 released

volume, magma, released, anhydrite
VOLCANO YEAR VOLUME DEATHS (Month,Year) km3(DEE)(wt.%SO3)megatons(CaSO4) Erupted
volume
(km3) Mount St. Helens
(May,
1980) - 0.2 < 0.01 0.8 NO -4
Ruiz, Colombia 1985 < 10-2 25,000 El Chich6n
(March-April,
1982) - 0.4 I -4 - 7 YES - 18
Novarupta, U.S.A. 1912 101 0 Nevado tel Ruiz
(November,
1985) - 0.02 < 0.01 -2 YES?? - 100
Mont Pe16e, Martinique 1902 10-1 30,000
Mount Pinatubo

Krakatau, Indonesia 1883 101 36,000 (June,

1991) 3- 5 0.3- 0.5 20 YES -5

Tambora, Indonesia 1815

>102 I 92'000 Fig. 6. Comparisonof magma volumes(dense-rockequivalent,
DRE), releaseof SO2, and the ratio SO2 released/magmavolume
Unzen, Japan 1792 10-1 15,000
for selectedexplosiveeruptionsin the period 1980-1991. [Data
Lakagigar, Iceland 1783 101 [ 9,000 sources: Bluth et al., 1993; Calvache V., 1990; Lipman et al.,
(Laki) 1981;Roseet al., 1984; and Wolfe,1992].

I> 90%Post-eruption
starvation
1991 1992 1993
Fig. 4. The six deadliesteruptionssince A.D. 1600; the 1912
Novarupta (Katmai) eruption is also shown to emphasizethat
150 __•-_ • 30 - 90 N
eruptionsize (ejecta volume) is not primary factor in numberof
deaths. [Data sources:Blong, 1984; Tilling, 1989]. 140

"YEAR WITHOUT A SUMMER"

26
130
I I I I • I I I I I I

100_--
_ 224 year average [• _
__-'._----__•.0-30 N
(=) 24 - o c "--%-.%-.•.__
o
90

::3 22 _ • •'x,• (Philadelphia)_ _

70
_------•_:::•
:::-_5
.... 0ø.30øS
13= 20
E
/-x -- 60 _ ----LLLLLLL•
- / I .g I I
/ aune
18
- • ]• / (New Haven) -
145-yearaverage • • • 9O

,, 8O
1810 1812 1814 1816 1818 1820 1822 - I i• I I
1991 1992 1993
Year
Fig. 5. Decreasein annual summertemperaturein the eastern Fig. 7. Reversalof increasinglevel of carbonmonoxideattributed
United Statescausedby the 1815 eruptionof TamboraVolcano, to atmosphericeffects of the 15 June 1991 eruptionof Mount
Indonesia. [Modified from Johnson,1993]. Pinatubo, Luzon, Philippines. The upper three curvesreflect
differences in concentration according to latitude range; the
bottomcurvegivesthe global average. Thin dashedlinesbracket
1-• confidence intervals. [Modified from Novelli et al., 1994,
Lipman [1993, 279-280] have identified the following Figure 4].
critical issuesin reducingvolcanorisk:
1. need for additionalreliable, real-time monitoring
systems; 5. moreeffectiveinternational
cooperation.
2. new approaches to eruptionprediction; These issuescan begin to be addressedwith present-day
3. studyof more volcanoes; technology and modestly funded, but stable, national or
4. more effective interaction with civil authorities international programs, but many countries lack the
andthe public;and resourcesand (or) the political will to initiate or
 TILLING 335

sustainsuch programs. To increasegovernmentaland Lipman, P.W., D.R. Norton, J. E. Taggart, Jr., E.L. Brandt, and
public support for programsto reduce volcano risk, E.E. Engleman,Compositionalvariationsin 1980 magmatic
deposits,in Lipman, P.W. and D.R. Mullineaux (Eds.), The
volcanologists
must play a more active role to enhance
1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens. Washington, U.S.
awarenessof volcanohazardsand to developrapportand
Geol. SurveyProf' Paper 1250, 631-640, 1981.
effective communications with civil authorities and the
Novelli, P.C., K.A. Masarie, P.P. Tans, and P.M. Lang, Recent
affectedpopulace[Petersonand Tilling,1993]. changes in atmospheric carbon monoxide, Science, 263,
1587-1590, 1994.
Acknowledgments. This brief paperis both a scientificand Peterson, D.W., and Tilling, R.I., .Interactions between
philosophicalstatement,and I wish to thank my colleaguesin scientists, civil authorities and the public at hazardous
the volcanologiccommunityfor helping me to frame it. I also volcanoes, in Active Volcanoes: Monitoring and
greatly appreciatethe careful and thoughtfulreviewsof earlier Modelling, edited by C.R.J. Kilburn and G. Luongo, pp.
drafts of the paper by Robert L. Christiansen,Michael Clynne, 339-365, UCL Press, London, 1993.
Donald W. Peterson,William I. Rose, and StanleyN. Williams. Robock, Alan, The volcanic contributionto climate change of
the past 100 years, in Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climatic
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and principal aeronautical features: U.S. Geol. Survey Wolfe, E.W., The 1991 eruptions of Mount Pinatubo,
GeophysicalInvestigationsMap GP-1011, 1995. Philippines, Earthquakesand Volcanoes,23, 5-35, 1992.
Chester, David, Volcanoes and Society, Edward Arnold (a Yanagi, T., H. Okada, and K. Ohta, Unzen Volcano: The 1990-
Division of Hodder & Stoughton),London, 351 pp., 1993. 1992 eruption, The Nishinippon & Kyushu University Press,
Crisp, J.A., Rates of magma emplacementand volcanicoutput, Fukuoka, Japan, 137 pp., 1992.
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 20, 177-211, 1984.
Johnson, R.W., Volcanic eruptions & atmosphere change, R.I. Tilling, Volcano HazardsTeam, U.S. Geological
AGSO Issues Paper. Australian Geological Survey Survey,MS-910, 345 Middlefield Road,Menlo Park, CA
Organization, Canberra, 36 pp., 1993.
 EclogiteFormationand the Rheology,Buoyancy,
Seismicity,andH20 Contentof OceanicCrust
Bradley
R. Hacker
1
Departmentof Geologicaland EnvironmentalSciences,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California

A broad spectrumof variably altered igneous rocks with a wide range of grain sizes are
compressedand heated over a wide range of pressure-temperature paths in subductionzones.
Although experimentalkinetic data cannotbe extrapolatedto predictthe ratesof blueschistand
eclogite formation in nature, textural data from rocks indicate that transformationbelow
temperaturesof 150øCis minimal. Completetransformationof volcanicrocksoccursby •-250øC,
but incompletetransformationof gabbroicrocks heatedto 800øC has been observed.There are
important consequencesto the rapid transformationof volcanic rocks and the metastable
persistenceof gabbroicrocksinto theblueschist andeclogitestabilityfields.Fastseismicvelocities
shouldbe evident first in the upper oceaniccrust and may be substantiallyretardedin the lower
oceaniccrust.The upperoceaniccrustwill be denserthan asthenosphere beforethe lower oceanic
crust.Early in the processof eclogiteformation,volcanicrockswill be placedin deviatorictension
andthe underlyingcoarsergrainedrocksin compression; with furtherreaction,the stateof stressin
gabbroicrockswill changefrom compressiveto tensile.Earthquakesat shallowdepthsshouldbe
extensional in basalt and contractionalin gabbro, changing at deeper levels to extensional
throughoutthe crust.

INTRODUCTION This paper summarizes the rates and textures of

densificationreactionsin subductionzonesby examining
Formationof eclogiteis a key factor in plate tectonics, experimental and field studies, and then considersthe
influencingthe size and shapeof platesas well astheir age effects of these findings on the rheology, buoyancy,
and rate of disappearance from the Earth's surface. seismicity,andH20 contentof subducting oceaniccrust.
Subductionzoneshave long beenof interestbecausethey
are the buildersof continents,collectingmaterialfrom the
WHAT ARE BLUESCHIST AND ECLOGITE?
oceanbasinsandconstructing magmaticarcs.In spiteof the
dynamic nature of subduction zones, much of our
Blueschistfacies mafic rocks are characterizedby the
understandingof their behavior stemsfrom equilibrium
coexistenceof sodic amphibole and lawsonite at low
thermodynamics.The equilibriumviewpointhasprovena
temperatureor epidote at high temperature[Ernst, 1963].
valuablefirst meansof addressing processesin subduction
zones, but a more in-depth comprehension requires They may alsocontaingarnetor omphacite.Eclogitesensu
considerationof the ratesand mechanismsby which phase stricto is mafic rock consistingof garnetand omphacitic
changesoccurduringsubduction. clinopyroxenewith or without additional minor phases
[Coleman et al., 1965]. The geophysicalimportanceof
AlsoatU.S.Geological
Survey,
MenloPark,California eclogiteis that it represents
the highestdensitycommonly
attained by crustal rocks. Omphacite and garnet have
Subduction:Top to Bottom densities
of3.2-3.4gm/cm
3 and3.6-4.0gm/cm
3,amarked
GeophysicalMonograph96 elevation beyond the density of a typical basalt at 2.9
This paperis not subjectto U.S. copyright. gm/cm
3 [Carmichael,
1989].Thisshiftfrompositive
to
Publishedin 1996 by theAmericanGeophysical Union negativebuoyancyrelative to asthenosphere,
which has a
338 ECLOGITE FORMATION IN OCEANIC CRUST

densityof roughly3.23 gm/cm

3 [Cloos,1993],is as 2.6 ':iiiiiiiiiiii::.:.0::::•i•i•i!ii!!111iiiiiiiiiii!!iiiiii?iiiii½•::::•
..................
important a factor in controlling plate subductionas are
conductive cooling of the lithosphereand the olivine --> 2.4
2.2 '?iiiilili• 3•7
':iiiiiii!iiiiii:. eclogite
.. ..........

::::.:::::::•.

spinel transformation in subductingmantle [Ahrens and ....

,,•,•,:•,•,,..
3.24
..:.:...: ....... .....: ...... ....... ............. ..........................

Schubert, 1975].
••' ••
3.10 •:•'-'::ep•dota•i•i•i•
........
•.... ......
..... ;:•:•:•
........... •:•:•i•i•i•11!'•'•:g:'•i...'.
.::::::::::::.::::::::::::
•:•
............
•-•:•:::•::,:.•'-----1!
.............................. ==========================
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

• ...... ......:...:.: ....:.:.....:.:.:.:.:.:....•[•?.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:

.....

PRINCIPAL DENSIFICATION REACTIONS ß

A broad spectrumof reactionscauserocks to become

more densein subductionzones.At the high temperatures
found in very hot subductionzonesthe transformationof 0.6
.........
•::•
?•..........
•?::•
......................
...................
ß
......
•?
..............
....................
•...........
•:•
....................
2 93 ............
•"v ....... ,
0.4 subgreenschist
.....
•?' 3.5 .:•? ;.9ff .•{•? 0
basalticrocksto garnetgranuliteandthen eclogiteinvolves 2.80 ....
ii•i•}i•?" ..•}•?" •-' :•{{•}•'
0.2 5.2 ::•!•i•i:'" -':3•iiii
.......... •:•
the breakdown of plagioclase, addition of Na20 to
0 1• • 3• Tem•ramre (øC) 7• 8• 9•
cliopyroxene and the growth of garnet (Figure 1). PT
conditions for the appearance of garnet have been
Fig. 1. Metamorphic facies and reactions pertinent to eclogite
determinedby experimentalstudy [Green and Ringwood, formation, after [Liou, 1971], [Maresch, 1977], [Brown, 1977;
1967; Ito and Kennedy, 1971; Liu et al., 1993; Poli, 1993], Brown and Ghent, 1983; Evans, 1990], [Green and Ringwood,
and occursatlower pressures/higher temperaturesin SiO2- 1967; Ito and Kennedy,1971;Liu et al., 1993; Oh and Liou, 1990;
undersaturated[Ito and Kennedy, 1971] and MgO-rich Poli, 1993]. Three- and two-digit numberfor eachfaciesindicate
rocks [Green and Ringwood,1967]. The disappearance of density(g/cm3) and H20 content(wt%) calculated
using
NCMASH model of Peacock [1993] assumingequilibrium (i.e.,
plagioclase is less well defined by the same studiesand
no kinetic hindrance).
dependsmore stronglyon rock composition.
The transformation of basaltic rocks to blueschist and
then eclogite at the low temperaturesthat prevail in most powderedmaterialsmay not be directlyapplicableto the
subduction zones is more complicated because of the majority of geologic situationswhere rocks are tightly
prevalenceof disequilibriumin natureandexperiment.One packed crystallineaggregates--principallybecausethe
reactioninferredto have transformedblueschistto eclogite interfacialfree energyof a rock is muchlessthanthatof a
at severallocalities worldwide is epidote + glaucophane powder.For extrapolationto geologicconditions,dataon
--> garnet + omphacite+ paragaonite+ quartz + H20 [El- phase transformationsin unpowderedmaterials are
Shazly et al., 1990; Ridley and Dixon, 1984; Schliestedt, required--information thatis exceedinglysparse.
1986]. Recent experimentson reactionsknown to occur in
Eclogite facies conditionsexist at temperatures>500øC subduction zones demonstrate that most kinetic data cannot
andpressures> 1.2 GPa (Figure 1). Eclogitefaciesrocksdo be extrapolated
to theEarthandthatH20 hasmajoreffects
not necessarilyexist wherever such conditionsprevail in on reaction rate and texture. For instance,Holland [1980]
the Earth becauseof sluggishkinetics.All reactionsrequire observedjadeite growthin 24 hr from powderedalbite +
oversteppingof equilibriumto overcomelocal free energy quartz at 900øC and a pressureoverstepof 50 MPa. In
increases related to attachment or detachment of atoms at
contrast,albite -->jadeite+ quartzexperimentsby Hacker
interfaces, and all reactions involve diffusion or atom-atom et al. [1993] on albiterock showedno transformation
in 24
bond rearrangement.Perceptible reaction only occurs at hoursat 1100øCat a pressureoverstepof 500 MPa!
sufficientlyhigh diffusivitiesand reactionfree energies. Quantitative transformation-rate measurements are
available for the calcite <--->aragonitereaction. As with
HOW FAST ARE REACTIONS IN THE EARTH?
albite, the calcite --->aragonitetransformationin Carrara
marble[e.g., Hacker et al., 1992] is muchslowerthanin
Experimental and TheoreticalInferences
calcite powder. For example, at 600øC and 2.0 GPa
How long can rocks remain out of equilibrium at confiningpressure,powderedcalcitetransforms50% to
elevated pressuresand temperatures?Specifically, how aragonitein <1 hour[Brar and Schloessin, 1979,p. 1409],
long can rocks remain within the eclogite stability field whereas192 hourswere requiredfor similarconversionin
before transformingpartially or completely to the stable unpowdered marble.CarlsonandRosenfeld[1981]andLtu
phase assemblage?Information relevant to this question and Yund [1993] measuredthe rate of the aragonite --->
derivesfrom two sources:experimentand studyof natural calcite reaction;extrapolatedto geologictimescalesand
rocks[Rubie, 1990]. Experimentalkinetic datacollectedon grainsizes,theirdataimply that 1 mm aragonitegrains
 HACKER 339

3.0

•-, c.....•o_.esite
eclogite
-:
:.•feeble,
c.
25%'::'""'"•:'""'"•i•:...,
•:i'/!111['"'":'""'""
'"'
"'"'""'":•:'
........
revert completely to calcite in less than 1 m.y. at
2.8
temperatures as low as 200øC. Hacker et al. [1992] 2.6
exploredthe reversetransformation in marbleand founda ;"[]moderate,
c.50%
2.4
I extensive,
c.75% '?'"'"'•jiii:. eclogite
similar result, that the calcite --> aragonitetransformation 2.2- I complete,
100% '"':":::½'{'"'"'"':'
g-."i:-•i
!•,•;•;*:'
:'
occurswithin less than 1 m.y. at 200øC for overstepsof 2.0- '--•cooling :.'.-':•:•:•:•:•.'.-':•:i:.'.
""•i: ......... '

<100 MPa. The reactiondependsstronglyon temperature, lawsonite

blueschist
such that even several GPa overstepat temperaturesof 2:iiii::
::•::5"
i•5::i•5•!'1•. ".... ::-
--'•".:"-..--'i--'•::•
-:•:..........
<100øCareunlikely to promotetransformation. .:i::::::::ii
•$;";.'•:
t'•;J
.•i......
..si::::::::::::::ii
[g'-:$•
t'•-":•
•
••,.•.::lim•'-'
:>.-r.
,'-•m:
:•,-•.,-.amet
granuh.t...e.....
ß

The catalyticactionof H20 is well known from kinetic 1.0 •,,.,...:.©

•½.•-•...-•::•
-. .....!,x.•qx
..... :,•..'p•.•'./•.,.•-..•j
• •'..•.,x • ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.................
•:•:•:•,
..........
•.-.:--•:•:•:.-',•.-.::i'..:,•.-.:.,•.--:.•
.................
studiesof powders and rocks. Hacker and Kirby [1993] 0.8
B .:•5{' :..... ß ........:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

IIi-'• .-•
• ; • ....'- •i•'•: '...... •.:-'•i•i.-'..:
deformed polycrystalline, vacuum-driedalbite rocks at 0.6
/i:'.i:'.....'.-':•:•:5
:'••I'• •-•i .'-:::'-.:i:
.... : :' .-::::::
•
*!•½:.':
•
:::::.-::-'.--'..
.
::]-'.-'-'•:•:•-•
"'"":::
5:5':"
:':':':'
•{•'"'&'•ø'•:e'
:'":•' hi 1' 5:•5•'.':•:•:
granuhte
strain
ratesof 10-4-10
-6s-1 attemperatures
of 600-800øC 0.4 subgreenschi•'t
.."'"'•½':'gree
'"'"'
""'"'
' nschist.':•i'-"?
':' '"'•?'
':'"'
'"'
'
andconfiningpressures of 1.0-2.0 GPa. In spiteof extreme 0.2

pressureoverstepping andextremesamplestrain,deformed 0.0

anhydrous samples contained no jadeite. Differential

stressesas high as 2000 MPa producedmaximumnormal
stressesup to 4.0 GPa--all at temperatureswhere the
equilibriumpressureis <2.0 GPa. Someof thesesamples
were strained70%, and individual grains attainedaspect
ratios
ofgreater
than10:1.In marked
contrast
tothis,the
addition of 1 wt% H20 produced partial reaction at
temperatures as low as 600øC, even in undeformed
samples.
More complicatedexperimentsmeasuredthe olivine --->
spinel transformationin hot-pressedMg2GeO4 [Burnley,
1990] and Ni2SiO4 [Rubie et al., 1990] at pressuresand
temperatures of 800-1900øC and 1-15 GPa. When
extrapolatedto geologic conditionsthese investigations
suggestthat transformationmay be suppressedto depths
150-200 km below the equilibrium boundaryin rapidly
subductingslabs.
In summary, existing experimentaldata indicate that
H20 has a major catalyticaffect on reactionratesand that
some reactionsare geologicallyfast (e.g., calcite-->arago-
nile) whereasothersare probablyslow (olivine --> spinel).
We have essentiallyno experimentalinformationon reac-
tionsformingblueschistandeclogite.
Metamorphic Textures
Observations on rocks show that transformation to
blueschistand eclogitemay be suppressed long afterrocks
have passedinto the respectivestability fields of these
assemblages.Figure 2 was constructedfrom studies
worldwide that reported not only peak metamorphic
pressuresand temperaturesbut also textural information
about the degree of reaction. Rocks reported as feebly
recrystallizedor whosehigh-pressurephasesweresominor
as to requiredetectionby electronmicroscopyare shownin
Figure2 as"feeble,25%." Rockscontainingabundantrelict
phases (usually clinopyroxene) or partially developed
0
1•0 2•)03•)0
Temperature
(oC)6•)0
7•)08•)09&) 1000
Fig. 2. Reported extents of transformation, pressures, and
temperatures,for blueschistand eclogite facies metamorphism
worldwide. References and data used to compile figure are
availablefrom the authoron request.
reaction coronas are denoted as "moderate, 50%", and those
with rare relict phases are labeled "extensive, 75%".
Metamafic rocks specificallydescribedas lacking relict
phasesare shownas"complete,100%".
There are some important limitations to Figure 2. 1)
Reportedpeak pressuresand temperatures may not have
occurred at the same time and, at best, representonly a
singleway-station on thePT pathexperienced by therocks.
2) How long the rockswere at the reportedpressures and
temperatures is unknown.3) Pressureestimatesfor many
rocksare minimabecauseof the highvarianceof the phase
assemblages; theseare denotedby U-shapedlines rather
thanrectangles.4) Many high-pressure rocksexperienced
substantial post-high pressure alteration that likely
consumedexistingrelict phases;studiesreportingsevere
alterationof thistypewereexcludedfromconsideration. 5)
Fine-grainedrocksreact fasterthan coarse-grained rocks
becauseof increasedinterfacialfree energy;gabbroicrocks
areonly partiallytransformed at conditions
wherevolcanics
arecompletelyrecrystallized. Numerouspapersthatdo not
specificallystatewhetherrelictphases arepresent or absent
had to be excludedfrom Figure 2, but this may simply
mean that the absenceof relics was not significantfor the
purposesof the study.ThusFigure2 shouldbe takenas an
illustration of the transformation behavior of coarse-
grained,i.e., gabbroicrocks.
With these limitations in mind, Figure 2 indicatesthat
feebly metamorphosed rocks generally persist to
temperaturesof 200-250øC. Moderate transformation
beginsat 200-250øC andis foundin rocksthatwereheated
to just above 600øC. There are a few casesof
340 ECLOGITE FORMATION IN OCEANIC CRUST
limitedreactionat highte•nperature shownby dashedboxes
in Figure2. Incompleteconversion of gabbroto eclogiteis
known to have happenedat temperatures>700øC and
pressures of 1.5-2.0 GPa in the presence of aqueous fluid
[MOrk,1985]. Suppression of transformation of gabbroto
eclogitewasreportedfrom rocksthatreached800-900øC
andpressures of >2.8 GPain the absence of fluid [Zhanget
al., 1995]. Oddly enough,thereis little differencein thePT
range over which extensiveto completetransformation
have been found. Both have been observed from rocks
heatedto lessthan300øCandyet partialtransformation of
gabbroto eclogitehasoccurredat 760-850øCand 1.6-2.0
GPa [Indares and Rivers, 1995]. In general,500-600øC
marks the transitionto extensiveor completereactionfor
most rocks. A few cases, however, indicate that the
transformation of gabbroto eclogitemay be suppressed to
muchhighertemperatures.
Fe-rich rocks transform to eclogite along high P/T
trajectoriesmore readily than Mg-rich rocks because
reactionsinvolvingFe-richphasesgenerallyoccurat lower
temperatures [Bohlenet al., 1983].Fieldevidenceof this--
MgO-rich rockswith abundantigneousrelicsadjacentto
Fe-rich rocks with rare relict phases--hasbeen noted at
BardoneyValley in theAlps [ReynardandBalleyre,1988],
at Flems0y, Norway [MOrk, 1985], and in Piedmont
ophiolites[Pognante,1991;Sandroneet al., 1986].
Eclogiteformationis fasterin finer grainedrocks.For
example,in the BardoneyValley of the Alps, abundant
relict augites are present in gabbros, but absent in
metavolcanics[Reynardand Balleyre, 1988]. In the Sesia
Lanzo zone farther east, amphibolite transformed to
eclogitecontainsrelics in coarserocksbut nonein fine-
grainedrocks[Lardeauxand Spalla, 1991].
Not only is H20 provento acceleratereactionsin the
laboratory,numerouslocalitiesdemonstrate thatthisis true
in natureas well. Mafic granulitein the MusgraveRanges
of Australia cooled into the eclogite stability field and,
thoughthe bulk of the rock is unaltered,local shearzones
contain omphacite + garnet + minor zoisite [Ellis and
Maboko, 1992]; the presenceof zoisite implies that the
reaction was fluxed by H20. At Holsn0y in the Bergen
Arcs, zoisite-bearingeclogitehaloesin undeformedrock
surrounding deformedveinsalsoindicatethat fluid drove
reaction[Boundyet al., 1992; Klaper, 1990]. Deformation
is involved in these fluid-mediated transformations
inasmuch
asthefluid mustmakeits way to thereactionsite
via cracks.
COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS OCEANIC CRUST
To understand the transformation of oceanic crust to
blueschistandeclogitewe mustknowthe composition
and
structure of oceanic crust. Oceanic crust has been studied
by dredging and drilling in ocean basins,and by the
examination of ophiolites.The Samailophiolitein Omanis
the best-exposed, largest,least-deformed,and perhaps
most-studied ophiolitein the world.Plutonicrocksof the
Samailophiolitearedivisibleintoa lowerlayeredsequence
andan upperisotropicsection.The lower2.3 km (avg.)is
well-foliated and lineated, layered ultramafic (chiefly
wehrlite, dunite, and clinopyroxenite) through mafic
cumulates [Pallister and Hopson, 1981]. Olivine
predominates at thebaseof thesection,whereas plagioclase
is dominantat the top [Juteauet al., 1988b].Three-quarters
of the sectionis gabbro--typicallyolivine-clinopyroxene
or clinopyroxenegabbrowith minorhornblendeandFeTi
oxides--but at rare localitiesit is gabbronorite[Juteauet
al., 1988a].The gabbroconsists of mm-sizegrainsof 55%
plagioclase,35% clinopyroxene,10% olivine, andrarely
Ti-pargasite [Browning, 1984]. Overlying the layered
sectionare 200-900 m of isotropichigh-levelmaficrocks,
chiefly hornblende-clinopyroxene gabbro [Pallister and
Hopson,1981]. Grain sizesrangefrom mm to pegmatitic
[Juteauet al., 1988a]. Sheeteddikes containabundantto
sparseplagioclaseand augite [Hopsonet al., 1981]. The
volcanic rocks are non- to moderately vesicular,almost
aphyric pillows and rare brecciatedflows and massive
flows [Ernewein et al., 1988].
Mid-ocean-ridgebasalts(MORBs) typicallyareglassy
or containplagioclasewith lessolivine [Hekinian,1982],
while rockscrystallizedin intraoceanicmagmaticarcsgen-
erally containplagioclaseand augite [Ewart, 1982]. Mid-
ocean-ridgebasalts (MORBs) are subalkalinetholeiites
that typically contain plagioclase with less olivine
[Hekinian, 1982]. Oceanic plateaus, which make up a
sizeableproportionof oceaniccrust, are similarin their
majorelementchemistryto MORB, but are 10-40 km thick
[Cloos, 1993]. Hotspot lavas and propagatingrifts are
enriched in Fe and Ti relative to MORB [Flower, 1991].
Lavasproducedat fastspreading ridgessuchasthePacific
have lower Mg/Fe ratios than MORB eruptedat slow
spreadingridges[Batiza,1991].
ALTERATION OF IGNEOUS OCEANIC CRUST
Because phasetransformations are stronglyinfluenced
by theavailabilityof H20 andtheextentandtypeof pre-
existingalteration,understanding
the alteration
of oceanic
crust is critical to evaluatingwhen and where phase
transformations occur. Variable alteration of oceanic crust
to lower grade mineral assemblages occursby active
hydrothermalcirculationat spreading centersandby later
weatheringon theseafloor[Altet al., 1986;Humphrisand
Thompson, 1978]. Somerocksescapealteration
 HACKER 341

A
while others are wholly recrystallized to new minerals. 2.8
Equilibriummodel

Most typically, lavas are variably metamorphosedto 2.6 ß, base of crust

subgreenschistfacies,dikeschangepartially to greenschist 2.4 -- top of crust

-----....
--..:•:!•i•:::.-::-:::-'
........... 3.31
';iii?iii'.:•. 0
facies, and gabbro recrystallizesweakly to amphibolite-
• ::..::•..i•}•.
3.25 ........
!•.:...iii
'"•
'•"
2.2-

faciesminerals.The pressuresat which thesemetamorphic 2.0-

.•?;•?.":.-:-:iii:":-'?.::.
O.9 •:.:,•;ii::::.:'.:'giii?..':•.
:_gig
assemblages form are relatively low (<300 MPa;
determinedby ocean depth and the thicknessof oceanic /3.02
,]Z
.:i:.:i?
:'"i{{i":":'"'"•J:-5•!!:
.,..-:•---'-'--}i'ii
'""'"'"'"'"'"'
':'•':':•:"•••••
'
crust) and the formation temperaturesmay range up to ':;':::::':'
3 4 ..:::::5..`..}iiii•.........•.!{iii•..`.:iii.......•i•i•.•*•::•`.`...:.....
/.-2..-.-'•?
3.4 ':.:'i!•{•.--:-.:...:......--:::-:ggiiii.::'m"'---:-:-:-:.-:•..-•..,..:.:.'-.-:.,i,e
..... 3.!0
-650øC.
1.0
/ .:g?siiiii!}.::..,•:i•i::iii{ii?.--•ii•¾-3':
-:' 1.2:g-':.-.'-:....-'•
.....
........
xD;•,:•557:..:'-"....'5•i
.................
'"••5!5"'"•:':"
/ ........
Our best information about the alteration of oceanic
0.8
lavas and dikes comes from DSDP hole 504B [Alt et al.,
1989; Alt et al., 1986]. There the lavas contain -10%
0.6
/ •/'"":•:%•i;':-::•?
.... ' 2.91........... '•::'"":5•ii
2.89
2.99
.........
0.4

alterationhaloesaroundveins and cracks,leadingto about 0.2

1 wt% H20 in the bulk rock. Veins and vugs containFe- 0.0
0 1'00 200 •00Temperature
(øC)
hydroxides, clay, celadonite, smectite, zeolites, and
carbonate; groundmass minerals are altered to Fe- B Kineticmodelwith unaltered basalticandgabbroicprotolith
2.8 • • . [......::.-..-:3.06
3.23 3.34 ..........
hydroxides and clay; plagioclase is partly altered to
smectite;elivine is partly to totally replacedby smectite
and minor calcite;glassis partly to completelyreplacedby
2.6.
/'k
base
2.4.
2.2.
Of
crust
/ ':':•--"'"J•ii:•:0•
V-',-,7
top ':O.....-•
-O•*.i;-"•'"'"'•
•--::""•"'•::i5
elcrust
0.3 i /
/-"•g"i•i'•'•*
.............
3.37
ß '::"?•:•.
:.ii-i':"i•,•i
-!!i.
'••'••---
'•:'::
..........
" --- - •::
:'•
............
5.:65.77.--.--:•--
-.•

':':•..:.•"3.16: 0
clay; and pyroxenesare unaltered.Alteration in the dikes
increases down section to a maximum of-50 vol%. elivine ..• . :!ii::'".-"-5:..-;3•i•i0.7
3.25 •.--:-:•:.....
is replaced by chicrite, clay, and talc; plagioclase is
partially to totally replacedby albite + zeolites,chicrite,or
•'
•U .;...../ :
.. 294 'g•':"i"'93
........
•:a:..;•:.::"k.
"•'•'"'"2
':j:":=8
i . ' i['"'"
..........
:.-!•.:-'•i
'-"'
"•' ':"'"•'"'/:•
'""'""
' ' .....
::0.6
/2.3:. ß'?•;•i-.:'
'-'.'•'
'"'"'--'-'":-'-'•--'•••••iim"•-•":-----'-
"•....:j•i
clay; and augitcis unalteredhigh in the sectionandrimmed 1.0• / ,' •::-:::-x
"' ' .,.:.::s::.-::.-::.-e,%-.'<-:.:e
0. 9'
u 1.2 .:..:'..-':..-':..:•:•
:::s::::.'-•
":•'"••'•"'•i'":•:•iii•?-'-ili•
"•'""
............ •.:.:...:,:s:...::.-:j;-'.:4-'.i'"'"'""
............ ..-•:---•:.:-%-.':i:Z:•::'-'•::':i
'•.*:':.: .......
by actinolitedeeperin the section.The H20 contentof the
dikesaverages2 wt% [Alt et al., 1989;Alt et al., 1986]. 0.6 2.89 4'00
., /-:...-:o.....-.•......-•-::.'•;?:
2.0 ' 2f90 :?:iiil..-"ii?
i. 98' z.:,v
.,,,,, ":'•--'"d•il}i
2ß89
Good information on the alteration of plutonic rocks 0.4 o
:':";"'"":•'
oh'::ii{
:::•--:".'?'
3 '::2:--•"2
•.oo ,,.,.o,,i.'.i-..? ß --•;•i:.-ii•:'
ß7 _'
:-:..-'•.:'.:'•i.-'::•
• n '::":J•..:'."{.-::0
• .0.5 / 2.{I "" _ ._/ ;:..:.-'.•?
: 1.3 ß-' -":-..-":..':-'-_•?
comes from the Samail ophiolite and ODP core holes. 0.2 gabbro:!2S
"'"0/"":'•:•.
-S'O/o
rea'"•h i7S0/o:
100%:::'"'"'"/'::•ction
Alterationof the Samaillayeredplutonicrocksis limitedto 0.0 bas91t:
:50%rxn. •00%reaction
i
0 100' 200' 300Temperature(oC)g00
000 100 •00 1000
rare replacementof clinopyroxeneby actinolite[Lippardet
al., 1986] and alterationof the isotropicplutonic rocks is C Kineticmodelwithzeolite-facies
basaltandamphibolite-facies
gabbro
protolith
limited to the growth of up to 10% actinolite and FeTi

2.8t
' :' .' !.:.::::.:..•:.3
3.23
3.34
............
;::-----...
,
oxides,andthe infilling of cavitieswith epidote+ sphene+ 2.6•kbase
ofcrust // ':•-;"•iii•i•O.5
'•'':"'- ' ''..
'*:?'":' ...0.....:::::•,:..•
•":•:""-'"•!:'i:i•5':.•"•i•11
t}..............i'"':':":'"'"::•:•'::'"•
:•••••i!i!i::ii[.-'•i•::•--"..-':-•'• .............
2.4T top
ofcrust
' / ":!{3'i•:•' ?
..........
'
prehnite + quartz [Ernewein et al., 1988]. In contrast, / .......! 3.31

gabbroicrocks drilled from ODP hole 735B in the Indian 2.2 •/o:•' "::]•ii:i3.16
:!"":•
'
3.25 0

Oceanshowwidespreadamphibolite-facies alterationfrom
0-100%, with an averageof perhaps20-30% [Dick et al., 9 3 02
1991]. elivine and pyroxeneare replacedby hornblende, / 35/'"'""•73•t.5
. ....
-'"d..-'3";!•,
.......
,.-..':•C'"'"'"'•'"'•"'•'•••••
.' i:::::::i: .........
ß B::::::::::::
:::.-:
::::::•:-:-:-:...
:-,•-:.::•:.::!:-:[.?.i:i:.::---:-:-:-
....

thereis partial to completealterationof elivine to colorless ,

/ /
., ;...•:.5:...-?. ""'"'::'•.-'-':":?:
?'"'::'•:?
.....
3 O1
*'•':::;{':'"":::"'""•!','*'
..... 1'2 iii::}:{\1/
.:i•i:i.:i:';-i
• u .......;.:-:½;•:--..!
.......
...:•
"""'":•':•?"':":•:•,,,.•g
amphiboleand talc, and 2.4 vol% of the rock consistsof / •" .i:.iii?..,.:•?
:•!:i:.:..-::.......•'.
-.-•.
• ?.:.•:...--.•i:
..........
.;.'.
................
?•.
:•:.:'•..-.•::•-.'.-..',
ß :-..:i?':•.
..'•:ii:..:•:..211ii?'
'•...• ':'-':.
::•
?'•"
ßß
'-ß-----?-':'y-':•:'":'
hydrothermal and late magmatic veins composed of
hornblende or oligoclase + diopside + epidote. H20 0.6299/254 29
contentsof the 735B gabbros are mostly 0.5-1.5 wt% 0.4 . ' ß3. / 6.7. _-- "'"'•-:'•i!-':':"
i ß' - '"':'--"-'-"-•57
0.2 gabbro:25'0/":'"'•0""::'•.
50%readi--':.;.•:n
:75% 100%::::::::•ction
[Robinsonet al., 1991]. 0.0 basalt:
i$0%rxn.100%
re?lion
i
0 •60' 2•' 360Temp•a•a,e{oC)Oh0
7b0 860 900•000
EFFECTS OF SLOW TRANSFORMATION ON Fig.3. Densities
(g/cm
3) andH20 contents
(wt%)forsubducted
DENSITY AND H20 CONTENT oceaniccrust calculatedusing NCMASH model of Peacockand
kinetic data discussedin text. A) Equilibriummodel.B) Kinetic
model with unalteredbasalt/gabbroprotolith. C) Kinetic model
When oceaniccrust is subductedit is compressedand with subgreenschist-facies basalticprotolith and amphibolite-
heatedalong one of a wide variety of possiblePT paths faciesgabbroicprotolith.Where two numbersare given,the first
(Fig 3). The highest-temperaturepath into the eclogite refersto gabbroandthe secondto
342 ECLOGITE FORMATION IN OCEANIC CRUST
stability field is from the granulitefacies. In the hottestof
subductionzonesinvolvinglithospherelessthana few m.y.
old, it is possiblefor oceanicigneousrocksto passinto the
eclogitestability field by this path [Hacker, 1991]. Rocks
that recrystallized in the subgreenschistfacies during
hydrothermalalteration at the mid-oceanridge will pass
through the greenschistand amphibolite facies prior to
enteringgranuliteconditions,and may transformvariably
to greenschist,amphibolite,or granulitefaciesassemblages
prior to entering the stability field of eclogite. At the
opposite end of the temperature spectrum,rocks that
previouslyrecrystallizedin the prehnite-pumpellyitefacies
will pass through the blueschistfacies prior to entering
eclogite conditions [Peacock, 1990], and may thus
transform variably to blueschist prior to entering the
eclogitestabilityfield.
Peacock[ 1993] usedthe restrictedcompositionalsystem
NCMASH (Na-Ca-Mg-AI-Si-H-O) to calculatethe mineral
modes and maximum H20 contentsof subductingmafic
rocks. He demonstratedthat moderately altered oceanic
crustcontaining 1-2 wt% H20 beginsto dehydrateat the
onsetof eclogiteor amphibolitefaciesmetamorphism,and
suggestedthat the transition from blueschistto eclogite
facies, associated with the breakdown of lawsonite or
clinozoisite,releasesthe mostH20 duringsubduction.
Peacockcalculateda rangeof pathsthattraversemostof
the regionof PT spacerelevantto subductionzones.Figure
3 illustrates two paths for the uppermostand lowermost
partsof subducted7-km thick oceaniccrustmcalculatedfor
a subductionvelocity of 50 mm/a and shearstresses of 100
and 33 MPa. Most of the PT paths followed by the
uppermostlayer of the crust (basalt) are limited by the
paths identified by upright triangles, and most of paths
followed by the lowermost layer of the crust (gabbro) are
limited by the paths with invertedtriangles.Intermediate
levelsin the crustfollow intermediatePT paths.For path 1,
the uppercrustpassesprogressively throughthe greenschist
to amphiboliteto eclogitefaciesconditions,while the lower
crustevolvesfrom blueschistto eclogitefacies.Along path
3, all the crust remains at blueschist facies conditions to
pressuresof 2.5 GPa. For pathsintermediatebetween1 and
3, most of the crust passes through the blueschist and
eclogitefacies.
In the spirit of Peacock's calculationsand using the
information presentedin Figure 2, assumethat coarse-
grainedrocks(i.e., gabbro)transform25%, 50%, 75%, and
100% at 150øC,250øC, 500øC and 550øC,respectively,in
accordance with field observations described earlier.
Further assume that fine-grained rocks (i.e., basalt)
transform twice as fast--such that they reach 100%
transformation at 250øC. Assume also that oceanic crust is
made of 3 km of basalt and 4 km of gabbro.Given these
assumptions, whatconclusionscanbe drawnabouttherates
of eclogiteformationin subductionzonesandits effecton
rock physical properties? Possible variables to be
consideredincludethe amountof H20 andthe composition
of the crust.
Figure 3A and 4A illustratethe predicteddensitiesand
H20 contentsof NCMASH assemblages determinedby
Peacock[ 1993] for the variousmetamorphicfacies.Figures
3B and 4B repeatthis theme,usingthe kineticinferences
discussedabove.Figures3C and 4C use the samekinetic
hindranceconsiderations but begin with alteredprotoliths.
Because these figures are based on modeling real
assemblageswith a subsetdefined by the NCMASH
system,the predicteddensitiesandH20 contentscannotbe
consideredexact; however, several interestingfeaturesare
apparent.
Figures 3B and 4B predict the behaviorof subducted
basaltand gabbrousing the mineral assemblageolivine +
orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene+ plagioclaseasa protolith.
In the upper, volcanic crust, 50% reactionis assumedto
occur at 150øC and complete reaction at 250øC; in the
lower plutonic crust, 25, 50, 75, and 100% reaction is
modeled as happening at 150, 250, 500, and 550øC,
respectively.
Forexample,
thedensity
of 2.97g/cm
3 for
lawsonite-blueschist facies gabbro in Figure 3B was
calculated
using
unaltered
gabbro
(2.89g/cm3)transformed
50% to lawsonite
blueschist
(3.10 g/cm3).The H20
requiredfor hydrationin Figures3B and 4B is assumedto
derivefrom sedimentsor hydratedmantle.In the absenceof
sufficientH20, all faciesotherthanCE, EC, GG, and GN
haveadensity
of2.89g/cm
3 and0 wt%H20.
The resultsfor volcanicrocksarecloseto thepredictions
of Peacock'sequilibrium model (Figure 1) becausethe
transformationrate is rapid. Basaltstravelingvia path 1
undergoonly slightchangesin densityprior to the appear-
ance of garnet and the disappearanceof plagioclase.In
contrast, Path 3 indicates that 5-10% volume loss occursin
basaltsupon enteringboth the blueschistand eclogitefa-
cies.As in the equilibriumcase(Figures3A and 4A), the
biggeststepin dehydrationoccursat the blueschist/eclogite
facies boundary;dehydrationalong path 1 is split sube-
qually betweenthe greenschist/amphibolite and amphibo-
lite/granulitetransitions.Basaltsmoving alongpath 3 or
slightlywarmertrajectoriesloseroughlyequalamountsof
H20 when entering and leaving the epidote blueschist
stability field. Comparedto basalt, where volume loss
occursfairly evenlyoverthe 150-450øCtemperature range,
half the volume loss of gabbrooccursin the 500-550 ø
interval. In contrast to basalt, which may undergo
substantialhydration by 250øC, gabbro is predicted
 HACKER 343

A Equilibrtum
model
with
unaltered
basalt
and
gabbro
protolith C Kinetic
model
with
prehnite-pumpellyite
and
amphibolite
facies
protoliths
distance
(kin) distance
(kin)
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Path1 •
= 2ocm/a
0 Path1 • •n•
v = 2ocm/a •_1%u __•..._
0
100
MPa.• 'c= 100
MPa .•l 5.7_
,os ••
AM

• GG • • GG

• 311 • •I0
•• •299
X•"•• 311 50•
• •o 50

__

Pa•3 • •sGS'"••••• //
•4 /// Pa•3 • -•••••• 324 /
//

=33
MPa
[ 2•9 / 1•
$0
I0• $0
I0

Fig.4. Densities
(g/cm
3) andH20 contents
(wt%)of subducted
B Kineticmodelwith unalteredbasaltandgabbroprotolith crust, basedon Figure 3. A) Equilibrium model with essentially
distance(kin) unaltered crust. B) Kinetic model with unaltered crust. C) Kinetic
0 50 100 150 200 modelwith crustalteredto subgreenschist-facies andamphibolite-
• 2.80 0 faciesminerals.Comparewith [Peacock,1993] Figure4. Thicker
Path
•
v = 10 crn/a
lines are facies boundariesand thinner lines representchanges
•c
-- MPa 2i89 from 25% to 50% to 75% to complete transformation. The
thickness of the crust is stretchedby a factor of 5 for clarity.
Elongate rectangle at bottom of each panel shows density
difference
relative
toasthenosphere
(3.23gm/cm3).

DISCUSSION: GEODYNAMIC IMPLICATIONS

The retardationof reactionduring subductionillustrated

•0• in Figures 3 and 4 will affect 1) how the structure of
subductedcrust is interpreted from seismic data, 2) the
buoyancyforces that producesinking and bendingof the
slab, 3) the distribution of stressesinduced by volume
changes, 4) seismicity in the slab induced by volume-
change-relatedstresses,5) the mechanicalbehaviorof the
slab, 6) the distributionof H20 in the slab, and 7) the
undergohydrationto temperatures up to 550øCmalthough generationof arc magmatism.All thesefactorsdiffer from
at any givenconditionthe amountof H20 in gabbrois less the equilibriumstatebecausethe densificationreactionsin
thanin basalt.Again, as in the equilibriummodel,the bulk descendingslabsdependon grain size, H20 content,bulk
of the dehydration occurs at the blueschist/eclogite composition,and temperature.Relative to the equilibrium
transition. model, transformationto blueschistand eclogiteis always
Figures 3C and 4C predict the behavior of subducted delayedto greaterdepthsin the kineticmodel.
altered basalt and gabbro using the prehnite-pumpellyite The first rocks to transform will be glassy basalts,
faciesmineralassemblage chlorite+ albite+ pumpellyite+ followed by holocrystalline basalts, then diabases,and
quartz+ calcitefor alteredbasaltand the amphibolite-facies finally gabbros.N9te that this derivesfrom thermalas well
assemblagehornblende+ clinozoisite+ chlorite + quartz as kinetic causes,as the upper crust is warmer than the
for alteredgabbro.The predictionsare qualitativelysimilar lower crust as well as being finer grained. The seismic
to Figures3B and 4B, exceptthat the H20 contentat any velocity signatureof denserock shouldbe evidentfirst in
chosenP andT is higher. the upper crust and may be substantiallyretardedin
344 ECLOGITE FORMATION IN OCEANIC CRUST

lower crust.The absenceof fast velocitiesat eclogitefacies Kirby and Hacker[1991] proposeda link betweenarc
conditions cannot be taken to indicate the absence of volcanism,intermediatedepthearthquakes, and eclogite
oceaniccrust.High densitieswill appearfirst in the upper formation.They notedthathypocenters
of subductionzone
crustand may be considerablysuppressed in the lower earthquakes
in the depthrange50-250 km frequently
crust.In Figure4, thelowercrustis notonlylessdensethan coincide with arc volcanoes,and proposedthat these
asthenosphere, but alsolessdensethanthe basalticupper intermediate-depth
earthquakes
mightbecaused by delayed
crust.In thesesituationsthe uppercrustmay sink in the eclogiteformationwithinsubducting
crust.Thishypothesis
asthenosphere butthelowercrustcannot.Moreover,Kirby requiresthat eclogitedoesnot form at shallowerdepths
et al. [1996] calculated that densification reactions in becauselow temperatures and low H20 activityhinder
subducting
crustcan placethe crustin deviatorictension transformation,and that the devolatilizationof amphibole
andthe mantlelithospherein deviatoriccompression.
The in the 50-250 km depthrangetriggerseclogiteformation
differencein reactionrate betweenbasaltandgabbromeans and releasesvolatilesthat lead to the overlyingvolcanoes.
that their calculationsare oversimplified.The initiationof Figure2 suggests
thattransformation
to eclogiteoccursat
densificationin the volcanicrockswill initially placethose much shallowerdepthsin most subductionzones.For
rocksin tensionandthe underlyingcoarsergrainedrocksin KirbyandHacker'shypothesisto becorrect,
thesubducting
compression.
As reactionprogresses
intothecoarserlower crustmustbe essentiallyanhydrous.
crust,the stateof deviatoricstressin the gabbroicrockswill Calculationsand conclusionspresentedabove apply
changefromcompressive
to tensile.If therewereno other principallyto normalmid-ocean ridgecrust.Oceancrust
forcesat work in subductionzones,earthquakes
at shallow that is anomalouslythickor of unusualcompositionwill
depthswouldbe extensional
in basaltandcontractional
in transformdifferently.Oceanicplateaus,whichareup to 6
gabbro,changingasthe rocksdescenddeeperin subduction times thicker than mid-oceancrust, but compositionally
zonesto extensionalthroughoutthe oceaniccrust. similar, will have somewhat retarded transformation
Little is known about the mechanical behavior of becauseof the additionaltime requiredfor the subducting
blueschistfaciesminerals,but clinopyroxeneandgarnetare materialto heat;this may be partly offsethoweverby the
two of the strongestphasesin the crust[Ji and Martignole, greaterthickness of volcanicrocks,whichwill transform
1994; Kolle and Blacic, 1983] and eclogite should be morerapidly.Field observations discussedaboveindicate
strongcomparedto alteredbasalt.The replacement of fine- that Fe-rich rockstransformnotablyfasterthanMgO-rich
grainedvolcanic phasesby blueschistor eclogitefacies rocks.Hydrothermalalterationat spreading centersoften
mineralsmay resultin strengthening, whereasthe alteration produces markedMgO enrichment in lavas[Humphris and
of coarse-grainedminerals in gabbro to blueschistor Thompson,1978], which would be expectedto slow
eclogitephasesmay enhancedeformation[Rubie, 1983]. transformation.Oceanicislandsbuilt by hotspotsandcrust
The volcanic layer, thoughhotter, may actuallybecome from propagating rifts are bothenrichedin Fe relativeto
strongerthan the gabbroiclayer as a result of eclogite MORB, andwill transformmorerapidlythanstandardmid-
formation. It is conceivablethat suchrheologicallayering ocean-ridgecrust.Crust eruptedat fast spreadingridges
could result in a downward jump of the subduction (>60 mm/a) is alsoricher in Fe than crusteruptedat slow
decollement from the volcanic into the gabbroic layer, spreading (<50 mm/a)ridges[Niu andBatiza,1993;Sinton
resultingin underplatingof eclogitizeduppercrustto the and Detrick, 1992], and is expectedto transformmore
mantle hanging wall and continued subductionof the rapidly.
gabbroiclayer. CONCLUSIONS
Crustthat undergoesslowtransformation is lesscapable
of containing H20. Figure 4 shows that a slowly The transformation of mafic rocks to blueschist and
transforminggabbrolayer has a maximum H20 content eclogitein subduction zonesis complex,encompassing a
-1/2 thatof the equilibriummodel.The flux of H20 carried wide varietyof igneousmineralassemblages and grain
intothemantle
beyond
adepth
of70kmis 1.3x 108grams sizes,variablydevelopedandequilibratedmetamorphic
permeterper yearin theequilibriummodel,butonly 0.48 x mineralassemblages,
all pressurized
andheatedvia a broad
108grams
permeterperyearin thekineticmodelwith rangeof P T paths.Existingexperimentalkineticdata
unalteredprotolith.Note thatif the only sourceof H20 in a cannot
be extrapolated
to actualpet•rotectonic
settings
in
subductionzone is the igneouscrust, situationssuch as orderto predictwhererockstransformto blueschist
and
Figure4C, wherethe H20 contentincreases with depth,are eclogite.However,texturaldatafromexhumedsubduction
impossible.Only if there is anothersourceof H20 in the zones worldwide indicate that little transformation occurs at
subductionzone, from subductedsedimentsor mantle, can temperaturesbelow150øC.Volcanicrocksarecompletely
the H20 content of igneouscrust increasein subduction transformedby perhaps250øC.Coarsergabbroicrocks
zones. rarelyavoidcompleteeclogitization
at temperatures
 HACKER 345

550øC,although
examples
of incomplete
transformation
are doteandassociated
mineralsin low grademetamorphicrocks,
Contributions
toMineralogyandPetrology,64, 123-136,1977.
knownfromrocksheatedat temperatures
ashighas800øC.
Brown,E.H., andE.D. Ghent,Mineralogy
andphaserelations
in
The rapidtransformation of volcanicrocksandthe the blueschistfacies of the Black Butte and Ball Rock areas,
metastable
persistence of gabbroic
rocksintotheblueschist NorthernCaliforniaCoastRanges, American Mineralogist,68,
andeclogitestabilityfieldshasseveral
implications.
The 365-372, 1983.
seismic velocitysignatureof dense
rocksshouldbeevident Browning, P.,Crypticvariation
withinthecumulatesequence of
firstin theuppercrustandmaybesubstantially retarded in the Oman ophiolite:
magma chamber depth andpetrological
the lower crust.The buoyancyforcescausingthe slabto
implications,
in Ophiolites
andoceanic lithosphere,
Geological
SocietySpecialPublications,
editedbyI.G.Gass, S.J.Lippard,
sink will appearfirst in the uppercrustand may be and A.W. Shelton, pp.71-82,Geological Societyof London,
considerablysuppressed in the lower crust.Earlier London, 1984.
formation of garnetin theuppercrustmaycausetheupper Carlson,W.D., andJ.L. Rosenfeld, Opticaldetermination of
crustto becomestronger thanthegabbroiclayer,andmay topotactic
aragonite-calcite
growth kinetics:
metamorphic im-
plications,
JournalofGeology, 89,615--638,1981.
lead to underplating of eclogitizeduppercrustand Carmichael, R.S.,CRCpracticalhandbook ofphysicalproperties
continuedsubductionof the lower crust.The initiation of of rocksandminerals, 741pp.,CRCPress, BocaRaton,FL,
densificationin the volcanicrockswill initially placethose 1989.
rocks in deviatoric tension and the underlying coarser Cloos,
M., Lithospheric buoyancy andcollisional
orogenesis:
sub-
ductionof oceanicplateaus, continental
margins,
islandarcs,
grainedrocksin compression. As reactions progress into spreading ridges,and seamounts, Geological
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the coarserlower crust,the stateof stressin the gabbroic America Bulletin, 105, 715-737, 1993.
rockswill change fromcompressive totensile.If therewere Coleman,R.G., D.E. Lee, L.B. Beatty,andW.W. Brannock,
no otherforcesat work in subductionzones,earthquakes at Eclogitesandeclogites--Their differences
andsimilarities,
Geol. Soc.AmericaBull., 76, 483-508, 1965.
shallowdepthswouldbe extensional
in the basaltand
contractional
in the gabbro,changingat deeperlevelsto Dick,H.J.B.,P.S.Meyer,S.H.Bloomer,
S.H.Kirby,D.S.Stakes,
andC. Mawer,Lithostratigraphic
evolution
of anin-situsection
extensional
throughout the crust.All theseeffectswill be of oceanic
layer3, Proceedings
oftheOceanDrillingProgram,
minimizedin Fe-richcrustproduced at oceanicislandsand Scientific
Results,
118,439-538,1991.
fastspreading in Mg-richcrust E1-Shazly,
ridgesandmostpronounced A.E.-D.,R.G.Coleman,
andJ.G.Liou,Eclogites
and
formedat slow spreadingcenters. blueschists
fromnortheasternOman:petrologyandP-T evolu-
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31,629--666,1990.
Acknowledgments. by S.H.Bloomer,S.R.Bohlen,S. - Ellis,D.J.,andM.A.H.Maboko,Precambrian
Reviewed tectonics
andthe
DeBari,W.G. Ernst,J.G. Liou. A particularlythoroughreview physicochemical
evolution
ofthecontinental
crust.
I. Thegab-
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revisited,
Precambrian
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(e-mail: hacker@geo.
 Double Seismic Zones,
CompressionalDeep Trench-OuterRise Events, and Superplumes
Tetsuzo Seno and Yoshiko Yamanaka

EarthquakeResearchInstitute,Universityof Tokyo

Subductionzoneshavingdoubleseismiczones(DSZs) are limited. They are generallycharac-

terized by the occurrenceof compressionaldeep events(CDE) at the trench-outerrise region.
Since shallownormal faulting is also commonthere, this pairing constitutesa kind of double
zone at the trench-outerrise region,suggesting
that a DSZ and CDEs are causallyrelated.We
proposethat the lower zone of a DSZ and CDEs are both causedby dehydrationembritflement
at the mid-platedepthsin the subductingoceaniclithosphere,
whichmight have beenoriginally
hydratedby the magmaticeffectsof superplumes or plumes.

INTRODUC•ON
foundin the aftershockactivityof the May 31, 1970Peru
Some subduction zones show a double seismic zone earthquake [BarazangiandIsacks,1977].
(DSZ) at intermediatedepthof the Wadati-Benioffzone It has been thoughtthat down-dipcompressional and
and othersdo not. Figure 1 showsthe subductionzones tensionalstressesin DSZ slabsare causedby an unbend-
which have a DSZ; data are from various souroesin the ing or thermalstresses
[EngdahlandScholz,1977;Sleep,
literature [Kuril-Kamchatka: Veith, 1974; Kao and Chen,1979; House and Jacob, 1982; Goto et al., 1985;
1994; Gorbatov et al., 1994; Japan:Hasegawa et al., Kawakatsu, 1986b]. On the other hand, it has been
1978; Barazangi and Isacks, 1979; Kawakatsuand Seno, difficultto explainwhy DSZs are not universalfeatures
1983; New Britain: McGuire and Wiens, 1995; Tonga: of slabswhenunbendingor thermalstresses are expected
Kawakatsu, 1986a; N. Chile: Comte and Suarez, 1994; to be commonto any slab [e.g., Fujita and Kanarnori,
Peru: Isacks and Barazangi, 1977; E. Aleutians-Alaska 1981; Kawakatsu, 1986b]. It also should be noted that
Peninsula:Reynersand Coles, 1982; Abers, 1992]. DSZs underthe high pressures expectedat intermexfiate depth,
listed here are thosefound at interme•ate depthand the mantle material will not fracture in a brittle manner under
deep double zones of a different origin [Wiens et al., differential stresses [Paterson, 1978]. The strength
1993; lidaka and Furukawa, 1994] are not included. It estimated from the Coulomb-Navier failure criterion
has been often disputedwhetherthere is a DSZ in a par- amountsto no lessthan a few GPa at 100-200km depth.
ticular area; sometimes a DSZ is an artifact due to the Flow laws also predict large strengthat this depth and
projectionor mislocations.Even if it exists,it sometimes temperature[Brodholtand Stein, 1988]. Thereforespecial
is a faint feature. We thus listed only the subduction weakeningmechardsms are requiredfor the occurrenceof
zones having a conspicuousDSZ, though we included intermexfiate-depth earthquakes[e.g., McGarr, 1977; Pen-
Tonga where the lower zone, made up of down-dipten- nington, 1983; Liu, 1983; Green and Burnley, 1989;
sional events, is far less active than the upper zone Kirby, 1995; Abers, 1995; Kirby et al., 1996; Kao and
[Kawakatsu,1986a] and Peru where the DSZ was only Liu, 1996; See alsothe NatureNews andViews articleby
Frohlich, 1994].
In this paper,we showthat many compressional events
Subduction:Top to Bottom in the trench-outerrise regionsoccur in the deeperpor-
GeophysicalMonograph96 tion of the oceanic plate (we call these events CDEs,
Copyright1996by the AmericanGeophysical
Union abbreviatingCompressional Deep Events), and that they
348 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES, TRENCH OUTER-RISE EVENTS, SUPERPLUMES

N. Japan
W 100 0 100 km
o • I I I

.................
, Tr.
Axis : ..
I½

V.E.=6.2

km

Fig. 1. Distributionof trench-outer

rise earthquakes
with well-
constraineddepths and focal mechanisms.Compressionis Fig. 2. E-W cross-section
of trench-outer
rise earthquakes
in
denotedby theclosedcircleandtensionby theopencircle.Data northernHonshu[modifiedfrom Senoand Gonzalez,1987].The
of the trench-outer rise events are listed in Table 1. The location numberattachedshowsthe orderof occurrence (Table 1). The
of double seismiczones is indicatedby DSZ and that of compressional
event(event1) occurreddeeperthanthetensional
compressionaldeep trench-outer
rise eventsis indicatedby events (events2-6).
CDE. DSZs and CDEs are associated with eachotherexcept
for N. Ryukyu,New Hebrides,andMiddle America.
(compression type) that are perpendicularto the trench
occur in subduction zones that have DSZs. Since shallow
axis. We notice that the compressional
eventoccurredat
depthbelowthe shallowtensional events;theirdepthsare
tensional trench-outer rise events are common, this
well-constrained by waveformanalyses[Senoand Gon-
impliesthat tensional-compressional eventpairingin the
zalez, 1987].Down dip at the 60-150 km depthrange,a
trench-outerriseregionmightbe the shallowcounterparts
DSZ existsin the Pacificplatesubducting beneathnorth-
of DSZs. We thenproposethat thisDSZ-CDE association
em Honshu [Hasegawaet al., 1975; Barazangiand
could be causedby dehydration embrittlement[Raleigh
lsacks, 1979; Kawakatsuand Seno, 1983].
and Paterson,1965;Raleigh,1967;GreenandBurnley,
We searchedfor a geographical relationshipbetween
1989;MeadeandJeanloz,1991;Nishiyarna, 1992;Kirby,
DSZ and CDE by making a global compilationof
1995] at mid-platedepthsin oceaniclithospherewhenit
trench-outer
riseeventswith focaldepthswell-constrained
entersthe subductionzone.We furtherwill suggesta pos-
by waveformanalyses(Table 1; See examplesof such
sibilitythathydrationdeepinsideof oceanicplatesmight depthanalysesin Stein and Wiens,1986; Christensen
and
occurby the magmaticeffectsof superplumes or other
Ruff, 1985; Seno and Gonzalez, 1987; Honda and Seno,
smallerplumesin the PacificBasin.
1989;Hondaet al., 1990;SenoandHonda,1990).Figure
COMPRESSIONAL TRF_2qCH-OUTER RISE EVENTS
3 is a depth-versus-plate
age plot of theseevents;the
abscissais the plateageneartheepicenterof eachevent.
In the trench-outer rise regionsseawardof subduction For very large events,we showedthe probabledepth
zones,seismicactivityoccurswithinoceanicplatesprior range of rupture [Seno and Honda, 1990; Seno et al.,
to subduction [e.g.,Stauder,1975;ChappleandForsyth, 1992] by the thick vertical bar. The isothermscalculatext
1979;Christensen andRuff, 1988].Figure2 showsa vert- from the plate model of Parsonsand Sclater [1977] are
ical section of such trench-outer rise events in the north- alsoplotted.The depth-versus-age
plot of the trench-outer
em Honshu arc [Seno and Gonzalez, 1987]. These events rise eventsis similarto the depth-age relationshipseen
have nearly horizontalT-axes (tensiontype) or P-axes for intra-oceanicearthquakes[Wiens and Stein,
 SENO AND YAMANAKA 349

AGE (Ma)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

• lO

¸ 20

• 30

..• 40

•' 50

70

Fig. 3. Depth-versus-age
plotfor thetrench-outer
riseearthquakeshstedin Table1. Onlywell-constraineddepths
are includedin the dataset.Barsindicatethe depthrangesof the rupturefor largeevents.The abscissa is the
plateagewherethe eventsarelocated.The isotherms arecalculatedfroma platemodelusingtheparameters of
Parsons andSclater(1977).Tensionalevents(opencircles)occurshallower thancompressional
events(closedcir-
cles).Thelabelbesideeacheventabbreviates asfollows:al, Aleutian;
ka, Kamchatka;
ku, Kuril;jp, NorthJapan;
bn, Izu-Bonin;mr, Mariana;rk, Ryukyu;ph, Philippines;
jv, Java;nh, New Hebrides;tg, Tonga;ke, Kermadec;
so,SouthChile;no, North Chile;pr, Peru;ma, Middle America;Rat65,3/30/65Rat Is. (Ms=7.5);Kur63, 3/16/63
Kuril (m1•=7.7);Sum77,8/19/77Sumba(M,=7.9). Ton75,10/11/75Tonga(M•=7.8);Ton77,10/10/77Tonga
(M•=7.2); Ker74, 7/02/74 Kermadee(M•=7.2); Chi81, 10/16/81Chile (M•=7.2).

More importantis the fact that the compressional events
(closedcircles) have deeper foci than thoseof the ten-
sionalevents(open circles), suggesting that thesetrench-
outer rise eventsare causedby bendingof oceanicplates
prior to subduction.The neutral-surface betweentension
and compressionis almost fixed along the 450øC isoth-
erm, which implies that the bendingstressis large rela-
tive to regional tectonic stressesor the cyclic stresses
associated with seismiccouplingat the thrustzone.These
regionalstressperturbations might triggerthe trench-outer
rise or intraslab seismicity,however [Dmowskaet al.,
1988; Lay et al., 1989]. This constant neutral-surface
interpretationis in contrastwith that of Christensenand
Ruff [1983, 1988] who claimed that the depth of the
compressional1981 Chilean trench-outerrise event is
shallow,and that shallowcompression was produce•by
seismiccouplingprior to a subsequent large thrustearth-
quake.However,we questioned their depthestimationfor
that event [See Honda and Seno, 1989; Honda et al.,
1990; Seno and Honda, 1990]. Christensenand Ruff now
acknowledgethat their hypocentraldepthwas too shallow
and that its centroiddepthis consistentwith bendingof
the Nazca plate prior to subducfion[Tichelaar et al.,
1992]. Ward [1983] and Liu and McNally [1993], on the
other hand, noted that the neutral surfacein someregions
might shoalas much as 10-15 km abovethe neutralsur-
face due to tectonic stressesor thrust zone coupling.
However, with the uncertaintiesof the depth determina-
tion in their studies, this does not contradict our constant
neutral-surfaceviewpoint.
In Figure 1, we plot epicentersof all the trench-outer
rise earthquakeslisted in Table 1. The closedcircles
representCDEs. We notice that CDEs are not always
associatedwith every subductionzone. Trencheshaving
CDEs are labeled by "CDE" and include Kuril-
Kamchatka,N. Japan,N. Ryukyu, Tonga, N. Chile, Peru,
and Middle America. New Britain, New Hebrides, and
the E. Aleutians are also labeled by "CDE", because
compressional eventsare listed by Christensen and Ruff
[1988], Christensen[1995] and Liu and McNally [1993],
thoughthey are not listedin our Table 1 or shownin our
Figure 1 becausetheir focal depthsare unconstrained.
Notice that the subduction zones which have a DSZ
generallyhave CDEs at the trench.There are few
350 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES, TRENCH OUTER-RISE EVENTS, SUPERPLUMES

TABLE 1. Trench-Outer Rise Events of Which Depths Are Well-Constrained

Y M D H M Lat. Long. Type Depth Age Reference

(øN) (øE) (kin) (Ma)
Aleutians (al)
65 03 30 02 27 50.32 177.93 t 0-20 54 $eno et al. [1992]
66 06 02 03 27 51.01 175.98 t 13 60 Forsyth [ 1982]
66 08 07 02 13 50.57 -171.22 t 20 58 Herrmann [1976]
70 02 27 07 07 50.13 -179.59 t 6 54 Forsyth [1982]
70 03 19 23 33 51.34 173.75 t 20 60 Forsyth [1982]
81 06 05 07 09 52.34 -165.21 t 1 53 Ward [1983]
Kamchatka (ka)
81 02 01 22 43 53.02 162.41 t 7 90 Ward [ 1983 ]
81 10 01 17 04 50.72 160.40 t 4 90 Ward [1983]
Kuril (ku)
63 03 16 08 44 46.79 154.83 c 32-52 105 $eno et al. [1992]
65 04 05 13 52 44.51 151.90 t 25 118 Forsyth [1982]
71 09 09 23 01 44.34 150.85 t 15 118 Forsyth [1982]
71 12 02 17 18 44.77 153.55 c 39 118 $eno el. [1992]
81 04 30 14 41 43.23 149.94 t 3 118 Ward [1983]
81 08 23 12 00 48.71 157.37 c 31 100 Ward [1983]
N. Japan (jp)
67 07 08 19 18 37.74 143.88 c 41 135 Seno and Gonzalez [1987]
69 08 23 02 54 39.70 144.38 t 3 132 $eno and Gonzalez [1987]
69 08 23 06 30 39.72 144.29 t 5 132 $eno and Gonzalez [1987]
69 08 24 22 03 39.80 144.30 t 5 132 $eno and Gonzalez [1987]
69 12 04 08 50 40.74 144.69 t 11 129 Seno and Gonzalez [1987]
75 06 14 23 36 36.31 143.40 t 14 139 $eno and Gonzalez [1987]
Izu-Bonin (bn)
74 08 25 01 18 32.18 142.37 t 7 148 Forsyth [1982]
Mariana (mr)
66 10 27 14 21 22.11 145.90 t 28 165 $eno et al. [1992]
67 04 05 02 47 19.97 147.28 t 16 165 $eno et al. [1992]
Ryukyu(rk)
68 08 03 04 54 25.73 128.50 t 15 55 Ward [1979]
76 12 14 16 06 28.27 130.67 t 11 45 Seno et al. [1992]
76 12 14 19 35 28.26 130.65 c 30 50 $eno et al. [1992]
Philippine (ph)
73 03 09 10 06 6.32 127.38 t 17 50 $eno et al. [1992]
81 05 26 06 47 6.14 127.50 t 3 50 Ward [1983]
Java (jv)
72 05 04 04 11 -10.73 113.65 t 10 143 Forsyth[1982]
77 08 19 06 08 -11.19 118.41 t 0-19 153 Seno et al. [1992]
82 02 28 17 52 -11.46 117.24 t 4 151 Ward [1983]
83 04 23 09 20 -11.21 118.92 t 22 153 Seno et al. [1992]
83 09 29 02 06 -11.37 115.32 t 8 143 Seno et al. [1992]
83 11 15 10 38 -11.60 115.20 t 7 143 Seno et al. [1992]
New Hebrides (nh)
64 O1 22 23 59 -13.64 165.96 t 17 40 Ciu'nn and Isacks [1983]
66 09 12 11 29 -9..3.00 170.60 t 12 37 Ciu'nn aml Isacks [1983]
81 11 16 13 53 -22.11 169.52 t 12 40 Ward [1983]
82 05 20 21 29 -20.24 168.20 t 6 42 Ward [1983]
Tonga (tg)
67 11 12 10 36 -17.20 -172.00 c 42 100 Forsyth [1982]
69 01 29 17 44 -17.15 -171.57 c 32 100 Seno et al. [1999_]
72 08 07 09 24 -16.66 -172.01 c 45 100 Forsyth[1982]
72 09 27 09 01 -16.47 -172.17 t 6 100 Forsyth[1982]
75 10 11 14 35 -24.91 -175.16 c 18-43 93 Seno et al. [1992]
77 10 10 11 53 -25.87 -175.37 t 4-34 97 Seno et al. [1992]
82 02 28 17 O0 -21.65 -173.51 c 35 100 Ward [1983]
Kermadec (ke)
74 07 02 23 26 -29.22 -175.94 c 35-50 90 $eno et al. [1992]
74 07 03 23 25 -29.37 -176.13 t 20 90 Forsyth
 SENO AND YAMANAKA 351

TABLE 1. Continued

Y M D H M Lat. Long. Type Depth Age Reference

(øN) (øE) (km) (Ma)
Chile (nc, and sc)
62 11 11 22 14 -43.06 -75.82 t 12 15 Chinn and Isacks [ 1983]
64 08 05 22 23 -41.13 -74.99 t 14 19 Chinn and Isacks [1983]
64 08 18 04 44 -26.40 -71.50 c 42 52 Chinn and Isacks [1983]
65 10 03 16 14 -42.90 -75.13 t 14 15 Ciu'nn and Isacks [1983]
81 10 16 03 25 -33.15 -73.10 c 25-35 40 Seno and Honda [1990]
Peru (pr)
63 08 29 15 30 -7.10 -81.60 t 17 31 Chinn and Isacks [1983]
65 08 03 02 01 -7.40 -81.30 t 13 31 Ciu'nn and Isacks [1983]
67 09 03 21 07 -10.60 -79.80 c 30 31 Chinn and Isacks [1983]
Middle America (ma)
71 08 20 21 36 13.30 -92.41 c 27 39 Forsyth [1982]

Plate agesare read from Plate-tectonicmap of the circum-Pacificregion [Halbouty et al., 1981]. The letters
in the parentheseswhich abbreviateeach region'sname correspondto thoseshownin Figure 3.

tions:In N. Ryukyu,New Hebrides,andMiddle America, (500-600øC)due to dehydrationif it is loadedunder a

CDEs are found without DSZs. However, existence of adifferentialstresswith a confiningpressurebelow 0.5
DSZ has been in disputein northernRyukyu [Ishikawa, GPa. Raleigh[1967] appliedthis dehydration embrittle-
1985; Takahashi, 1987]. In Middle America, we exam- ment to a failure mechanismfor intermediateand deep
ined all the CMT solutions by Harvard University events. Meade and Jeanloz [1991] also showed in their
[Dziewonski and Woodhouse, 1983 and subsequent experiments that applying differential stress under
papers].We founda numberof eventsat around80 km confiningpressures corresponding to the depthrangeof
depth with P-axes orientedalong the slab dip among intermediateearthquakes(2-9 GPa), acousticemissions
numerous eventswith shallowerdippingT-axes,of which associated with dehydrationare observedat 630•_1•øC.
geometrysuggestspossibleexistenceof a DSZ here. Dehydrationembritflementhas been usually presentext,
Therefore the association between a DSZ and CDEs in however, as a failure mechanismfor intermediate-depth
Figure 1 is fairly good. eventsjust below the upper surfaceof the subducting
slab,sincethisportionof the slab,affectedby the normal
ROCK MECHANICS FOR THE DOUBLE SEISMIC faulting and associated
hydrothermalactivityat the mid-
ZONE-COMPRESSIONAL DF,I:•P TRENCH-OUTER oceanridgesand in the trench-outer rise regions,can be
RISE EVENTS ASSOCIATION reactivatedeasily by dehydrationduring heating [See
The difficulty in explaining the occtmence of Kirby, 1995]. In DSZs, the lower zoneis usuallylocated
intermediate-depth earthquakesin the Wadati-Benioff at a few tenskilometersbelow the slabuppersurface,and
zone mentionedin the Introductionalso appliesto CDEs thushasnot beenbelievedproneto hydratimor dehydra-
tion.
in the trench-outer
rise region.The depthandtemperature
rangesof theseeventsare25 to 50 km and450 to 750øC In this paper,we are goingto extendthe abovedehy-
dration embrittlement mechanism to DSZs and CDEs. If
(Figure3), corresponding to the semi-brittleto ductile
regime of the strengthenvelopefor the oceanicplates the middle portionof the subducting plate is somehow
[Kirby, 1980; Wiensand Stein, 1983]. If the eventsare hydrated,alongwith the hydratedshallowportionof the
in the semi-brittleregime, it is hard for them to occur plate,sucha s•cture couldproducea DSZ if the slab
becausethe strengthbecomesvery high due to large passesthroughthe pressure-temperature conditionsfor
confiningpressuresat depth.On the otherhand,if they dehydration, whichcorresponds to roughly600øC.Nishi-
are in the ductile regime, it is again hard for them to yama [1992]firstproposed thismechanism andwe subse-
occurbecauseductiledeformationprevails. quentlyconceivedit independently. We will discussthe
To avoid this difficulty for the intermediate-depth hydrationmechanism for the middleportionof the plate
eventsof the Wadati-Benioffzone,dehydrationembrittle- in the next section.The loadingdue to an unbendingwill
menthasbeenproposedas an attractivephysicalmechan- causefaultingwhere dehydrationraisesporepressures or
ism of failure [See Kirby, 1995 and Frohlich, 1994 for cause mechanicalinstabilitieswhere serpentiaeis roeta-
review].RaleighandPaterson[1965] showedthat serpen- stable.Figure4a showsthe estimateddehydration
loci
tine becomesbrittle under anomalously high temperature within a slab where antigorite dehydratesunder
352 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES, TRENCH OUTER-RISE EVENTS, SUPERPLUMES

(a) phaseboundaryextendsseawardbeyondthe trench(Fig-

ure 4a) and the bendingmoment appliedat the trench-
Okm outerrise regionpressurizes the deeperhaft of the plate
4O0
makingserpentine unstablethere.Thusif themiddlepor-
800 800 tion of the ocea•c plateis hydrated,it canproduceCDEs
1200 1200 anda DSZ simultaneously in the samesubduction zoneas
øC associated phenomena.

HYDRATION MECHANISM
200 km

We suggesta possibilityhere that hydrationof the

middle to deep portion of oceanicplates occurswhen
someplatespassover plumesand superplumes. This is
similarto the hypothesisof CO2 encapsulation by plumes
proposedby Wilshire and Kirby [1988] for intraplate
eventsnear Hawaii and by Kirby [1995] for the lower
400 km
zone of a DSZ, exceptthat the volatile speciesinvolved
is different. Considerthat an oceanicplate, which has
thickenedas it agesto a few tens of million years and
(b) thenpassesover a hugeupwellingplumelike the Meso-
ß
zoic superplume in the southPacific[Larson,1991](Fig-
ure 5). Magma having dissolvedwater accumulates
througha partial melting zone in the superplume head.
Someof thismagmawouldsolidflywithin theplatewhen
it is injected,releasingwater that restfitsin hydrationof
surroundiagharzburgiteand producesserpentiaeand
otherhydrousmineralsby metasomatism [Menzieset al.,
1987]. However,most of the magmawill solidflywithin
the partially molten asthenosphere at the plume head
beneaththe plate, which will accreteto the oceanicplate
as it cools and thickens[Parker and Oldenberg,1973].
Fig. 4. (a) The dehydrationloci estimatedfrom the antigorite This accretionbringswater into the ambiemmanfieas the
breakdowncurve (thick solid line) [Figure 2 of Ulmer and
Trommsdorff,1995]. The experimentalpressure-temperaturepartial melts solidify and release water, resulting in
diagramfor the breakdownof anfigoritewas appliedto the slab hydrationof the middle part of the lithospherein the
subdueting with a velocityof 4.5 cm/yr at a dip angleof 60ø; stability field of serpentine-talcbelow 700øC at ~1 GPa
the fluidsproduced at pointA reachthe sourceregionfor talc- [Raleigh and Paterson, 1965; Ulmer and Trommsdorf,
alkalinemagmain the mantlewedge[Ulmerand Trommsdorff,
1995]. (b) The double seismic zone found beneath northern 1995]. This hydrationmechanismwould alsooperatefor
Honshu[Hasegawaet al., 1978]. The upperandlowerzonesof platespassingover smallerplumes,but to a lesserextent.
the doubleseismiczonemergeat depth,as doesthe boundary Thoughpart of this serpenfinized manfiecouldbe erupted
whereserpentine &hydrates. as serpenthediapirs,somecould survive.As the plate
coolswith age, the regionover which serpentine is stable
confiningpressure of 1-8 GPa [Ulmerand Trommsdorff,enlarges.The exact extent of hydrafionby this mechan-
1995]. It mimics the shapeof a DSZ seenin northern ism is not well constrainedat presentdue to lack of
Honshu(Figure4b). Dehydrationfrom the mantlepart is knowledgeof the volumeand degreeof partialmelting.
also importantfor the upper zone activity CFigure4a) It is very difficult to prove that the slabs having
becausedehydrationfrom crust and sedimentswill be CDE/DSZ pairings (Figure 1) were actuallyhydratedby
completedmostlyat depthsshallowerthan 100 km [Fyfe magmaticeffects of superplumesor plumes,however,
et al., 1978; Shimamotoet al., 1993; Poli and Schmidt, since prior magmatic anomalieswithin or under litho-
1995;SeealsoUlmerand Trommsdorff, 1995]. spherehas alreadysubductex!. We feel it is plausiblethat
Furthermorethis embritflementmechanismmay be a significantfractionof the Pacific and Nazcaplatessub-
applicableto CDEs at the trench-outer rise region.The ducting over the last few million years passed
 SENO AND YAMANAKA 353

Hotspot
Hydrated

Trench Outer - Rise

"•'"'-....
Compre
ssio
nal
Deep Events
Partial Melts

Hydrated
Superplume
Double Seismic
Zone

Fig. 5. A schematic illustrationshowingthe posssible hydrationmechanism of the middleportionof the plate

overan activesuperplume by solidification
of thepartialmelts.Thehydrated
platecauses a dehydration
instability
at depthin the trench-outerriseregion,resultingin CDEs.At depthsin the subduerionzone,dehydrationcauses
DSZs to develop.

plumesor a superplumesometimein their early histories enstatiteand garnetcan producea DSZ. This mechanism
becausetl•re are numerousvolcauicridges,plateausand has an advantagesimilarto thatproposedhere in explain-
seamount chains in the Pacific Basin. ing the observedshape of a DSZ becausethe phase
changeis controlledby a Pfr boundary.Howeverkinetics
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS of this roetastable
phasechangeis not known. Moreover,
it would be difficult to explain the •ence of CDEs
The dehydrationembritfiementmechanismhas been
referredto particularlyfor the upperzoneseismicactivity by this mechanism.
We have shown that when CDEs are found in the
in the crustand uppermostmanfie[Kirby, 1995;Kirby et
trench-outerrise regions, they accompanyDSZs that
al., 1996]. In our dehydrationembritfiementhypothesis
for DSZs, the upper zone activity at depthis expectedto
occurdown dip. The key fact is that CDEs occurin the
occur mosfiy in the manfie (Figure 4a). There is some deep portion of the plate, an observationnot easily
evidence which suggeststhat there is seismicactivity explainedwithin the frameworkof the failuremechanism
of shallow earthquakes. This is also true for
within the mantle part in the upper zone. As shownin
intermediate-depthearthquakesin DSZs. We proposed
Figure4b, the upperzone seemsto mergewith the lower
that the mechanismfor the CDE/DSZ pairing is dehydra-
zone at 200 km depth. If this is true, there shouldbe
tion embrittlementat mid-plate depths associatedwith
upper zone activity within the manfie at least in the
loading by bending-unbending.The hydration at the
deepestportion of a DSZ. In accordwith this, Zhao and
mid-platedepthsof lithospheremight occurby magmatic
Sacks [1994] suggestedthat the upper zone activity
effects of superplumesor plumes. The hypothesis
beneath northern Honshu is best fitted by the inclined
presentedhere explainswhy somearcs have CDE/DSZ
plane 4 degreessteeperthan the slab surfaceusing con-
pairings and why othersdo not. Its applicationto the
verted seismicphases.Kao and Chen [1995] showedthat
observed CDE/DSZ or non CDE/DSZ associations is still
someeventsin the Kuril slab deeperthan 100 km prob-
premature,and it shouldbe substantiated by directobser-
ably occurredwithin the mantle beneaththe crust based
vationsin the trench-outerrise regionsor by other lines
on waveformanalyses.
of evidence.If there are abundanthydrousminerals at
It would be difficult to explain the DSZ geometry
mid-platedepths,we would expectlower seismicveloci-
mergingat its deepestend by devolatilizationof CO2 for
ties and lower densitiesthan thosefor normallithosphere,
the lower zone and dehydrationembrittlementfor the
accordingto the effect of serpentinization
[Hess,1962].
upperzone [Kirby, 1995]. This mergingwouldbe a mere
coincidenceif thesezoneshave differentorigins.On the
other hand,Kao and Liu [1996] proposedthat the phase Acknowledgments. We thankSteveKirby for his criticalread-
change of the roetastableAl-rich enstatiteto Al-poor ing, advice and discussion.
We also thanksJohnBrodholt,
354 DOUBLE SEISMIC ZONES, TRENCH OUTER-RISE EVENTS, SUPERPLUMES
two anonymousreviewersfor their critical reviews.We also
benefitedfrom discussionswith Tadao Nishiyama,Taku Koy-
aguchi,Yoji Kobayashi,and Masao Nakanishi,and from pre-
printsprovidedby SteveKirby andHon Kao.
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 Characteristics
of MultipleRuptures
DuringLargeDeep-Focus
Earthquakes
Wang-PingChen andLi-Ru Wu

Departmentof Geology,Universityof Illinois,Urbana,IL

Mary Ann Glennon

EnergyandEnvironmental
Systems
Division,
Argonne
NationalLaboratory,
Argonne,
IL

Basedontheinversionof broad-band
(high-resolution)
P andSHwaveforms,
we summarize
the
configuration andpropagation of rupturesduringseveral recent,largedeep-focus earthquakes. In
all cases,
bursts of seismicmoment seemto havebeenreleased assub-horizontally propagating
rupturesoverelongate, narrowregions.Newresults fortheeventof July21, 1994(Mw=7.3,depth
474 km) in the Japanslabshowthat the earthquake is likely to have occurredas two sub-
horizontal,enechelon ruptures,
separated in depthby approximately 7 km. Givenanextremely
consistentdowndip orientation
of P axesfor all largeto moderate-sized earthquakes in thisslabin
thepast30 years,sucha rupture geometry is discussed in thecontext of transformational faulting
thatmay triggerdeep-focus seismicity.Seismicmomentreleaseovermultiplesub-horizontal
regionshasalsobeendocumented forthegreatBoliviandeep-focus earthquake of lune9, 1994and
a largedeep-focusearthquake alongtheIzu-Boninsubduction zone. Sucha configuration seems
to be commonfor manylargedeep-focus earthquakes, andthusaccommodates highmoment
releaseovera limitedseismogenic volumewithinsubducted lithosphere. Thismodeof moment
releasealsoallowsforuneven rupture speeds duringa singlelargeearthquake: whiletheapparent
rupturespeedbetween subevents canbeonly1-2 km/s,thespeedis ashighas4 km/swithinlarge
subevents. In sum,severalcharacteristicsof themultiple rupture modeldovetail withpredictions
basedon the transformational faultingmechanisms for deep-focus seismicity. Whatever
mechanisms that extenda large,multiplerupture,thereis no conclusiveevidencefor a slow
rupturespeedduringsucha process.Oneoutstanding questionis whethertransformational
faults
canpropagatefarbeyondtheexpectedthicknessof metastableolivinewedge.

INTRODUCTION
asthenosphere
andmesosphere
[e.g.,IsacksandMolnar,
1971]. However, thephysical mechanism for generating
Withtheadventof platetectonics,
deep-focus seismicity deep-focusearthquakes has been enigmatic. Unlike
(300-680 km) is considered
to originatein theinteriorof shallowearthquakes, confiningpressure is so largeat
cold, sinkingoceaniclithosphere. It follows that the depthsgreaterthanapproximately 100km thatthe shear
distribution
of deep-focus
seismicity
provides a directway stressnecessaryto drive frictionalslidingis expectedto
of mapping outthegeometry of subducted lithospherein exceedthe ductilestrength of geologicmaterials[e.g.,
the uppermantle. Furthermore,
fault planesolutionsof Scholz, 1990]. On the other hand, there is no clear
deepearthquakes
constrainthe stateof stressin subducted
evidencethatthekinematics
of earthquakefaulting
changes
lithosphere as it interacts with the surrounding significantly
withfocaldepth[e.g.,Frohlich,1989].
Recently, resultsfrom experimentalrock mechanics
suggested
somespecificmodelsfor the originof deep-
Subduction:
Top to Bottom locus earthquakes. For instance,Meade and Jeanloz
Geophysical
Monograph 96 [1991]proposed
thatamorphization
of hydrothermally
Copyright1996by theAmerican
Geophysical
Union altered oceanic crust is a viable mechanism for sudden
358 MULTIPLE RUPTURES DURING DEEP EARTHQUAKES
releaseof strain at great depthswithin subductedoceanic
lithosphere. Meanwhile, other researchershave suggested
that transformationalfaulting inducedby the presenceof
metastableolivine is the causeof deep-focusearthquakes
[e.g., Kirby, 1987; Green and Burnley, 1989; Kirby et al.,
1991]. Metastableolivine is expectedto be the dominant
mineral only in a cold wedgein the interior of subducted
lithosphere,at depthsbelow approximately350 km [e.g.,
Sung and Burns, 1976; Goto et al., 1985]. Both models
imply that deep-focus earthquakes originate within a
restrictedregion of subductedlithosphere.
Given that very large deep-focus earthquakes are
frequentlyobserved[e.g., Frohlich, 1989], two issuesarise.
First, are ruptures during large deep-focus earthquakes
confined within a specific region, as implied by these
recentmodelsof seismogenesis discussedabove? Second,
given a thin subductedlithospherein general, how is the
large sourceregion associatedwith a large earthquake
accommodated at depth? The latter is a geometric
consideration,not necessarily tied to specific physical
mechanisms for the generationof deep-focusearthquakes.
The extent of ruptures during large deep-focus
earthquakesalso has importantimplicationson the fate of
subductedlithospherein the transitionzone of the mantle.
For instance, Giardini and Woodhouse[1986] suggested
that sincesomeof the deepestearthquakesalongthe Tonga
subductionzone seemto involve faultingon sub-horizontal
planes,horizontal shearflow existsin the transitionzone.
In other words, wholesaleslab penetrationinto the lower
mantle is unlikely. Such an argument,however, is valid
only if the entire thicknessof the slab is broken during
largeearthquakes[Jacksonand McKenzie, 1988].
Startingin 1987, abundantbroad-bandseismicdata has
been accumulating. In particular, 1994 has been an
extraordinary year during which three very large deep-
focus earthquakesoccurredon March 9 along the Tonga
subductionzone (Mw=7.6), on June 9 beneath Bolivia
(Mw=8.3), and on July 21 alongthe Japansubductionzone
(Mw=7.3). The unprecedentedhigh resolution of broad-
band seismic data recorded during these earthquakes
providesan opportunityto carry out detailedinvestigation
on the kinematics of rupture during deep-focus
earthquakes. The orientation, extent, and amount of
faulting during deep-focus earthquakes constrain the
geometryand volume of the sourceregion which, in turn,
are useful for testing models of seismogenesisand for
understanding how subductedslabdeformsnear the baseof
the uppermantle.
Using broad-bandbody waves, we first summarizethe
kinematics of rupture during several large deep-focus
earthquakes that occurred between 1987 and 1994,
includingnew resultsfrom the 1994 eventalongthe Japan
subductionzone and a comparisonof different source
models for the Bolivian earthquakeof 1994. We then
discussissuesconcerningthe seismogenic volumeat depth.
The results suggest that during large deep-focus
earthquakes, long, narrow ruptures, accompanied by
uneven rupture speeds, facilitate the release of large
seismicmomentsovernarrowsourceregions.
BACKGROUND AND DATA ANALYSIS
Except for the obvious difference in focal depths,
seismic waves radiated from deep-focus earthquakes
resemblethosefrom shallow events. Generallyspeaking,
thesewaves can be adequatelyexplainedby slip acrossa
fault plane, the double-couplesourcemodel [e.g., Isacks
and Molnar, 1971]. For a simplepointsource,or a circular
rupture,the far-field displacementfield of P andS phasesis
a pulse of variable amplitude but constant width
(Figure l a). In this case, one cannotobtain independent
estimatesof fault radius and rupture speed. Systematic
variations in amplitudes observedover a wide range of
azimuths and epicentral distances (i.e., the radiation
pattern), however, allow a precise estimate for the
orientationof theruptureplane. The areaunderthepulseis
proportionalto the seismicmomentwhich, in turn, equals
the productof the amountof slip, the rupturearea,and the
shearmodulusin the sourceregion. The shapeof the pulse,
somewhatmodified by anelasficattenuationof the Earth,
largely reflects the time derivative of the history of
displacementacrossthe fault, known as the source-time
function.
The ruptureof some earthqumescan be approximated
by a line sourceon a long, narrow fault, with a constant
speedof rupturepropagationalong the lengthof the fault
[Haskell, 1964]. The width of rupturemustbe lessthanits
lengthbut the precisewidth is unknown(Figure lb). This
rupture will show directivity akin to the Doppler effect.
Along source-to-stationazimuthscloseto the leadingedge
of the rupture, observedpulseshave short durationsbut
high amplitudes. Along azimuthsnear the trailingedgeof
the rupture,the oppositeeffect on waveformsis expected.
Thus observations at several different azimuths and take-
off anglesallow estimatesof bothrupturevelocityand fault
length. (The take-offangleis the anglebetweena ray path
leavingthe sourceand the downwardvertical.)
For a complex rupture, discrete bursts of seismic
moment release can be approximatedby a sequenceof
subeventsdistributed over space and time, with each
subeventconstrainedto be a double-couplepoint source.
In this case,body-wave signalsare a sequenceof
 CHEN ET AL. 359

(a) Simple Point(Circular) Source (b) SimpleLine (Haskell)Source processing are essentially identical to the procedures
describedby Glennon and Chen [1993, 1995] and Chen
A [1995].

........
::::•,!•!•:.•ii•i•iliiiiii•iii!i•!i!i•i•i:...:•iii•a,•:;
A MULTIPLE RUPTURES

A Rupture
VelocityBecausethe azimuthal coverageof seismicstationsis
A excellent
Fig.1. Schematic mapshowing theeffect ofrupturepropagation kinematics of largeearthquakes
on pulse-widthand absolutearnplimdeof bodywavesin the far-
field. Direct arrivals of body-wave pulses at four distinct
azimuths,each90' apart,areshownfor eachcase. For simplicity, represent a comprehensivestudy of large earthquakes
variationsin amplitudesdue to the radiationpatternof a double- deeperthan 400 km since 1987 when abundantbroad-band
couplesourcehavebeenremoved. Shadedregionsshowareasof
fault slip;dashedcircularcurvesshowsuccessive rapturefronts;
andthe arrowshowsthedirectionof rapturepropagation for a line
source. (a) Simplepoint source(circularrapture). The pulses
have identicalamplitudeand frequencycontentat all azimuths.
(b) Simple line source(Haskell model). The Doppler effect,
affectingbothamplitudeandfrequencycontent,is mostevidentat
azimuthsnearthe leadingandtrailingedgesof therapture.
whose relative timing varies with azimuth and take-off
angle. Such an effect has also been described as
"directivity"of the sourceby someresearchers.
If for some
of the individual subevents, the Doppler effect is
discernible in observed waveforms, one can model the
source as a mixed sequenceof point and line sources.
Either way, the overall extentof the sourceregion can be
estimated.
We used an inversion techniquethat simultaneously
models P and SH wave trains by minimizing the
differencesbetweenobservedand syntheticseismograms in
a least-squaressense. For each subevent,the unknown
sourceparameters determinedin theinversionarethe focal
mechanism,the depth, the scalar seismic moment, the
durationandthe shapeof the far-field source-timefunction,
as well as the spatial and temporal separationamong
subevents. The source-timefunction is composedof a
sequenceof triangular elements whose amplitudes are
determinedby the inversion.For eachsubevent,the source
is allowed to be a line source, if data can resolve the
Doppler effect. In such cases,the reported source-time
functiondurationis thepulse-widthmeasurednormalto the
fault. Details of the inversionprocedureand criteria for
estimatinguncertaintiesare discussedby Ndbelek [1984]
and Glennon and Chen [1993, 1995].
We collected broad-band seismograms from the
IncorporatedResearchInstitutionsfor Seismology(IRIS)
and from the GEOSCOPE and the Pre-POSEIDON
projects. Technical aspects of data selection and
for the northwestern Pacific, both the
configuration of the Wadati-Benioff zone and source
are well constrainedin this
region. In this case,new resultspresentedbelow for the
Japan slab and the work of Glennon and Chen [1995]
seismic data became available.
It so happensthat observationsat close-in distances
above the sourceregions are available for all the three
largest deep-focusearthquakesin 1994. Thus we shall
concentrateour discussionon thesemostrecentdeep-focus
earthquakesfor which good constraintsare available.
Amongtheselargeearthquakes in 1994, the eventalongthe
Tonga subductionzone seemsto have the leastamountof
directivity [Antolik et al., 1994; McGuire et al., 1994] and
will receiveonly cursorydiscussionhere.
En EchelonRuptures:TheEventof July21, 1994 Along
theJapanWadati-BenioffZone
TheJapanWadati-Benioff zoneis uniquein thata nearly
continuousbelt of seismicity,reachinga depthof almost
600 km, dipsat a shallowangleof onlyapproximately 30'
(Figure2). Basedon detailedanalysis of focaldepthsand
sourcekinematicsof largeto moderate-sized earthquakes
that occurredin this region for the past 30 years, the
Wadati-Benioffzoneappearssimple,with no evidencefor
large-scale deviation from a planar configuration
(Figure2b).
The largeeventof July21, 1994occurredat a depthof
approximately
474 km. The azimuthalcoverage of bothP
and SH waveforms is excellent. Observed waveforms have
high signal-to-noise
ratios and show a clear bimodal
momentrelease(Figure3).
Since ray paths for direct arrivals to teleseismic
distancesdive downwardat steepangleswhenleavingthe
source,up-goingphasessuchaspP andsP arerequiredto
resolveany verticalcomponent of directivity.Usingthe
entirebody-wavetraincontaining arrivalsaslateassS,we
invertedfor focal depthsby the relative timing between
directarrivals(P andSH) andphasesreflectedoff the free
surface(pP, sP, and sSH). Generallyspeaking,the time
intervalbetweenthe two prominentpeaksof pP phaseis
largerthanthatof thedirectP phaseby approximately 1
360 MULTIPLE RUPTURES DURING DEEP EARTHQUAKES
Fig.2a.Mapshowing
background
seismicity
alongtheJapan
(Honshu) Wadati-Benioff zone. Events that occurredbetween
1964 and 1994 with rob>5.0are plotted. Different symbols
correspond to rangesin focaldepths:crosses for shallowdepths
(0-70 km), circles for intermediate-depths(70-300 km), and
trianglesfor deep-foci(>300 km). Large trianglesare events
whosesourceparameters havebeeninvestigated by theinversion
of body-waveformdata (Wu, Li-Ru, unpublisheddata, 1996).
Largeto moderate-sized events(m•,>5.5)thatoccurredat depths
greater than 100 km and fell within the dashed curves
(approximately regionN10 of Zhou [1990]) are includedin
Figure 2b. Sources of data are from the International
SeismologicalCenter (ISC, 1964-1987) and the Preliminary
Determination of Epicenters
(PDE, 1988-1994).
indicatingthatthe centroidof the secondsubeventis deeper
than that of the first subevent. Modeling of the pP phase
showsthatthe differencein depthis approximately 7+4 km
(Figure3a, Table 1).
The timing betweenthe onsetof the direct P phaseand
that of the second subevent also shows an azimuthal
variationof up to 1 s, with stationsto the east-southeast
of
the epicenter having the shortest time interval. This
observationsuggeststhat in additionto a deeperdepth,the
ccntroidof the secondsubeventis displacedto the east-
southeast with respect to that of the first subevent
(Figures3b and4).
Meanwhile,azimuthalvariationsin bothpulse-widthand
absoluteamplitudesuggesta sub-horizontalDopplereffect
in each subevent. The best caseis observedfor the large
second subevent. Figure 3b compares the results of
waveforminversionbetweenour preferredsolution(EER,
Table 1) and a best-fittingsolutionwith two point sources
separatedin space and time. The data constrain the
azimuthof rupturepropagationto be 180' +25'/-15'. Due
to its smaller seismic moment, the northward Doppler
effect of the first subeventcan only be constrainedto lie
between azimuths of-30 ø and +60' and we have assumed
that the two rupture azimuths are anti-parallel in our
interpretation
(Figure4).
o o
o o
ø
ooo
o o
All
ß 100uly 21,1994)
Fig. 2b. An east-west cross section (without vertical
exaggeration)of the northernportion of the Japansubduction
zone. Viewing from the south,largesymbolsshoworientations of
nodalplanes,P (solidcircle), andT axes(opencircles)in equal-
areaprojectionsof thebackhemispheres of the focalspheres.The
height of the triangles(showinghypocenters)is 10 km, roughly
comparableto the uncertaintiesin our estimatesof focal depths.
Notice the consistentdowndiporientationof all the P axes (see
stereogram insertin upper-leftcomer).
The strikeof the steepdippingnodalplanelies on one
extreme of the uncertaintyfor the directionof rupture
duringthe secondsubevent.Unlessthe directionof rupture
propagationis exactly parallelto the strike,giventhe near
vertical dip of this plane, a sub-horizontallypropagating
ruptureover a horizontaldistanceof ten's of kilometers
mustbe accompanied by an evengreateramountof change
in focal depth. Consequently,we identify the shallow
dippingnodalplaneas the true fault plane. In Table 1, we
alsoalloweda slightchangein the orientationof faultplane
solution between the two subevents. This change is
introducedto explainoppositepolaritiesbetweenthe two
bursts of moment release observed at near nodal stations
suchas at KEV for P phasesand at COL and COR for SH
phases.
Thus the overall geometryof the ruptureshowstwo en
echelon regions of seismic moment release at slightly
different depths(Figure 4). Another importantaspectof
this configurationis the unevenrupturespeed. While the
apparent rupture speed between subeventsis only 1-
2 kin/s, the speedwithin each subeventis near 4 kin/s, or
approximately75-80% of the shear wave speedin the
sourceregion. Assuminga radially propagatingrupture
front, the highrupturespeedand the spatialdistributionof
two regionsof large momentreleasereportedby Kuo et al.
[1995] in a recent abstract are similar to our results. The
only differenceis that Kuo et al. [1995] assumedthat the
rupture occurred over a single sub-horizontalplane,
precluding any difference in focal depths between
 CHEN ET AL. 361

EnEchelon
Rupture TwoPointSources
KEV. ! •LLITc
•c P •/.....• •w^o
P

...."ø" 100

'.. i
Ah =7 km
Scal•
0 10• 0 STF ).0•
Pl• r • /"P •P
.. --

H SH H

Ah= 11km '"'" 0 10•

I•/AO P

Fig. 3b. Comparisonbetween observed(solid traces) and

syntheticdirectPandSH phases(dashedtraces)generated by two
differentsourcemodelsat selectedstations. Layout is similar to
thatof (a) but the locationof all observedP andSHphaseson the
s0
focal sphereare plotted. Vertical barson seismograms indicate
l•C time windowsusedin the inversion. The shapeof the source-time
function(STF) is alsoplotted.

NW AFI BBß 0 los While there is a general consensuson the spatial

distributionof subevents(Figure5), the apparentrupture
Fig.3a. Comparison between ol•served
(broad-band ground speedand the exact configurationof faulting have been
displacement,solid traces)and syntheticpP phases(dashed points of contention(see papers in a Special Issue of
traces)at selectedstations,showingtheeffectof differentialfocal Geophys.Res. Lett., August 15, 1995). Taking the ratio
depth(Ah)of subevent 2 relativeto subevent
1. Thiscomparison
betweenthe spatialseparationand the time delay of later
constrains Ah to be approximately 7+4 km. After normalization
subeventswith respectto the first subevent,severalauthors
to an epicentraldistanceof 50ø, both observedand synthetic
seismograms areplottedwith a commonabsolute amplitude scale estimated a slow apparentrupture speedsof 1-2 km/s
indicatedin the figure. Orientationsof nodal surfaces(first [Kikuchi and Kanamori, 1994; Silver et al., 1995].
subevent only) andlocationsof observations
on the focalsphere KikuchiandKanamori'swork is the firstpublishedresult
for thedirectP phasesareshownin equalareaprojection of the on this event using waveform analysis (Figure 5e).
lowerhemisphere of thefocalsphere. However,they usedno data in the southernhemisphereof
the focal sphere. Subsequently,
Chen [1995] includeddata
from stationPMSA due southof the epicenterand founda
The GreatBolivianEarthquakeof June9, 1994 modifiedsolutioninvolvingonly distributedpoint sources
(Figure 5d). Chen [1995, Figure 3] comparedthree
This great earthquakebeneathBolivia is the largest differenttypesof sourcemodelsand foundthat a sequence
known deep-focusearthquake[e.g., Kirby et al., 1995a]. of discrete subevents (Figure 5d), without additional
Azimuthal variations in the relative timing of distinct Dopplereffect within eachsubevent,cannotexplaineither
arrivals require separationin spaceand time among the the pulse-widthsat PMSA or the absoluteamplitudeof
centroidsof subevents. Such an analysisindicatedthat high-frequency arrivalsat SJG due northof the epicenter
majorburstsof seismicmomentreleaseoccurredto the east (Figure 6). In contrast,he reportedthat four subevents,
of theepicenter(subevent1). Later subevents(subevents3 each of the latter three as line sources in the azimuth of
and4) are displacedto the northwestof the onsetof major 0•-_30øN
offersan improvedexplanationfor the observedP
momentrelease(subevent2) over a sub-horizontalplane and$H waveforms(Figures5c and6c). The rupturespeeds
(Figure5d). of these line sources range from 3 to
362 MULTIPLE RUPTURES DURING DEEP EARTHQUAKES

TABLE1. Summary
of Source
Models
•
Seismic Dura- Time Horiz. Rupture Rupture
Source Depth, Moment, Strike, Dip, Rake, tion Delay Dist.,c Azimuthc Speed Azimuth Variance
Mode? km 10•8N m deg deg deg s s km deg km/s deg ofMisfita
2PS 470' 35+2 155+7 85 55 3.5
(+5, -10) (+10, -5)
477' 67+3 160 88 67 4.5 4.0-•__0.5 12+4 160+__20
(+8, 4) (+6,-8) (+5,-10)

EER 470' 35+2 155+7 85+10 55 4.2 - - - 4.0 0 0.93

(+10, -5) (+1,-2.5) (+60, -30)
477' 67+3 160 88 67+10 4.5 4.0-•_0.5 6+4 120 4.0 180
(+8,4) (+6,-8) (+35,-60) (+1,-1.5) (+25,-15)
• FortheeventonJuly21, 1994:Origintime,1836:31.7
UT; epicenter
at42.34øN
and132.87øE;
focaldepth471km;r%~6.5(U.S.G.S.
PreliminaryDeterminationof Epicenters).
t,2PS: Twodiscrete
pointsources
(circular
ruptures)
withspatialseparation
andtimedelay;EER: En echelon
ruptures.Parameters
for
each subeventare given in successive
rows.
• Therelativelocation
in space
(givenbyhorizontaldistance,Horiz.Dist.,andazimuth)
of eachsubevent
withrespect
totheepicenter.
aNormalized to thelargest
varianceamongdifferentmodelslisted.
' Thesecond subevent is7+4km deeperthanthefirst,whoseabsolutedepthisuncertain
by approximately
+5 kin.
f 16%reduction whencompared withthesinglepointsource(centxoidal)
solution.

approximately60% of the shearwave speedin the source whose rupture area did not overlap with those of later
region. Moreover, in the most extreme case, the entire subevents(Figure7b). For instance,sucha configuration
width of the rupturezone could be as narrowas 10-15 km could arise if the later subeventswere triggeredby the
over a lengthof approximately70 km. passing wavefronts generated by the precursoryevent
The discrepancyin estimatedrupturespeedsreportedby [Kirby et al., 1995b]. In this alternativeview, the rupture
different researchersmainly arises from the peculiar during subevents2 and 3 propagatednorthwardat a high
geometryof momentreleaseduringthisevent,and to a less speed,closeto 3.5 km/s [Chen, 1995]. This scenariowas
extent,from differencesin analysisandchoiceof data. It is also investigatedby Beck et al. [1995] who reported a
important to bear in mind that by definition, as rupture bilateralrupture,trendingalong the azimuthof-10øN at a
propagatesover a finite fatfit, fault slip musthave occurred slowrupturespeedof 1-2 km/s (Figure5b).
in theregionakeadysweptby the front of therupture. The To further investigate these issues, we compared
spatialdistributionof slip, however,is oftenunevenduring observedwaveformswith syntheticseismograms generated
a large,complexearthquake(Figure7). from these three models at four distinct azimuths
For the Bolivian event, the first subevent released less (Figure 6). Antolik et al. [1995] assumed a rupture
than 5% of the total momentand its centroidessentially configurationdepictedschematicallyin Figure7a andused
coincides with the initiation of rupture (Figure 5). only the long-period(> 10 s) portionof the signalswhose
Significantamountof slip did not developuntil the rupture amplitudeshave been normalized (Figure 6a). Even at
front reachedcloseto regionsmarkedas subevents2 and 3 theselong-periods, misfitin timingor pulse-widthsof up to
in Figure 7. If one assumesthat the rupture propagated 3 or 4 s seemsapparentin this case. It is interestingto
radially toward the northeasternquadrant(Figure 7a), the point out that Antolik et al. [1995] also testedthe casein
apparentrupture speedwould be slow, close to 2 km/s or which signalsfrom the small subevent1 were excludedin
less[Antoliket al., 1995]. Antolik et al. reportedthat most their inversion. This procedureresultedin a rupturespeed
of the seismic moment was released over an area of
of greaterthan2 km/s with no apparentupperbound.
approximately 60x40km2, withits long-axis trending In Figure 6b, we simulatethe solutionof Beck et al.
roughlynorth-south(Figure 5a). [ 1995] who alsoexcludedsubevent1 to isolatethe effectof
Sincetheamountof slipbetweentheinitiationof rupture rupture propagationduring the main phaseof moment
and subevents2 and 3 (Figure7), if any, is too small to be release. Their solution consisted of two later subevents,
resolved by observation [Antolik et al., 1995], an roughlycorresponding to subevents
2 and 3 in Figure7b,
alternativeview is that subevent1 is a precursoryevent whosecentroidsare marked as E la and E3 in Figure

JapanSlab(July21, 1994;42.3øN,132.9øE;
474kin;Mw=7.3)
3km
P Axes
W E
Fig. 4. Schematicdiagramsshowingthe extent of en echelon
rupturesduringthe July 21, 1994 earthquake.In a map view of a
horizontalplane at the sourcedepth,en echelonregionsof fault
slip are shown as ellipses whose precise width (east-west) is
unknown. The centroid of the first subeventis placed at the
epicenterbecausedatacannotconfidentlyresolvethe separation
betweenthe nucleationpoint and the first centroid. Centroidsof
subeventsare marked by crosses. Arrows show approximate
direction of rupture propagation. The entire rupture region is
placedwithin the roetastableolivine wedge(shadedregion)which
is assumedto be approximatelyenclosedby the 700øCisotherms.
Assuming a thickness of approximately 100 km prior to
subduction,the hatched regions show portions of subducting
lithospheremost of which has already undergonethe olivine-
spinel transition. In this case,the apparentwidth of subducted
slab is approximately200 km and the positionof the metastable
olivine wedgeis basedon the estimateof Kirby et al. [1991]. In
crosssectionview, the geometryof the rupturesandthe senseof
slip (pairedarrows)acrossthe transformationalfaults(solidlines)
are based on results shown in Table 1. The distance between the
top of the metastableolivine wedgeand the earthquakesourceis
arbitrary.
CHEN ET AL. 363
respectively. Subevent2 propagatedtoward azimuth
170øNwhile subevent3 propagatedtoward-10øN,bothat a
constantspeedof 1.5+0.5km/s. The overalllengthof their
ruptureis over 120 km. Beck et al. useda tomographic
inversionin which absoluteamplitudesare not taken into
account.Furthermore,they did not includeimportantdata
from stationsPMSA and SJG, due south and north of the
epicenter,respectively.
When thosedata are included,their solutionpredicted
too narrow a pulse at SJG, largely becausethe spatial
separationbetweenthe two centroidsis as largeas 55 km
(Figure5b). Hencewe modifiedtheir solutionby setting
the centroidof subeventNo. 2 at positionE1 in Figure5b
(where they deemedas the onsetof subeventNo. 2),
reducingthe total length of the ruptureto be close to
70 km. Syntheticseismograms from this modifiedmodel
areshown
in Figure6b. Whencompared
withthemodel
proposedby Chen [1995, model EER], the variance of
misfit for the modified model of Beck et al. is higher by
approximately10%. Their modeloffereda goodmatchfor
the first two large peaksat PMSA (Figure 6b). However,
Chen's model provided a better match to the absolute
amplitudesandpulse-widthsof individualpeaksin the later
portionof the waveformat the samestation. At stationsto
the north of the epicentersuch as SJG and CCM, only
Chen's solution explains the high frequency content of
observedsignals(Figure6c).
It should be emphasized that the Doppler effect
manifestsitself as variations in absoluteamplitudesand
frequencycontentof waveformsover azimuthsand take-off
angles. If such variations are ignored, Doppler effects
associated with rupturepropagationcan neverbe detected.
Due to complexityof the waveforms,it is difficult to
ascertainwhetherthere is a small difference(<5-10 km) in
focal depthsof subevents. Arrivals along ray paths that
leave the source near the nodal surfaces indicate that there
is a slight difference in fault plane solutions between
subevents. Such differences, however, are too small to
affect the waveformsat mostother stations[e.g., Goesand
Ritsema, 1995]. As such,even thoughthe sourceseemsto
involve three sub-parallel,elongateregions of moment
release (Figure 5c), and we suspectthat the three en
echelonrupturesmay haveoccurredat differentdepths,we
cannotprovethispoint.
A similar situationwas reportedby Glennonand Chen
[1995] who systematically
analyzedthe sourcekinematics•
of manylarge deep-focusearthquakesthat occurredalong
the northwestern Pacific between 1987 and 1992. The
ruptureduringthelargesteventalongtheIzu-Bonin arc,on
September 7, 1988(Mw=6.7),alsoshowedtwo sub-parallel
regionsof momentreleasewith sub-horizontal
364 MULTIPLE RUPTURES DURING DEEP EARTHQUAKES

Bolivia(June9,1994;-13.8øN,
-67.6øE;633km;Mw=8.3) Fig. 5. A comparisonof five selectedmodels for the source
configurationof the Bolivia event of 1994, shownin map view.
The centroidof the first subeventis indistinguishablefrom the

(a)
Antolik
et
al..••:i'"'":'e:'
'"::•.
:"••••
"'ßi Co)
Beck
et
al. (moaifiea) hypocenter.The approximaterangein strikeanddip of subducted
lithospherenearthe sourceis shownnext to case(e). Insertin the
bottom showsdistributionof backgroundseismicity[Cahill and
•.• Isacks, 1992]. Layout is similar to Figure4. (a) Distributionof
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
fault slip estimatedby Antolik et al. [1995]. Regionswith slip
(epicenter) (epicenter) over 5 and9 m are shownin light anddark shades,respectively.
Crossesin the shadedregionsshow locationsof maximumslip
(subevents). Also see Figures6a and 7a. (b) Distributionof
Ela +
subevents(E0, El, Ela, and E3) and a bilateral rupture(ellipse)
(c) Chen (EER) (d) Chen (PTS)
by Beck et al. [1995]. Also see Figure 6b. (c) Multiple line
Rupture Azimuth: sources of Chen [model EER, 1995]. Ruptures are taken
0 +- 30 deg.
arbitrarilyas sub-parallelto eachother. Also seeFigure6c. (d)
4 4 Distributed point sourcesof Chen [model PTS, 1995]. (e)
Distributedpoint sourcesof Kikuchiand Kanamori[1994]. In the
:::::::::::::::::::::
latter two cases,the relative radii of circles are proportionalto
3
seismicmomentsbut the absolutescalesarearbitrary.
1 (epicenter) ,,.

(epicenter) 2 of rupturepropagation,or equivalentlythoseof the long-

30 km
axes of the rupture areas,range from sub-parallelto the
I I I I
strikeof theJapanslabto nearlynormalto the slxikeof the
Izu-Bonin slab. And in the former case,the ruptureshave
en echelonconfiguration(Figure4).
(e) Kikuchi & Kanamori
N45W

M4 N60W
,• IMPLICATIONS ON SEISMOGENESIS

'::::!i!iiiilili:: Approximat•
Range
•N Ideally, to test models of seismogenesis,both the
• '"M2
(epicenter) of Orientation
of Slab
configuration of earthquake sources and that of the
I+ M1 subductedlithospheremustbe known. Sincehydrothermal
alteration is expected to concentratealong the top of
subductinglithosphere,the depth of hydrousalteration
lO seemstoo small to explain the spacingbetweendouble
s seismiczonesof up to 40 km for deep- and intermediate-
focus earthquakes[Kao and Chen, 1994; Wiens et al.,
1993]. Thus amorphizationof serpentine,as proposedby
15
Meade andJeanloz [ 1991],doesnot appearto be a suitable
modelfor seismogenesis in manysubduction zones.
In another recent model, earthquakes deeper than
350 km are associated with transformational faulting
which, in turn, is causedby the transitionof metastable
of raptures. Unfortunately,Glennonand Chen could not olivine to ]3-or 7-spinel[e.g., Kirby, 1987; Green and
confidentlyresolveany differencebetweenthe depthsof Burnley, 1989; Kirby et al., 1991]. Metastableolivine is
subevents in that case either. expected to be the dominant mineral only in the cold
Even in the interior of subductedlithosphere where interior of subducted lithosphere at depths below
spaceis limited, raptureassociatedwith a largeearthquake approximately350 km [SungandBurns, 1976;Goto et al.,
can be easily accommodatedover a single long, narrow 1985]. Thermalassimilationof subductedslabis likely to
fault, oriented either sub-verticallyor sub-horizontally result in thinning of the metastableolivine wedge with
along the strike of the slab. Instead, large amount of increasing depth, from approximately 35 km thick at
seismic moment was often released over more than one 500 km depthto only about10 km thicknear600 km [e.g.,
sub-parallelraptureswhosetotallengthis lessthanthatof a Kirby et al., 1991]. However, the exact thicknessof the
single,long rapture(cf. Figures5b and 5c). The azimuths wedgeis
 CHEN ET AL. 365

SJG P PAB P CCM P

(a) Slow, Circular Rupture (b) Fast, Narrow Rupture
(a) Antolik ei al.
._.::
•.:ii
"'-:.j•ili
:•i•i;:,.N ....
•.........`
;..:•
•.../•
;.•_:::
High
• e.':...;:.•iii!:
:::•isi•?:•:::!....":•..:i:.•
Rupture
Speed

SJG P CCM P

(b) Beck et al.

1000 tam

o sos

SIG P TBT P
Fig.7. Schematic
mapsshowing
twodifferent
viewpoints
of
(c) Chen modelinga complexearthquake sourceover a planarregion.
Regionsof major momentrelease,or fault slip, are shaded.
Crossesmark the centroidsof suchregions(subevents).(a) A
single rupture is assumedto have initiated at location 1 and
propagated at a uniformspeed[Antoliket al., 1995] (Figure5a).
(b) A smallprecursory eventoccurredat location1, followedby
theonsetof majormomentreleaseat location2 andpropagating
towardlocation3. This is essentiallythe approach adoptedby
Fig. 6. A comparison of between observed (solidtraces)and
Becket al. [1995](Figure5b),andChen[1995](Figure5c).
synthetic directP phases(dashedtraces)generated by three
source modelsfor thegreatBolivianeventof 1994. Layoutis
similartothatof Figure3b. Up-going directphases areplottedas cracks)
isclose
to60'[Green
andBurnley,
1990;
B•rnley
opentriangles at azimuths180'fromtheirtrueazimuths.(a)The et al., 1991]. In otherwords,sinceanticrackspreferentially
result of Antolik et al. [1995], who assumeda rupture developover planesperpendicularto the axis of maximum
configurationdepictedschematicallyin Figure 7a, was compression[Green and Burnley, 1989], the acute angle
reproduced. Insteadof stationTBT notconsidered by them,result between this axis and the transformational faults is close to
atnearby stationPABisshown.Theylow-pass filteredallsignals
witha cut-offfrequency of 0.1 Hz andnormalized all signals
to 30'. This value is closeto the anglebetweenthe extremely
consistent orientation of the P axes for all events
havethesameareaunderthesynthetic pulses.Noticethemisfit
in timingor pulse-widths of up to 4 s. In cases(b) and(c), thesummarizedin Figure 2b and the sub-horizontalraptures
Nyquistfrequencyis 2 Hz. In case(b), the onsetof inversion depictedin Figure 4. In Figure 4, the exactwidth of each
excludes signalfromtheprecursory subeventin orderto simulate rupture plane is unknown. The width of each plane,
thesolution of Becket al. [1995](Figure5b). Case(c) is taken however,doesnot affect the estimatedanglebetweenthe P
from Chen[1995]. Seetext for details. axes and any sub-horizontalplane. Notice that such a
geometrybetweenthe P axesandraptureplanescannotbe
Along the Japanslab,the raptureduringthe earthquake reconciled with the anticrack model, if sub-horizontal
of July 21, 1994 is sub-parallelto the strikeof the slab so rapturesoccurredin nearlyverticalslabs.
the overall length of the rupture does not constrainthe The great Bolivia deep-focus earthquake of 1994
thicknessof the seismogenic zone. However,the apparent occurredin a regionof low backgroundseismicityand the
en echelongeometryof the rupturecanbe comparedwith configuration of theWadati-Benioffzoneis notparticularly
certainaspectsof the anticrackmodelfor the nucleationof well-understood(Figure 5) [e.g., Kirby et al., 1995a].
transformational faults(Figure4). In thismodel,lenticular Basedon sparsebackgroundseismicityandthedistribution
micro-structures, .filledwith extremelyfine-grainedspinel, of aftershocksof the 1994 sequence[e.g., Silver et al.,
actas anticracksthatpromotethenucleationandcoalescing 1995], the Wadati-Benioffzoneappearsto havea strikeof
of transformationalfaults [Green and Burnley, 1989]. approximatelyN60*W, dippingapproximately45' toward
Exactly how suchmicrostructures developrapidly into a north-northeast. Interpretationof travel-timetomography,
majorearthquake overanareaof over1,000km2 is a on the other hand, suggesteda strike of approximately
matterof debate[e.g.,Jiao and Wallace,1995,Kirby et al., N45*W and a steep dip of approximately 75' toward
1995b]. northeast[Engdahlet al., 1995].
In laboratoryspecimens, the acuteanglebetweenspinel Taking into accountuncertaintiesin the orientationof
lenses (anticracks) and transformational faults (shear the Wadati-Benioff zone and those in the
366 MULTIPLE RUPTURES DURING DEEP EARTHQUAKES

parameters, lower bounds on the thickness of the. observedvariationsin pulse-widthsandfrequencycontents

seismogeniczone in the slab range from 10 to 40 km, of waveforms better than models invoking low speeds
dependingon the exact orientationof rapturepropagation (Figure6). Becausethe no- or low-slipregionbetween
and the local configurationof the slab [Chen, 1995]. As subevents 1 and 2 (Figure7) emittedno observable signal
such, there seems to be no firm conclusionsas to whether [Antoliket al, 1995], it is impossibleto resolvethe issue
the sourceregioncanbe accommodated
in a volumerich in illustratedin Figure7 for this event. On the otherhand,
metastableolivine or even within the subductedlithosphere usingtwo different approachesof waveforminversion
(see SpecialIssue of Geophys.Res. Lett.) The issueis (Figure3 andKuo et al. [1995]), thereis agreementon a
further complicatedby the possibilitythat the slab may highrapturespeedof closeto 4 km/sfor theeventin July
havethickenedconsiderably nearthe baseof the transition of 1994 alongthe Japanslab. WillemannandFrohlich
zone [e.g., Stein, 1995]. This controversyleads to two [1987] compiledtheapparentrapturespeedsof subevents
additional issues. relative to the onsetof first arrival for approximately30
First, can large deep-focusearthquakesinitiate from a deepearthquakes and found that only three eventshad
thin wedgein the interiorof the slabbut propagatebeyond unusuallyslowrapturespeeds.Approximately ten events,
the region in which metastableolivine is abundant? on the otherhand,haveapparentrapturespeedsexceeding
Observations from regionswherethe Wadati-Benioffzone half of the shearwave speedsin the sourceregion. We
is well defined by backgroundseismicityindicate that concludethat there is little evidencefor unusuallyslow
rapturesduring large deep-focusearthquakescan extend rapturespeedsduringdeep-focus earthquakes.
beyondthe volumemarkedby background seismicity.For
instance, both the distribution of aftershocks and the CONCLUSIONS
slippedregionduringthe main shockseemto indicatethat
raptureduring the deepearthquakesequenceof 1994 in Based on the inversion of broad-band P and S H
northernTongaextendedbeyondthe doubleseismiczone waveforms,we showedseveralcasesin which the effectof
as definedby backgroundseismicity[Wienset al., 1994; directivityduringlargedeep-focus earthquakescanbe well
McGuire et al., 1995]. explainedby long,narrowregionsof momentreleaseover
Along the Izu-Bonin slab, Glennonand Chen [1995] oneor moresub-horizontal planes(Figures4 and5c). Such
found three eventswhosedirectionof rapturepropagation rupturescan accommodate a large amountof moment
is sub-parallelto the dip directionof a steepdippingslab. releaseovera restrictedsourceregion,a conditionexpected
Consequently, the length of rupture constrained the to existin the interiorof subductedlithosphere.
minimum thickness of the seismogenic zone to be Apparentrapturespeeds areoftennon-uniform duringa
27_+12km. This value is closeto the predictedthicknessof single large event associatedwith multiple ruptures,
the wedgeat a depth of 500 km, but is somewhatlarger varyingfrom only 1-2 km/s betweensubevents to 3.5-
than the thickness of the Wadati-Benioff zone of 15-20 km 4 km/s within each subevent. Contraryto the resultsof
[Iidaka and Furukawa, 1994; Wiens et al., 1993]. One other researcherswho did not allow for Doppler effect
view is that large deep-focusearthquakesare triggeredby within subevents,there is no conclusive evidence for a
micro-mechanisms (anticracks or otherwise) within the particularlyslow rapturespeedduringlarge deep-focus
metastableolivine wedge. The rapturecan thenpropagate earthquakes. In thecaseof theJuly21, 1994earthquake in
beyondthe wedge. This view is reminiscentof modelsfor theJapanslab,two left-slip,en echelonruptures,separated
shallowearthquakesin the brittle regime: the rapturemust by approximately 7 km in depth,arelikelyto haveoccurred
nucleate in the stick-slip region but can propagate on two sub-horizontal planes. This configurationcan be
downwardinto the stable-slidingregion. understood in the context of transformational faulting
Second,do largedeep-focuseventshaveunusuallylow duringdeep-focusearthquakes.
rupturespeeds?If so,doesthe low speedreflectprocesses In generalterms,largefluctuations
in rapturespeeds
and
that are responsiblefor extendingthe rupture beyond a the likelihood that en echelonrapturesdo not overlapcan
small volume of nucleation? For instance, it has been be construed as indications that each subevent involves the
proposed that a slow rupture speed of 1-2 km/s may formationof a new fault, lendingfurther credenceto the
indicatemelting inducedby shearheating [e.g., Kikuchi transformational faulting model. At the sametime, the
and Kanamori, 1994], a mechanism that could be possibilityexiststhat the seismogeniczoneduringlarge
responsiblefor extendingan initially smallruptureover a deep-focusearthquakesextendedbeyondthe expected
largearea[e.g.,Jiao andWallace,1995]. metastable
olivinewedge. Whethertransformational
faults,
In the caseof the Bolivian event,it appearsthat a high once nucleated in the metastable olivine wedge, can
rapturespeedof 3-3.5 km/s within subevents can explain propagate
a largedistance
beyondthewedgeis

Acknowledgments.We benefited from discussionswith M.
Antolik, S. Beck, H. Green,H. Houston,S. Kirby, J. Nfibelek, and
D. Wiens. S. Kirby, S. Stein, and an anonymousreviewer
provided helpful reviews. We also thank M. Antolik for a
preprint. Seismograms are collectedfrom theIRIS DMC anddata
centersof the GEOSCOPE and Pre-POSEIDON projects. This
researchwassupported by NSF grantEAR93-16012.
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Mary Ann Glennon,2628 York Court,Woodridge,IL
 ImagingColdRockat theBaseof theMantle'
The Sometimes Fate of Slabs?

Michael E. Wysession

Department
ofEarthandPlanetarySciences,
Washington
University,
St.Louis,Missouri

We presenta reviewof thearguments

in supportof theintriguing
ideathattheeventual
resting
placeof somesubductedlithosphere
iswithintheD" layeratthebaseof themantle.Theresults
of
currentmodelsof seismicvelocitiesin the lowermostmantlecorrelatewell with the historyof sub-
ductionsincethebreak-upof Pangea.Significant
supportexiststo suggest
thatwhile slabsdo not
alwayspenetrate
intothelowermantle,in somecases theydo.If thelowermantledoesnotinvolve
a significant
increase
in density
relativeto theuppermantleandtransition
zone,thenthecoldslab
materialwill reachthebaseof themantle,whereit will eventuallyheatup andrisebackto theupper
mantlein the formof hotspotplumes.The largelateralvariationsseenin D" seismicvelocitiesare
consistentwith thishypothetical
model,asis theexistence of thediscontinuous seismicincrease
in
velocityatopD", thatcouldrepresent
a combination
of thermal,
chemical,
and/orphase
boundaries.

The SUBCON conferencebeganwith the creationand

1. INTRODUCTION maturityof oceaniclithosphere,
whichgreatlycontrols the
processesoccurringwithinsubduction
zones.Massbalance
Thispaperservesasa postscript to therestof theSUB- demands, however,a processthattakesthe materialfrom
CON volume,andis verydifferentfromtherestfor several the bottomof subductionzonesand bringsit back to mid-
reasons.First,becauseit focuseson the baseof the mantle oceanridgesto formnewlithosphere.Thisprocessstillre-
asopposed to thetop,thetoolsandtechniques requiredto mainsa topicof discussionand disagreementamonggeo-
view the CMB throughthenearly3000km of intervening scientistsand is the focal point of the debatebetween
rockarenecessarily different.Second, whilethesubducted whole-mantleandlayered-mantle convection.
oceaniclithosphere is initiallya very well-definedentity The evidenceof seismology
hasbeenusedto supportboth
dueto its thermalrigidity,any "slabs"at the baseof the sidesof theslabpenetrationargument, buttherecentresults
mantle would have lost their thermal rigidity, having of someregionaltomographic studiesmayhavesuperceded
reached temperatures ontheorderof 2500K. Third,while the rest.Puttinggeodynamic andmineralogical discussion
wearequitecertainthatoceanic lithosphere
issubducting at aside,the recentseismictomographicmodelsof van der
the sitesof oceanictrenches, whathappens nextis not at all Hilst et al. [1991],Fukaoet al. [1992], Grand[1994], van
certain,andthe detailsas well as the very premiseof this der Hilst [1995], andEngdahlet al. [1995] showin many
paperremainspeculative. Wepresent onepossiblescenario casesa continuityof fast seismicvelocitiesintothe lower
for the fateof subductedlithosphere thatcannotyet be pre- mantlethatis hardto explainwith othermechanisms suchas
sented withthesamesuretyandauthorityasthescenario by thermalcoupling.It is possiblethat futuregeologists will
whichoceaniclithosphere is firstbroughtintothemantle. look backon theseresultsasthe final evidenceto verify the
occurrenceof lower mantle slab penetration.We will as-
sme for the restof the discussion
that somelithospherecan
anddoespenetrateandbecomepartof thelowermantle.
Subduction:Top to Bottom
Oncein the lowermantleandconvertedto perovskite,the
GeophysicalMonograph96
Copyright1996 by theAmericanGeophysicalUnion
thermaldensityanomalyof the slabshouldallowit to

369
370 IMAGING SLABS AT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE
the base of the mantle, provided that the bulk-element
chemicalchangeacrossthe 660-km discontinuityis small.
The correlationbetweensubductedlithosphereand lower-
mostmantleseismicheterogeneity [Chase,1979] hasbeen
well documented at very low sphericalharmonics[Richards
andEngebretson, 1992;Ricardet al., 1993].Recentseismic
studies,at both large and small wavelengths,continueto
find fast seismic velocities at the base of the mantle in re-
gionsthatcorrelatewith paleotrenches. Correlationdoesn't
implycausality,butthecoincidence is striking.
But thereis a problemin ascribingthelargeseismicvari-
ationsobservedat the baseof the mantlepurelyto thermal
effects.Evenvery longwavelengthseismicmodelslike the
recentdegree-12sphericalharmonicmodel of Liu et al.
[1994] are showingasmuchas 8% lateralvariationin seis-
mic shearwave velocityin D", the lowermostmantlelayer.
This mightrequiretemperature variationswell in excessof
1000øC,which is much more than the likely temperature
differencebetweenremnantsof subductedlithosphereand
the ambient lower mantle. One solution stems from two ef-
fectsof post-slabrock on the unusualstructureof D" as a
thermaland chemicalboundarylayer. It is probablethat a
significantthermalboundarylayer(TBL) existswithinD",
across which heat from the outer core conducts. The tem-
perature difference acrossthis TBL may well exceed
1000øC[Boehler,1994], andwhenpost-slabrock arrivesat
the core-mantleboundary(CMB) it wouldlaterallydisplace
thehotterrock.If thepost-slabwasonly slightlycolderthan
the lower mantleadiabat,this processcouldprovideCMB
lateraltemperaturevariationsof at least 1000øC.In addi-
tion, if anydenserchemicalphasesaccumulated in D", such
mantledregswouldalsobe displaced laterallyandforcedto
aggregate in theregionsof hotterD" rock.The higherden-
sitiesof suchdregs,as would occurwith iron enrichment,
would likely causeslowerseismicvelocitiesand augment
the effectsof the thermalperturbations.
The final chapterof this scenarioinvolvesa reheatingof
the post-slabrockat the CMB until thermalinstabilityoc-
curs, with the return of this rock to the upper mantle as
mantleplumes[DuncanandRichards,1991;Sleep,1992],
and eventualreentrainmentinto mid-oceanridge systems.
There is much evidence,both theoreticaland observational,
to supportall stagesof thisscenario,
althoughtheprocess as
a whole cycleremainshypothetical.The main focusof this
paperwill involvea considerationof theobservations
of fast
seismic velocities at the base of the mantle. Much attention
hasrecentlybeenpaidto thestructureof D", whichis a very
dynamicallyactivelayerthat sustainslateralvariationsat a
level equalonlyto theEarth'scrustandlithosphere (for dis-
cussions,see Youngand Lay [ 1987], Lay [ 1989], Jeanloz
[ 1990], Lay et al. [ 1990], Bloxhamand Jackson[ 1991],
Jeanlozand Lay [1993], Wysession [1995a,b], andLoper
andLay [ 1995]).It is a strikingobservation
thatregionsof
fast seismicvelocitieswithin D" correspond well to those
locations of the lower mantle that have underlain active sub-
ductionduring the past 180 million years.We mustbe
excusedif we cannotresistthe aestheticallyattractiveinter-
pretationthatthe lithosphere
andD" are geodynamically
linkedby a whole-mantle convective
cycleinvolvingsink-
ing slabsandrisingplumes.
2. THE FATE OF SLABS
Therearemanygoodreviewsof the differingarguments
for and againstslabpenetration[Silveret al., 1988;Lay,
1994; Poirier, 1991; Davies and Richards, 1992]. The
premise of thispaper,thatslabscanreachtheCMB, isbased
on the assumption that slabsdo penetrateinto the lower
mantle,andthereforebegsthequestion.Therehasbeenin-
creasingevidence thattheupperandlowermantlesaretruly
differententities,with differentmineralogicalphases[Bina,
1991], densities[Dziewonski andAnderson, 1981], andvis-
cosities[Peltier and Jarvis, 1982]. There is even some
evidencefor small amountsof chemicalheterogeneity be-
tween the two [Bina, 1995]. All this suggeststhat the
amount of communicationbetweenthe upper and lower
mantle cannot be above some maximal limit, and that the
twooperatelargelyindependently,
withtheless-viscous
up-
permantleconvecting at a muchfasterrate.Theamount
of
this maximal limit is debated, however, as it still leaves
roomfor somedegreeof slabpenetration.
The lower mantle is perhapstwo ordersof magnitude
more viscousthan the uppermantleand transitionzone
[Hager,1984;Hageret al., 1985],andthiscombined with
the endothermic phasechangein the (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 system
from ¾-spinelto (Mg,Fe)SiO3perovskiteand(Mg,Fe)O
magnesiowtistite represents a significantbarrierto slab
penetration. Butthisbarrierisnotinsurmountable, andcon-
vectionmodelsincorporatingthe viscosityincreaseand
mineralogical phasechangecanstill demonstrate slabpen-
etration[i.e., Zhongand Gurnis,1994].
Thisis alsosuggested by recenthigh-resolutionseismic
tomographic studiesfor severalof theworld'smajorsub-
duction zones. In van der Hilst et al. [ 1991] a study of
several subduction zones in the Western Pacific found some
cases where the fast seismic velocities associatedwith the
subductinglithosphere
tooka sharphorizontalbendat the
660-km discontinuityand somecontinuedstraightdown
into the lower mantle. In the cases of the southernKuril,
JapanandIzu-Boninsubduction,
wherethe slabdip was
shallower,theslabseemedto be layingdownhorizontallyat
the bottom of the transition zone. In the cases of
 WYSESSION 371

Kamchatka and Mariana subduction, however, where the 2089 km

angleof descentwas steeper,the seismicvelocitiescontin-
ued downinto the lowermantleto at least1000km. Figure
1a shows the seismic velocities for the Mariana subduction.

It is possiblethat the occurrenceof trenchmigration

""'"':'•:____
__.• ':•i.•':•
------:::':-•'-'•:••••.:.:-..-.:.:::..'.-i:i:i:!:i:i:!:i.:.::•i•i•i:•:::...,,:..'.:'•'•::•-•
....... .?::'-'.i:.:.:•
i•!!:'..':•.-..•!iii!•i•i
(roll-back)may alsoplay a role. In van der Hilst [1995], :..•i--------:--:-:•c:•:•.-......:::.._•_
.•.?..::•.::iiii!iiiS!iii•i:i:i:i:i:i:.:::..::.....-..::.•:!•!!!!!:r
..... .!'!.!:!.'.:::-'
i:i.!•!•i•!•!i:i-'-.'•:i:i:'

whereno trenchrollbackwas occurring(Kermadec)there

wasno kink in the fastseismicvelocitiesasthey continued ;:.'2...:•:
'.':====================================================
'.-'_-•.-'•
:.:.:.:.i.:.i
•.i.i.i.•.i
'•:•:!
:::::::i:i:i:!:i.
!:i:!:!!!:i:i:!:i:!:'
'•.'i.i:!:i:i:!:;:ii!i:;:;:i:i:i:;:;:;:!:i:i:!:;:;:i:i:i:i:i•:i:iiii!ii:•.•
::::::::::::::::::::::::
i'-:'i::.'.:-::.:.:.i
.•."¾?::::r
into the lower mantle. To the north, where active trench
rollbackis associated with the openingof the Lau Basin,the
fast velocitiesextendedhorizontallybefore they also con-
tinued into the lower mantle, shown in Figure lb. This
behaviorhas also been observedin convectionmodeling
[Zhongand Gurnis, 1995]. The observation thatthe Tonga !•$!•i•::iii!iii•i
............
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:!:i:i.'.::i
............
•.............
•:i:5:!:!
....•".-:':•:.-:•:•:____•-':.5:•:.•
e .......
:':--'-":'-'.....?•-...•i.•.
•
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
"-"':':':':•-•.......'-•..:.:',.':.:5
•:!:i:i:i::::":-:3:,.,-•,...-•
:.:.:.:.:.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.'-'.'-....-.-:•....'•-'•.':,
::::::::.-:::::.;::..::__:.'•:•
•, ß....... ;•,F•;•,• horizontallywithin the transitionzone
beforesinkinginto the lower mantleis alsoobservedin the
modeling of Zhong and Gurnis [ 1995]. This penetration 1500 km
couldoccurcontinually[Jordanet al., 1993;Bungeet al.,
1995] or with periodicmantle overturning[Honda et al.,
1993; Tackleyet al., 1993; Weinstein,1993]. 3411 km
Grand [1994] showsa tomographicmodelof the seismic
velocitiesbeneathNorth and Central America extending
acrossthe entire mantle. A sheetof fast seismicvelocities,
correlatingwith the subductedFarallonplate, is seenex-
tendinginto the lower mantleall the way to the CMB. This
andthe Pacificstudiesmentionedaboveare carefully-done
high-resolutionstudieswith detailedeffortstaken to dem-
onstratethe resolvability of the data, and they present
compellingevidencethatslabscanpenetrateintothe lower
mantle.Alternativeinterpretations of theseseismicanoma-
Bm
lies arenotvery convincing.The recurrenceof thephenom-
enon eliminates a coincidence of isolated lower mantle
1600 km
downwellingbeneathuppermantlesubduction zones.Ther- iasp91
mal coupling is also unlikely. Cold slabsresting at the
bottomof the transitionzonecouldcausea greaterthermal
gradientacrossa mid-mantlethermalboundarylayer(if one -3% slow fast +2%

existed),resultingin a more rapid conductiveflux of heat

out of the lower mantle. This, in turn, could drive a lower
mantle downwellingthat would resemblethe continuation
of the subducted slab. However, because the thermal con-
ductivityof mantle silicatesis so low a huge accumulation
of slabmustrestin onelocationfor a longtime for sufficient
heatto conductoutof thelowermantle,andthisextrapiling
is not seismicallyobserved.This is especiallytruefor Tonga
subduction,which is very recentand has evolvedrapidly
overroughlythepast20 million years.
Thereis a possibilitythatsubducted lithospheremightnot
make it all of the way to the CMB. If the lower mantleis
chemically denserthan the upper mantle, the slab could
have enoughthermalnegativebuoyancyto enterthe lower
mantle,butwould stagnatethereandeventuallyreturnto the
Fig. 1. (a) SeismicP velocitiesin a cross-section
perpendicular to
theMarianasubduction zone,fromvander Hilst et al. [ 1991]. The
imageis obtainedusinga regionaltomographic inversionof P and
pP arrivaltimes,andshowsa continuityof fastseismicvelocities
acrossthe 660-km discontinuitywithout a significantamountof
piling-up.(b) SeismicP velocitiesin a cross-section
perpendicular
to thenorthernTongasubduction zone,from vander Hilst [ 1995].
Here the regionaltomographicimageshowsthe Tongaslabbeing
laid down horizontallyalongthe 660-km discontinuityand then
continuingdownintothe lowermantle.
uppermantle.While the lower mantlemay be enrichedin
iron andsilicarelativeto theuppermantle[BinaandSilver,
1990], recentwork arguesagainstthis [Bina, 1995]. Bina
and Liu [1995] showthat a possiblesilica-enriched
372 IMAGING SLABS AT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE

mantlewould involveonly a 1% chemicaldensitycontrast SLABS (DEPTH 2000 KM, DEGREES 1-15)

acrossthe 660-km discontinuity,whereasa 5% densitycon-
trast is neededto maintainchemicalstratification.Long-
lived isolatedchemicalheterogeneities in the mantlecan
also occur without chemical stratification [Gurnis and
Davies, 1986;Metcalfe et al., 1995]. Thereare possibilities
of chemicaldensitycontrastsdeeperin the lower mantle,
perhapscorresponding to seismicdiscontinuitiesobserved
at depthsof 900, 1050, and 1200 km [Wicksand Richards,
1993]. However, regionaltomographicstudieslike Grand
[ 1994] and globalstudieslike Suet al. [1994] showa con-
tinuity of fast seismicvelocitiesextendingcontinuously
from the top of the lowermantleto the CMB.
SLABS (DEPTH 2000 KM, DEGREES 1-3)
3. PALEOSUBDUCTION
b
Assumingthat subductedlithosphereactuallymakesit to
the CMB, wherewould we expectto seeit? This question
was addressed
by Richardsand Engebretson
[1992] and
Ricard et al. [ 1993]usingplatereconstructions overthepast
180 million yearsto determinethe locationsof paleosub-
ductionzonesin thehot spotreferenceframe.Theyproject-
ed the accumulating subducting lithospheredown into the
lower mantle from the locationsof paleo-subduction. Be-
causethe rate of subductionduringthe mid-lateCretaceous
andearlyCenozoicwasmuchhigherthanit is now,the low-
er mantle shouldshowdisproportionately more "slab"than
if presentday rateswereprojectedintothepast. SH425.2 (DEPTH 2000 KM, DEGREES 1-3)
Suchan accumulationof fossilslabshadpreviouslybeen
correlatedwith longwavelengthgeoidvariationsby studies
like Chase[ 1979], and Chaseand Sprowl[ 1983].Ricard et
al. [ 1993] showedthat a strongcorrelationexistsat spheri-
cal harmonicdegrees2 and 3 betweenthe projectedlithos-
pheregraveyardandlowermantleseismicvelocities,repro-
ducedin Figure2. The projectedlower mantleslabdistri-
bution also correlatedwell with the global distributionof
hotspotsandexplained73% of thegeoidvariance.The sug-
gestionof their studyis that we wouldexpectto find fast
seismicvelocities in regionsof the lower mantle where
lithosphere hasbeensubducted overthepast200 Ma. Fig. 2. A map showingthe regionalaccumulation of subducted
Many factorspreventus from expectingan exactcorrela- lithosphereoverthepast180Ma, assuming thatall slabshaveen-
tion betweenpaleo-subduction and lower mantle seismic teredthe lowermantle,takenfrom Figure7 ofRicard et al. [1993].
velocities.Slabscan travel horizontallythroughthe transi- The top two imagesshowthe predicteddensityvariationsat a
tion zone before penetratinginto the lower mantle. Slabs depthof 2000 km inferredfrompastplatemotions(throughde-
havedifferentageswhenthey subductanddifferenthisto- grees15 and 3), andthe bottomimageshowsdensityvariations
inferred from the 3-D mantle seismic model SH425.2 of $u and
ries of reheatingat the baseof the mantle.Thereare large
Dziewonski
[1991
]. Thecontours
are2.0kg/m
3apart.
Thedistri-
uncertainties in thereconstructionof very old platemotions.
butionof subducted lithosphere
haspredominantlyoccurredalong
But thepaleo-subduction studiesgive seismologists a sense a near-great circlepaththatextendsoverthepolesandacrossthe
of what they shouldbe lookingfor: a broadring of fastve- Americasand EasternAsia. In the speculativescenariothat this
locitiesalonga greatcirclepaththat coversthe polesand subducted lithosphere hasenteredthelowermantleandsunktothe
crosses the equatorat about100øEand80øW,with slowve- core-mantle boundary,studiesof the lowermostmantleshouldsee
locitieslying in between. a similar distribution of fast seismic
 WYSESSION 373

4. SEISMIC IMAGES OF D" S12_WM13 at 2800km depth dvs/vs(%)

•.o o.91

4.1. TomographicInversions •.o o.•s

0.0 •.45 '
-20.0 •.91
Seismicimagesof the lowermostmantledo indeedshow
very nearly what is predicted by lithospheric paleo- •.0
•.0
-1.82
_•
reconstructionassumingthatslabseventuallyreachthebase
of the mantle.This significantresultis seenin mapsof the SH.10c.17at 28• • dep• dvs/vs(%)
CMB from both seismictomographicmodelsand regional
40.0 • '' :'•:• -':•• - • '• '' •;" •': 0.52
teleseismicstudies.In general,fastseismicvelocitiesin D"

0.0
- .-'-•'
•" ? ff.•-
•' :'•.52
"
underlie the rim of the Pacific ocean and slow velocities
-•.o • - ..' .•%• Oe • • :..-- _•.•
underliethecentralPacificoceanandwesternAfricanplate. .... _.'; '
Seismictomographyis a powerfultool for mappingthe •.0 _Z•
internalstructureof the Earth.Its strengthcomesfrom the -1• -1• -1• -• • -• 0 30 • • 1• 1•

LO• at • • dep• dvs/vs(%)

incorporationof large amountsof differenttypesof data,
with a best-fit model obtainedthroughlinear inversion.A
disadvantage is that the resolutionand reliabilityare very -:... 7 •-•;L•:::-:,:. - ..:- •' .• •.•,.: -c
o.o •':.... u•X•. - ..... • •.•_ o.•
variableacrossthemodelspace,andthereis a possibilityof -•.0 . •. •- .-: _ •- .•. . .-.. . •39
artifactslike smearingalongthe ray pathsthat resultfrom
..

•.0 -.' • •" ' •.•

•.• • • .......-_;:.'&
.•.. ., - •- $• _•.•
the inversion.Unfortunately,the resolutionalsotendsto be
• • ,.-

•.o •-. --. .. '•,•:'",z'•.;-;"•';:•.•:;t.•:

•,;..-• -•.•
near its worst at the base of the mantle due to limited -I• -I• -I• -• • -• 0 • • • 120 I•

MDLSH a128• • dep• dvslvs(%)

earthquake-stationgeometries[Pulliarnet al., 1993]. Good •.0
.• .....

0.•

discussions of mantleseismictomographycan be foundin •.0 0.•

•.0 0.47
Rornanowicz[ 1991], Dziewonski and Woodward[ 1992], 0.24
o.o o.•
Montagner[ 1994], andRitzwollerand Layely [ 1995]. -2o.o •.24
Recentmodelsof the baseof themantleshowgreatsimi- •.o
•.o
•.47
•.•
larities,evenwhen usingvery differentdatasets.Figure3
showsa map(Figure4h of RitzwollerandLayely[ 1995]) of Ion•de

the seismicvelocity variationsat a depthof 2800 km from

four different studies:SH12/WM13 of $uet al. [1994],
SH. 10c.17 of Masters et al. [ 1992], L02.56 of Dziewonsta'
[ 1984],andMDLSH of Tanirnoto[ 1990].Along with other
currentmodels,like that of Inoue et al. [ 1990], Pulliarn et
al. [1993] andLiu et al. [1994], theseimagesdiffer slightly
in the details, but the main featuresare similar to all: fast
seismicvelocitiesin D "extendingin a ring from the south
to northpoles, extendingacrossthe Americas,and eastern
Asia. The regionsin between,beneathwest and southwest
Africa andthe PacificOcean,displayslowvelocities.
Previousstudieslike Dziewonskiet al. [ 1993],Forte et al.
[ 1994], and Woodwardet al. [ 1994] have interpretedthe
seismicvariationsin terms of thermalvariations,and there-
fore usedthemto computebuoyancyforcesandconvection
patternswithinthemantle.Dziewonskiet al. [ 1993]labelled
someof the large D" scalefeaturesas convective"Grand
Structures." Theselong-wavelength seismicstructurescon-
sistof (1) the PangeaTrench,fast rock extendingpole-to-
polebeneaththe Americas,(2) theTethysTrough,fastrock
extendingfrom beneathIndia to southeast of Australia,(3)
theChinaHigh, the seismicallyfastremnantsof subduction
beneaththe eastem coast of Asia, (4) the North Pacific
Fig. 3. Maps of the seismicvelocityvariationswithin the D" re-
gion at a depthof 2800 km for four tomographicmodels,taken
from Ritzwollerand Lavely [ 1995]. The studiesare, from top to
bottom:SHI2/WM13 of Su et al. [1994], SH. 10c.17 of Masterset
al. [1992], L02.56 of Dziewonski[1984], andMDLSH of Tanim-
oto [1990]. All models are of S-velocity variationsexcept for
L02.56, which is for P velocities.The main featuresof all are sim-
ilar, eventhoughthey were doneat differenttimeswith different
data, and correlate well with the distributionof subductedlithos-
phereshownin Figure2.
High,fastrockbeneatheasternSiberia,Alaska,andwestern
Canada,(5) the EquatorialPacificPlumeGroup,slowrock
from the easternPacific to Indonesiacorrelatingwith the
manyPacifichotspots (Easter,Galapagos, Hawaii,Marque-
sas,Pitcairn,Samoa,etc.), and(6) the African Plume,slow
rockcorrelatingwith hotspotsbeneaththeAfricanplateand
surroundingregions (Afar, Ascension,Azores, Canary,
CapeVerde,Iceland,Reunion,St. Helena,Tristan,etc.).
Thesefeaturesare labelledon a new map(Figure4) of D"
variationsmadeusingthe differentialtravel timesof Pdiff
and PKP-DF phases.Describedin Wysession [1996],
374 IMAGING SLABS AT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE

•.•5:i::•i:!:.•..?.•
••!:i.':
'

:::-::5:•:•,::?..._• '•'•'--'-"--'••'""•
'•-'•'•':•••••:•:_- : • • =•_;: ':•::•.?..•!:!•!.".•!:•:!:i:i:•:'..:!:•:5."::.•.'::•.-.:•. ",':'-'.--•'•:-•:>,•:

o :::•'. ::::::::::::::::::::::::: . ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

:::::.2
"•:•":•?-'?:'> ""-

-2o

-4o

-6o

-8o ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I
40 80 19•0 1•0 9.00 9.40 9.80 89.0 860

Longitude

.... ........
-1 0 1

% Increase in P-Velocity

Fig. 4. A mapof P velocitiesat the baseof the mantle,takenfrom545 PKP-Pdiffdifferentialtraveltimes.The pathsof

PKP and Pdiff are correctedfor mantlepath heterogeneityand innercore anisotropy,and the differentialtimesdeter-
minedthrougha waveformcross-correlation with reflectivitysyntheticcounterparts[Wysession,1996]. The timesare
convertedinto velocityanomalies,distributedalongthe Pdiff20 s Fresnelzonesat the CMB, and then invertedfor the
seismicP-velocityvariationsacrossa grid of 660 sphericalnodes.Labelledon the imagearethe GrandStructures iden-
tified by Dziewonskiet al. [1993], whichcorrelatewell with surfacehot spotregionsandpaleosubduction zones.

new techniqueisolatesthe Pdiff path aroundthe core for 4.2. Differential Travel TimeStudies
earthquake-seismometer distancesof 120ø-165ø. The dif-
ferential times are convertedinto velocity anomaliesand ThisPKP-Pdiffstudyis oneexampleof thetechnique of
distributedalongthe 20 s CMB Fresnelzonesof the Pdiff usingdifferentialtravel times,which eliminatesmanyun-
waves.TheseFresnelzones,theregionsthatthewavessam- certaintiesconcerningthe hypocenterand its rupturepro-
ple coherently, areaslargeas2000 x 5000km, soonlyvery cess, and combined with mantle path corrections, can
long wavelengthsignal is retrievable.But the 120ø-165ø largelyisolatethe seismicstructureof D" [Wysession et al.,
distancerangeprovidescoverageof very differentpartsof 1995b].This methodcan incorporateseismicphasesthat
the CMB from other seismic studies,and since our veloci- diffractaroundthe core(Sdiff,PdifJ),reflectoff of the core
tiesaredeterminedby wavestravellinghorizontallythrough (ScS,PcP, sSc5), or refract throughthe core (PKP, SKS,
D", theyprovidea complementary studyto thetomographic SKK5),asshownin Figure5. Most of theseregionalhigher-
models,which use phasesthat reflect off or refractacross resolutionexaminations of the lowermostmantleagreevery
the CMB. The fastvelocitiesin Figure4 beneaththe north- well with the global tomographicimageswhile discerning
west Pacific correlate well with the distribution of subduct- additionalfeatures,and also suggesta correlationwith the
ed slabsshownin Figure2a, andis a well-resolvedregion. historyof lithosphericsubduction.
This methodalsoprovidesbettercoverageof the southern In Wysessionet al. [1992, 1993] and Valenzuelaet al.
hemispherethanotherseismicstudiesof D". [1993], extendedprofilesof core-diffractedSdiffand

A.
B.
C. D.
• Lower Lower
Mantle
ß .•__
Outer
f D"
Core Out•
Velocity
Fig. 5. Cartoonsshowingmany of the ray-tracedseismicphases
usedfor examiningthe seismicvelocitystructureof the lowermost
mantle. (a) Core-reflectedphasesScS and sScS(and their differ-
ential counterpartsS and sS), as well as core-refractedSKS and
SKKS. (b) Paths of the three branchesof core-refracted PKP
waves,as well as core-diffractedPdiff. The differentialtimes of
thesephaseswere usedto producethemap shownin Figure4. (c)
Lowermostmantlevelocitystructurewith a discontinuous increase
in velocityat thetop of D", and(d) theresultingtriplicatedseismic
phaseSdS.
phasesisolatedregionalD" variations.The fastestD" S ve-
locitieswere beneathnorthernNorth America, correlating
with the North Pacific High and PangeaTrough,and be-
neath SoutheasternAsia, correspondingto the Tethys
Trough.The slowestD" S velocitieswere beneaththe In-
donesianregion, correlatingwith the westernextensionof
theEquatorialPlumeGroup.TheP-velocityvariationswere
similar,but with somemarkeddifferences(discussed later).
Studiesusingcore-reflectedwavesalsogive the expected
distributionof fast and slow seismicvelocities.The global
studyof WoodwardandMasters[ 1991] foundvariationsin
ScS-Sdifferentialtravel times of +8 s that displayeda co-
herentregionalpatternwhenplottedat the locationsof the
ScSCMB bouncepoints.Thisdataprovidesprovidesanim-
WYSESSION 375
portantpart of the lowermostmantle signal of the tomo-
graphicshearwave modelsof Su et al. [1994] andLiu et al.
[ 1994]. Wysession et al. [ 1994, 1995a]usedScS-SandsScS-
sSrelativearrival times(seeFigure 5a) to map out t•atures
of the dramatic D" anomalies beneath the western Pacific.
The largenumberof earthquakes alongthe westernPacific
makessucha map possible,shownin Figure6. By distrib-
uting the inferredseismicvelocityperturbations alongthe
ScS and sScSpathsthroughD" we were able to resolvea
region of the Equatorial Plume Group with velocitiesas
much as 3% slowerthan PREM [Dziewonskiand Anderson,
1981] centeredbeneathMicronesia,which was borderedto
the southand west by regionsof 3% fastrock. The fast re-
gionto thesouthis theTethysTrough,andthefastregionto
the northis the ChinaHigh.
Similarresultsare foundfor P velocitiesusingPcP-P dif-
ferentialtimes[Zhuand Wysession, 1996].Mapping78,793
PcP-P differential times from the bulletin of the Interna-
tional SeismicCentre providessufficientresolutionof D"
P-velocitiesin a limited numberof regions.Theseregions
includeD" beneath(1) the HawaiianPacific(velocities1.0-
1.5% slowerthanthe IASP91 model[KennettandEngdahl,
1991], (2) the northernPacific rim (velocitiesfast by 1.0-
1.5%), (3) southeastAsia andthe westernmost Pacific(with
the familiar east-to-west transition from slow-to-fast veloc-
ities),and(4) CentralAmerica(slightlyfastvelocities).
Resultsareconsistent for studiesof core-refracted
phases.
The differentialtimesof thePKP-AB andPKP-DF canmap
D" anomaliesbecausePKP-DF travelsnearly vertically
throughD" whilePKP-AB spendsmuchof itspathwithinit
(seeFigure 5b). PKP-AB pathsthat sampleD" beneaththe
Pacific are bestfit by a modelwith a 1.5% reductionin D"
P velocity [Songand Helmberger,1993].McSweeneyand
Creager [1994] used differential PKP-DF and PKP-AB
phasesto identifyD" lateralvariations,and foundfastve-
locities beneath South and Central America, as well as East
Asia. Garneroand Helmberger[ 1993] foundthatthe travel
times of S and SKS were consistentwith the tomographic
models of D" beneath the eastern Pacific of Tanimoto
[1990] andSuet al. [1994], while identifyingsmallerwave-
lengthvariations.usedTherelativetimesofSKS,SKKS,and
SPdKS,the latter diffractingalongthe CMB, have alsore-
vealed fast velocities beneath the Americas and a thin
ultra-slowlayer beneaththe Pacificslow velocitiesregions
[Garnero et al., 1993b; Garnero and Helmberger, 1996;
Mori and Helmberger, 1995].
4.3. Thermochemical Variations in D"
If the seismic variations in D" are due to slab-induced
thermalvariations,then very large temperature
376 IMAGING SLABS AT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE

60-

40-

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.. . •:::.!•?:i•ii•:::?:•::::::?:•::::•i::•ii::i::::::?:!?:i::::•:•?:•i•!{•i::!•!i!•:?:::i:?.•;.•:•ii.•
' :..:,•
',.:..:.':i:!:i:!'!:i:i:!:::!:i:i:i:!:!:i:':i'i:i:i:i:'::::
!:::"i::.-•
":'•--
-:,.
'...:•.:•:•:::..::i:?-.
'-:-
•,' ,•, :_-......• ...........
•••.-...:.•.-..•
-40
80 100 120 140 160 180

Longitude

-4 -3 -2 -1 o i 2 3 4

% Increase in Shear Velocity

Fig. 6. A map of S-velocityvariationsin the lowermostmantlebeneaththe southwestern Pacific Ocean from 747
differential$cS-Sands$c$-sStimes,takenfrom Wysession et al. [ 1994, 1995a].The centrallow-velocityregioncorre-
spondsto thewesternendof the EquatorialPlumeGroup,the southern high-velocityregionto theto the TethysTrough,
andthe northwesternhigh-velocityregionto the ChinaHigh.

arerequired.
While
theamount
•f lateral
heterogeneity
in very good resolutionof D" throughthe incorporationof
D" varieswith different studies,and in generalS variations largenumbersof computedSKS-SandSKS-Sdiffdifferential
aregreaterthanP variationsby roughlya factorof 2.5 [Rob- traveltimes,showsa totalrangeof D" S-velocityvariations
ertsonand Woodhouse,1996], they are on par with Earth's of 8%. A computationusinga third-orderBirch-Murnaghan
uppermantle. The model of Liu et al. [1994], which has equationof statewith currentlyavailablethermoelastic

rametersfor perovskiteandmagnesiowastite showedthata
8% changein S velocitycouldrequiremorethana 1000øC
changein temperatures [Wysessionet al., 1992].
Suchlargetemperaturevariationsseeminconsistent with
the expectedthermal signatureof post-slabmaterial.The
centerof the subductingslab may be more than 1000øC
colderthan the surroundingmantle when the slabreaches
the 660-km discontinuity[Schubertet al., 1975], but this
thermaldifferencewill becomemuchsmallerby the time
theslabcrosses
to thebottomof themantle.Usingthether-
mal model of Stein and Stein [ 1995], the core of the slab
mightbe roughly75% of ambientmantletemperatures,
or
600-700 øC colder, when it reachesthe base of the mantle.
And this calculation does not take into consideration the
greaterviscosityof the lower mantle, which will increase
the time requiredfor slabsto reachthe CMB.
Alternatively,thereare chemicalmechanismsfor seismic
velocityvariations,suchaschangesin the iron/magnesium
or silicate/oxideratios.Increasingthe amountof iron in a
perovskite-magnesiowastite assemblage will reduceseis-
mic velocities,but it musttriplebeforeseismicobservations
aresatisfied[Wysession et al., 1992].Explainingtheseismic
variationsentirelyin termsof largechangesin thechemical
components is actuallyverydifficultto dowithoutinvoking
enormous bulk chemical variations. No evidence for such
bulkchemicalheterogeneity is observed in hotspotsbasalts,
thoughthiscouldalsoresultif hot spotsdo notoriginateat
the CMB or if the chemicalheterogeneities aretoo denseto
be entrainedin plumes[KelloggandKing, 1993].
One solutionmay be that eitherour equations-of-stateor
ourestimates of thethermalderivatives of the incompress-
ibility,rigidityanddensityaresignificantly wrong,meaning
that large velocity changesare actuallycompatiblewith
smallertemperaturechanges.Another solutionmay be
foundin thegeodynamicmodelsof mantleconvectionfrom
severalstudieslike Tackleyet al. [ 1993, 1994]andDavies
[ 1993].If sinkingrockreachesthe CMB, it mustlaterally
displacethe hot rock that had previouslybeenbeneathit.
This means that the limit on lateral thermal variations is the
radialtemperaturedifferencethatcanbe dynamically sup-
ported acrossthe thermal boundarylayer, and sincethis
temperaturedifferencecould be as great or greaterthan
1000øC[Boehler,1994],suchlargelateraltemperature vari-
ationsarepossible.The sinkingof coldplumeswouldserve
to pushtogethertherockthathadbeenconductively heated
by the corefor longperiods,andonceconsolidated,
thishot
rock would be the sourcefor rising mantle plumesthat
would recirculatethe rock back to the uppermantle.The
lateralflow would alsosweepany densemantledregsthat
mightexistas part of a D" chemicalboundarylayerto the
baseof the plume [Daviesand Gurnis, 1986], furtherac-
centuatingthe slow velocities.
WYSESSION 377
There is additionalseismological
evidencesuchas CMB
topographyand Poissonratio variationsthat might help
identifywhetheror not the seismicvariationsin D" have a
thermal or chemicalorigin. The CMB will be elevatedif
slow velocitiesare the resultof anomalouslyhot rock but
depressed in the caseof anomalouslyiron-richrock. Indi-
cationsfrom modelsof CMB topographysuchas Morelli
and Dziewonski[1987], Doornbosand Hilton [1989] are
somewhatconflicting,but show a generalcorrelationbe-
tween slow seismicvelocitiesand elevatedtopography,
supportinga dominantthermalcomponent.This correlation
is notseen,however,in Rogersand Wahr[1993].Thereis a
clearneedfor moreworkin theareaof CMB topography.
The Poissonratiois not expectedto vary greatlyif theP
andS velocityvariationsaretheresultof thermalanomalies,
butthismay be differentfor chemicalvariations[Wysession
et al., 1993]. There is evidencefrom core-diffractedwaves
[Wysession et al., 1992],core-reflected
waves[Wysession et
al., 1994, 1995b],andtomographic modelsthatP andS ve-
locity variations in D" do not always vary in tandem.
Robertsonand Woodhouse[ 1996] find that the correlation
betweenP and S velocity variationsin the mantle from to-
mographicstudiessteadilydecreases with depthto a value
of 0.3 at the CMB. Geographicalvariationsin the D"Pois-
sonratio computedfrom the modelsof Suet al. [1994] and
Pulliam et al. [ 1993] rangefrom 0.295 to 0.310, for a total
variationof of 5%. The lowestvalue(0.295) corresponds to
D" beneath Alaska where Wysessionet al. [1992] also
found their lowest Poisson ratios. It is unclear whether these
variationsrepresenta real changein materialpropertiesor a
differencein the wavelengthsandthereforesamplingreso-
lution of the P and S waves used. Lateral variations in D"
Poissonratiosmay eventuallybe usedto identifyandclas-
sify regionalchemicaland thermalcharacteristics,
as they
are for the crust[Zandt and Ammon,1995].
5. A SEISMIC DISCONTINUITY AT THE TOP OF D":
POSSIBLE MECHANISMS
5.1. Seismic Observations
The most common feature of D" in seismic studies is the
discontinuous increasein velocity at the top of the layer.
First detailedfor S wavesbottomingbeneathCentralAmer-
ica and NorthernAsia [Lay and Helmberger,1983], it was
quantifiedthroughthe identification
of a triplicatedphase,
SdS,whichrefractsat thetopof D" andappearsasan arrival
betweenS andScS(seeFigures5c and 5d). This phasewas
later identified for S waves in other parts of the Earth
[YoungandLay, 1990;GahertyandLay, 1992],forP waves
[Wright et al., 1985; Houard and Natal 1992; Vidaleand
Benz, 1993; Weber, 1993], in long-periodScS
378 IMAGING SLABSAT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE
tions [Revenaughand Jordan, 1991], and in the decayof
Pdiff amplitudes[Valenzuelaet al., 1994]. Kendall and
Shearer[1994] lookedat the appearance of SdSin global
digital recordsand foundthat the featureappearedin all
partsof D" with adequatecoverage,evenin regionsassoci-
atedwith slowseismicvelocities,supportingearliersugges-
tionsthat the D" discontinuityis a globaland not regional
feature [Nataf and Houard, 1993]. But this matter is far
from being resolved[Loper and Lay, 1995]. There is also
strongevidencethat the depthof the discontinuity varies
greatly,rangingfrom 130to 450 km abovetheCMB [Reve-
naughand Jordan, 1991; Vidale and Benz, 1993; Weber,
1993; Kendall and Shearer, 1994].
5.2. Thermal Mechanisms
While we wouldlike to saythatslabsarethesimplecause
of the D" discontinuity,there are severalpossiblemecha-
nisms,shownin Figure7. A simplebox-modelfor convec-
tion (Figure7a) is not sufficient,but thermal,chemical,and
mineralogicalphasevariationscanbe invokedto satisfythe
seismologicalobservations.Slabscould be the culprit if
cold rock pondingat the the baseof the mantlecouldpush
hot less-viscous rock up and over it [Stevenson, 1993], re-
sultingin abnormallyhot(slow)rockoverlyingslightlycold
(fast) rock (Figure7b). While this couldgive the necessary
discontinuous velocityincrease,sucha structuremay notbe
sufficientto satisfythe requiredincreasein velocity (rela-
tive to ambientmantle conditions)observedin someloca-
tions of D". The thermal mechanism is also not sufficient if
the D" discontinuityis a globalfeature.
5.3. Chemical Mechanisms
It is possiblethatthe D" discontinuitycouldbe the result
of densechemical heterogeneitiesthat have settledto the
bottom of the mantle. Variations in the thickness of this
chemicalboundarylayerwouldbe dueto its beingswept
laterally by horizontal mantle flow [Christensen,1984;
Davies and Gurnis, 1986;Hansenand Yuen,1989]. The ex-
istence of these chemical variations in the form of laminar
sheets[Kendall, 1995] couldevenprovidea mechanismfor
explainingobservations of seismicanisotropyin D" [Lay
and Young,1991; Vinniket al., 1995]. The difficulty,how-
ever, is to arrive at a densechemicalphasethat would be
both seismically fast and sufficiently abundant.Silicate
phaseswhich are denserbecauseof an increasein iron are
seismicallyslow, so core-mantlereactionproductsas sug-
gestedby Knittie and deanloz [1989] and Boehler [1994]
couldbe sweptlaterallyto formlaminaraggregates [Kellogg
and King, 1993], but their seismicvelocitieswould not be
faster than the ambient lower mantle.
A candidatefor a seismicallyfastD" chemicalboundary
is the eclogiticoceancrustfrom subductedslabs(Figure
7c), which couldseparatefrom the restof the slabmaterial
eitheron routeto or at the D" thermalboundarylayer [Gur-
nis, 1986; Olson and Kincaid, 1991; Christensenand Hof-
mann, 1994; Weber, 1994]. Christensen and Hofmann
[ 1994]computedthattheeclogite,assuminga rangeof mid-
oceanridgebasaltcompositions, wouldbe 1.5- 2.3% denser
than a lower mantleassemblage basedon garnetlherzolite,
so the rock would preferentiallysettle at the baseof the
mantle.The post-eclogite rock couldcontainup to 25 wt%
SiO2stishovite,very seismicallyfast,thatcouldprovidethe
seismicvelocity increaseat D". We calculatethe seismic
velocitiesfor the garnet lherzolite, MORB 1 and MORB2
compositions of Christensen and Hofmann[1994], usinga
third-orderBirch-Mumaghanequationof statein the man-
ner of Wysessionet al. [1992, 1993]. Using the garnet
lherzoliteasa modelfor averagelowermantlecomposition,
andthe MORB 1 andMORB2 compositions asexamplesof
D" mineral assemblagesfrom the eclogite of the ocean
crust, we find that the post-eclogitematerial provided a
2-3% velocity increase,sufficient to explain the seismic
discontinuity.For shearwaves,the MORB 1 and MORB2
compositionswere 1.8% and 1.6% fasterthan the garnet
lherzolite at D" conditions,but were 2.2% and 2.0% faster
thana pyrolitecomposition.For P waves,the MORB 1 and
MORB2 compositions were 2.1% and2.2% fasterthanthe
garnetlherzolitecomposition,and 2.6% and 2.7% faster
than a pyrolite composition.The high-pressurephaseof
oceanic crust is a viable candidate for the discontinuous in-
creasein velocitiesat the top of D".
Therearesomeproblemswith usingpost-eclogiterockto
explain the D" discontinuity.Becausethe SdS and PdP
phasesarerefractedandnotreflectedoff of thediscontinu-
ity, a significant amount of the post-eclogite rock is
required,especiallyif the discontinuity
is a globalfeature.
Modelingby Christensen and Hofmann[1994], however,
suggests thatonly about6% of D" shouldcontainpoolsof
eclogiticmaterial,assuming thepoolsare 300 km thick.A
solutionto thisdiscrepancy mightexistif the eclogiticma-
terial was swepttowardbut not entrainedin plumesthat
form at the CMB and return to the surface. This would be
consistentwith the suggestionof Kendall and Shearer
[ 1994]thatD", asdefinedby thediscontinuity,is thinnerin
regionsof fast velocitiesand thicker in regionsof slow
velocities.Revenaughand Jordan [1991] showedthat the
seismicD" would be depressedbeneathregionsof cold
downwelling as a chemical boundarylayer was pushed
aside,andthe seismicD" would thickenbeneathupwelling
as the chemical boundary layer was swept towards the
plume.This is still underdiscussion,
however,as
 WYSESSION 379

Ai
=Down'
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
! I

!
/

iI
!

Down

Bi
=Down

Ci
• =Down

, s.:i:!:i:i:i:i:i:•

•J • • :::::::::::::::::::::::

.••
[L:•:•'
:<:::•::

' .........
=============
.... =========================S::

Velocity

Fig. 7. Physicalmodelsfor the seismicvelocitystructures thatare seenat the baseof themantle.The left-handfigures
arethe seismicvelocities(eitherP or S) thatwouldresultfrom the dynamicmodelsshownin theright-handfigures.The
dashedlinesin the velocityplotsshowthe expectedvelocitystructures nearthe sitesup upgoingplumes,and the solid
linesshowexpectedvelocitystructures nearthe sitesof descending slabs.(a) A box-styleconvectionpatternprovides
lateralvariationin D" seismicvelocities,butnotthe seismicdiscontinuity seenatopD". (b) In thecaseof a descending
plumewhichpondsat theCMB, hotrockfromthebaseof D" maybedisplaced up andoverthepondedplume,providing
a discontinuous velocityincrease.LaterallydisplacedCMB dregswouldaccumulate beneathregionsof upwelling,ex-
plainingseismicobservations of a narrowandvery slowvelocitylayerjust abovethe CMB in areasthatalreadyshow
slowerthanaverageD" velocities.(c) A seismicdiscontinuityatopD" couldbe the resultof a bulk chemistrychange,
suchas would resultfrom the post-eclogitephaseof rock that was onceoceaniccrust,if it delaminatesfrom the restof
the slab and accumulates at the base of the
380 IMAGING SLABS AT THE BASE OF THE MANTLE

Di
=Down

'1
E. =Down

Velocity
Fig. 7 (continued).(d) Evenwith no changein bulk chemistry,a mineralogicalphasechangesuchasthe breakdownof
perovskiteinto magnesiowastite andstishovitecouldprovidea discontinuous increasein seismicvelocities.(e) A hy-
potheticalcombinationof all of the abovescenarios,
resultingin severalthermalandchemicalD"'s.

et al. [ 1993a] founda D" layer in a regionbeneaththe cen-
tral Pacificthat displayssomeof the slowestD" velocities.
5.4. MineralogicalPhase Transition
A third explanationfor the D" discontinuity(Figure 7d)
could be a mineralogicalphasechange:the breakdownof
(Mg,Fe)SiO3 perovskiteinto (Mg,Fe)O magnesiowiistite
andSiO2stishovite[StixrudeandBukowinski,1990].While
the phaserelationsare still not well constrained,there is a
possibilitythat the top of D" may representthe bottomof
the stabilityfield for lowermantleperovskite.We userecent
thermoelasticconstantsfor perovskiteand stishovite[Hem-
ley and Cohen, 1992]; Sherman,1993] in additionto those
usedby Wysession et al. [ 1992, 993] to computedthe in-
creasein seismicvelocitiesthat would occurif a pyrolitic
compositionwere to breakdown into oxides:
2-(Mgo.97,Feo.03)SiO3
+ (Mgo.760,Feo.240)=>
3-(Mgo.9,Feo.00+ 2-SiO•
The velocity of the magnesiowiistiteand stishoviteas-
semblagewas 3.0% higher for S and 3.2% higher for P,
relativeto the mantleaboveit, so thisphasetransformation
is a viable candidatefor the D" discontinuity.The phase
transformation model,like the chemicalmodel,couldgive
rise to the seismicallyobservednarrow discontinuity,but
hasthe addedadvantagethat it wouldbe a globalfeature.
A phasetransformation couldalsoexplainthevariationin
the heightof the seismicdiscontinuityatopD" [Natafand
Houard, 1993]. The breakdownofperovskiteoccursat low-
er pressuresfor higher iron/magnesiumratios, so if the
lowermostmantlewas richer in iron thanthe downwelling
rock from the uppermantle,the heightof the discontinuity
would lower, compatiblewith the resultsof Kendall and
Shearer [ 1994]. Such a depressionof the D"discontinuity
would also occurif the reactionof perovskiteto magnesio-
wiistite/stishovitewere endothermic(like at the 660-km
discontinuity).The colder temperaturesof the downgoing
slabwould inhibit the transformation, pushingthe disconti-
nuity deeper.While it seemsfortuitousto have a

transitionsonearthe CMB, the highthermalgradientin D"
accentuates the likelihoodof crossingsuchan instability.
All three processesare possibly occurring- thermal,
chemicalandphase- resultingin complexthree-dimensional
structurewithin D" [Vidale and Benz, 1993; Weber,1993].
A hypotheticalmixtureis shownin Figure7e. Discontinui-
ties may not only have varying depths,but there may be
morethanone. Thereare manyuncertainties thatremainin
the thermochemicalinterpretationof the seismicvelocity
structureof D", but in the currentcontextthe importantob-
servationis thatthereare severalmechanisms by whichthe
observedstructureof D" is compatiblewith the processof
bringingslabsfromtheuppermantleto the CMB.
6. SUMMARY
Seismology hasprovideda clearindicationthatthereis a
strongcorrelationbetweenfastseismicvelocitiesat thebot-
tom of the mantleand the geographicdistributionof sub-
ductedlithosphere.We have describedsomeof the argu-
mentsthat supportthe idea that D" may containthe rem-
nantsof subductedslabswhich penetrateinto the lower
mantleandsinkto theCMB. We stressthatthisgeodynamic
processis still highlyspeculative.The degreeof masstrans-
fer betweenthe upperandlowermantlesis highlydebated,
as is whetherpenetratingslabscan reachthe CMB. None-
theless,the correlationis compelling,and thereare several
linesof evidencein support.
Over the past 180 Ma, a significantamountof oceanic
lithospherehas beensubducted as Pangeanhasbrokenup
and dispersed. Ricard et al. [1993] showedthat the paleo-
subductionwas concentratedin narrow regionsthat corre-
late well with long-wavelengthseismictomography.With
therefinementof seismictomographic modelsandadvances
in regionalCMB seismicinvestigations thiscorrelationhas
improved.We seea consistent patternof a great-circle
path
of fastvelocitiesfrompole-to-pole,acrossthe longitudes of
the AmericasandEasternAsia. While regionaltomography
showsthat someslabsdo not penetrateinto the lower man-
tle, it appearsthat somedo, and in the caseof subduction
beneaththe Americas, fast velocities can be followed from
the uppermantleall the way to the CMB.
If thereis not a larger-than-expected
densityincreaseatop
or within the lower mantlerelativeto the uppermantle,the
thermalsignaturesof slabshave the negativebuoyancyto
reachthe baseof the mantle.If this pondingrock laterally
displaces hot rockof the D" thermalboundarylayer,then
lateraltemperature variationsof greaterthan 1000øCare
theoretically
possible.This thermalsignaturecanthenex-
plaintheverylargeseismicvelocityvariations of + 4% seen
in recenttomographic modelslike Liu et al. [ 1994].Acom-
WYSESSION 381
mon feature of D" is a 2-3% increasein seismicvelocity
seen at a radius of about 200-300 km above the CMB. The
mechanism
for the generation
of thisseismicdiscontinuity
is still not known, but a reasonablecandidateis a combina-
tionof anyof (1) thedisplacementof hotthermalboundary-
layerrockup andovercoldpondedrockfrom the upper
mantle,(2) post-eclogitic
rockof the oceaniccrustthathas
delaminated from the rest of the slab rock and accumulated
in D" dueto its greaterdensity,(3) a mineralogicalphase
changeresultingfrom the breakdownof (Mg,Fe)SiO3per-
ovskiteto (Mg,Fe) magnesiowiistite and SiO2 stishovite,
and(4) something entirelydifferentandnotyetunderstood.
Thereis strongevidenceto suggest thatsubducted lithos-
pheremayprovidethefastseismic velocities
foundin D" at
the base of the mantle.
Acknowledgments. We thankEmileOkal,CraigBina,and
Tim Clarkefor helpfuldiscussions andassistance with seis-
mic and thermodynamic codes.We thankMark Richards,
Michael Ritzwoller, and Rob van der Hilst for contributing
figures.We thankthe CooperativeStudiesof the Earth's
Deep Interior (CSEDI) for providinginterdisciplinary fo-
rumsfor discussions aboutthe structureanddynamicsof the
core-mantleboundary.We thankEd Gamero,SteveKirby,
Mark Richardsandan anonymous reviewerfor veryhelpful
commentsand suggestions.Our work was supportedby
NSF-EAR9205368, NSF-EAR9417542, and The David and
Lucile Packard Foundation.
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