A Brief History of Microbiology

Microbiology has had a long, rich history, initially centered in the causes of infectious
diseases but now including practical applications of the science. Many individuals
have made significant contributions to the development of microbiology.

Early history of microbiology. Historians are unsure who made the first
observations of microorganisms, but the microscope was available during the mid‐
1600s, and an English scientist named Robert Hooke made key observations. He is
reputed to have observed strands of fungi among the specimens of cells he viewed.
In the 1670s and the decades thereafter, a Dutch merchant named Anton van
Leeuwenhoek made careful observations of microscopic organisms, which he
called animalcules. Until his death in 1723, van Leeuwenhoek revealed the
microscopic world to scientists of the day and is regarded as one of the first to
provide accurate descriptions of protozoa, fungi, and bacteria.

After van Leeuwenhoek died, the study of microbiology did not develop rapidly
because microscopes were rare and the interest in microorganisms was not high. In
those years, scientists debated the theory of spontaneous generation, which stated
that microorganisms arise from lifeless matter such as beef broth. This theory was
disputed by Francesco Redi, who showed that fly maggots do not arise from
decaying meat (as others believed) if the meat is covered to prevent the entry of
flies. An English cleric named John Needham advanced spontaneous generation,
but Lazzaro Spallanzani disputed the theory by showing that boiled broth would not
give rise to microscopic forms of life.

Louis Pasteur and the germ theory. Louis Pasteur worked in the middle and late
1800s. He performed numerous experiments to discover why wine and dairy
products became sour, and he found that bacteria were to blame. Pasteur called
attention to the importance of microorganisms in everyday life and stirred scientists
to think that if bacteria could make the wine “sick,” then perhaps they could cause
human illness.

Pasteur had to disprove spontaneous generation to sustain his theory, and he

therefore devised a series of swan‐necked flasks filled with broth. He left the flasks
of broth open to the air, but the flasks had a curve in the neck so that
microorganisms would fall into the neck, not the broth. The flasks did not become
contaminated (as he predicted they would not), and Pasteur's experiments put to rest
the notion of spontaneous generation. His work also encouraged the belief that
microorganisms were in the air and could cause disease. Pasteur postulated
the germ theory of disease, which states that microorganisms are the causes of
infectious disease.

Pasteur's attempts to prove the germ theory were unsuccessful. However, the
German scientist Robert Koch provided the proof by cultivating anthrax bacteria
apart from any other type of organism. He then injected pure cultures of the bacilli
into mice and showed that the bacilli invariably caused anthrax. The procedures
used by Koch came to be known as Koch's postulates (Figure ). They provided a
set of principles whereby other microorganisms could be related to other diseases.
The development of microbiology. In the late 1800s and for the first decade of the
1900s, scientists seized the opportunity to further develop the germ theory of
disease as enunciated by Pasteur and proved by Koch. There emerged a Golden
Age of Microbiology during which many agents of different infectious diseases
were identified. Many of the etiologic agents of microbial disease were discovered
during that period, leading to the ability to halt epidemics by interrupting the spread
of microorganisms.

Despite the advances in microbiology, it was rarely possible to render life‐saving

therapy to an infected patient. Then, after World War II, the antibiotics were
introduced to medicine. The incidence of pneumonia, tuberculosis, meningitis,
syphilis, and many other diseases declined with the use of antibiotics.

Work with viruses could not be effectively performed until instruments were
developed to help scientists see these disease agents. In the 1940s, the electron
microscope was developed and perfected. In that decade, cultivation methods for
viruses were also introduced, and the knowledge of viruses developed rapidly. With
the development of vaccines in the 1950s and 1960s, such viral diseases as polio,
measles, mumps, and rubella came under control.

Modern microbiology. Modern microbiology reaches into many fields of human

endeavor, including the development of pharmaceutical products, the use of quality‐
control methods in food and dairy product production, the control of disease‐causing
microorganisms in consumable waters, and the industrial applications of
microorganisms. Microorganisms are used to produce vitamins, amino acids,
enzymes, and growth supplements. They manufacture many foods, including
fermented dairy products (sour cream, yogurt, and buttermilk), as well as other
fermented foods such as pickles, sauerkraut, breads, and alcoholic beverages.

One of the major areas of applied microbiology is biotechnology. In this discipline,

microorganisms are used as living factories to produce pharmaceuticals that
otherwise could not be manufactured. These substances include the human
hormone insulin, the antiviral substance interferon, numerous blood‐clotting factors
and clotdissolving enzymes, and a number of vaccines. Bacteria can be
reengineered to increase plant resistance to insects and frost, and biotechnology will
represent a major application of microorganisms in the next century.
The steps of Koch's postulates used to relate a specific microorganism to a specific
disease. (a) Microorganisms are observed in a sick animal and (b) cultivated in the
lab. (c) The organisms are injected into a healthy animal, and (d) the animal
develops the disease. (e) The organisms are observed in the sick animal and (f)
reisolated in the lab.

The development of microbiology. In the late 1800s and for the first decade of the 1900s, scientists
seized the opportunity to further develop the germ theory of disease as enunciated by Pasteur and
proved by Koch. There emerged a Golden Age of Microbiology during which many agents of
different infectious diseases were identified. Many of the etiologic agents of microbial disease were
discovered during that period, leading to the ability to halt epidemics by interrupting the spread of
microorganisms.
Despite the advances in microbiology, it was rarely possible to render life-saving therapy to an
infected patient. Then, after World War II, the antibiotics were introduced to medicine. The incidence
of pneumonia, tuberculosis, meningitis, syphilis, and many other diseases declined with the use of
antibiotics.
Work with viruses could not be effectively performed until instruments were developed to help
scientists see these disease agents. In the 1940s, the electron microscopewas developed and
perfected. In that decade, cultivation methods for viruses were also introduced, and the knowledge of
viruses developed rapidly. With the development of vaccines in the 1950s and 1960s, such viral
diseases as polio, measles, mumps, and rubella came under control.

Introduction to Microbiology

Defining Microbes

Microbes are organisms that are microscopic, or extremely small.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the roles of microorganisms in ecosystems and biotechnology.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 While most microbes are unicellular, some multicellular animals and plants are also
microscopic and are therefore broadly defined as “microbes.”
 Microbes serve many functions in almost any ecosystem on Earth, including
decomposition and nitrogen fixation.
 Many microbes are either pathogens or parasitic organisms, both of which can harm
humans.

Key Terms

 symbiote: An organism in a partnership with another, such that each profits from the
other.
 pathogenic: Able to cause a harmful disease.
 ecosystem: The interconnectedness of plants, animals, and microbes, not only with
each other but also with their environment.

What Are Microbes?

A microbe, or microorganism, is a microscopic organism that comprises either a

single cell (unicellular); cell clusters; or multicellular, relatively complex organisms.

The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton
van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his
own design.
A Drawing of Microbes: This is a drawing of what Arthur Hill Hassall saw under a microscope in a sample
of water taken from the River Thames at two locations. Hassall was able to identify many microscopic
organisms not perceptible to the unaided eye,.

Microorganisms are very diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa;
microscopic plants (green algae); and animals such as rotifers and planarians. Some
microbiologists also include viruses, but others consider these as nonliving. Most
microorganisms are unicellular, but this is not universal, since some multicellular
organisms are microscopic. Some unicellular protists and bacteria,
like Thiomargarita namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.

Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there is liquid water, including
soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere, and deep inside rocks
within the Earth’s crust. Most importantly, these organisms are vital to humans and
the environment, as they participate in the Earth’s element cycles, such as the
carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.

Microorganisms also fulfill other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as
recycling other organisms’ dead remains and waste products through decomposition.
Microbes have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as
symbionts, and they are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional
food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic
engineering. Pathogenic microbes are harmful, however, since they invade and grow
within other organisms, causing diseases that kill humans, animals, and plants.

The Pathogenic Ecology of Microbes

Although many microorganisms are beneficial, many others are the cause of
infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, which
cause diseases such as plague, tuberculosis, and anthrax. Biofilms —microbial
communities that are very difficult to destroy—are considered responsible for
diseases like bacterial infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, Legionnaires’
disease, and otitis media (middle ear infection). They produce dental plaque;
colonize catheters, prostheses, transcutaneous, and orthopedic devices; and infect
contact lenses, open wounds, and burned tissue.

Biofilms also produce foodborne diseases because they colonize the surfaces of
food and food-processing equipment. Biofilms are a large threat because they are
resistant to most of the methods used to control microbial growth. Moreover, the
excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem since resistant
forms of bacteria have been selected over time. A very dangerous strain, methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), has wreaked havoc recently.

In addition, protozoans are known to cause diseases such as malaria, sleeping

sickness, and toxoplasmosis, while fungi can cause diseases such as ringworm,
candidiasis, or histoplasmosis. Other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever, and
AIDS are caused by viruses.

Food-borne diseases result from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic

bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food. ” Hygiene ” is the avoidance of
infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As
microorganisms (bacteria, in particular) are found virtually everywhere, the levels of
harmful microorganisms can be reduced to acceptable levels with proper hygiene
techniques. In some cases, however, it is required that an object or substance be
completely sterile (i.e., devoid of all living entities and viruses). A good example of
this is a hypodermic needle.

History of Microbiology: Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, and Cohn

The development of the microscope, along with the observations of various

scientists, led to the discovery of microorganisms.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain how Van Leeuwenhoek, Spallanzani, Pasteur, Cohn and Koch contributed to the
field of microbiology

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Van Leeuwenhoek is largely credited with the discovery of microbes, while Hooke is
credited as the first scientist to describe live processes under a microscope.
 Spallanzani and Pasteur performed several experiments to demonstrate that microbial
life does not arise spontaneously.
 Cohn laid the groundwork for discovering and cataloging microbes, while Koch
conclusively showed that microbes can cause diseases.
Key Terms

 classification: the act of forming into a class or classes; a distribution into groups, as
classes, orders, families, etc., according to some common relations or attributes.

Microorganism Speculation

Pre-microbiology, the possibility that microorganisms existed was discussed for

many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The existence of
unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism, which is based on Mahavira’s
teachings as early as 6th century BCE. In his first century book, On
Agriculture, Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro was the first known to suggest
the possibility of disease spreading by yet unseen organisms. In his book, he warns
against locating a homestead near swamps because “there are bred certain minute
creatures that cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body
through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases. ” In The Canon of
Medicine (1020), Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) hypothesized that tuberculosis and
other diseases might be contagious. In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that
epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seed-like entities that could transmit
infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. All
these early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative and were
not based on any data or science. Microorganisms were neither proven, observed,
nor correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason for this was
that all these early studies lacked the microscope.

The Microscope and Discovery of Microorganisms

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek: A drawing of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, one of the first scientists to use a
microscope and identify microbes.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was one of the first people to observe
microorganisms, using a microscope of his own design, and made one of the most
important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to
observe living things. Hooke’s 1665 book, Micrographia, contained descriptions of
plant cells. Before Van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had
been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food
would spoil. Van Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these
processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there
were forms of life that were not visible to the naked eye. Van Leeuwenhoek’s
discovery, along with subsequent observations by Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended
the long-held belief that life spontaneously appeared from non-living substances
during the process of spoilage.

Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) found that boiling broth would sterilise it and kill
any microorganisms in it. He also found that new microorganisms could settle only in
a broth if the broth was exposed to the air.

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) expanded upon Spallanzani’s findings by exposing

boiled broths to the air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from
passing through to the growth medium. He also did this in vessels with no filter at all,
with air being admitted via a curved tube that prevented dust particles from coming in
contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no
microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment.
Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur’s experiment. This meant that the
living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust,
rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death
blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory instead.

Louis Pasteur.: The famous scientist Louis Pasteur, one of the founders of microbiology.

Ferdinand Julius Cohn (January 24, 1828 – June 25, 1898) was a German biologist.
His classification of bacteria into four groups based on shape (sphericals, short rods,
threads, and spirals) is still in use today. Among other things Cohn is remembered
for being the first to show that Bacillus can change from a vegetative state to an
endospore state when subjected to an environment deleterious to the vegetative
state. His studies would lay the foundation for the classification of microbes and gave
some of the first insights into the incredible complexity and diversity of microbial life.

In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microbes can cause disease. He
found that the blood of cattle who were infected with anthrax always had large
numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one
animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and
injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He
also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a
healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria
for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and these are now
known as Koch’s postulates. Although these postulates cannot be applied in all
cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought
and are still being used today.

Pasteur and Spontaneous Generation

Pasteur’s experiments revealed that spontaneous generation does not occur.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the concept of spontaneous generation

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Before the discovery of microbes, it was widely thought that life, as in the case of
rotting food, arose from nothing. This idea was referred to as spontaneous generation.
 By sterilizing cultures and keeping them isolated from the open air, Pasteur found that
contamination of the media only occurred upon exposure to the outside environment,
showing that some element was needed to give rise to life. In other words, life does
not arise spontaneously.
 Despite Pasteur’s work and the work of others, it still took a better understanding of
germ theory and cell theory to finally displace the concept of spontaneous generation.

Key Terms

 abiogenesis: The origination of living organisms from lifeless matter; such genesis as
does not involve the action of living parents; spontaneous generation.
 germ theory: The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of
medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many
diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, germ theory was
validated in the late 19th century and is now a fundamental part of modern medicine
and clinical microbiology, leading to such important innovations as antibiotics and
hygienic practices.
Spontaneous generation is an obsolete body of thought on the ordinary formation of
living organisms without descent from similar organisms. Typically, the idea was that
certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust or that
maggots could arise from dead flesh. A variant idea was that of equivocal
generation, in which species such as tapeworms arose from unrelated living
organisms, now understood to be their hosts.

Doctrines held that these processes were commonplace and regular. Such ideas
were in contradiction to that of univocal generation: effectively exclusive reproduction
from genetically related parent(s), generally of the same species. The doctrine of
spontaneous generation was coherently synthesized by Aristotle, who compiled and
expanded the work of prior natural philosophers and the various ancient
explanations of the appearance of organisms; it held sway for two millennia.

Today spontaneous generation is generally accepted to have been decisively

dispelled during the 19th century by the experiments of Louis Pasteur. He expanded
upon the investigations of predecessors, such as Francesco Redi who, in the
17th century, had performed experiments based on the same principles.

Louis Pasteur’s 1859 experiment is widely seen as having settled the question. In
summary, Pasteur boiled a meat broth in a flask that had a long neck that curved
downward, like a goose. The idea was that the bend in the neck prevented falling
particles from reaching the broth, while still allowing the free flow of air. The flask
remained free of growth for an extended period. When the flask was turned so that
particles could fall down the bends, the broth quickly became clouded. In detail,
Pasteur exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all
particles from passing through to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no
filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dust
particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were broken open,
showing that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as
spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. This was one
of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous
generation.
Pasteur’s test of spontaneous generation.: By sterilizing a food source and keeping it isolated from the
outside, Pasteur observed no putrefaction of the food source (top panel). Upon exposure to the outside
environment, Pasteur observed the putrefaction of the food source (bottom panel). This strongly suggested
that the components needed to create life do not spontaneously arise.

Despite his experiment, objections from persons holding the traditional views
persisted. Many of these residual objections were routed by the work of John
Tyndall, succeeding the work of Pasteur. Ultimately, the ideas of spontaneous
generation were displaced by advances in germ theory and cell theory. Disproof of
the traditional ideas of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among
professional biologists. Objections and doubts have been dispelled by studies and
documentation of the life cycles of various life forms. However, the principles of the
very different matter of the original abiogenesis on this planet — of living from
nonliving material — are still under investigation.

Koch and Pure Culture

Robert Koch identified anthrax as a disease agent and formulated postulates that are
still used to research diseases today.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain Robert Koch’s postulates

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Koch’s research and methods helped link the causal nature of microbes to certain
diseases, such as anthrax.
 As developed by Koch, pure cultures allow the pure isolation of a microbe, which is
vital in understanding how an individual microbe may contribute to a disease.
 According to Koch’s postulates, for an organism to be the cause of a disease, it must
be found in all cases of the disease and must be absent from healthy organisms, as
well as maintained in pure culture capable of producing the original infection.

Key Terms

 anthrax: An infectious bacterial disease of herbivores than can also occur in humans
through contact with infected animals, tissue from infected animals, or high
concentrations of anthrax spores.
 metazoa: All those multicellular animals, of the subkingdom Metazoa, that have
differentiated tissue.
 tuberculosis: An infectious disease of humans and animals caused by a species of
mycobacterium mainly infecting the lungs where it causes tubercles characterized by
the expectoration of mucus and sputum, fever, weight loss, and chest pain, and
transmitted through inhalation or ingestion of bacteria.

Robert Koch was born in Clausthal in the Harz Mountains, then part of the Kingdom
of Hanover, as the son of a mining official. He studied medicine at the University of
Göttingen and graduated in 1866. He then served in the Franco-Prussian War and
later became district medical officer in Wollstein (Wolsztyn), Prussian Poland.
Working with very limited resources, he became one of the founders of bacteriology,
the other major figure being Louis Pasteur.
Robert Koch: An image of Robert Koch, a pioneering microbiologist. Koch’s research and methods helped
link the causal nature of microbes to certain diseases, including anthrax.

After Casimir Davaine demonstrated the direct transmission of the anthrax bacillus
between cows, Koch studied anthrax more closely. He invented methods to purify
the bacillus from blood samples and grow pure cultures. He found that, while it could
not survive outside a host for long, anthrax built persisting endospores that could last
a long time. These endospores, embedded in soil, were the cause of unexplained
“spontaneous” outbreaks of anthrax. Koch published his findings in 1876 and was
rewarded with a job at the Imperial Health Office in Berlin in 1880. In 1881, he urged
for the sterilization of surgical instruments using heat.

Probably as important as his work on tuberculosis, for which he was awarded a

Nobel Prize in 1905, are Koch’s postulates. These postulates stated that to establish
that an organism is the cause of a disease, it must be found in all cases of the
disease examined. Additionally, it must be absent in healthy organisms prepared and
maintained in a pure culture capable of producing the original infection, even after
several generations in culture retrievable from an inoculated animal and cultured
again. By using his methods, Koch’s pupils found the organisms responsible for
diphtheria, typhoid, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, cerebrospinal meningitis, leprosy,
bubonic plague, tetanus, and syphilis.

Perhaps the key method Koch developed was the ability to isolate pure cultures,
explained in brief here. Pure cultures of multicellular organisms are often more easily
isolated by simply picking out a single individual to initiate a culture. This is a useful
technique for pure culture of fungi, multicellular algae, and small metazoa.
Developing pure culture techniques is crucial to the observation of the specimen in
question. The most common method to isolate individual microbes and produce a
pure culture is to prepare a streak plate. The streak plate method is a way to
physically separate the microbial population and is done by spreading the inoculate
back and forth with an inoculating loop over the solid agar plate. Upon incubation,
colonies will arise and single cells will have been isolated from the biomass.

Introduction & History development of microbiology

Microbiology: is the study of microorganism, a large and diverse group of microscopic organisms that
exist a single cell or cell cluster; it also includes viruses which are microscopic but not cellular.
These microscopic forms of life are present in vast numbers in nearly every environment known.
They are found in the water, food, soil, and air. Also more than 90% of the cells in human s bodies are
microbes. Some of these microorganisms (M.O.) are harmful (disease causing microorganisms),
others benefit by association with biological activity of the host.
History development of microbiology
Microbiology has its origin deeply rooted in curiously. At first MOs were thought to be of little
practical importance.
Leeuwenhoek (1673) designed and constructed simple microscope, and he made the first accurate
descriptions of most major types of single cell MO known today: algae, bacteria, protozoa, and yeasts.
Edward Jenner (1796) discovered the vaccine against cowpox (Vaccinia).
Louis Pasteur (1850) demonstrated the biological functions of MO (fermentation theory) method of
sterilization (pasteurization) and development of vaccines against microbial diseases such as anthrax
and rabies.
Antiseptic Surgery: when anesthetics were introduced into surgery and obstetrics during the 1840,
surgeon performing longer more complex procedures than ever before. Unfortunately, the number of
surgical wound infections increased at the same time, often causing the death of patients.
Joseph Lister showed the role of MO in the wound contamination, and developed Lister system which
came to be known as Antiseptic Surgery, which includes the heat sterilization of instruments and the
application of phenol to wound by means of dressings.
The germ theory of disease
In nineteenth century the concept of contagion the spread of infectious disease performed the proof of
the existence of pathogenic agents.
A direct role of MO as agents of disease was given by Koch in 1876.
Koch postulates:
1. The suspected causative agent must be found in every case of disease.
2. This MO must be isolated from the infected individual and grown in a culture with no other types
of MO.
3. When inoculation into normal healthy susceptible animal a pure culture of the agent must be
produce the specific disease.
4. The same MO must be isolated from the experimentally infected host.

Chemotherapy
By 1900 the microbial causes of many important human diseases were known. These included
cholera, diphtheria, leprosy, and tetanus. Despite the relative success in uncovering the cause of
bacterial disease, advances in treatment were disappointing. The modern era of control treatment
began with the use of chemicals that would kill or interfere with the growth of the disease agent
without damaging the infected individual. This approach, known as chemotherapy was introduced by
Paul Ehrlich.
In 1929, Alexander Fleming isolated a mold produced substance that inhibited bacteria but was non
toxic to lab animal. He named this antibacterial material Penicillin, which is one type of antibiotics.
Up to data, many new approaches and techniques are developing that aid in the isolation, treatment,
controlling, and prevention of infectious disease.
Microbial Divisions
The field of microbiology includes the study of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses.
Bacteriology: is the science dealing with the study of bacteria.
Mycology: is the science dealing with the study of fungi.
Protozology: is the science dealing with the study of protozoa.
Virology: is the science dealing with the study of viruses.
Immunology: is the study of host s defense mechanisms against disease, also study the interaction
between human and disease agents (pathogenic microbes).

Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes

The size microorganisms (M.O.) were variable; viruses are smallest MO, bacteria (prokaryots), fungi,
protozoa and worms (euokaryotes). In genera prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells. The
main differences between Eukaryotic cells & Prokaryotic cells can be illustrates in the following
table:
Table (1) illustrates the main differences between Eukaryotic cells & Prokaryotic cells
Structure Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells
Definite Nucleus Yes No
Nuclear membrane Yes No
Chromosome Multiple Single
Cell envelope Yes, have flexible cell mem. Except fungi have rigid cell wall with chitin Yes, have
rigid cell wall that contain peptidoglycan
Nucleolus Yes No
Organelles.(mitocondria, Golgi apparatus, Yes No
ribosome Large 80 S ribosome Small 70 S ribosome
Replication By mitosis By binary fission
Representative organisms Animals, plant, protozoa, fungi Bacteria

Shapes and size of bacteria and patterns of arrangement

1. spherical (cocci); A: singular cocci. B: diplococci (pairs of cells).
C: streptococci (chains). D: staphylococci (clusters or grape like).E: tetrad: four cocci
2. Bacilli (rod like); A: singular bacillus. B: diplobacilli (pairs of cells).
C: streptobacilli (chains). D: coccobacilli ( spherical to rod)
3. Spirochetes: spirilium (spiral). & vibrio (comma).
4. pleomorphic (appear in many shape).
• Bacterial size
Most disease causing by bacteria range in size from 0.2 -5 ?m in diameter and 0.4-14 ?m in length
approximately. The bacterial cells are about the size of mitochonderia.
Medical important organism
There are many differences among medical the important organisms; viruses (smallest MO), bacteria,
fungi or mycosis, protozoa, and helminthes (Largest organism), therefore, the following table can be
illustrates the comparison of medical important organisms.
Table (2) illustrates the comparison of medical important organism
characteristic Viruses Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Helminthes
Cells No cell (particle) Yes Yes Yes Yes
Diameter(?m) 0.02-0.3 smallest MO 1-0.5 3-10 (yeast) 15-25 trophozoite multicellular Largest
organism
Nucleic acid Either DNA or RNA Both Both Both Both
Nature of outer surface proteins Capsid and lipoprotein envelope rigid cell wall that contain
peptidoglycan rigid cell wall with chitin Flexible cell mem. May be cuticle
ribosome absent 70 S 80 S 80 S 80 S
Methods of Replication Produce many copies of Nucleic acid and protein, then, reassemble into
multiple progeny viruses. They are replicate only within living cell By binary fission Budding or
mitosis mitosis mitosis
Motility none some none most motile
* mem: membrane
Kingdom of organisms
All types of organisms classified in to five kingdom; monera, protista, fungi, plantae, and animalia.
The following table illustrates the kingdoms.

Table (3) illustrates the kingdom of All types of organisms

Kingdom Types of cell Organism
monera Prokaryotes Bacteria
protista Eukaryotes Protozoa
fungi Eukaryotes fungi
plantae Eukaryotes plant
animalia Eukaryotes Man, animals

Classification of MO
The importance of classification:
1. To establish the criteria for identification.
2. To arrange similar organisms in to groups.
3. To provide information about how organism evolved.
4. To avoid the confusing in the information about different types of organisms.
Scientific name:
The binomial system of published by C. Linnaeus. The genus and species are significant taxonomic
uses in binomial nomenclature for each organism. The first name for genus and second name for
species. First letter of genus should be written in capital letter, whereas first letter of species, must be
write in small. Name of genus and species for any organism must be write in Italic from or place line
under each genus and species.
Ex: Staphylococcus aureus.
Name of bacteria are derived from
1. The name of disease that caused by bacteria. Ex: Vibrio cholerae= causes cholerae.
2. The locality where the bacteria was first isolated. Ex: Escherichia coli=from colon.
3. The scientists responsible for isolating bacteria. Listeria= Lister.
4. Properties of bacterial morphology and physiology. Staphylococcus aureus= cluster.

History of Microbiology

Microbiology was born in 1674 when Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), a

Dutch drapery merchant, peered at a drop of lake water through a carefully ground
glass lens. Through this he beheld the first glimpse of the microbial world. Perhaps
more than any other science, the development of microbiology depended on the
invention and improvement of a tool, the microscope . Since bacteria cannot be
seen individually with the unaided eye, their existence as individuals can only be
known through microscopic observations. Indeed, it is interesting to speculate on
how microbiology might have developed if the limits of resolution of the
microscope were poorer.

The practical and scientific aspects of microbiology have been closely woven from
the very beginning. Perhaps it is for this reason that microbiology as a field of
study did not really develop until the twentieth century. Nineteenth century
"microbiologists" were chemists and physicians and a few were botanists. At that
stage, the science of microbes was developing to solve very practical problems in
two clear scientific fields, the science of fermentation and in medicine.

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Although medicine and fermentation presented the practical problems that

stimulated the development of microbiology, the first studies that put the subject
on a scientific basis arose from a problem of pure science. This was the
controversy over spontaneous generation. Although the crude ideas of spontaneous
generation (e.g., maggots from meat) were dispelled by Francesco Redi (1626?–
1698?) in the seventeenth century, more subtle ideas such as that protozoa and
bacteria can arise from vegetable and animal infusions, were still accepted in the
nineteenth century. The controversy also involved fermentations, since it was
considered that the yeast fermentation was of spontaneous origin.

Many workers became involved in the study of fermentation and spontaneous

generation, but Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) stands out as a giant. He came into
biology from the field of chemistry and was apparently able to remove all the
philosophical hurdles that blocked the thinking of others. Within a period of four
years after he began his studies, he had clarified the problems of spontaneous
generation so well that the controversy died a natural death.

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Pasteur was also able to go easily from fermentation into the field of medical
microbiology, which occupied the later part of his life. His contributions in that
field were numerous, and his work in fields such as microbial attenuation
and vaccination has been the basis of many modern medical practices. It should be
emphasized that the development of sterilization methods by researchers such as
Pasteur and John Tyndall (1820–1893), so necessary to the solution of the
spontaneous generation controversy, were essential to put the science of
microbiology on a firm foundation. The workers did not set out to develop these
methods, but they evolved as a bonus that was received for solving the
spontaneous generation question.
Other important developments were in medicine. The microbiological aspects of
medicine arose out of considerations of the nature of contagious disease. Although
the phenomenon of contagion, especially with respect to diseases such
as smallpox , was recognized far back in antiquity, its nature and relationship
to microorganisms was not under-stood. It was probably the introduction
of syphilis into Europe, which served to crystallize thinking as here was a disease
that could only be transmitted by contact and helped to formulate the question,
what is being transmitted? Gerolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) gave syphilis its
name in the sixteenth century and came close to devising a germ theory of
disease , an idea that later attracted a number of workers all the way down to the
nineteenth century. By the late 1830s, Schwann and Cagniard-Latour had shown
that alcoholic fermentation and putrefaction were due to living, organized beings.
If one accepted the fact that the decomposition of organic materials was due to
living organisms, it was only a step further to reason that disease, which in many
ways appears as the decomposition of body tissues, was due to living agents. Jacob
Henle, in 1840, further commented on this similarity and with the newfound
knowledge on the nature of fermentation, he proceeded to draw rather clear
conclusions also saying that experimental proof would be required to clinch this
hypothesis. That evidence came later from Robert Koch provided, in 1867, the
final evidence proving the germ theory. He established the etiologic role of
bacteria in anthrax and as a result proposed a set of rules to be followed in the
establishment of etiology. The key to Koch's observation was the isolation of the
organism in pure culture . While limiting dilutions could have been used (as
described previously by Joseph Lister , 1827–1912), Koch promoted the use of
solid media, giving rise to separate colonies and the use of stains. In 1882, Koch
identified the tubercle bacillus and so formalized the criteria of Henle for
distinguishing causative pathogenic microbes. This set of criteria is known
as Koch's postulates .

One of the most important applied developments in microbiology was in

understanding the nature of specific acquired immunity to disease. That such
immunity was possible was known for a long time, and the knowledge finally
crystallized with the prophylactic treatment for smallpox introduced by Edward
Jenner (1749–1823). Using cowpox , Jenner introduced the first vaccination
procedures in 1796. This occurred long before the germ theory of disease had been
established. Later workers developed additional methods of increasing the
immunity of an individual to disease, but the most dramatic triumph was the
discovery of the diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins by von Behring and Kitisato in
the 1890s. This work later developed into a practical tool by Paul Ehrlich (1854–
1915) and it was now possible to cure a person suffering from these diseases by
injecting some antitoxic serum prepared by earlier immunization of a horse or
other large animal. This led for the first time to rational cures for infectious
diseases, and was responsible for Ehrlich's later conception of chemotherapy .
The antibiotics era, which followed the groundbreaking work of Alexander
Fleming (1881–1955) with penicillin , was another important step in the
understanding of microbiology.

Most of the most recent work in the development of microbiology has been in the
field of microbial genetics and how it evolved into a separate discipline known
as molecular biology . This work really began in the 1940s, when Oswald Avery,
Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty demonstrated that the transforming
principle in bacteria, previously observed by Frederick Griffiths in 1928,
was DNA . Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum demonstrated that DNA could
be transferred from one bacterium to another in 1944. With the determination of
the structure of DNA in 1953, a new and practical aspect of

Microbiology Definition
Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
and protists. It also includes the study of viruses, which are not technically
classified as living organisms but do contain genetic material. Microbiology
research encompasses all aspects of these microorganisms such as their
behavior, evolution, ecology, biochemistry, and physiology, along with
the pathology of diseases that they cause.

History of Microbiology
Scientists first observed microorganisms when the first primitive microscopes
were developed during the 17th Century. Anton von Leeuwenhoek was the first
to publish observations of bacteria, which he viewed by looking at water with
a microscope. In 1684, his drawings of bacteria were published in the Royal
Society of London’s journal Philosophical Transactions; these are the first
known drawings of bacteria. He was also first to describe protozoa, which are
single-celled organisms that include amoebae, and also described yeast, which
are fungi, in beer.
Microbiology techniques used to disprove the long-held theory of spontaneous
generation in the 19th Century. Spontaneous generation was the belief that
living things arose spontaneously from a combination of ingredients, often
including ingredients that were inorganic. For example, people believed that
mice arose from soiled cloth combined with wheat if the combination was left
out to sit. Although scientists such as Francesco Redi had disproven
spontaneous generation as early as the 17th Century, belief in the theory
persisted up to the 19th Century. This started to change when Louis Pasteur
conducted experiments using microorganisms. He showed that
microorganisms could be filtered out of air by using cotton wool, and he was
also able to keep liquids sterile for an extended period of time by boiling them
in a swan-necked flask. Other important advancements in the 19th Century
included the widespread use of the compound microscope and the
development of staining techniques in order to better visualize
microorganisms. In addition, people began to realize that microorganisms
could cause disease, and did experiments on immunity.

The 20th Century was a time of great advancement for all forms of science,
including microbiology. The first vaccines and antibiotics were developed, and
the first chemotherapeutic agents were used to treat bacterial diseases such
as syphilis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was discovered to be the genetic
material of the cell, which opened up the field of genetics research and
allowed more recently for sequencing the genomes of microorganisms.

Branches of Microbiology
By Taxonomy
 Bacteriology: the study of bacteria.
 Immunology: the study of the immune system. It looks at the
relationships between pathogens such as bacteria and viruses and their
hosts.
  Mycology: the study of fungi, such as yeasts and molds.
 Nematology: the study of nematodes (roundworms).
 Parasitology: the study of parasites. Not all parasites are
microorganisms, but many are. Protozoa and bacteria can be parasitic;
the study of bacterial parasites is usually categorized as part of
bacteriology.
 Phycology: the study of algae.
 Protozoology: the study of protozoa, single-celled organisms like
amoebae.
 Virology: the study of viruses.

By Type of Research

Microbiology research, like other fields of scientific research, can be

subdivided into the categories of pure and applied. Pure (or basic) research is
exploratory and conducted in order to better understand a scientific
phenomenon, while applied research is based on information gleaned from
pure research and used to answer specific questions or solve problems.
Pure microbiology research includes:

 Astromicrobiology: the study of the origin of life on Earth, and the

search for extraterrestrial life.
 Evolutionary microbiology: the evolution of microorganisms.
 Cellular microbiology: the study of the structure and function of
microbial cells.
 Microbial ecology
 Microbial genetics
 Microbial physiology
 Systems microbiology: mathematical/computational modeling of the
activities of microbiological systems.

While applied microbiology research includes:

 Agricultural microbiology: the study of microorganisms that interact

with plants and soils.
 Food microbiology: the study of microorganisms that spoil food or
cause foodborne illnesses. Can also study how microorganisms are used
in food production, such as fermentation of beer.
 Medical microbiology: the study of microorganisms responsible for
human disease.
  Microbial biotechnology: using microbes in industrial
or consumer products.
 Pharmaceutical microbiology: the study of microorganisms used in
pharmaceutical products, such as vaccines and antibiotics.

This is an image of bacteria colonies growing on an agar plate.

Microbiology Careers
Most jobs in microbiology require at least a bachelor’s degree. An individual
who is interested in microbiology may obtain a bachelor’s degree in biology or
microbiology. The courseload is very similar for each of these majors; while a
microbiology major may be more specific to the interests of someone who
wants to study microbiology, it is also possible to achieve a similar level of
specificity in the biology major by taking upper-level microbiology courses.
The biology major may be preferred if one has interests in other subfields of
biology, or if he or she is double majoring in biology and in another field. In
both the microbiology and biology majors, students must take numerous
biology courses and laboratories, and usually they must also take courses in
chemistry (including organic), physics, mathematics, and statistics.

With a bachelor’s degree, one can become employed as a research technician

in an academic or industry laboratory and provide technical support. One
could also become a quality assurance technician in the food, environmental,
pharmaceutical, or biotechnology industries, or with some additional training,
become a medical technologist. However, many individuals with bachelor’s
degrees in microbiology or biology go on to do further schooling. With a
master’s degree in microbiology, an individual may go on to become a
laboratory manager/coordinator or a biosafety officer. Further schooling
leading to a PhD opens up opportunities in teaching and doing research at a
university. Being a professor requires a PhD. Most heads of research
laboratories in industry have PhDs as well. Other high-level careers involving
microbiology include becoming a consultant/adviser, administrator, or lab
director.

References
 n.a. (n.d.). “Careers in Microbiology and the Microbial
Sciences.” American Society for Microbiology. Retrieved 2017-05-11
from https://www.asm.org/index.php/scientists-in-k-12-
outreach/careers-in-microbiology.
 n.a. (n.d.). “Welcome to the Microbiology: Current Research.” Allied
Academies. Retrieved 2017-05-10 from
http://www.alliedacademies.org/microbiology-current-research/.
 n.a. (2014-11-14). “Careers in the Microbiological
Sciences.” University of Florida. Retrieved 2017-05-11 from
http://microcell.ufl.edu/programs/undergraduate-program/career-
information/careers-in-the-microbiological-sciences/.
 Saeed, Farhan. (2013-12).”Branches of Microbiology.” All About
Microbiology. Retrieved 2017-05-10 from
http://iqbalianmicro.blogspot.com/2013/12/branches.html.
 Wainwright, Milton, and Lederberg, Joshua (1992). “History of
Microbiology.” In Encyclopedia of Biology, Vol. 2. Cambridge, MA:
Academic Press. ISBN: 978-0122268007.