1.

Using examples, Discuss and compare any two cross cultural Models

Different national cultures comprise different cultural value systems. The value systems are

generated from a conception, or as noted previous beliefs, of existing means or resources, and

necessities. Cultures have various standards and some factors such as behaviors, traditions or

communication of one culture can be observed as irrelevant or sometimes even threatening by

other cultures. These uncertainties can bring into being cultural gaps between people within

workforce

Two leading studies of cross-cultural management have been conducted by Geert Hofstede and

FonsTrompenaars. Both frameworks offer a setoff cultural dimensions along which core values

can be obtained. These structures influence on human thinking, feeling, performance, and the

behavior of organizations and institutions in predictable practice. The two sets of measurements

indicate basic difficulties that any culture has to deal with but for which solutions are in dispute.

They are similar in some respects and different in others.

The frameworks can be grouped into several categories:

 Relations between people: Two main cultural differences have been determined.

Hofstede differentiates between individualism and collectivism. Trompenaars divided

this distinction into two sets: universalism versus particularism and individualism

versus communitarianism

 Motivational orientation: Societies choose ways to cope with the intrinsic uncertainty of

behaviors. In this category Hofstede identifies three measurements: masculinity versus

femininity, amount of uncertainty avoidance, and power distance.

  Attitudes toward time: Hofstede determined between a long-term versus a short-term

orientation. Trompenaars distinguishes two measurements:sequential versus synchronic

and

inner versus outer time

Hofstede’s Model

The theory of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions constitutes a framework revolving around cross-

cultural communication, which was devised by Geert Hofstede. The dimensions collectively

portray the impact of the culture ingrained in society on the values of the members of that

society. They also describe the relationship between these values and behavior, with the help of a

structure based on factor analysis. In other words, this theory studies significant aspects of

culture and provides them a rating on a comparison scale.

 Power distance index (PDI): The power distance index is defined as “the extent to

which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family)

accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.” In this dimension, inequality and

power is perceived from the followers, or the lower strata. A higher degree of the Index

indicates that hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, without doubt or

reason. A lower degree of the Index signifies that people question authority and attempt

to distribute power.

 Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV): This index explores the “degree to which people

in a society are integrated into groups.” Individualistic societies have loose ties that often

only relate an individual to his/her immediate family. They emphasize the “I” versus the

“we.” Its counterpart, collectivism, describes a society in which tightly-integrated

 relationships tie extended families and others into in-groups. These in-groups are laced

with undoubted loyalty and support each other when a conflict arises with another in-

group.

 Uncertainty avoidance (UAI): The uncertainty avoidance index is defined as “a

society's tolerance for ambiguity,” in which people embrace or avert an event of

something unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo. Societies that score a high

degree in this index opt for stiff codes of behavior, guidelines, laws, and generally rely on

absolute truth, or the belief that one lone truth dictates everything and people know what

it is. A lower degree in this index shows more acceptance of differing thoughts or ideas.

Society tends to impose fewer regulations, ambiguity is more accustomed to, and the

environment is more free-flowing.

 Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS): In this dimension, masculinity is defined as “a

preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for

success.” Its counterpart represents “a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the

weak and quality of life.” Women in the respective societies tend to display different

values. In feminine societies, they share modest and caring views equally with men. In

more masculine societies, women are somewhat assertive and competitive, but notably

less than men. In other words, they still recognize a gap between male and female values.

This dimension is frequently viewed as taboo in highly masculine societies.

 Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO): This dimension associates

the connection of the past with the current and future actions/challenges. A lower degree

of this index (short-term) indicates that traditions are honored and kept, while

steadfastness is valued. Societies with a high degree in this index (long-term) view
 adaptation and circumstantial, pragmatic problem-solving as a necessity. A poor country

that is short-term oriented usually has little to no economic development, while long-term

oriented countries continue to develop to a point.

 Indulgence vs. restraint (IND): This dimension is essentially a measure of happiness;

whether or not simple joys are fulfilled. Indulgence is defined as “a society that allows

relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and

having fun.” Its counterpart is defined as “a society that controls gratification of needs

and regulates it by means of strict social norms.” Indulgent societies believe themselves

to be in control of their own life and emotions; restrained societies believe other factors

dictate their life and emotions.

Trompenaars Model

Universalism vs. Particularism

Universalism is the belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere without

modification, while particularism is the belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices

should be applied. It asks the question, What is more important, rules or relationships? Cultures

with high universalism see one reality and focus on formal rules. Business meetings are

characterized by rational, professional arguments with a "get down to business" attitude.

Trompenaars research found there was high universalism in countries like the United States,

Canada, UK, Australia, Germany, and Sweden. Cultures with high particularism see reality as

more subjective and place a greater emphasis on relationships. It is important to get to know the

people one is doing business with during meetings in a particularist environment. Someone from

a universalist culture would be wise not to dismiss personal meanderings as irrelevancies or mere
small talk during such business meetings. Countries that have high particularism include

Venezuela, Indonesia, China, South Korea, and the former Soviet Union.

Individualism vs. Communitarianism

Individualism refers to people regarding themselves as individuals, while communitarianism

refers to people regarding themselves as part of a group. Trompenaars research yielded some

interesting results and suggested that cultures may change more quickly that many people

realize. It may not be surprising to see a country like the United States with high individualism,

but Mexico and the former communist countries of Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were

also found to be individualistic in Trompenaars research. In Mexico, the shift from a previously

communitarian culture could be explained with its membership in NAFTA and involvement in

the global economy. This contrasts with Hofstede's earlier research, which found these countries

to be collectivist, and shows the dynamic and complex nature of culture. Countries with high

communitarianism include Germany, China, France, Japan, and Singapore.

Neutral vs. Emotional

A neutral culture is a culture in which emotions are held in check whereas an emotional culture

is a culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally. Neutral cultures that come

rapidly to mind are those of the Japanese and British. Some examples of high emotional cultures

are the Netherlands, Mexico, Italy, Israel and Spain. In emotional cultures, people often smile,

talk loudly when excited, and greet each other with enthusiasm. So, when people from neutral

culture are doing business in an emotional culture they should be ready for a potentially

animated and boisterous meeting and should try to respond warmly. As for those from an
emotional culture doing business in a neutral culture, they should not be put off by a lack of

emotion.

Specific vs. Diffuse

A specific culture is one in which individuals have a large public space they readily share with

others and small private space guard closely and share with only close friends and associates. A

diffuse culture is one in which public space and private space are similar in size and individuals

guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private

space as well. It looks at how separate a culture keeps their personal and public lives.

Achievement vs. Ascription

In an achievement culture, people are accorded status based on how well they perform their

functions. In an ascription culture, status is based on who or what a person is. Does one have to

prove himself to receive status or is it given to him? Achievement cultures include the US,

Austria, Israel, Switzerland and the UK. Some ascription cultures are Venezuela, Indonesia, and

China. When people from an achievement culture do business in an ascription culture it is

important to have older, senior members with formal titles and respect should be shown to their

counterparts. However, for an ascription culture doing business in an achievement culture, it is

important to bring knowledgeable members who can prove to be proficient to other group, and

respect should be shown for the knowledge and information of their counterparts.
Sequential vs. Synchronic

A sequential time culture is the one in which the people like events to happen in a chronological

order. The punctuality is very appreciated and they base their lives in schedules, plannification

and specific and clear deadlines; in this kind of cultures time is very important and they do not

tolerate the waste of time. Instead in synchronic cultures, they see specific time periods as

interwoven periods, the use to highlight the importance of punctuality and deadlines if these are

key to meeting objectives and they often work in several things at a time, they are also more

flexible with the distribution of time and commitments.

Internal vs. External control

Do we control our environment or are we controlled by it?

COMPARISON

Hofstede’s aim was to evaluate work values, while Trompenaars questionnaires inquired into

respondents’ preferred behaviour in a number of both work and leisure situations. What both

studies have in common is that in both questionnaires the focus is on the ultimate goal state, and

that the underlying values, the underwater part of the culture iceberg, are derived from a series of

questions about more outer layers of the “culture onion”, closer to the top of iceberg.

Trompenaars’s system appears focus-oriented; it speaks a lot about what is on people’s minds

and what is in their sight, it speaks about the logical organization and framework of their

behaviour (specific vs. diffuse, internal vs. external control, universalism vs. particularism) and

relationships (individualism vs. collectivism; achievement vs. ascription; neutral vs. affective).
Hofstede, on the other hand describes some of values present in people and finally affecting their

behavior. The difference therefore is that Trompenaars’s investigation lies on the surface of the

investigation of the person’s culture, showing exactly the choice and manner in which the actions

are planned and handled, while Hofstede tries to go in the very deep of culture layers and lets us

make our own forecasts of people’s behavior based on the knowledge of the hidden part of

iceberg.

Hofstede's power index does not only relate to how status is accorded, but also to the acceptable

power distance within a society, an area that is not touched upon by Trompenaars

Trompenaars diffuse/specific value orientation, describing the range of involvement, seems to

have no direct link to any of Hofstede's dimensions.

There are disagreements in regard to Germany. Trompenaars' findings suggest that German

corporate culture is decidedly hierarchical, whereas Hofstede identifies Germany as relatively

low in terms of Power Distance.

Taking a closer look into the comparison between the dimensions themselves, we can notice

similarities between the two theories.

One of these is the closeness between the notions of collectivism vs. individualism of Hofstede

and communitarianism vs. individualism of Trompenaars. For a marketer, from our point of

view, there is close no difference which index to use.

There is some degree of similarity in Hofstede’s power distance index and achievement vs.

ascription. The achievement/ascription value orientation, which describes how status is accorded,

appears to be linked to Hofstede's power distance index, at least if one accepts that status is

accorded by nature rather than achievement, and that this reflects a greater willingness to accept
power distances.One values the accepted degree of high class/low class lifestyle and secondary

characteristics difference, while the other measures the motivation of the low class to move

higher.

Long-term vs. short-term orientation index of Hofstede has got something in common with the

past/present/future orientation of Trompenaars. That is in the way, how i.e. short-term oriented

cultures will show the same tendency to be populist, tradition-oriented as the past- and present-

oriented cultures.

Trompenaars universalism/particularism value orientation, describing a preference for rules

rather than trusting relationships, could be interpreted as part of Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance

dimension on the one side, and to some extent the collectivist/individualist dimension.

An examination reveals broad consistency in the respective classifications of countries. For

example, Japan and India are both relatively weak in terms of individualism according to both

Hofstede and Trompenaars, while Denmark, the UK and the USA are relatively individualistic.

However, many countries appear to be more individualistic according to Trompenaars than

Hofstede's research indicates. This is particularly the case for countries such as Mexico, Greece

and Spain. Differences of this kind cannot be entirely explained away by pointing to the

differences in the items employed by Hofstede and Trompenaars.

North America and the UK have relatively egalitarian cultures according to Trompenaars, and

are low in terms of Power Distance according to Hofstede. France and Spain figure as

hierarchical according to Trompenaars and relatively high in terms of Power distance in

Hofstede's research.
2. Discuss how one can motivate employees in a cross cultural setting (international

employees)

Susan (1995) defined motivation as an energizing force that stimulates arousal, direction, and

persistence of behavior. Motivation is both a force within an individual and a process used to get

others to expend effort. Andrew (2000) says that motivation is concern with the "why" of

behavior; the reason people do things. The following are some ways to motivate international

employees:

 Different rewards - As individuals are different, so is the culture. Many managers commit

this mistake after managing the whole process right. Managers tend to make rewards

same for everyone to make sure there is equality but it often leads to dissatisfaction

among employees. People from different backgrounds have different needs and likings

and managers rewarding them should take this into consideration. There should be

different rewards for different individuals according to their preferences. For

example, firms like Yahoo, Google and Microsoft have different set of rewards for

different tasks and every set of rewards have options which the employee or team

members can choose. This specifically important in multicultural teams as where some

employees consider monetary rewards to be better, some think day off to be more useful

as they can spend time with family

 Identify ways to utilize the talents of a multicultural workforce. Global markets may be

more accessible to your organization if you have multilingual or bilingual employees who

are familiar with markets you want to tap. Ask employees for suggestions on markets

they feel comfortable approaching due to their familiarity with various cultures. Motivate
 employees using special assignments and promotions to more responsible positions that

utilize their skills, qualifications and diverse contributions to the workplace.

 Task Focus- Managers should focus on the person’s ability and competence

while choosing someone to complete a particular task or when forming a team. Manager

should not focus on the culture or ethnic background while choosing teams or individuals

for task. This will not only avoid interpersonal conflicts but also motivates people to give

their best

 Facilitate cross-departmental focus groups and encourage candid and fluid exchange of

ideas, concepts and experiences among employees who otherwise would not interact with

one another. If you must, reconvene employee focus groups aligned by departments or

work groups to learn more about similar experiences and challenges among teams of

employees and employees who interact with each other on a regular basis.

 Recognizing differences-Managers should recognize the differences between the

individuals and accept the differences. Ignoring the differences will not enhance the

communication but disrupt it. Team members and even managers should know the

cultural differences and things that could be a problem in team process and try to

overcome or totally avoid it. If a person does not take into consideration the differences, a

team may end up being ineffective as someone may not able to give their best

 Ask employees for input on how to create a singular workplace culture. It is nice to

appreciate differences among various cultures in the workplace; however, business

leaders have an obligation to foster a workplace culture wherein all employees belong to

one group: an organizational team. Work on ways to identify more similarities among

employees. Sponsor workplace outings for team-building games and activities. Rather
 than segmenting employees into smaller groups that emphasize differences, unify the

workforce using commonalities. Managing and motivating employees based on common

attributes means you broaden management’s reach in enforcing policy and rewarding

employees for attaining organizational goals.

 Mutual respect- Managers need to make sure that all team members have mutual respect

towards each other as individuals as well as towards their culture. According Smith,

respect can only be mutual or it would not be present in the core within the teams. Team

members respecting each other’s values and beliefs and the fact they are different would

lead to better communication and no preconceived notions would make sure that people

judge each other on the basis of competence and not culture.

 Equality- Managers need to make sure that all people in team are equal and in no given

situation should managers be ethnocentric in decision making. Team members having

sense of equality will be more productive as they would not be dominated by any group

of one culture or dominating culture in the work place. Ethnocentric approach in

managerial decision making would definitely lead to de-motivation in employees as they

will feel inferior within the organization.

 Conduct an employee survey to learn more about employee preferences in terms of work

styles, the ways supervisors and managers provide feedback and working schedules and

conditions. Ask questions such as “do you favor face-to-face meetings or would you

prefer web-based meetings to enable flexibility?” and “what is your idea of an ideal work

schedule?” to understand employee work styles and preferences. Employee opinion

surveys are typically confidential and anonymous; however, you can analyze employee

responses to determine what motivates–and demotivates–most employees.

 Establishing a vision-Creating a Vision is an extremely important thing that managers

need to. Most intercultural conflicts start when the teams are establishing their short term

goals, this is where the individualistic and collectivist culture clash. individualistic

society members tend to focus more on their individual goals and even in the team work

towards that, where in the case of collectivist members, they are often not working

towards their individual goals and could find individualistic society members selfish and

hence consensus could not be made in team process. Therefore, managers need to create a

compelling vision where all team members focus on and align their short term goals and

long term goals to it

 Define culture using an expanded definition that includes more than race, color, sex,

national origin and religion. Look at other cultural differences, such as distinct

generations, language, communication and work preferences. Ask employees to identify

differences they believe apply to them individually. Take note of employee differences

and the ways employees express what makes them unique. Use their comments to assign

job tasks and responsibilities congruent with their personal and professional interests
REFERENCES

Hampden-Turner, C. &Trompenaars, F. 1997.Response to Geert Hofstede. International Journal

of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 21/1, pp. 149-159.

Hofstede, G. 1998.Attitudes, Values and Organizational Culture: Disentangling the concepts.

Organization Studies, Vol.19/3, pp. 477.

Hofstede, G. 1980.Culture's Consequences: International differences in work related

values. Beverly Hill, CA, Sage

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