TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE NO

1 Introduction 1

2 Information and technology and services in BHEL,EDN 4

3 Scope of training in BHEL,EDN 7

4 Network devices 8

5 cables 11

6 Topologies 14

7 OSI Model 23
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Chapter: 1
INTRODUCTION
ABOUT BHEL

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) owned and founded by the Government of
India, is an engineering and manufacturing company based in New Delhi, India.
Established in 1964, BHEL is India's largest power generation equipment manufacturer.

BHEL EDN
BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
The Electronics Division (EDN) of BHEL was formed in 1976, at Bangalore mainly to
establish a strong base in the areas of power and control electronics, to supplement and
support BHEL's strong and unique presence in power generation and transmission
equipment manufacturing. The division came into being when BHEL took over the Radio
and Electricals Manufacturing Company (REMCO), which formally merged with BHEL-
EDN in 1980, Growing from a meager turnover of Rs. 3 crores in 1976 - 1977 to 354 crores
in 1996 - 1997, BHEL-EDN has entered a new phase of growth. Its quick progress was
aided by the collaborations with international leaders in the field. But it was BHEL - EDN'S
pioneering spirit and the unwavering commitment to in-house solutions that has really
contributed to its rapid growth and success. BHEL - EDN today holds on its own against
the world's leaders in the field and has won many prestigious contract against stiff
competition from them. In recognition of its commitment to the Quality systems and
procedures, the unit was awarded ISO 9001 certification by BVQI (UK) in July 1993. This
was further re-certified in July 1996 for the updated version of ISO 9001. Presently the unit
is treading along the path of Total Quality Management (TQM) as Business Process Re-
Engineering (BPR). In addition to its comprehensive product profile, a number of new
technology areas have been earmarked for future developments. Prominent among them
are Power and control Electronics for Traction applications, Energy Management Systems,
Training simulators for Defense applications, Large telecommunication exchanges,
Electronic Energy meters, etc. On the threshold of the millennium, BHEL's "VISION
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2001" envisages further growth for EDN, transforming it into a world class enterprise
providing comprehensive solutions to customers, while exploring new frontiers in software
and hardware applications to fulfill the growing needs and expectation of the global market.
VISION: A world-class, innovative, competitive and profitable engineering enterprise
providing total business solutions.
MISSION: To be the leading Indian engineering enterprise providing quality products,
systems and services in the fields of energy, transportation, industry infrastructure and
other potential areas.

VALUES:
• Meeting commitments made to external and internal customers
• Foster learning, creativity and speed of response
• Respect for dignity and potential of individuals
• Loyalty and pride in the company
• Team playing
• Zeal to excel
• Integrity and fairness in all matters

PRODUCT PANORAMA:
The Comprehensive product profile of Electronics Division includes:
AUTOMATION and POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS:
• Power Plant Automation
• DC Drive Systems
• Static Starters
• Power Suppliers
• Excitation Drive Systems
• Traction Drive Systems
• HVDC Systems
• Static - VAR Compensation Systems
• Industrial Automation

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TELECOMMUNICATIONS:
• EPABX (Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchanges)
• RAX (Rural Automatic Exchanges)
• SBM (Single Base Module) RAX
• MAX - L (Up to 10,000 lines)

SEMICONDUCTOR and PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

• Power Semiconductor devices
• Solar Cells
• Photovoltaic Panels
• Integrated PV Systems

DEFENCE ELECTRONICS:
• Samphire Tactical Gunnery Simulator
• Infantry Weapon Effects Simulator for Tactical Gunnery Training
• Small Arms Training Simulator For Marksmanship Training METERS and
CAPACITORS
• Electromechanical (Ferrari) Energy Meters
• Electronic Energy Meters
• Electrolytic Capacitors

INTERNATIONAL CLIENTS:
BHEL - EDN has the competence in offering comprehensive solutions to the customers
across the globe. The countries where BHEL - EDN manufactured equipments/ systems
have been in operation are; Bhutan, Cyprus, New Zealand, Oman, Ghana, Italy, Saudi
Arabia, Sweden, Malaysia, Malta, Tanzania Thailand, Mauritius, Nepal, USA.

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Chapter: 2
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY and SERVICES IN
BHEL, EDN

The DTG (Digital Transformation Group) of BHEL, EDN deals with network and
hardware issues. They also monitor the Network devices and firewalls in the Data Center
on a daily basis to prevent unauthorized accesses and maintains data integrity. Data center
is a room where limited access is given to authorized people. All the main servers, switches,
routers etc. are kept there.
They have two sub-departments where one deals with hardware repairing and
troubleshooting and the other deals with network related issues.
The hardware repairing deals with desktop related problems. Troubleshooting is related by
analyzing and tracing the correct faults in the LAN, switches, routers, firewalls etc.
They also have a Helpline Ticketing portal where any authorized system users can register
their network or hardware related issues to the DTG department.
The DTG department can resolve the issues by either conducting a physical visit to the
affected system or taking remote of the system.
In the data centric laboratory we use computers to gather, process, store, protect, and
transfer information. The computer consists of:
 Hardware-physical computer parts, palpable and visible
(a) Personal computer- The employees of BHEL, EDN have a personal
computer where they can execute many tasks simultaneously
(multitasking).
 Managing personal or business tasks and assignments.
 Maintaining the address book.
 Accessing and browsing the internet.
 Sending/receiving e-mails, etc.

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 Software- set of commands that are “understandable” to the computer; instructions

to its palpable parts, giving orders what to do basic principle of computers; data
enters the computer through one or more input devices. The computer then
processes the data and transmits the resulting data to output devices. Output devices
can be human interfaces such as screen or another electronic device such as storage
device or computer network.
The system unit consists of the following components:
 Motherboard-MBO a computer “backbone” responsible for communication
between components and transmission of information.

 Central Processing Unit- CPU functions: command execution, data

transmission, computer function control basic characteristics:
 Speed(in Mega Hertz (MHz), Giga Hertz(GHz))
 Amount of memory (Cache in Bytes)
 Random Access Memory- RAM a memory container for programs that are currently
running and data that is being processed basic characteristics:
 Speed(in MHz, GHz)
 Capacity(in Bytes)
 Data rate class(DDR, SDRAM, SDR SDRAM)
 Permanent memory: Hard Disk Drive-HDD- device (memory) used for permanent data
storage.
 Application software- some types of software that can be used on an installed operating
system:
 Office programs-openoffice.org, Libre Office, Microsoft Office.
 Antivirus program- Avira, Sophos, Kaspersky etc.
 Web browser- Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft internet explorer, opera, safari
 Network connected computer
Every computer in BHEL, EDN needs to be connected to the domain of the organization
to share information related to file documents and SAP, PC connected to the network is
considered a network computer can be connected either through network

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Cable or through a phone line.

Types of network connections
 LAN (Local Area Network) – a small network that physically connects nearby
computers in the organization of BHEL, EDN.
 WAN (Wide Area Network) - a larger network that covers a city or a region.
 Internet – a world network of connected computers, connected through
WAN and LAN
 Intranet – a smaller network, closed version of internet to which only
certain (authorized) people are granted access( members of an
organization)
 Extranet- and intranet version to which only certain people are granted
access (not exclusively members of an organization, but also outsourced
experts for preforming common tasks).
 World Wide Web (WWW)-one of the services that can be used on
internet which enables us to view and search contents in a form of web-
pages.
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)is a wireless distribution method for two or more
devices that use high-frequency radio waves and often include an access point to the
internet. A WLAN allows users to move around the coverage area, often a home or small
office, while maintaining a network connection.

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Chapter: 3

SCOPE AND TRAINING IN BHEL, EDN

An internship in BHEL offers a chance to learn by doing in a setting where one is
supervised by a work-place professional and have the opportunity to archive their own
learning goals, without the responsibilities of being a permanent employee.
An internship also offers the opportunity to work with someone who can become a mentor
not only in the internship but throughout their career.

Career Exploration
 Learn about a career in the field of information technology and services in BHEL
 Work alongside a professional in chosen career area
 Observe the workplace and different departments.
Leadership and Skill Development
 Learn new skills and add to their knowledge base while gaining confidence in their
abilities
 Opportunity to practice communication and teamwork skills
 Gain industry knowledge first hand from an organization and professionals
 Provide evidence that they have initiative, are reliable, and have a sense of
responsibility
Networking and Establishing Mentors and References
 Meet new people and practice networking skills while establishing a network of
professional contacts, mentors, and references
 Open to door to advice on the next steps to take on their career path
Resume Enhancements
 Gain valuable experience and accomplishments to add to their resume and /or
enhance their application to graduate school
 Create an advantage over other job or graduate school applicants
 Potential for a full-time job offer at the end of the internship based on their
performance

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Chapter: 4

NETWORK DEVICES

Hub
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater
in that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting

cables. A hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it
connects LAN components with identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been
configured to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming
data is in digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data
is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets
to all connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. There are two types of hubs: simple and multiple port.

Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device
that improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about
nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers.
Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the
hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual
circuit capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are
more difficult to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device
that has some of the best capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at
either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is
one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a
router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing
protocols as routers.
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Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are
used to prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is
important so be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping,
ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.

Router
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are
intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected to.
Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access
control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data service unit
(CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed
because LANs and WANs use different network protocols. Such routers are known as
border routers. They serve as the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate
at the border of your network.
Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can
also be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently.
Routers establish communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local
connections. A router contains information about the systems connected to it and where to
send requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers usually communicate routing and
other information using one of three standard protocols: Routing Information Protocol
(RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that
is authorized by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static
or dynamic. If they are static, they can only be configured manually and stay that way until
changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them and use information
about those routers to build their routing tables.

Bridge
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic
role of bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the

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different segments that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices
connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges
can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used
to divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network
segments and managing the flow of data between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN
components with identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets,
known as frames, for addresses before they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the
bridge makes no modifications to the format or content of the incoming data. The bridge
filters and forwards frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table. The
bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in
the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs.
Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple or multiple port.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches,
which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport
bridges” because of how they operate.

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of
repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power so that the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard
LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

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Chapter: 5

CABLES
Coaxial Cables

Invented in the 1880s, "coax" was best known as the kind of cable that connected television
sets to home antennas. Coaxial cable is also a standard for 10 Mbps Ethernet cables. When
10 Mbps Ethernet was most popular, during the 1980s and early 1990s, networks typically
utilized one of two kinds of coax cable — thinnet(10BASE2 standard) or
thicknet (10BASE5). These cables consist of an inner copper wire of varying thickness
surrounded by insulation and another shielding. Their stiffness caused network
administrators difficulty in installing and maintaining thinnet and thicknet.

Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted pair eventually emerged during the 1990s as the leading cabling standard for
Ethernet, starting with 10 Mbps (10BASE-T, also known as Category 3 or Cat3), later
followed by improved versions for 100 Mbps (100BASE-TX, Cat5, and Cat5e) and
successively higher speeds up to 10 Gbps (10GBASE-T). Ethernet twisted pair cables
contain up to eight (8) wires wound together in pairs to minimize electromagnetic
interference.

Two primary types of twisted pair cable industry standards have been defined: Unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). Modern Ethernet cables use UTP
wiring due to its lower cost, while STP cabling can be found in some other types of
networks such as Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Fiber Optics
Instead of insulated metal wires transmitting electrical signals, fiber optic network cables
work using strands of glass and pulses of light. These network cables are bendable despite
being made of glass. They have proven especially useful in wide area network (WAN)
installations where long distance underground or outdoor cable runs are required

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and also in office buildings where a high volume of communication traffic is common.

Two primary types of fiber optic cable industry standards are defined — single- mode
(100BaseBX standard) and multimode (100BaseSX standard). Long-distance
telecommunications networks more commonly use single-mode for its relatively higher
bandwidth capacity, while local networks typically use multimode instead due to its lower
cost.

USB Cables
Most Universal Serial Bus (USB) cables connect a computer with a peripheral device
(keyboard or mouse) rather than to another computer. However, special network adapters
(sometimes called dongles) also allow connecting an Ethernet cable to a USB port
indirectly. USB cables feature twisted pair wiring.

Serial and Parallel Cables

Because many PCs in the 1980s and early 1990s lacked Ethernet capability, and USB had
not been developed yet, serial and parallel interfaces (now obsolete on modern computers)
were sometimes used for PC-to-PC networking. So-called null model cables, for example,
connected the serial ports of two PCs enabling data transfers at speeds between 0.115 and
0.45 Mbps.

Crossover Cables
Null modem cables are one example of the category of crossover cables. A crossover cable
joins two network devices of the same type, such as two PCs or two network switches.

The use of Ethernet crossover cables was especially common on older home networks years
ago when connecting two PCs directly together. Externally, Ethernet crossover cables
appear nearly identical to ordinary (sometimes also called straight-through), the only
visible difference being the order of color-coded wires appearing on the cable's end
connector. Manufacturers typically applied special distinguishing marks to their crossover

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cables for this reason. Nowadays, though, most home networks utilize routers that have
built-in crossover capability, eliminating the need for these special cables.

Other Types of Network Cables

Some networking professionals use the term patch cable to refer to any kind of straight-
through network cable being used for a temporary purpose. Coax, twisted pair and fiber
optic types of patch cables all exist. They share the same physical characteristics as other
types of network cables except that patch cables tend to be a shorter length.

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Chapter: 6

TOPOLOGIES
BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

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1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

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3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

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Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity.

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has

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information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing
logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

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Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

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1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

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Chapter: 7

OSI MODEL

OSI MODEL

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

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The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
☺→ Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
☺ →Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function
of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

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The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at
a given time.
☺→ Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
☺→ Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines.
☺→Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

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Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

☺→Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

☺→Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End delivery
of the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful
data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number
80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default

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port assigned.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segment produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process.
The services provided by transport layer:

1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include

– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more
reliable than connection less Service.
☺→Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
☺→Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

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5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication

and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
☺→All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
☺→Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

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7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are:

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in Internet because of its late
invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP mode.

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