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Waist To Hip Ratio
Waist To Hip Ratio
Waist To Hip Ratio
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Waist-to-Hip Ratio
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Barnaby J Dixson
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estrogens, which inhibit muscle accumulation 2011). Singh (1993) was the first to propose that
while promoting a gynoid fat distribution (Wells a low WHR and an hourglass physique in women
2007). were sexually selected by male mate choice. He
As young women approach sexual maturity, a hypothesized that a low WHR represented a “first
lower WHR predicts the onset of menarche pass filter,” guiding men’s initial assessment of
(Lassek and Gaulin 2008) and is associated with women’s mate value in ancestral environments
maintaining regular menstrual and ovulatory as an unambiguous cue of gender, health, youth-
cycles in young adulthood (Singh and Singh fulness, and fertility (Singh 1993).
2011). In adulthood, levels of the hormone estra-
diol relative to progesterone, which predicts nat-
ural rates of fertility, has been reported to be
Cross-cultural variation
highest among women with the lowest WHRs
in the attractiveness of low WHRs
and largest breasts (Jasienska et al. 2004). Low
in women
WHRs are also associated with higher rates of
successful in vitro fertilizations and artificial
inseminations (Singh and Singh 2011). During The fact that WHR conveys such significant infor-
pregnancy, gluteal–femoral fat reserves are mobi- mation about the mate value of a women suggests
that men in all societies should favor women with a
lized to provide energy during gestation, particu- low WHR over women with a high WHR for mate
larly during the third trimester for fetal neural selection or at least find such women sexually
development and postpartum for lactation attractive. Singh (1993, p. 305)
(Lassek and Gaulin 2008). A low WHR also
Singh (1993) reported in a sample of young men
allows for a stable center of balance for bipedal
from the USA that preferences were greatest for a
locomotion during pregnancy, and increases in
low WHR of 0.7 and proposed that men’s prefer-
maternal central adiposity are associated with
ences should be similar cross-culturally, as men
healthier infant birth weight (Singh and Singh
tend to value youth and healthiness in long-term
2011). WHR also changes across the lifespan, so
mate across cultures. Replications of Singh’s
that as women approach menopause, WHRs enter
(1993) study that were restricted to industrialized
the masculine range and are less hourglass in
cultures such as England, Germany, Poland,
appearance (Singh and Singh 2011).
China, the USA, and New Zealand reported that
men tend to prefer low WHRs of 0.6–0.7
(reviewed in Brooks et al. 2015). However,
Sexual Selection on Female WHR among the Bakossi of Cameroon, who live pri-
and Singh’s “First Pass Filter” marily as subsistence horticulturalists, men
Hypothesis judged a more masculine WHR of 0.8 as most
attractive for both long- and short-term relation-
Sex differences in morphology can emerge via a
ships (reviewed in Brooks et al. 2015. Similarly,
form of natural selection called sexual selection,
Shuar men of the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon pre-
where competition among individuals to fertilize
ferred WHRs of 0.7 and 0.8 when controlling for
the gametes of the opposite sex drives the evolu-
body weight (reviewed in Cashdan 2008). The
tion of behavioral displays, ornaments, and arma-
Matsigenka of Peru, a culturally isolated popula-
ments. Sexual selection can act on traits employed
tion of slash and burn agriculturalists, preferred a
during same-sex competition, such as weaponry
WHR of 0.9 (reviewed in Cashdan 2008). Finally,
or visually conspicuous markers of social rank, or
among the Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania,
ornamentation that enhances sexual appeal. Men’s
men’s preferences were initially reported to be
preferences may have been shaped during the
highest for a WHR of 0.9 (reviewed in Cashdan
early phases of human evolution to recognize
2008). However, a follow-up study employing
those aspects of physique that would enhance
stimuli in profile view that looked more like
their reproductive success (Singh and Singh
Waist-to-Hip Ratio 3
Hadza women revealed that men preferred a distribution of body types that people are accus-
WHR of 0.6 (reviewed in Cashdan 2008). tomed to seeing within their given cultures under-
Many of the findings from these studies suffer pins preferences (Boothroyd et al. 2012). For
from important methodological drawbacks. The example, indigenous Zulu men preferred a much
stimuli were manipulated to only vary in WHR by higher female BMI than Zulu migrants to the UK,
tightening or widening the midriff, which con- who tended to prefer a BMI equivalent to that of
founds WHR with body mass index UK born men (Tovée et al. 2006). Thus, the eco-
(BMI = weight ⁄ height2; Tovée et al.2006). In logical context and the local distribution of body
an attempt to address these issues, studies instead types to which individuals are accustomed to see-
employed photographs of female patients taken ing may influence the direction of preferences for
before and after elective cosmetic surgery to female body shape.
alter their body shape (Singh et al. 2010) and
found that low WHRs elicited neural reward
responses in fMRI studies (Singh and Singh Multivariate Selection on Preferences
2011) and were judged as most attractive across for Female Body Shape
several Western and small-scale societies (Singh
et al. 2010). However, these stimuli presented Perhaps the debate surrounding the role of WHR
only the gluteal–femoral region, which does not in women’s mate value became so complex due to
allow height relative to weight to be visually a narrow focus on the effects of singular or a small
assessed. number of indices of shape or size. Examining
This debate became more complex when single traits cannot determine the strength of
cross-cultural research using full body stimuli selection on components of WHR or how WHR
reported that BMI accounted for significantly contributes in concert with other bodily indices to
more variance than WHR in women’s attractive- shape physical attractiveness (Brooks et al. 2015).
ness (Tovée et al. 2006). Similarly, other research Manipulating one trait, such as waist girth, might
using full body stimuli reported that the abdomi- change how attractive a body is judged via inter-
nal depth and the volume–height index are signif- actions with other bodily traits like abdominal
icant contributors to female physical depth or BMI. Thus, unpacking how bodily indi-
attractiveness (reviewed in Brooks et al. 2015). ces exert independent or interacting effects on
Further, visual attention when assessing female overall physical attractiveness is complicated by
attractiveness shares stronger associations with their intercorrelated nature. To address this com-
judging body fat than WHR with minimal differ- plexity, evolutionary biologists have developed
ences reported as a function of WHR (reviewed in selection analysis, wherein the principle dimen-
Brooks et al. 2015). Finally, computer models of sions of nonlinear and linear selection are charac-
women’s fat distribution around the hips, but- terized using linear and nonlinear multiple
tocks, and thighs demonstrated that WHR as a regressions to uncover the true targets of selection
contributor to body shape is best understood in (Brooks et al. 2015).
light of increases in BMI (reviewed in Brooks A recent study combined multivariate selection
et al. 2015). analyses with experimental manipulations of
Prevailing environmental, ecological, and suites of bodily traits using computer-generated
social factors may give rise to these cross-cultural avatars (Brooks et al. 2015). In this study, avatars
differences in WHR and body weight. Female served as “progenitors” from which “clonal
physiques are more robust in horticulturalist set- daughters” were created using computer algo-
tings, possibly because women engage in manual rithms by making minor changes to 24 bodily
labor which drives higher androgen levels and indices. In an online experiment, bodies were
more masculine WHRs (Cashdan 2008). Varia- allowed to “evolve” via attractiveness ratings
tion in preferences for body shape and size may over eight generations (Brooks et al. 2015).
also be influenced by a “visual diet,” wherein the From the first generation to the eighth generation,
4 Waist-to-Hip Ratio