Modular Arithmetic

Congruence/Congruent
 Is an equivalence relation, if a and b are congruent modulo n, then they have no difference
in modular arithmetic under modulo n. Because of this, in modular n arithmetic we usually
use only n numbers 0, 1, 2, ..., n-1. All the other numbers can be found congruent to one of
the n numbers. ... 12+9 ≡ 21 ≡ 1 mod 5.

Modulus
 Is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a
certain value—the modulus (plural moduli). The modern approach to modular arithmetic
was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, published
in 1801.

Least Residue
 In addition, if m > 0 r is the remainder when the Division Algorithm is used to divide b by
m, then r is called the least residue of b (mod m).

Example 1: Verify if the following are true.

 Since 3| (5 – 2), 2 = 5 (mod 3).

 Since 3| 10 – 1, 1 = 10 (mod 3).

Example 2: Find the least residue of the following.

 The least residue of 11 (mod 8) is 3.

 The least residue of 4 (mod 9) is 4.
 The least residue of 25 (mod 5) is 0.

Properties of Congruence

 Congruence is useful because it can be manipulated like ordinary equations. Congruences

to the same modulus can be added, multiplied, and taken to a fixed positive integral power;
i.e., for any a,b,c,d ∈ Z and m,n ∈ N.