An abnormal loading may be defined as a condition of loading

which a designer, following established practice does not

include in the normal analysis and design of a particular
structure. It is a loading condition of sufficient severity and
probability of occurrence to be a cause for concern, but still
of such a relatively rare nature as to be outside of normal
design-life expectancy.
This definition goes beyond that of static and dynamic forces
and includes such conditions as the dislodgement of a bearing
wall panel, and the development of a weld failure in a steel
connection.

Risk is a function of the probability of occurrence and

the consequence of a particular event. Zero risk in the face
of all possible conditions and hazards can never be achieved.
By assessing the statistics of all foreseeable hazards and
evaluating their consequence, an acceptable level of safety can be
achieved, acceptable safety at an acceptable cost.
The acceptable risk to life and property is probably best
decided by representatives of the community at large.

Classifications of Abnormal Loadings

Publications such as the Engineering News Record
regularly describe engineering failures as well as successes.
The authoritative work of Feld [12] has described many
building failures. Allen and Schriever [7] have summarized
reported failures of recent years in North America. Two
conclusions are drawn from works such as these Only a small
:

minority of building failures occur due to a loading of a

type explicitly considered in the design. The great majority
of failures result from loading conditions for which current
codes and standards give little or no guidance and which, as
a consequence, are not considered in design. Such loading
conditions are termed abnormal loadings in this report. The
second conclusion is that there is a large variety of abnormal
loadings and no classification of them could reasonably be
expected to be complete. One important contributing factor
is thaty with ever-advancing technology, new sources of
abnormal loadings can be expected to be generated. With
these several thoughts in mind, the following classifications are
deliberately limited to abnormal loadings for which the
probability of occurrence seems significant. The first
classification is an overall generic one:
 Violent change in air pressure
 Accidental impact
 Faulty practice
 Foundation failure
These classifications will now be discussed in more detail.

Violent Change in Air Pressure

This includes
:

 Sabotage bombings
 Service system explosions
 Other explosions within the building
 Explosions external to the building
Sabotage, using explosives, is a very serious form of
abnormal loading. The motive for sabotage might concern
only one person, a family, or an organization resident in
the building, yet the bombing could affect many or all of
the occupants. Service system explosions can originate in
heating, cooling, and cooking systems, in high-pressure steam
pipes and in boilers. Sources of other internal explosions
include containers of liquified gases such as propane or
butane or containers of gasoline. There are a number of
sources of accidental explosion external to the building such
as the shipment of hazardous materials through urban areas
by truck, railroad, and waterway or by the rupture of gas
transmission and distribution systems.

Accidental Impact
This includes
:

Highway Vehicles
Construction Equipment
Aircraft
Trucks and automobiles leaving the highway out of
control are included in the first category. Accidents
involving cranes and lifting devices of all kinds are
included in the second category. In urban areas, construction
frequently takes place on congested sites that have relatively
small clearances from existing occupied buildings.

C . Faulty Practice
Past experience would indicate that when failures do
occur, they are frequently the result of faulty practice.
Whether or not local or extensive collapse results is
largely a function of the type of construction involved, i.e.
whether it can tolerate local damage without extensive
collapse
.

Design Error
Construction Error
Misuse or Abuse by the Occupant
Misuse or abuse by the occupant can include ill-considered
architectural changes or cutting of the structure.
D. Foundation Failure
The ASCE Research Council on Expansive Soils has
documented [13] that building foundation failures and distress
account for average annual property damage in the USA
valued at $740 million. While this figure is not broken down
into specific categories of failure, it is nonetheless indicative
that present codes and standards may not provide adequate
requirements for foundation design. Feld [12] has documented
a number of instances in which foundation failure has produced
severe building distress and even total collapse. It is
apparent that foundation failures including the following
,

specific cases, can pose severe abnormal loadings:

Unforeseen Settlement
Foundation Wall Failure
Scouring Action of Floods on Foundations
Adjacent Excavation
An important factor affecting the probability of
foundation failure is the growing scarcity of land in urban
areas which is causing more and more buildings to be located
on sites previously considered to be of marginal quality for
construction purposes.

Classification of abnormal loading

Violent change in air pressure Sabotage bombings

Accidental impact
Service system explosions
Other explosions within the
building
Explosions external to the
building
Highway vehicles
Construction equipment
Aircraft
 Faulty Practice
Foundation failure
Design error
Construction error
Misuse or abuse by the
occupant
Misuse of abuse by the
occupant can include ill
considered architectural
change of cutting of the
structure
Unforeseen settlement
Foundation wall failure
Scouring action of floods on
foundations
Adjacent excavations

Berdasarkan jenisnya abnormal loading dikelompokkan sebagai berikut:

1) Pressure loads
 Internal gas explosions
 Blast
 Wind over pressure
 Extreme value of environmental loads
2) Impact loads
 Aircraft impact
 Vehicular collision
 Earthquake
 Overload due to occupant overuse

Salah satu metode yang dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui kemungkinan collapse yang terjadi
akibat beban abnormal adalah menggunakan metode “member removal analysis cases”.
Akibat beban abnormal, diasumsikan pada salah satu kolom mengalami failure.

According to ASCE 7-10, progressive collapse is defined as‘‘the spread of an initial local failure from element
to element,eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire structure or adisproportionately large part of it”.
Column loss can be trig-gered by natural hazards such as earthquakes, hurricanes,floods and tornadoes, or
accidental actions such as explosionsof a service system, or bombings due to terrorist action.

the possible types of failures in the steel structure.

1. Failure of a connection

This is one of the most critical and most frequent failure in the steel structure. We can design any
steel member quite beautifully with exact precision, but to design a joint, it becomes tedious. You
need to consider the load envelope and then design the joint for the maximum possible force. But
generally the connection fails first in case there is an unpredicted force. Any steel member can
take the secondary loads because the material is uniform and casted as a single piece, but joint
behaves in a brittle fashion and takes some predicted loads but not all of it. Now let us consider a
joint of a steel building.
 Image credits: Pixar studios

Now, the joint above can fail because of the failure of the number of bolts or the weld length that
we decide. Any underestimation in the calculating the values can lead to the failure. I remember
one old saying for this kind of failure. "One bolt is no bolt..!!". I was told by one of my professor
that while designing a connection even if the forces are such that one bolt can carry the tensile or
compressive loads easily you should place two bolts at that connection. Seems quite different. But
give it a thought, it seems logical and wise to use two bolts. The thing is, as a structural designer,
your design may be perfect and you just use one bolt for the connection. But the construction is
not in your hand, the bold material is not in your hand, accidents are not in your hand. They are
random and they all have certain probabilities associated with it and these probabilities add up to
increase the probability of the failure of the structure. Suppose you applied just one bolt and who
knows that the bolt that is going to be connected in actual life will be weak or will have rust on it?
There is a possibility. So it's always better to apply two bolts in place of a single bolt. But when
you require 6 bolts, don't make it to 7, it will be illogical. Now you know what I am talking about.

In case of weld, all you need to do is check the weld length. But then again, you need to be
conservative in providing the weld length because welding is generally conducted on site. The
connection is brittle and should be carefully designed.

2. Failure of Beams

Flexural failure occurs when the beam fails in bending. Or you can say then
when the lateral loads on the beam increase beyond its limit then this kind of
failure takes place. But these are one of the least occurring failure in steel
structure and it is because we have a straight-forward formula and we need to
see that which section will satisfy the criteria.

But there is one more important failure of beams. Failure due to lateral
torsional buckling.

The images above shows how the lateral torsional buckling looks like. Why
this happens? The reason is, this kind of failure happens when the compression
flange of the beam is not restrained. When we apply load on a beam we assume
that the load is applied exactly at the center of the beam, but it is not so in real
scenario. The loads are present on the floor and there always in an eccentricity
of the load, this eccentricity leads to a twisting moment and because the flange
of the beam is not fixed, the beam twists as well as moves laterally. We should
not be worried about this failure when there is a concrete deck attached firmly
to the beam with the use of shear studs. But in case of a cantilever beam, this
condition should always be checked because a 7 or 8 feet cantilever beam
generally fails in this condition because the compression flange of the
cantilever beam is not braced with the use of anything.
3. Failure in compression

Failure in compression has been discussed in one of the blogs previously. It is

much more important because buildings have "Columns". The link to the
blog is here.

4. Failure in Tension

This failure occurs when you stretch a material bit too far. The possibilities of
this is very rare if the structure is designed properly. But let me make a point
over here. In this kind of failure the member is yielded first, then the necking
phase comes into the picture and then it fails at the reduced cross section.
This leads to a very high strain energy and it takes a large amount of load to
fail the member in tension. But wait there is a mystery over here. There are
two more failures in tension that we probably will not think about. One is
block shear failure and other is net section rupture. Wait..!! What? Yes, these
are the most dangerous failure and happen near connection. A structural
engineer need to be cautious while designing a member in tension.

a. Net section rupture.

When we design a tension member we check that the cross section of the area
is sufficient or not for a particular force. Let us say that the area is A. Now,
near the connection we create a bolt hole and so the area of the member reduces
at that particular location as shown in the figure above. Let us consider that the
area at the location of the bolt hole be 0.9A. When we check whether this area
is sufficient for the applied load and find that the load is exceeding, then the
member will fail at the location of the bolt hole and this is called net section
rupture.

b. Block shear failure

In this type of failure the complete ose side of the connected member comes
out. It is shown by the grey area in the picture above. When we pull the member
it generates tension forces near the connection. The bolts will experience shear
because of it and a small section of the member material will experience shear.
If the stresses are high but not sufficient to fail the member at net section, then
it will shear apart the member along with some amount of tension. This type
of failure is bit difficult to understand but you can actually do a small
experiment. Take a paper and some nails. Attach the paper with the help of
nails on a wooden piece. Make sure that you do not connect the nails at the
middle of the paper, connect it to either side near the end of the paper. Then
pull the paper by slowly increasing the force and you will understand this
failure really well.
4. Local failure

Suppose if your member is very strong and it cannot fail at global level like
tension or compression or bending or anything. But then if the forces exceeds
from a certain limit, then it can lead to some local failure. One of the most
common local failure is local buckling of I sections.
When the stresses exceed but not enough to fail the member completely then
there occurs a local failure called local buckling of beams. In this failure there
are high local stresses developed at imperfect locations of the member. This
local members cause the beam to show some unorthodox behaviour and fails
in certain region. This causes a reduction in the stiffness of the member but it
can still carry load. This kind of failure is a very good failure as it gives an
indication that the structure should either be repaired or it should be
demolished.
Progressive collapse involves a series of failures that lead to partial or total collapse of
a structure. It is generally initiated by loss of one or more vertical load carrying elements. This
loss is caused by abnormal loads such as bombings, gas explosion, earthquakes…etc.

A strategic structure could be subjected to more than one critical action during its service life, including
earthquake, wind, blast or fire. Typically, ordinary structures with a relative importance are designed
and calculated when subjected to earthquake or sometimes wind load. Rarely can we find a structure
with relative importance which is specifically designed against critical loads such as blast or fire.
Progressive collapse is one outcome of these critical loads. The progressive collapse can be defined as a
situation where local failure of a primary structural component leads to total collapse of the structure

Berdasarkan review terhadap dokumen “ Design Criteria of Steel Structure of Belt Conveyor for
Paiton Private Power Project Phase, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, 1998”, diketahui bahwa
steel structure of belt conveyor telah didisain terhadap beban-beban sebagai berikut:
1. Dead load (G) (fixed parts)
2. Live load
(1) Weight of coal material (P1)
(2) Talkway load (P2)
(3) Floor of transfer house (P3)
(4) Roof load (P4)
3. Earthquake load (E)
4. Wind load (W)
(1) Operating wind (WL)
(2) Storm wind (WS)
5. Belt tension load (F)
6. Friction force (Fr)
7. Trolley and hoist beam (TL)
(1) Load
(2) Impact
(3) Lateral thrust
(4) Longitudinal thrust
8. Impact for drive floor
9. Expansion force (T) resulting from temperature
(1) Sliding supports
(2) Fixed support
10. Chute jummed load (J)
11. Erection load (Er)
Load Combination yang ditinjau adalah sebagai berikut:

Condition
Allowable stress level Case No Assumed Condition
Long term 1 Operating G+P1a+P2+F2+Fr
(G+P1a+P3+P4+F2+Fr+TL+
Short term 2 Storm G+P1a+P2+Ws+F2
G+P2+Ws+F1
3 Earthquake G+P1a+P2+E+F2
(G+P1a+P3+P4+E+F2)
4 Conveyor starting G+P1a+P2+F3
(G+P1a+P3+P4+F3)
5 Over load G+P1b+P2+F2
(G+P1b+P3+P4+F2+1D)
6 Expansion G+P1b+P2+F2
(G+P1a+P3+P4+F2+1D+T)
7 Chute jummed (G+P1a+P3+P4+F2+1D+J)
8 Erection Based on erection
procedure

GEMPA RENCANA DIDASARKAN PADA KALA ULANG GEMPA 500 TAHUN DENGAN PROBABILITAS 10%.
Konsep keamanan dari suatu bangunan terhadap gempa, harus dikaitkan dengan risiko atau peluang
terjadinya (incidence risk) gempa tersebut selama umur rencana (design life time) dari struktur
bangunan. Karena gempa merupakan peristiwa probabilistik, maka gempa dengan kekuatan atau
intensitas tertentu, mempunyai periode ulang (return period) yang tertentu pula.

Hubungan antara umur rencana bangunan, periode ulang gempa, dan risiko terjadinya gempa,
berdasarkan teori probabilitas/statistik dapat dinyatakan dalam suatu persamaan :

dimana : RN = Risiko terjadinya gempa selama umur rencana (%)

TR = Periode ulang terjadinya gempa (tahun)

N = Umur rencana dari bangunan (tahun)

Pada perencanaan struktur bangunan tahan gempa, perlu ditinjau 3 taraf beban gempa, yaitu Gempa
Ringan, Gempa Sedang dan Gempa Kuat.

Pada perencanaan struktur bangunan tahan gempa, perlu ditinjau 3 taraf beban gempa, yaitu Gempa
Ringan, Gempa Sedang dan Gempa Kuat.

Periode ulang terjadinya adalah : Gempa Ringan : TR = 20 tahun,

Gempa Sedang : TR = 75 tahun

Gempa Kuat : TR = 2500 tahun.

Umur rencana rata-rata bangunan di Indonesia adalah N = 50 tahun.

Dengan menggunakan rumus diatas, akan didapatkan besarnya risiko terjadinya gempa pada struktu
bangunan adalah : Gempa Ringan : RN = 92%

Gempa sedang : RN = 50%

Gempa Kuat : RN = 2%.

Ternyata tingkat risiko gempa yang dapat terjadi pada struktur bangunan di Indonesia selama umur
rencananya adalah cukup besar, hal ini perlu kiranya menjadi perhatian bagi para perencana struktur.

Untuk dasar perencanaan struktur digunakan Gempa Rencana, yaitu gempa dengan periode ulang 500
tahun.

Pemilihan periode ulang TR = 500 tahun didasarkan pada tingkat probabilitas terjadinya gempa yang
dapat diterima yaitu RN = 10%, mengingat umur efektif rata-rata struktur bangunan di Indonesia
adalah sekitar 50 tahun.

Kecepatan angin rencana biasanya didasarkan untuk periode ulang 50 tahun

Untuk memperhitungkan pengaruh Tekanan Tiup dari angin pada struktur

bangunan, pedoman yang berlaku di Indonesia beberapa syarat sebagai berikut :

1. Tekanan tiup angin harus diambil minimum 25 kg/m2

2. Tekanan tiup angin di laut dan di tepi laut sampai sejauh 5 km dari
pantai, harus diambil minimum 40 kg/m2
3. Untuk daerah-daerah didekat laut dan daerah lain tertentu, dimana
terdapat kecepatan-kecepatan angin yang mungkin menghasilkan
tekanan tiup yang lebih besar, dapat dihitung dengan menggunakan
rumus :
p=V²/16 (1).
dimana:
p : Tekanan tiup
v : kecepatan angin (m/detik)
Berdasarkan PPPURG 1987 (PPPURG 1987), koefisien angin untuk gedung
tertutup adalah sebagai berikut :
Koefisien angin tekan --> = 0,02α - 0,4
Koefisien angin hisap --> = -0,4

Berdasarkan desain kriteria, struktur conveyor direncanakan terhadap beban angin dengan kecepatan
120 km/jam sama dengan 33,33 m/s atau setara dengan beban 69,4 kg/m2 atau 70/m2.

Skala Beaufort
Loncat ke navigasiLoncat ke pencarian
Ombak pada Skala Beaufort 12

Skala Beaufort adalah ukuran empiris yang berkaitan dengan kecepatan angin untuk pengamatan
kondisi di darat atau di laut. Skala ini ditemukan oleh Francis Beaufort pada tahun 1805. Beaufort
mengukur kecepatan angin dengan menggambarkan pengaruhnya pada kecepatan kapal dan
gelombang air laut. Skala Beaufort menggunakan angka dan simbol.
Semakin besar angka skala Beaufort, maka semakin kencang angin berhembus dan bahkan bisa
semakin merusak. Skala Beaufort dimulai dari angka 1 untuk embusan angin yang paling tenang
sampai angka 12 untuk embusan angin yang dapat menyebabkan kehancuran. Skala Beaufort tetap
berguna dan dipakai sampai sekarang.

Nomor Beaufort Kekuatan angin Kecepatan rata-rata (km/jam)

0 Tenang <1
1 Sedikit tenang 1-5
2 Sedikit hembusan angin 6-11
3 Hembusan angin pelan 12-19
4 Hembusan angin sedang 20-29
5 Hembusan angin sejuk 30-39
6 Hembusan angin kuat 40-50
7 Mendekati kencang 51-61
8 Kencang 62-74
9 Kencang sekali 75-87
10 Badai 88-101
11 Badai dahsyat 102-117
12 Badai topan >118