1.2.

0 INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

Textile is a fabric that knitted or woven and made from yarn, thus textile industry is the
industry responsible for taking a raw material such as cotton or wool and spinning into yarn that
is later used to create fabrics. There are two types of fabric that are natural and synthetic fabric.
Natural fabrics are those that made from things that occurs naturally such as animals (silkworm,
alpacas) and plants (cotton and flax). Synthetic fabrics are those fabrics that are created in
laboratory and are manmade, example of synthetic fabrics include rayon, spandex, polyester, and
nylon.

1.2.1 STAGES OF TEXTILE MANUFACTURING:

The initial stage of textile manufacturing involves the production of the raw materials either
by a farmer who raise cotton, sheep, silkworms, or flax or by chemists
who produce fiber from various basic substances by chemical processes. The fiber
is spun into yarn, which is then converted into fabric in a weaving or knitting mill.
After dyeing and finishing, the woven material is ready for delivery either directly to
manufacturer of textile products where they are finally stitched into clothes that we wear (Textile
Fibre to Fabric Processing, n.d.). The flow diagram of the fiber to fabric process is given below.

Man made Plants Animals

Fiber
Fiber spinning

Yarn spinning
Yarn

Weaving, knitting, non-woven

Fabric
Yarn spinning

Figure 1.1.0: flow diagram of fiber to fabric process

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1.3 YARN SPINNING:

Yarn spinning is the process of manufacturing yarn from different types of fibers into a
continuous length from one or more type of fibers. Spinning is the most important and the initial
step in fabric manufacturing. The major goal of spinning is to produce the quality yarn from raw
material, then remove the process faults followed by winding the short length bobbins on Cones
(Yarn-spinning, n.d.).

1.3.1 TYPES OF YARN SPINNING:

There are different types of spinning but the most commonly forms of spinning are;

1.Ring spinning

2.Rotor spinning

3.Air jet spinning

4.Frictional spinning

Ring Spinning
In the ring spinning process, the fiber strand comes from the draft zone which is flat, and
almost all fibers are parallel to the twisting axis of the strand at this time. Then, when it is twisted,
the fiber strands rotate around the axis and the width begins to decrease, and the fibers on both
sides of the axis fold gradually and roll into the center of the spun yarn
Rotor spinning

In the rotor spinning process, the sliver is fed into a breaking or opening unit to separate
the fibers from one another, and the fibers are then forced by air pressure into a hollow rotor
rotating at high speeds. The fibers are deposited by centrifugal force on the sides of the hollow
rotor, and the resulting yarn is removed continuously by a stationary tube mounted within the rotor.
The rotating rotor provides a twist to the yarn and produces a yarn with a somewhat greater higher
pitch and bulk and somewhat lower strength than ring spun yarns.

Air-Jet/Air Vortex Spinning

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 Air-Jet/Air-Vortex spinning is similar to open-end spinning but utilizes a stationary tube
rather than a rotor. A high-speed air vortex is created in the tube that deposits fibers within the
tube and simultaneously provides twist due to the vortex.
The yarn is continuously withdrawn as in the case of open-end spinning. The air-jet
spinning system which is now commercially available is capable of processing of short polyester
and its blend of medium to fine count range. Compared to other modern spinning systems it has
the advantage of being able to spin fine yarn and at present, it cannot be used for spinning coarser
yarns.

1.3.2 TYPES OF YARN PRODUCTION

There are two types of yarn that will be produced by spinning method, these are;

1. Filament yarns
2. Staple yarns

Filament yarns

These yarns are made from long, and continuous strands of fiber. Most of them from
synthetic and only silk represents for natural fibers in filament

Figure 1.1.1: filament yarns

Staple yarns

Staple or spun yarns in other hand are made from short length of fibers. It can be found from
natural fibers or can be produced using synthetic as staple filament yarns. As it is short length,
staple fibers need to be held together with others in order to get the long and continuous yarns.

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1.3.3 STEPS IN MAKING FIBER INTO YARN

In making yarn there are several steps or process which must be followed in order to
produce quality yarn. Each staple and filament yarns have different steps and system for the
production process. The following are the steps of making fiber into yarn.

Blow room process

This is the initial stage in spinning process in which materials packed in bale form will be
loosen, opened and cleaned in order to remove impurities. And this will be done by using bale
opener machine.

Carding process

Carding is one of the most important operation in the spinning process as it directly
determines the final features of the yarn. In this process the flock from bale will be opened into
individual fibers, and thus make it ease for the removal of the excess impurities on the fiber
surface. At this process, short fibers which are not suitable for production in terms of length
requirement will be eliminated.

Combing process

This is a process where the yarn will be straightened again so that they are arranged in parallel
manner. While at the same time, the remaining of short fiber will be eliminated completely from
the longer staple fiber. By doing this, long-staple will produce stronger and smoother fabric which
are highly demanded in the market

Drawing process

Drawing is the process in which the slivers are blended, leveled and drafted by passing the
sliver through a pair of rollers.

Roving process

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This is the final stage where the preparatory steps for insertion of the twist. Enough twist is given
to hold the fibers together but still has no tensile strength. The roving in bobbins is placed in
spinning frame where it passes several sets of rollers which running at high-speed to convert into
yarn forms.

1.3.4 YARN SPINNING COUNT

Yarn count is the numerical expression of yarn, which defines its fineness or
coarseness (Ring Frame Doffer | Spinning (Textiles) | Textiles | English, n.d.)
Yarn count system:
Indirect system: English count (Ne), Worsted Count etc.
i.e. Higher the yarn number, finer the yarn.
Direct System: Tex, Denier
i.e. Higher the yarn number , Coarser the yarn.
Similarly numerical expression of fineness or coarseness of Lap, sliver & roving are
called Hank.
Note: English (Ne) count system is commonly followed in many textile industries.
English Count: No. of Hanks of length 840 yds weighing in 1 pound
1yds: 0.9144mt

1.4 WEAVING

Weaving is defined by the process of interlacing of two individual strand of yarn or thread at
right angles. This pattern creates a strong, yet flexible structure that hold the individual thread in
place thus create solid cloth or fabric. Most textile are woven usually by machine that create an
incredibly tight structure but the process is essentially the same as hand weaving.

1.4.1WEAVING PROCESS

The process of weaving begins with a fiber of long thin material with certain amount of
structured resilience. Fiber can be naturally occurring, like cotton or wool or can be synthetically
produced like nylon in which they create a yarn or thread woven together into fabric.
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 Weaving itself involving two independent strands of yarn or thread, interlaced at right
angles, this means that one set of strands will always be horizontal, while other set will be
vertical.

 The vertical strand is called warp

 The horizontal strand is called weft

Figure 1.1.2: Interlacement of warp and weft yarn

In order to interlace the warp and weft yarn, there are three necessary operation needed to be
done. The following are the three-necessary operation (primary motion):

Shedding

This is the process of separating the warp yarn into two layers by raising the harness to form an
open area between two sets of warps which is known as shed.

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 Figure 1.1.3: Shedding process

Picking

This is process of inserting the filling yarn through the shed by the means of the shuttle less
while the shed is opening.

Figure 1.1.4: Picking process

Beating

This is process of pushing the filling yarn into the already woven fabric at a point known
as the fell and done by the reed.

Figure 1.1.5: Beating process

To continue the weaving process, there are also two additional operations which are essential:

 Warp control (let-off)- The motion that deliver warp yarn to the weaving area at the
required rate and at suitable constant tension by unwinding it from the warp beam.

 Cloth control (take-up)- The motion that withdraws the fabric from the weaving area at the
constant rate that will give the required pick-spacing and then winds it onto a roller (3.
Weaving | Textile Technology, n.d.)

1.4.2 WEAVING PREPARATION

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 In the weaving preparation, the warp of the desired length and the density of the fabric is
produced. For every warp yarn, a bobbin with desired quality and length has to be prepared. All
bobbins are arranged in a large gate to be wound in parallel on a beam

Because the bobbin does not consist of exactly the same length of yarn, the leftover yarn has
to be spliced for reuse, mainly as weft yarn. If the density of warp yarn is very high, the beaming
process has to be carried out in sectional warping, each consisting of a number of warp yarn. The
following are the process which takes place during weaving preparation:

 Warping- A process of transfer the warp yarn from the single yarn packages to an even
sheet of yarn representing hundreds of ends and then wound onto a warp beam.

 Sizing/slashing- Is the process of applying adhesive coating in the warp thread before
weaving so that the warp yarn can withstand the complex stresses to which they are
subjected in the weaving machine. The size is usually starch paste containing softening
and other ingredients.

 Draw-in- A process of draw every warp yarn through its dropper, headless eyes and
reed dent.

 Tie-in- A process of tying each of a new beam to its corresponding end of the old beam
when mass producing the same fabric.

1.4.3. WEAVING MACHINE

A weaving machine is called loom. The basic purpose of any loom is to facilitate the
interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but
the function is the same.

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 Figure 1.1.4: A weaving machine

1.5 INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE WET PROCESSING

Textile wet processing is the process which required for the final treatment of grey fabric
before it turns into final product. Textile wet processing involves the use of huge quantities of
water as an intermediate. This water is contaminated by unfixed dyes, chemicals, and auxiliaries
and it released as effluent at the final stage.

The wet processing sector can be divided into three distinct sections.

 Preparation process.
 Coloration process.
 Finishing process.

1.5.1 PREPARATION PROCESS

During preparation process the following process takes place.

Singeing

The process of singeing is carried out for the purpose of removing the loose hairy fibres
protruding from the surface of the fabric as well as fibres from the interstices of yarn are burnt
away from help of gas flame directly impinging on the fabric result in giving smooth, even and
clean looking face.

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There are three types of singeing machine used during the process

 Plate singeing machine

 Roller
 Gas singeing machine

The gas singeing machine is the most widely accepted now-a-days.

Advantages:

 It provides smooth and even surface for the fine prints.

 To reduce the pilling tendency.
 To reduce the fuzzy appearance of the fabric.

Desizing.

Sizes are applied to the warp yarn of the woven fabrics to assist in the weaving process but must
be removed prior to dyeing or printing. This process of removing the starch from the fabric is
called desizing. Cellulosic or synthetic fabrics contain sizes to some extent, but sizes will not be
found on the knitted fabrics. In order to make the wet processing more efficient desizing treatment
is given which remove the size content from the fabric. Starches and waxes present in the size
paste forms a hydrophobic film on the surface of the fabric which hinders the further process such
as dyeing and printing.

The method available for desizing are classified as follows:

DESIZING METHODS

Hydrolytic oxidative

Rot sleeping chlorine

Enzymatic chlorite

Acidic bromide

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But mostly accepted method in textile industry is enzymatic desizing because it is very safe and
does not cause any damage to the fabric.

Scouring

Scouring is the next process after desizing in which the water-soluble impurities, the natural fats
and waxes present in the fabric are removed. This provides a greater cleaning or detergency action
to remove the soiling and staining developed during transportation or storage of the fabric.

Due to the removal of these impurities, the absorbency of the fabric increases to the greater extent,
which result in efficient further processing.

There are two methods to carry out scouring, these are:

 Alkali scouring.
 Solvent scouring.

Normally alkali scouring is the mostly widely used, and the alkali used is sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).

Bleaching

The scouring process of cotton fabric ensure the removal of waxes and other majority of impurities
but it leaves behind the natural coloring matter, thus bleaching is the process that ensure complete
purification of the fabric by decolorization of the natural color of the fabric.

Most companies that have a bleaching process use hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is the most
common whitener. Less frequently used are sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sodium chlorite
(NaClO2). The redox potential of these substances under normal conditions depend greatly on the
Ph. With hydrogen peroxide, the redox potential is present in both cold and hot process, providing
technical and ecological advantages over NaClO and NaClO2

The reduction bleaching agents mostly commonly used are sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4) and
thiourea dioxide. The use of these agent requires auxiliary substances that have activators,
stabilizers, surfactants, and buffer systems, which control the laundering process to prevent
damage to the treated basic fabric and improve its absorbency.

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Mercerization

Fabric and fibers of cotton are mercerized in the gray form after bleaching in order to provide
luster, increase strength, and enhance dye uptake (Madhav, 2018). The process of mercerization
involves treating cotton fabric with a strong caustic soda solution (about 18%-24%) for 1 to 3
minutes and subsequently washing-off the caustic solution(demercerization). Longitudinal
shrinkage of cotton may occur when it is treated with this solution. Hence during this process, the
fibers/fabrics are held under tension to avoid shrinkage.

1.5.2 COLORATION PROCESS

This is another process after preparation process which aims on imparting color on a treated fabric.
The following are the process which takes place during coloration process.

Dyeing

During dyeing, the chemical pigments(dyes) are applied fibers or fabric to provide colors. In the
textile industry, synthetic dyes, which typically originate from coal tar and intermediates of
petroleum industry are most often used. In synthetic dyes chromosphere atoms are accountable for
the color and auxochromes, an electron withdrawing or donating substituent are responsible for
the exaggeration of the color. Numerous chemicals such as organic processing assistants,
formaldehyde, heavy metals, surfactants, salt and sulfide may be added to dyes to enhance dye
adsorption onto the fibers.

In the dyeing process, water is applied to carry in steam form to warm up the treatment baths. The
dyeing of cotton fabric requires the huge quantities of water for wet operation. For example, 0.6
to 0.8 kg of common salt, 30 to 60 of dyestuff, and 70 to 150 liters of water are required for dyeing
1 kg of cotton fabric with reactive dyes ( )

Classes of dyes

The dye used depend on the type of material and specific requirements to be met. For some
purposes, high lightfastness is essential; but for others it may be inconsequential. Factors
considered in dye selection include fastness to light, reaction to washing and rubbing (crocking),
and the cost of the dyeing process (Introduction and Basics of Dyeing Textile | Dye | Dyeing). The
followings are the classes of dyes used in textile industries:
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  Acid dyes-these dyes are used mainly for dyeing wool, silk, and nylon
 Direct or substantive dyes, these dyes have strong affinity for cellulose fibers.
 Sulfur dyes, used to dye cellulose, are inexpensive but produce colors lacking
brilliance
 Disperse dyes, are suspension of finely divided insoluble, organic pigment used to
dye such hydrophobic fibres such as polyesters, nylon, and cellulose acetate
(Disperse dye | chemical compound | Britanica.com, n.d.).
 Reactive dyes, these dyes combine directly with the fibre in excellent colorfastness.
 Vat dyes, these are the dyes which are made into leuco-compounds with sodium
hydroxide and sodium hydrosulphite; this dyeing is done at 30 to 60 °C.

Dyeing process

Dyeing is carried out in jig or padding machine, in which the cloth is moved is moved through a
stationary dye solution prepared by dissolving dyestuff powder in a suitable chemical and diluting
with water. After dyeing, the cloth is subjected to a finishing process (Dyeing, Printing and
Finishing | Dyeing process, n.d.).

Printing

Printing refers to the process of applying color to the localized area of the fabric in definite patters
or design. In printing, dyes are applied to selected section of the fabric that constitute the design.
Necessary reactions involved in printing are similar to dyeing. In dyeing, color is used in solution
form, while in printing, color is applied as thick paste of the dye.

1.5.3 FINISHING PROCESS

Finishing is a term applied to a very broad range of treatment that are usually performed
during the last manufacturing process before fabrication. Finishing process is dived into two
classes, these are mechanical and chemical finishing.

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Mechanical finishing

This is the type of finishing that involves processes that change the texture or appearance of fabric
without the use of chemicals. They include:

 sanforizing-this a process where a fabric is overfed between a rubber belt and heated
cylinder and then fed between a heated cylinder and an endless blanket to control
shrinkage and create soft hand.
 Calendering-this is a process where a fabric is fed between large steel rollers under
pressures that range up to 100 tones. These rolls can be heated with either steam or
gas to temperature up to 232 °C. This process is used to change the hand and
appearance of the fabric.
 Sanding-In this process, fabric is fed over rolls which are with sand to change the
surface of the fabric and give a softer hand.
 Embosing-this is a process where fabric is fed between heated steel rollers which have
been engraved with pattern which is permanently transferred to the fabric.
 Heat-setting-this is a process where synthetic fabric, usually polyester, is run through
either a tenter frame or a semi-contact heat-set machine at temperatures that are high
enough to begin the molecular melting of the fabric. This is done to stabilize the fabric
for shrinkage.
 Brushing-this is process where fabric is run across brushes revolving at high speed to
change the surface appearance and the hand of the fabric.
 Sueding-in this process, fabric is run between a small steel roller and a large roller
that is covered with sand paper to change the appearance and the hand of the fabric.

Chemical finishing

Chemical finishing involves the use of chemicals and it is performed on a variety type of equipment
such as pads, jigs, jet dye machine, becks, spray bars, kiers, paddle machine, kiss roll applicators
and foamers.

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One type of chemical finishing does not involve a chemical reaction thus it is based on
application of softener to modify the feel and texture of the fabric, or to improve it sew ability.
This present no significant hazards except for the possibility of irritation from skin and eye
contact, which can be prevented by the use of proper gloves and eye protection devices.

The other type of a chemical finishing involves a chemical reaction thus a resin finishing of a
cotton fabric to produce a desired physical property in the fabric such as low shrinkage and a good
smoothness appearance. For example, for a cotton fabric, a dimethyldihydroxyethylene urea
(DMDHEU) resin is catalyzed and bonds with the cotton molecules of the fabric to create a
permanent change in the fabric.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS.

2.1 Material used for combined bleaching and scouring process.

 Well desized cotton fabric.

 Plastic bag.
 Caustic soda.
 Penatrol SF.
 Kunal white.
 Stabilizer.
 Hydrogen peroxide.
 Water
 Wettanol DBL.

Recipe:

 Caustic soda……… 5g/L

 Penatrol SF……… 10g/L
 Wettanol DBL……… 5g/L
 Kunal white………… 5g/L
 Stabilizer…………… 5g/L
 Hydrogen peroxide…. 30g/L
 Water ………………… 1000mL
 Time ………………. 45min
 pH………………… 10-11
 temperature ………….100° C

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Apparatus used:

 Measuring cylinder.
 Beaker.
 Metal rod
 Thermometer.

Machine/equipment used:

 Analytical balance.
 Steam bath.
 Padding machine.
 Drying machine.

Experimental procedures

(a) Preparation of stock chemical solution

A 35g caustic soda, 10g penatrol SF, 5g wettanol DBL, 5g kunal white, 5g stabilizer and
30g hydrogen peroxide were each separately weighed in an analytical balance and then
dissolved into a beaker contained 1000mL of cold water to form a solution mixture
named bleaching/scouring solution.

(b) Padding of the sample

A cotton fabric sample weighed 60g was soaked into a beaker contained combined
bleaching and scouring solution, then the sample was removed and placed in padding machine
after padding sample was then removed and kept into a plastic bag.

(c) Steaming

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 The plastic bag contained a sample was then suspended inside the steaming tank for about
45 minutes with temperature ranging to about 100 °C, after 45 minutes the plastic bag was
removed and further procedure followed.

(d) washing

after steaming the sample was then removed from plastic bag and washed three times
with hot water, two times with cold water and last sample was dried by using drying
machine.

(e) Testing
After the sample was dried, a treated sample was subject to three different test which
were pH test, starch test and capillary test.
For pH test, a universal indicator solution was used whereby a few drops of universal
indicator solution was dropped on a surface of the treated sample (standard pH ranges
from 6 to 7)
For starch test, an iodine solution was used whereby a few drops of iodine solution
was dropped on a surface of the treated sample to check the presence of starch.
For capillary test, a 1cm*10cm was taken from treated sample and mark was made at
the 1cm from bottom, then 1cm portion was immersed into a beaker contained dye
solution for 5 minutes and then the distance travelled by the dye solution from 1cm mark
was recorded (the standard length 1-1.5cm).

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESULT

The following results were obtained during the experiment

Before scouring/bleaching. After scouring/bleaching

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

Preparation of cotton fabric for further value addition like coloration and finishing plays a
very important role in maintenance and enhancement of the quality. Proper whiteness and
absorbency need to be achieved without any significant strength loss or oxidation. In order to
conserve energy and reduce the time of operation, combined scouring and bleaching is worth
considering.

A combination of alkali and detergent treatment is the most widely used for scouring cotton
fabric. Caustic soda and wettanol DBL, one kind of alkali and detergent respectively, are often
used together in cleaning cotton products since they are effective in removing stains from grease,
oil and waxes.

The fabric which is treated with combined scouring and bleaching solution become much
brighter as it changed from brown color to pure white. The whiteness of the fabric is due to the
action of hydrogen peroxide. The bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is called full bleaching
because the whiteness obtained is permanent. Due to its nature hydrogen peroxide is stable in
acidic medium, but bleaching occurs only by the addition of alkali or by increasing temperature.
In aqueous medium hydrogen peroxide break and release perohydroxyl ion, which is chemically
behaves like a weak dibasic acid. The perohydroxyl is highly unstable and in the presence of
oxidizable substance, it is decomposed and thus action takes place.

Sodium hydroxide activates hydrogen peroxide because H+ ion is neutralized by alkali which is
favorable for liberating HO2-.

H2O2 + NaOH H2O + HO2-

At higher pH (above 10.8) the liberation of HO2- ion is so rapid that it becomes unstable with the
formation of oxygen gas which has no bleaching property. If the rate of decomposition is very
high, the unutilized HO2- may damage the fibre. A safe and optimum pH for cotton bleaching lies
between 10-11 where the rate of evolution of perohydroxyl ion is equal to the rate of consumption.
At higher pH, hydrogen peroxide is not stable and hence a stabiliser is frequently added in the
bleaching solution.

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