Folding 35

Fig. 3.18 Parallel and similar folds are distinguished by the way
Fig. 3.17 Types of non-cylindrical folds.
the thickness varies around the fold.

B
Fig. 3.19 Folds which classify as parallel-type (A) and similar-type (B). Compare the variation of
stratigraphic thickness of the layers in each example.
36 Folding

these antiformal crests and synformal troughs forms a useful

preliminary step in the interpretation of a structure contour
map (Fig. 3.21B).

CLASSROOM EXERCISE
Bend a piece of card into an angular fold (Fig. 3.22A).
Tilt the card so that the fold plunges. With chalk, sketch
in the run of structure contours on the folded card and
draw, on a map, how these contours will appear as seen
from above (Fig. 3.20A). Repeat this for other angles of
plunge to investigate how the plunge affects both the
shape of the contours and their spacing. Tilt the fold
enough to make one limb overturned, i.e. to make the
Fig. 3.20 Structure contour patterns of cylindrical and fold into an overturned fold. Draw structure contours for
non-cylindrical folds. the fold. Note that the contour lines for the one limb
cross with those of the other limb (Fig. 3.22C). This type
of pattern signifies that overturned folds are ‘double-
valued’ surfaces; that is the surface is present at two
consisting of parallel, evenly spaced contour lines. Since the different heights at the same point on the map.
strike and angle of dip of a surface usually vary around a
fold, the structure contours are generally curved and
variably spaced (Fig. 3.20).
The shape of a set of structure contour lines depicts the
shape of horizontal serial sections through the folded
surface. Since cylindrical folds give identical cross-sections
on parallel sections (see Section 3.1), these folds give
structure contour patterns consisting of contours of similar
shape and size (Fig. 3.20A). Non-cylindrical folds give rise
to more complex structure contour patterns (Fig. 3.20B).
Concentric circular contours indicate domes or basins. The
various types of periclinal folds have characteristic contour
arrangements (Fig. 3.21A). Lines can be drawn on any
contour map marking the ‘valley bottoms’ and ‘the brows of
ridges’ in the folded structure. These lines are called the
trough lines and crest lines respectively. The recognition of

Fig. 3.22 Visualizing the structure contour patterns of plunging

folds.

3.10 Determining the plunge of a fold from structure

contours

Figure 3.23 shows a plunging fold and a map of its structure

contours. If the structure contours are given, the crest (or
trough) line can be drawn in. For a cylindrical fold this line
is parallel to the hinge line, so that its plunge is measured
straight from the map. It is the trend of the crest/trough line
in the ‘downhill’ direction. The direction of plunge can be
shown on maps by an arrow (Fig. 3.23B; also see
‘Geological map symbols’). The angle of plunge is
calculated by solving the triangle in Fig. 3.23A. Note that
the contour spacing mentioned is the separation of the
Fig. 3.21 A folded surface. contours measured in the direction of plunge.