TEST - 6

PAPER CODE: 06

Natural Resource, Infrastructure,

Industries & Agriculture
(TOPICAL TEST)
Time Allowed: 2 Hrs. Maximum Marks: 200

Roll No.:

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1. Which of the following statements is/are true 5. Which of the following farming systems tend
about different types of soil? to increase the microbial biomass in the soil?
1. Loamy soil has good water holding (a) No-tillage farming
capacity which is suitable for variety of (b) Shifting cultivation
crops.
(c) Sedentary farming
2. Sandy soils are characterized by high
(d) Hoe farming
amount of percolation and nutrient loss.
3. Clayey soil particles being small in size 6. Consider the following statements on Ports in
have high water retention properties. India:
1. Tamil Nadu has the most number of Major
Codes:
ports.
(a) 1 and 2
2. Gujarat has more number of Minor ports
(b) Only 2 than Maharashtra.
(c) Only 3 3. Kolkata port is India's only riverine port.
(d) All
Which of the statements given above is/are
2. Which of the following process lead to losses correct?
of Organic Carbon from soil? (a) Only 3
1. By mixing of crop residues in soil. (b) 2 and 3
2. By decomposition of material by micro-

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(c) 1 and 3
organisms.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3. By erosion of surface soil.
OR
7. Arrange the following nations in terms of
Codes: decreasing order with respect to wind power
(a) Only 3 installed capacity:
(b) 1 and 3 1. USA
(c) 2 and 3 2. China
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(d) All 3. Germany

3. Under which of the following form of 4. India
irrigation system, poor quality water can be Codes:
used?
(a) 1>2>3>4
(a) Terraced irrigation system
(b) 2>1>3>4
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(b) Drip irrigation system

(c) 1>2>4>3
(c) Ridges and furrow irrigation system
(d) 2>1>4>3
(d) Flood irrigation system
8. Mixed farming is one in which crop
4. Which of the following statements is/are true
production is combined with the rearing of
about leguminous crops?
livestock. Which of the following is/are the
1. Leguminous crops are responsible for impacts of mixed farming?
nitrogen fixation in the soil.
1. It offers highest return on farm business,
2. Leguminous crops have high nutrients as the byproducts of farm are properly
absorbing capacities thus are harmful utilized.
when used in crop rotation.
2. It reduces the spread of diseases and pests.
3. Leguminous crops are sources of oil
3. It promotes water conservation and
phytochemicals for human health, and
minimizes soil erosion.
resources for industries and biofuels.
Codes:
Codes:
(a) 1 and 3
(a) Only 1
(b) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) Only 2 (c) 1 and 2
(d) All (d) All

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 9. Due to which of the following reasons the 1. Market development assistance will be
inland fishing intensity along river courses provided which will decrease MRP of the
varies from stretch to stretch? product.
1. Due to conflicting multiple uses of river 2. It will provide carbon and primary/
water. secondary nutrients to soil to improve
2. Due to difference in the current velocity. fertility of the soil.
3. Due to terrain of the river bed. 3. It will reduce the production of harmful
greenhouse gases and toxic material that
Codes: pollutes groundwater.
(a) 1 and 2 4. It will increase employment in both urban
(b) Only 3 and rural areas.
(c) Only 2
Codes:
(d) All
(a) 1, 2 and 3
10. Consider the following statements with respect (b) 2 and 4
to the advantages of new Hydrocarbon (c) 1, 3 and 4
Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP): (d) All
1. It will enhance domestic oil & gas

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production. 13. Which of the following is/are the functions
2. It will enhance transparency by reducing performed by the Fishery Survey of India?
administrative discretion. 1. Develop and promote new eco-friendly
3. It will provide soft loans from multilateral
institutions for funding infrastructure
development.
OR fishing practices among fishermen.
2. Collect Information on food and feeding
habits and prey-predator relationships.
4. It will allow the developers to raise ECBs 3. Chart out fishing grounds in the Exclusive
for developing the internal infrastructure. Economic Zone (EEZ) and adjoining high
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seas.
Which of the above stated benefits are correct?
4. Collect data on deep sea fishery resources.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 Codes:
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (a) 1, 2 and 4
(d) All (b) 1, 2 and 3
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(c) 2, 3 and 4
11. What are the environmental impacts of
biomass energy? (d) All
1. Formation of biomass energy releases SO2 14. Which of the following agricultural activities
and NOx which impacts air quality. lead to pollution?
2. Biomass power plants divert wood waste 1. Water soluble pesticides and untimely
from landfills, which reduces the irrigation lead to ground water pollution.
productions and atmospheric release of
2. Application of excessive fertilizers leads
methane.
to Blue Baby Syndrome.
3. It deprives local ecosystems of nutrients
that forest or agricultural waste provide. 3. Runoff of agricultural waste-water leads
to Eutrophication.
Codes: 4. Growing of exotic crops by reducing the
(a) Only 3 number natural species give rise to new
(b) 1 and 3 diseases, pests and weeds.
(c) 2 and 3 Codes:
(d) All (a) 1, 2 and 3
12. Which of the following are the proposed (b) 2 and 3
benefits of the Policy on Promotion of City (c) 2, 3 and 4
Compost, approved by the government? (d) All

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15. Consider the following statements related to
the District Mineral Foundation:
1. It will work for the interest and benefit of
persons and areas affected by mining
related operations.
2. Its operation will be defined under the
jurisdiction of the relevant State
Government.
3. It will be funded by royalty on minerals
and will be treated as extra budgetary
resources.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) All
16. Which of the following statements is/are true
18. Which of the following statements related to
the applications of nano-technology in
agriculture is/are correct?
1. Nano capsules for pesticide delivery
prevent groundwater contamination.
2. Nano sensors are used for monitoring soil
conditions and plant growth.
3. Nano particles can be used as gelation
and viscosifying agents.
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) Only 2
(c) Only 3
(d) All
19. Which of the following pairs of proposed ports
and their respective states is/are correctly
matched?

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Proposed Ports States
about soil conservation techniques?
1. Sagar Port – West Bengal
1. Mulching is a process of covering the soil
OR
2. Colachel Port – Karnataka
with only organic materials in order to
preserve soil moisture. 3. Dahanu Port – Orissa
2. Shelter belts drastically reduce the soil 4. Dugarajpatnam – Andhra
erosion in hilly areas by breaking wind. Port Pradesh
3. Gypsum is added to the soil in order to
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Codes:
reduce soil salinity caused due to over-
(a) 1 and 3
irrigation.
(b) 2, 3 and 4
Codes: (c) 1 and 4
(a) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
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20. Which of the following statements is incorrect

(c) Only 3 about zero tillage?
(d) None (a) It is a method of planting of new crop
over the residues of the previous crop.
17. Which of the following is/are the negative
impacts of water-logging? (b) Zero tilled soils are non-homogeneous and
contains less number of earthworms.
1. Waterlogged soils release increased
(c) Organic content increases due to less
amounts of nitrous oxide (N2O).
mineralisation.
2. It reduces the plant growth as the ability
(d) All of the above.
of plants to absorb nutrients from soil
decreases. 21. Which of the following statements is/are true
3. It reduces nitrogen fixation by the nodules about N-P-K fertilizers?
of legume crops and pastures. 1. Nitrogen is essential constituent for plants
as it provides proteins and impart green
Codes: colour to the plants.
(a) Only 2 2. Phosphorus supports the formation of oils,
(b) 2 and 3 sugars, and starches.
(c) 1 and 2 3. The ideal ratio of N:P:K should be 1:1:1.
(d) All
Codes:

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 (a) Only 1 25. Consider the following statements about
(b) 1 and 2 energy resources:
(c) 2 and 3 1. Geothermal energy is generated from the
magma exist in the mantle and lower crust
(d) All
of the earth.
22. Which of the following statement(s) is/are 2. Tidal energy is dependent on position of
correct? the Moon and Sun with respect to the
1. Net sown area is greater than or equal to Earth and local geography of the sea floor
gross cropped area. and coastlines.
2. Cropping intensity is in %age of gross 3. Radiant energy is generated from the
cropped area/net sown area. energy of electromagnetic and
gravitational radiation.
3. Net Irrigated Area depicts total area under
crops irrigated twice in a year by any Which of the above statements is/are correct?
source.
(a) Only 2
Codes: (b) 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 (c) 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) All

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(c) 2 and 3 26. Consider the following statements about
(d) All National Agricultural Market:

23. Which of the following statements with respect

to land-man ratio is/are incorrect?
1. It is the ratio between the habitable area
OR 1. It is a common e-market platform for
different regulated wholesale markets in
States/UTs.
2. It is not mandatory for the markets to
and the total population of a country.
join the platform.
SC
2. Arable Land-man ratio is generally
3. Central Government will meet expenses
favourable in India as net sown area is
on software and its customization for the
larger as compared to other developed
States and provide it free of cost to the
nations.
States and UTs.
Choose the correct answer from below given Which of the statements given above is/are
options:
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true?
(a) Only 1 (a) 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) Both (c) 2 and 3
(d) None (d) 1, 2 and 3
24. Consider the following statements related to 27. Referring to watershed management, consider
the features of High grade coal (Anthracite): the following statements:
1. It contains a high percentage of fixed 1. Watershed management emphasises on
carbon and a low percentage of volatile scientific soil and water conservation.
matter.
2. The aim is to develop primary resources
2. It lights on fire easily and can produce of land and water to produce secondary
excessive smoke and particulate matter. resources for maintaining ecological
3. It is used in the steel industries. balance.
3. Watershed management increases the life
Which of the above statements is/are correct? of the downstream dam and reservoirs.
(a) 1 and 3
(b) All Which of the above statements are correct?
(c) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(d) Only 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All

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28. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a major air 2. Biomass energy is generated by the
pollutant. How is it harmful to human health? process of fermentation and
1. It reduces oxygen carrying capacity of the decomposition.
blood. 3. Wood, straw, manure, sugar cane, corn
2. It affects the normal functioning of the are the sources of biomass energy.
nervous system.
Which of the statements given above are
3. It damages liver. correct?
Select the correct answer from below given (a) 2 and 3
options: (b) 1 and 2
(a) Only 1 (c) All
(b) 1 and 3 (d) None
(c) 2 and 3
32. Which of the following come under the
(d) All Ramsar classification of wetlands?
29. Which of the following statements is/are true 1. Irrigated agricultural fields, especially the
related to dryland farming and wetland paddy fields.
farming? 2. Aquaculture ponds
1. Rainfall of 75 cm forms a boundary line 3. Canals and drainage channels
between dryland farming and wetland 4. Farm ponds

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farming.
2. Telangana plateau generally comes under Codes:
OR
wetland farming due to presence of (a) 1, 2 and 3
swamps. (b) Only 1
3. Jowar, Bajra & Sugarcane come under (c) 1 and 4
dryland farming. (d) All
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Codes: 33. Which of the following statements related to

(a) Only 1 the agriculture Price policy is/are true?
(b) 1 and 2 1. In India MSP is decided by the cabinet on
(c) Only 3 the recommendations of Department of
(d) All Agriculture & Cooperation.
2. Price Stabilisation Fund is regulated by
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30. Consider the following statements related to Ministry of Finance to advance interest
mineral plants in India: free loans to state governments and central
1. Vizag steel plant is first port based steel agencies.
plant. 3. Essential Commodities Act is meant to
2. Durgapur steel plant has been established prevent hoarding or black marketing of
with the collaboration with U.K. foodstuffs only.
3. First fertiliser plant in India has been Codes:
established at Sindari.
(a) 1 and 2
Which of the above statements is/are correct? (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (c) None
(b) 2 and 3 (d) All
(c) 1 and 3
34. Which of the following pairs are correctly
(d) All matched?
31. Consider the following statements with respect 1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region - Cotton
to biomass energy: Textile Industry.
1. Biomass is an organic material which has 2. Hugli Industrial Region - Jute Industry.
stored sunlight in the form of chemical 3. Chotanagpur Industrial region - Heavy
energy. Metallurgical Industries.

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 Select the correct answer from the codes given 38. National Hydrology Project has been launched
below: to improve the gathering of Hydro-
(a) 1 and 2 meteorological data. Which of the following
are the proposed benefits of it?
(b) Only 1
1. It will improve the assessment of surface
(c) 2 and 3 and ground water resources in a river
(d) 1, 2 and 3 basin for better planning & allocation of
resources.
35. Considering the irrigation, how the efficiency 2. It will help in mapping of flood
of surface method of irrigation can be inundation areas for use by the disaster
improved? management authorities.
1. By lining the canal 3. It will increase the lead time in flood
2. By proper leveling of the field forecast.
3. By wild flooding to remove sediments 4. It will improve reservoir operations for
drought management.
Choose the correct answer from below given
options: Codes:
(a) 1 and 2 (a) Only 1
(b) 1, 3 and 4

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(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) All
(d) 1, 2 and 3

36. Considering the earth's atmosphere carbon

dioxide constitutes about 0.03% of the
atmosphere by:
OR
39. Which of the following statements is/are true
about Agro-irradiation centre?
1. It is a place where plant saplings are
treated with low dosage of radiation for
1. By volume
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their faster growth.
2. By weight 2. The radiation doses are recommended by
3. By mass International Atomic Energy Agency.
3. Recently, India has collaborated with UK
Choose the correct answer from below given to set up such centres in India to improve
codes: the agriculture sector.
(a) Only 1
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Codes:
(b) Only 2
(a) Only 1
(c) Only 3
(b) Only 2
(d) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
37. Which of the following statements is/are true (d) Only 3
about Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna?
40. Which of the following statements related to
1. The objective of the scheme is More crop different forms of farming is/are true?
per drop. 1. Transhumance is a practice in agriculture
2. It will be run as a parallel scheme to where people shift from one place to
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme. another upon loss of its soil fertility.
3. It is jointly implemented by Ministry of 2. Prevention and elimination of shifting
Agriculture and Ministry of Water cultivation is undertaken by National
Resources only. Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
3. Relay Cropping involves growing of the
Codes: succeeding crop when previous crop
(a) Only 1 attend its maturity stage.
(b) 1 and 2
Codes:
(c) 2 and 3 (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(d) All (c) 1 and 2 (d) All

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41. Considering the types iron ores which of the 3. Weeds are the indicator of bad type of
following is known as oxides of iron? soils only.
1. Hematite
Codes:
2. Magnetite
(a) 1 and 2
3. Limonite
(b) Only 2
4. Siderite
(c) Only 3
Choose the correct answer from below given (d) All
codes:
(a) Only 1 45. Which of the following statements is/are true
about HYV seeds?
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 4 1. It has longer life cycle which gives farmers
assurance against crop failure.
(d) Only 3
2. HYV seeds are dwarf varieties and thus
42. Which of the following features are associated require less amount of fertilisers compared
with the concept of sustainable energy? to the traditional seeds.
1. It include promotion of renewable energy 3. The micro climate developed at the fields
and technologies to improve energy sown with HYV seeds helps in prevention
efficiency. of pests and insects.

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2. It uses small amount of raw material per
Codes:
unit energy production.
(a) 1 and 2
OR
Select the correct answer for above correct (b) Only 2
statement using below given codes:
(c) All
(a) Only 1
(d) None
(b) Only 2
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(c) Both 46. Bioremediation is the process of using

(d) None
43. Consider the following statements related to
the Dedicated Freight Corridor:
1. The Dedicated Freight Corridor
Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL)
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organisms to neutralize or remove
contamination from waste. Which of the
following is/are the essential conditions for
the process of bioremediation?
1. Sufficient Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
and other nutrients to support good

is a corporation run by the Ministry of microbial growth.

Urban Development (India). 2. Sufficient oxygen to support aerobic
2. DFCC has been registered as a company biodegradation.
under the Companies Act 1956. 3. Appropriate temperatures for microbial
growth.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? Select the correct answer from below given
(a) Only 1 codes:
(b) Only 2 (a) 1 and 3
(c) Both (b) 2 and 3
(d) None (c) Only 2
44. Which of the following statements is/are true (d) All
about weeds?
47. Which of the following statement defines the
1. Weeds naturally grow with the main crop term colluviums soil?
in fields and thus form a symbiotic
(a) Colluvial soil is sediment that has moved
relationship.
downhill to the bottom of the slope due
2. Weeds in the fields can be the host to to gravity and sheetwash during rain
various pests and insects. storms.

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 (b) Colluvial soil is sediment that has moved
downhill to the bottom of the slope with
the help of running water in streams.
(c) Colluvial soil is soil formed on stream
deposits.
(d) Colluvial soil is a soil consists of all the
materials picked up, mixed, disintegrated,
transported and deposited through the
action of glacial ice.
48. Which of the following government schemes
and their objectives is/are correctly matched?
1. Surya Mitra scheme: It aims to promote
the development and use of solar energy
for power generation by connecting it
with national grid.
2. Jal Marg Vikas Project: Development of
inland waterways between Allahabad
2. Economic laws are more liberal in SEZ.
3. Only State government or its agencies can
set up an SEZ in India.
4. Establishment of SEZs are confined only
to the developing countries.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 1 and 2
51. Which of the following statements is/are true
about laterisation of soil?
1. Laterisation of soil is common in temperate
regions of the world.
2. This process increases the silica content

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and Haldia for improving commercial in the soil.
navigation of vessels. 3. This process makes the soil good for tea
3. Sagar Mala project: To initiate port
modernization, port connectivity, coastal
community development and lighthouse
tourism development.
OR and coffee cultivation.

Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) Only 2
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Codes:
(a) 1 and 2 (c) Only 3
(b) 2 and 3 (d) None
(c) 1 and 3 52. Which of the following is the objective of the
(d) All India Aspiration Fund launched by the
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government of India?
49. Which of the following are the non-renewable
energy resources? (a) It aims at strengthening incubators and
setting up 'tinkering labs' where ideas can
1. Lignite
be shaped into prototypes before they are
2. Wood
ripe for funding.
3. Asphalt
(b) It aims at meeting the financial
4. Nuclear energy requirements of non farming income
5. Gasohol generating enterprises and non corporate
small business enterprises engaged in
Codes:
trade, services and manufacturing
(a) 1, 2 and 3 activities.
(b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (c) It aims at providing soft loans in the
(c) 1 and 5 nature of quasi-equity and term loans on
(d) All relatively soft terms to MSMEs.
(d) It aims to catalyse thousands of crores of
50. Consider the following statements on Special
equity investment into start-ups and
Economic Zone (SEZ):
MSMEs (micro and small enterprises),
1. SEZ is a geographical region deemed to creating employment for lakhs of persons,
be foreign territory for the purposes of mostly educated youth.
trade operations and duties and tariffs.

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53. Which of the following statements related to 56. Which of the following challenges is/are faced
the geographical condition and crop associated by the Cotton textile industries in India?
with it is/are true? 1. Frequent Strike and lockouts due to poor
1. Western disturbances are helpful for working conditions.
mustard cultivation in India. 2. Competition in the international markets.
2. Orographic rainfall helps in tea and coffee 3. Shortage of raw materials.
cultivation. 4. Absolete machinery.
3. Cyclonic disturbances give boost to wheat
cultivation in India. Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
Codes:
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(a) Only 1 (c) All
(b) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3
(c) Only 3
(d) All 57. Which of the following pairs related to the
relation of soil and crop grown on it is/are
54. Consider the following statements related to correctly matched?
the Diamond Quadrilateral Infrastructure 1. Millets are grown on sandy soil.
Project: 2. Lentils are grown on clayey soil.

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1. It will establish High Speed Railway 3. Rubber is grown on loamy soil.
(HSR) network in India connecting the
4. Cotton plants are grown on sandy loamy
OR
four metro cities of the country.
soil.
2. The project will be operated by the
respective state government. Codes:
3. It will establish first bullet train corridor (a) 1 and 2
on Mumbai-Chennai section. (b) 2, 3 and 4
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(c) 1, 3 and 4
Which of the above stated features is/are
correct? (d) 1 and 4
(a) Only 1 58. Identify the Iron Steel plant having following
(b) 1 and 3 features:
(c) 2 and 3 1. It is located at the confluence of the
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(d) All Subarnarekha and the Kharkai rivers.

2. It obtains the supply of iron ore from the
55. Which of the following statements is/are captive mines at Badampahar.
correct? 3. It obtains coking coal from Jharia and
1. Tummalapalle Mine in Kadapa District West Bokaro coal field.
of Andhra Pradesh is one of the world’s 4. It is the second largest Steel plant in India.
largest uranium reserves.
2. Largest deposits of Thorium are found in Codes:
Malabar Coast of Kerala. (a) TISCO
3. As compared to thorium, the geographical (b) Indian Iron and Steel Company
distribution of uranium is much more (c) Bhilai Steel Plant
restrictive due to being more radioactive.
(d) Durgapur Steel Plant
Select the correct answer using the code given 59. Which of the following pairs related to crop
below: and major producing state is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 Crop Major Producing
(b) Only 3 State
(c) 1 and 2 1. Sugarcane - West Bengal
(d) 2 and 3 2. Soyabean - Madhya Pradesh

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 3. Bajra - Karnataka Which of the above statements is/are correct?
4. Ragi - Rajasthan (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2

Codes: (c) Both (d) None

(a) 1 and 2 63. Match the following:
(b) Only 2 Grain Legumes Top producer
(c) 2 and 3 A. Pigeon peas 1. China
(d) 3 and 4
B. Dry Cowpeas 2. India
60. Which of the following is/are the advantages C. Soybeans 3. USA
of Jhumming Cultivation? D. Groundnuts, 4. Nigeria
1. It increases the edge effect by increasing with shell
the biodiversity of plants and vegetation
in the region through the process of Codes:
rotating crops throughout the years. (a) A-1; B-2; C-3; D-4
2. The ash from the fire improves the fertility (b) A-2; B-4; C-3; D-1
of the soil of Rainforests.
(c) A-4; B-2; C-3; D-1
3. The fire decreases the incidence of weeds

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(d) A-2; B-3; C-1; D-4
and other pests.
64. Consider the following statements about
Codes:
(a) Only 1
(b) 2 and 3
(c) None
OR Uranium:
1. Uranium is a naturally occurring element
that can be found in low levels within all
rock, soil, and water.
SC
(d) All 2. Nuclear energy produced from fission of
61. Consider the following statements regarding Uranium is considered as emission-free
New Industrial Policy, 1991: source of energy.
1. It has abolished all industrial licensing 3. U-238 nucleus is 'fissile' material' and U-
without any exceptions. 235 is said to be 'fertile' mateiral.
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2. It encouraged Disinvestment of PSUs. Which of the above statements is/are correct?

3. It discouraged Foreign Investments for
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
saving domestic manufactures from
competition in first few months but (c) 2 and 3 (d) All
opened it later.
65. Which of the following are the causes of
Which of the above mentioned is/are features agricultural drought?
of the policy? 1. Long dry spells in the monsoon.
(a) 1 and 3 2. Differences between actual and potential
(b) Only 2 evapo-transpiration.
(c) 2 and 3 3. Earlier snowmelt which reduces quantity
(d) All of water in rivers.

62. Consider the following statements related to Select the correct answer from below given
the Natural gas: options:
1. Natural gas is a naturally occurring (a) 1 and 2
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting (b) 2 and 3
primarily of methane.
(c) 1 and 3
2. Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source
(d) 1, 2 and 3
of energy for heating, cooking, and
electricity generation.

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66. Which of the following methods is/are used Codes:
in extraction of shale gas? (a) 1 and 2
1. Hydraulic fracturing (b) Only 2
2. Horizontal drilling (c) None
3. Vertical drilling (d) All
Codes: 70. Hydrogen Fuel cells are emerging as fuel of
(a) Only 3 (b) Only 1 the future due its potential to address energy
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All crisis. Consider the following statements
regarding the Hydrogen Fuel:
67. Which of the following statements related to 1. Hydrogen fuel cells convert chemical
the steel plants in India is/are correct? energy into electrical energy.
1. Bhilai and Rourkela Iron Steel Plant in 2. They are more environment friendly as
Chattisgarh was setup to reduce the compared to other fuels like Coal and
regional backwardness. Natural gas, etc.
2. Salem Iron Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was 3. They can be used in the conventional
setup due to availability of cheap power
vehicles with proper safety measures.
and charcoal.
Which of the statements given above is/are
Select the correct answer using the code given

E
true?
below:
(a) Only 3
(a) Only 1
OR
(b) 1 and 2
(b) Only 2
(c) 2 and 3
(c) Both
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None
71. Considering the water erosion, which of the
68. Which of the following statements is/are true
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following are the agronomical measures for

about world agriculture?
controlling water erosion?
1. Chernozem soil of the Eurasian steppe is
1. Choice of crop and land preparation.
best suited for the wheat cultivation.
2. Strip cropping and mulching.
2. Mediterranean climate favours the
viticulture in the region. 3. Contour farming and vegetative barriers.
GS

3. Tropical climate of Sri Lanka makes it the

Choose the correct answer from below given
largest producer of natural rubber.
options:
Codes: (a) 1 and 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3
(c) Only 3 (d) All
(d) All
72. Which of the following States has/have
69. Which of the following statements is/are true natural gas reserves?
about dairy production in India? 1. Tripura
1. India is the leading producer of milk in 2. Gujarat
the world but its per capita milk 3. Rajasthan
availability is less than the world's
average. Codes:
2. Gujarat and Maharashtra are the leading (a) Only 2
milk producing states in India. (b) 2 and 3
3. Milk production in India is largely an (c) 1 and 3
outcome of both integrated cooperative
(d) 1, 2 and 3
system and abundance of pasture land.

12
73. Which of the following statements is/are true 2. In western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation
about GM Crops? is responsible for land degradation due to
1. GM crops are transgenic in nature and water logging leading to increase in the
thus it usually enhances the genetic salinity.
resources of a region. 3. In Madhya Pradesh, overgrazing is
2. Ministry of Agriculture is responsible of responsible for the land degradation.
giving approvals to GM crops in the fields.
Codes:
3. GM crops are able to tolerate cold
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
temperatures and improve the nutritional
value of the grains. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All

Codes: 78. Which of the following mineral region is

correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
1. Singareni coal mine - Karnataka
(c) All (d) None
2. Dahej - LNG Terminal – Gujarat
74. Which of the following statements related to 3. Kaiga Nuclear Power plant - Rajasthan
environmental degradation is/are true?
1. Livestock rearing can decrease the Select the correct answer using the code given
greenhouse emissions. below:

E
(a) Only 2 (b) 2 and 3
2. Invasive species are responsible for
enhancing the agricultural productivity (c) Only 3 (d) 1 and 2
and genetic diversity of a region.
3. Phosphorus based fertilisers can lead to
cadmium and flouride contamination.
OR
79. Which of the following statements is/are true
about organic manure?
1. It binds the soil and improves its water
Codes: holding capacity.
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(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 2. Organic manures helps in retaining the
nutrients for a longer duration.
(c) Only 3 (d) All
3. Compost manure is prepared out of the
75. Which of the following form of erosion depicts decomposition of organic matter by micro-
the uniform removal of soil in thin layers from organisms.
sloppy lands due to overflow of water and
Codes:
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beating action of raindrops?

(a) Rill erosion (a) 1 and 3
(b) Gully erosion (b) Only 2
(c) Sheet erosion (c) Only 3
(d) Splash erosion (d) 2 and 3

76. Drought resistance in plants is achieved by: 80. Which of the following statements related to
the shale gas are correct?
1. The ability of the species to osmotically
adjust to lower soil water content. 1. Krishna Godavari basin is the largest
shale gas basin.
2. Reduction of water loss via reduced
stomatal aperture, reduced leaf area. 2. Shale gas is cheaper and cleaner than
nuclear and solar energy.
Which of the above stated steps is/are correct? 3. India has shale gas availability more than
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 USA.
(c) Both (d) None Select the correct answer using the code given
below:
77. Which of the following human factors
associated with the land degradation are (a) 1 and 2
correctly matched? (b) 2 and 3
1. In Orissa, deforestation due to mining (c) Only 1
have caused severe land degradation. (d) All

13
81. Which of the following groups denotes the Codes:
highly salt tolerant crops? (a) Only 1
1. Sugarcane, Rice and Oat (b) 2 and 3
2. Wheat, Rice and Brinjal (c) 1, 3 and 4
3. Maize, Rice and Tomato (d) All
Select the correct answer from below given 85. Which of the following products are
codes: characterized as Minor Forest Produce?
(a) Only 1
1. Curry leaf
(b) Only 2
2. Tree moss
(c) Only 3
3. Tendu patta
(d) All
4. Sal leaf
82. Match the following: 5. Bamboo
Biosphere Reserve State
Codes:
I. Nilgiri A) Odisha
(a) 1, 2 and 3
II. Simlipal B) Tamil Nadu
(b) Only 3
III.Nanda Devi C) Karnataka
(c) 1, 2, 3, and 4

E
IV.Gulf of Mannar D) Uttarakhand
(d) All
Select the correct answer using the codes given
OR
below: 86. Which of the following is/are the objectives
of NMIZ (National Investment and
(a) I-B, II-A, III-C, IV-D
Manufacturing Zones)?
(b) I-C, II-A, III-D, IV-B
1. To increase the sectoral share of
(c) I-D, II-A, III-C, IV-B
manufacturing in GDP to 25% by 2022
SC

(d) I-B, II-C, III-A, IV-D by improving the infrastructure facilties.

83. Consider the following statements related to 2. To double the current employment level
the Lac industry in India: in the manufacturing sector by skill
development programmes.
1. Wood from the mulberry, willow and
rosewood is used for production of lac Select the correct answer from the codes given
which is used as sealing wax.
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below:
2. It is mainly developed in the (a) Only 1
Chotanagpur plateau region.
(b) Only 2
3. The Minimum Support Price of the Lac is
decided by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs. (c) Both
(d) None
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) Only 2 87. Molasses are added in soil to reduce which of
the following feature of soil?
(b) 1 and 3
1. Salinity
(c) 2 and 3
(d) All 2. Alkalinity
3. Acidity
84. Day-neutral plants do not flower in response
to daylight changes. Which of the following Select the correct answer from below given
is/are the day neutral plant? codes:
1. Roses (a) Only 1
2. Sorghum (b) Only 2
3. Tomatoes (c) Only 3
4. Corn (d) None

14
88. Which of the following statements is/are true 92. Which of the following statement is incorrect
about Model APMC Act? with respect to Green Cement?
1. It aims at promotion of agri-processing (a) It is manufactured using alumino-silicates
and agricultural exports. rather than calcium oxide.
2. It aims at ensuring transparency in (b) It is resistant to acid rain.
pricing system and transactions taking (c) It is produced from industrial waste as
place in market area; fly ash.
3. It does not allow contract farming as it (d) It has lesser strength than traditional
exploits farmers. cement but emit less green house gases.
Codes: 93. Crystallization of magma leads to formation
(a) 1 and 2 of minerals. The size of the crystals depends
(b) Only 2 on which of the following factors?
(c) Only 3 1. The rate at which magma cools.
(d) All 2. The amount of gas magma contains.
3. The chemical composition of magma.
89. What is Pomology horticulture?
(a) It deals with cultivation of fruit crops. Codes:

E
(b) It deals with cultivation of vegetable crops. (a) Only 1
(c) It deals with cultivation of ornamental (b) 2 and 3
flowers and land scaping.
(d) It is the art and practice of laying out
grounds in a way which is ornamental or
which imitates natural scenery.
OR (c) 1 and 3
(d) All

94. A cluster of enterprises that can provide

assistance to each other through shared
90. Which of the following activities led to talents, services, and facilities. Which of the
SC
decrement in organic matter in the soil? following are the benefits of Agglomeration?
1. Overgrazing 1. It leads to increment in flow of new and
2. Repetitive tillage innovative ideas occur.
3. Burning of vegetation 2. It leads to reduction in price of production
because of clustering of economic activity.
Select the correct answer from below given
GS

3. It increases the flow of labour and reduces

options: competition.
(a) Only 3
Codes:
(b) 2 and 3
(a) Only 1
(c) 1 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
91. Which of the following pairs related to types (d) All
of industries is/are correctly matched?
1. Durgapur Iron and Steel industry - Bulk 95. Solar Pond is a large-scale solar thermal energy
Reducing Industry. collector with integral heat storage for
supplying thermal energy. Which of the
2. Hindustan Copper Limited - Bulk Gaining
following is the application of solar pond?
Industry.
1. Water desalination
3. Toyota Motor Corporation - Bulk
Reducing Industry. 2. Heating and cooling of buildings
3. Drying crops on farms
Codes: 4. Production of Power
(a) Only 1
(b) 2 and 3 Codes:
(c) 1 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) All (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All

15
96. Silver firs, Indian chestnut, Oak trees are found (a) 1 and 2
in which of the following forests? (b) 2 and 3
(a) Montane Temperate Forests of India (c) Only 3
(b) Tropical Rain Forest (d) None
(c) Tropical Thorn forests
(d) Deciduous forests 99. The sequence of the rotation of crops depends
on which of the following factors?
97. Which of the following minerals is not formed 1. Soil
by the process of evaporation in marine 2. Climate
region?
3. Precipitation
(a) Gypsum
4. Crop marketing and economic variables
(b) Calcite
(c) Tungsten Codes:
(d) All of the above. (a) 1 and 2
(b) 1, 2 and 3
98. Which of the following statement related to
(c) 2, 3 and 4
the Global Methane Initiative is incorrect?
(d) All
1. It is public-private initiative that advances
cost effective which aims at near-term 100. Which of the following forms of pollution are

E
methane abatement. caused due to process of quarrying?
2. Initiative aims to reduce informational, 1. Noise Pollution
OR
institutional and other market barriers to
2. Water Pollution
project development.
3. Soil Pollution
3. It aims at reducing methane gas
production from coal mining process only 4. Thermal Pollution
by developing alternative energy
Codes:
resources.
SC

(a) 1, 2 and 3
Codes: (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) All


GS

16

Natural Resource, Infrastructure,
Industries & Agriculture
(TOPICAL TEST)
ANSWERS
1. (d)
OR
Exp: Loamy has good water holding capacity as
it has perfect mixture of sand, silt & clay. It
SC
can hold up the nutrients too. On this
various kind of root crops can be grown.
Sandy soils have high amount of porosity.
Water can easily percolate. Hence it leads
to huge nutrient loss.
GS
Particles of clayey soil are very small in size.
This makes the particles of clayey soil
packed tightly. There is very little space
among the particles. Water does not drain
quickly through clayey soil because of less
space among particles.
2. (c)
Exp: The amount of Organic Carbon stored in
soil is the difference between all Organic
Carbon inputs and losses from a soil.
The main inputs of Organic Carbon to soil
in rainfed farming systems are from plant
material, such as crop residues, plant roots,
root exudates and animal manure. Inputs
of plant material are generally higher when
plant growth is greater.
Losses of Organic Carbon from soil are from
decomposition by microorganisms, erosion
of surface soil and offtake in plant and
Answers: (Test-6)
TEST - 6
PAPER CODE: 06
E
animal production. Decomposition occurs
when microorganisms use Organic Carbon
in soil to obtain the carbon, nutrients and
energy they need to live. During
decomposition, Organic Carbon is lost from
soil because microorganisms convert about
half of the Organic Carbon to carbon
dioxide gas (CO2). Without continual
inputs of OC, the amount stored in soil will
decrease over time because OC is always
being decomposed by microorganisms.
Losses of OC from erosion of surface soil
can have a large impact on the amount of
OC stored in soil. This is because OC is
concentrated in the surface soil layer as
small particles that are easily eroded. In
Australian agriculture, erosion can cause
the annual loss of 0.2 t/ha of soil from a
pasture, 8 t/ha from a crop and up to 80 t/
ha from bare fallow. Offtake of OC in plant
and animal production is also an important
loss of OC from soil. Harvested materials
such as grain, hay, feed and animal grazing
all represent loss of OC (and nutrients) from
soil.
3. (b)
Exp: Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that
saves water and fertilizer by allowing water
to drip slowly to the roots of many different
[1]
 plants, either onto the soil surface or directly
onto the root zone, through a network of
valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.
Features of drip irrigation system:
• 50 to 65% water saving compared to
control method.
• Crop attains early maturity.
• Crop quality and yield increased.
• Requires least land leveling.
• Poor quality water can be used.
4. (b)
Exp: These crops carry nitrogen fixing bacteria
in their root nodules which fixes nitrogen
from air into nitrate ions. As they release
high amount of nitrate ions into the soil ,
OR
they are highly beneficial when used in crop
rotation. Leguminous crops are sources of
protein for humans and animals, vegetable
oil for human consumption, phyto-
chemicals for human health, and resources
SC
for industries and biofuels. They are
important forage crops, groundcovers, and
timber resources.
5. (a)
Exp: Microbial biomass (bacteria and fungi) is a
measure of the mass of the living
GS
component of soil organic matter. The
microbial biomass decomposes plant and
animal residues and soil organic matter to
release carbon dioxide and plant available
nutrients. Farming systems that return plant
residues (e.g. no-tillage) tend to increase the
microbial biomass.
6. (c)
Exp: Maharashtra has more number of minor
ports (53) followed by Gujarat (40). Tamil
Nadu has 4 Major Parts, including new port
Enayam (recently approved by the
Government).
7. (b)
Exp: In terms of wind power installed capacity
India is globally placed at 4th position after
China, USA and Germany.
[ 2 ]
8. (d)
Exp: Mixed farming is one which crop
production is combined with the rearing of
livestock.
Impacts:
• It offers highest return on farm business, as
the byproducts of farm are properly utilized
• It provides work throughout year
• Efficient utilization of land, labour,
equipment and other resources.
• The crop by products such as straw, bus,
fodder etc. is used for feeding of livestock
and in return they provide milk.
E
• Manures available from livestock maintain
soil fertility.
• It helps in supplying all the food needs of
the family members.
• Intensive cultivation is possible and reduces
diseases.
• If one source of income is lost he can
maintain his family from other source of
income.
• Milk cattle's provide draft animals for crop
production and rural transport.
• Mixed farming increases social status of the
farmer.
• The fertility of soil is also maintained in
mixed farming systems. Mixed farming
promotes water conservation and
minimizes soil erosion.
• It also may reduce the fertility of the soil as
more than one crop is grown at a time in
the same piece of land.
9. (d)
10. (a)
Exp: The Union Cabinet has approved the
Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing
Policy (HELP).
Four main facets of this policy are:
• Uniform license for exploration and
production of all forms of hydrocarbon,
Answers: (Test-6)
• An open acreage policy,
• Easy to administer revenue sharing model
and
• Marketing and pricing freedom for the
crude oil and natural gas produced.
The decision will enhance domestic oil &
gas production, bring substantial
investment in the sector and generate
sizable employment. The policy is also
aimed at enhancing transparency and
reducing administrative discretion.
11. (d)
Exp: Whether combusting directly or engaged in
gasification, biomass resources do generate
air emissions. It emits SO2, NOx, CO, etc.
Biomass power plants also divert wood
waste from landfills, which reduces the
productions and atmospheric release of
methane, another potent greenhouse gas.
OR •
Further the collection, processing and
combustion of biomass fuels may cause
SC
environmental problems if, for example, the
fuel source contains toxic contaminants,
agricultural waste handling pollutes local
water resources, or burning biomass
deprives local ecosystems of nutrients that
forest or agricultural waste may otherwise
GS
provide.
12. (a)
Exp: The Union Cabinet has given its approval
for a Policy on Promotion of City Compost.
Under the policy, a provision has been made
for Market development assistance of Rs.
1500 per tonne of city compost for scaling
up production and consumption of the
product. Market development assistance
would lower MRP of city compost for
farmers. Compost from city garbage would
not only provide carbon and primary/
secondary nutrients to soil but also help in
keeping the city clean. Eco-Mark standard
for City Compost would ensure that
environment friendly quality product
reaches the farmers.
Composting can reduce the volume of
waste to landfill/dumpsite by converting
the waste into useful by-products. This also
Answers: (Test-6)
prevents production of harmful greenhouse
gases (especially methane) and toxic
material that pollutes groundwater apart
from polluting the environment. City Waste
composting would also generate
employment in urban areas.
As name suggest it will be implemented in
urban areas so will generate employment
there.
13. (d)
Exp: The mandate of FSI is listed below.
• Survey and assessment of fish stocks and
charting of fishing grounds in the Indian
E
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and
adjoining high seas.
•
Monitoring of fishery resources for fisheries
regulation, management and conservation.
Assessment of suitability of deep-sea fishing
gear with special reference to the concepts
of maximum sustainable yield, preservation
of environment and ecology of marine
ecosystem.
• Marine fisheries forecasting including
application of remote sensing in fisheries
management.
• Maintaining data on deep sea fishery
resources and dissemination of information
to different user groups.
• Human resources development through
training of fishing operatives and meeting
faculty requirements of sister institutes and
organization.
• Information on food and feeding habits and
prey-predator relationships provide
valuable insight to the ecological succession
and interactions of co-existing species in the
ecosystem. Information on reproductive
biology is essential for evolving conservation
and management measures. The Institute
regularly collects biological data on the
above aspects and the results of these
studies are used for various purposes.
• In order to develop and promote new
fishing practices and fishing gear which
will not contribute physical and biological
[3]
 degradation of marine ecosystem and to
minimize incidence of by-catch, the FSI
undertakes experimental fishing using
species-specific fishing gears.
14. (d)
Exp: Sandy soil has higher porosity which can
lead to leaching of pesticide containing
surface water to underground. Water
soluble pesticides and untimely irrigation
promotes this leaching which results into
ground water pollution.
Blue Baby syndrome is the disease caused
due to nitrate contamination. In
agricultural fields when excess nitrogen
fertilizers are applied it leads to runoff into
surface waters where it gives birth to Blue
Baby Syndrome.
OR
Same Nitrogen and Phosphorus runoff from
agricultural fields gets accumulated in
water bodies and give birth to
eutrophication. Eutrophication is the
outcome of agricultural pollution not the
other way round.
SC
Growing exotic crops and reducing the
natural species in a certain area has become
the norm for agriculture. However, it is
simply adding to the process of agricultural
pollution. With the arrival of new crops,
the native population has to deal with new
GS
diseases, pests and weeds that it is not
capable of fighting.
15. (a)
Exp: Union Ministry of Mines and Steel has
proposed to create a District Mineral
Foundation (DMF) in every district affected
by mining, which will be funded by an
additional levy related to royalty. The funds
will be used for the benefit of persons
affected by mining as also for the rebuilding
of infrastructure in mining affected areas.
Its manner of operation comes under the
jusrisdiction of the relevant State
Government.
16. (b)
Exp: Mulching is covering of the soil with mulch
which preserves the soil moisture, but the
mulch can be inorganic too like plastic.
[ 4 ]
In hilly areas terrace farming is used for soil
conservation where running water is the
agent of soil erosion. Shelter belts are helpful
in wind related soil erosion.
Gypsum is added to reduce drastically the
alkanisation caused by excessive irrigation.
17. (d)
Exp: Waterlogging occurs when roots cannot
respire due to excess water in the soil
profile. Waterlogged soils release increased
amounts of nitrous oxide (N2O), a
particularly damaging greenhouse gas.
Root tips begin to die within a few days of
waterlogging. The shallow root systems that
then develop limit the uptake of nutrients
E
(particularly nitrogen) and water,
particularly when the soil profile starts to
dry in spring. As a result plants may ripen
early and grains may not fill properly.
Nitrogen is lost from waterlogged soils by
leaching and denitrification (degassing).
Denitrification leads to the gaseous loss of
nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere,
which is a major greenhouse gas. These
losses, together with the lowered ability of
plants to absorb nutrients from waterlogged
soil, cause the older leaves to yellow.
Waterlogging also directly reduces nitrogen
fixation by the nodules of legume crops and
pastures.
18. (d)
Exp: Nano capsules are released into fields to
directly reach the crop for pesticide and
fertilisers delivery. It reduces nutrient and
pesticide leaching to underground water.
Nano sensors are being implanted on the
fields which will give on time reports of soil
conditions and plant growth too.
In food processing industry for gelation and
viscosifying the nano particles are used.
19. (c)
Exp: New Port Projects: Sagar Port (West Bengal)
,Colachel Port, (Tamil Nadu), Dahanu Port
at Wadhawan in Maharashtra and
Dugarajpatnam port (Andhra Pradesh).
Answers: (Test-6)
20. (b)
Exp: Zero tillage means no tillage. In this the new
crop is planted over the residues of the
previous crop without any prior soil tillage
or seed bed preparation.
Zero tilled soils are homogeneous due to no
tillage happened there and thus contains
more number of earthworms.
Organic content increases due to less
mineralisation.
Surface runoff is reduced due to presence
of mulch.
21. (b)
Exp: The ideal ration is N:P:K = 4:2:1. All the
three are under the category of macro
nutrients as they are needed in large
quantities unlike Iron, Zinc, Magnesium
OR
which are needed in small quantity.
SC
Nitrogen is here essential constituent for
proteins and impart green colour to the
plants and is an integral part of chlorophyll.
Nitrogen helps plants grow quickly, while
also increasing the production of seed and
fruit, and bettering the quality of leaf and
GS
forage crops. Nitrogen is also a component
of chlorophyll, the substance that gives
plants their green color, and also aids in
photosynthesis.
Phosphorus, also a key player in the
photosynthesis process, plays a vital role in
a variety of the things needed by plants.
Phosphorus supports the formation of oils,
sugars, and starches. The transformation
of solar energy into chemical energy is also
aided by phosphorus, as well as is
development of the plant, and the ability
to withstand stress. Additionally,
phosphorus encourages the growth of
roots, and promotes blooming.
Potassium, the third essential nutrient
plants demand, assists in photosynthesis,
fruit quality, the building of protein, and
the reduction of disease.
Answers: (Test-6)
22. (b)
Exp: Net sown area is the physical extent of the
land sown once in a year. Gross cropped
area is the total gross area brought under
cultivation in a year.
Cropping intensity is equal to %age of
grossed cropped area/net sown area.
Hence it is more than or equal to 1 in any
situation.
Net sown area in India is always below 50%
of the reporting area. But it is more than 50
% of total cultivable area.
23. (a)
E
Exp: Land-man ratio is defined as the ratio
between the habitable area and the total
population of a country.
In terms of area, India ranks seventh in the
world, while in terms of population it ranks
second. Arable land includes net sown
area, current fallow, other fallow and land
under tree crops. Arable land covers a total
area of 167 million hectares which is 51 %
of the total area of the country.
However, the arable land-man ratio is' not
as favourable as in many other countries
like Australia, Canada, Argentina, the USA,
Chile, Denmark and Mexico. Conversely,
the land-man ratio is more favourable in
India than Japan, the Netherlands, Egypt,
United Kingdom, Israel and China.
24. (a)
Exp: Anthracite is the highest quality of coal.
High grade coal is used in the steel industries
which is also called coking coal.
Bituminous coal lights on fire easily
Anthracite ignites with difficulty.
25. (d)
Exp: The magnitude and character of tide
motion reflects the changing positions of the
Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the
effects of Earth's rotation, and local
geography of the sea floor and coastlines.
Radiant energy is the energy of
electromagnetic and gravitational radiation.
[5]
 The SI unit ofradiant energy is the joule (J).
The quantity of radiant energy may be
calculated by integrating radiant flux (or
power) with respect to time.
Geothermal energy is heat that is generated
within the Earth. Magma heats nearby
rocks and underground aquifers. Hot water
can be released through geysers, hot
springs, steam vents, underwater
hydrothermal vents, and mud pots. Magma
exists in the mantle and lower crust.
26. (d)
Exp: The revised scheme envisages
implementation of the National Agriculture
Market(NAM) by setting up of an
appropriate common e-market platform
that would be deployable in selected 585
regulated wholesale markets in States/UTs
OR
desirous of joining the e-platform. Small
Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC)
will implement the national e-platform and
will cover 250, 200 and 135 mandis during
2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18 respectively.
SC
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation &
Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW) will meet
expenses on software and its customisation
for the States and provide it free of cost to
the States and UTs. DAC&FW will also give
grant as one time fixed cost subject to the
ceiling of Rs.30.00 lakhs per Mandi (other
GS
than to the private mandis) for related
equipment / infrastructure in 585 regulated
mandis, for installation of the e-market
platform. State Governments will suggest
names of APMCs where this project would
be initiated.
With a view to harness the potential of
bamboo crop, Department of Agriculture
& Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of
Agriculture is implementing a 100%
Centrally Sponsored Scheme called Mission
for Integrated Development of Horticulture
(MIDH) in which National Bamboo Mission
(NBM) is being implemented as a sub
scheme. The Mission envisages promoting
holistic growth of bamboo sector by
adopting area-based, regionally
differentiated strategy and to increase the
area under bamboo cultivation and
marketing. Under the Mission, steps have
[ 6 ]
been taken to increase the availability of
quality planting material by supporting the
setting up of new nurseries and
strengthening of existing ones. To address
forward integration, the Mission is taking
steps to strengthen marketing of bamboo
products, especially those of handicraft
items.
27. (d)
Exp: Watershed management emphasises
scientific soil and water conservation in
order to increase the biomass production.
The aim is to develop primary resources of
land and water, to produce secondary
resources of plants and animals for use in a
manner which will not cause ecological
E
imbalance. Watershed management not
only increases the production and income
of the watershed community, but also
mitigates droughts and floods and increases
the life of the downstream dam and
reservoirs.
Water harvesting is an age-old concept in
India. Khadins, tanks and nadis in
Rajasthan, bandharas and tals in
Maharashtra, bundhis in Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh, ahars and pynes in
Bihar, kulhs in Himachal Pradesh, ponds
in the Kandi belt of Jammu region, and eris
(tanks) in Tamil Nadu, surangams in
Kerala, and kattas in Karnataka are some
of the ancient water harvesting, including
water conveyance, structures still in use
today. Water harvesting techniques are
highly locale specific and the benefits are
also localised. Giving people control over
their local water resources ensures that
mismanagement and over-exploitation of
these resources is reduced or removed. Their
main purpose is not to hold surface water
but to recharge the ground water beneath.
The advantages of water stored in the
ground are many.
28. (b)
Exp: Carbon monoxide (CO) a colorless,
odorless, tasteless, and toxic air pollutant
is produced in the incomplete combustion
of carbon-containing fuels, such as
gasoline, natural gas, oil, coal, and wood.
The largest anthropogenic source of CO in
Answers: (Test-6)
 the United States is vehicle emissions.
Breathing the high concentrations of CO
typical of a polluted environment leads to
reduced oxygen (O2) transport by
hemoglobin and has health effects that
include headaches, increased risk of chest
pain for persons with heart disease, and
impaired reaction timing.
Increased levels of carbon monoxide reduce
the amount of oxygen carried by
haemoglobin around the body in red blood
cells. The result is that vital organs, such as
the brain, nervous tissues and the heart, do
not receive enough oxygen to work properly.
At very high concentrations of carbon
monoxide, up to 40% of the haemoglobin
can be bound to carbon monoxide in this
way. This level will almost certainly kill
humans.
For healthy people, the most likely impact
OR 32.
of a small increase in the level of carbon
SC
monoxide is that they will have trouble
concentrating. Some people might become
a bit clumsy as their coordination is
affected, and they could get tired more
easily.
People with heart problems are likely to
GS
suffer from more frequent and longer
angina attacks, and they would be at
greater risk of heart attack. Children and
unborn babies are particularly at risk
because they are smaller and their bodies
are still growing and developing.
29. (a)
Exp: Regions with more than 75 cm of rainfall
comes under wetland farming and rest
come under dryland farming.
Telengana plateau is rainfall deficient
region , hence it comes under dryland
farming.
Jowar, bajra & ragi come under dryland.
Rice, Sugarcane & jute come under
wetland farming.
30. (d)
Answers: (Test-6)
31. (c)
Exp: Biomass is organic material which has
stored sun light in the form of chemical
energy. Because plants and trees depend
on sunlight to grow, biomass energy is a
form of stored solar energy. Although wood
is the largest source of biomass energy, we
also use agricultural waste, sugarcane
wastes, and other farm byproducts to make
energy. Half a kilo of dry plant tissue -
produce as much as 1890 Kcal of heat -
equivalent to quarter kilo of coal a typical
biogas sample contains 68% methane, 31%
CO2, 1% Nitrogen and calorific value is
5871 Kcal/m3 (i.e. 80% natural gas).
E
Bio-fuels- also known as biomass fuels-such
as alcohol form, sugar, methane from
organic waste or charcoal from trees and
biodiesel.
(d)
Exp: Human-made wetlands according to
Ramsar classification
• Aquaculture (e.g., fish/shrimp) ponds
• Ponds; includes farm ponds, stock ponds,
small tanks; (generally below 8 ha).
• Irrigated land; includes irrigation channels
and rice fields:
• Seasonally flooded agricultural land
(including intensively managed or grazed
wet meadow or pasture).
• Salt exploitation sites; salt pans, salines, etc.
• Water storage areas; reservoirs/barrages/
dams/impoundments (generally over 8 ha).
• Excavations; gravel/brick/clay pits;
borrow pits, mining pools.
• Wastewater treatment areas; sewage farms,
settling ponds, oxidation basins, etc.
• Canals and drainage channels, ditches.
33. (c)
Exp: MSP is decided by cabinet committee on
economic affairs based on the
recommendations of Commission on
Agricultural Costs and Prices.
[7]
 Price Stabilisation Fund is regulated by
Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation to advance interest free loans
to state governments and central agencies.It
is shared equally by state and centre.
Essential Commodities Act is meant to
prevent hoarding or blackmarketing of not
only foodstuffs but drugs, fuels and many
more in the list.
34. (d)
35. (a)
Exp: Irrigation is necessary when plants cannot
satisfy all their water needs through natural
precipitation this practice is also called
deficit irrigation. There are three main
irrigation methods, namely:
OR
• Surface (or gravity) irrigation
• Sprinkler irrigation
• Drip irrigation
SC
In addition to the inherent efficiencies of
different irrigation methods, a number of
additional soil enhancement approaches
can be considered to improve the efficiency
of irrigation practices.
Proper field leveling, in order to allow the
GS
water to travel in an optimum speed, is an
approach that assists uniform distribution
of water and reduces runoff, particularly
in surface and sprinkler irrigation.
Furrow diking, which allows the capture
of irrigation or precipitation water in small
earthen dams within furrows, is another
approach that can reduce runoff and
increase the effectiveness of irrigation.
Further water savings can be achieved
through residue management and
conservation tillage, where the amount,
orientation, and distribution of crop and
plant residue on the soil surface are
managed. These practices improve the
ability of the soil to hold moisture, reduces
water run-off from the field, and reduces
surface evaporation.
[ 8 ]
Wild flooding is when water is allowed to
flow freely across farmland. It is a relatively
cheap form of irrigation, but uses water
inefficiently and some areas get more than
others.
36. (a)
Exp: The global average concentration of CO2
in Earth's atmosphere is currently about
0.04%, or 400 parts per million by volume
(ppm). There is an annual fluctuation of
about 3-9 ppm which is negatively
correlated with the Northern Hemisphere's
growing season.
Carbon dioxide is produced when any
substance containing carbon is burned. It
E
is also a product of breathing and of
fermentation. Plants absorb carbon dioxide
through photosynthesis, and plants and soil
return some carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere through respiration.
Carbon dioxide is used to produce
carbonated soft drinks and soda water.
Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and
sparkling wine came about through natural
fermentation, but many manufacturers
carbonate these drinks with carbon dioxide
recovered from the fermentation process.
37. (a)
Exp: The schemes wants to derive maximum
irrigation benefits out of the available water
resources. It thus promotes water saving
technologies too.
It is the amalgation of Accelerated Irrigation
Benefit Programme, Integrated Watershed
Management Programme and On Farm
Water Management.
It is jointly implemented by Ministry of
Agriculture, Ministry of Water Resources
and Ministry of Rural Development.
38. (d)
Exp: The Project is to improve reliability and
accuracy of Hydrology and Ground Water
data throughout India and to improve
access to this information. The NHP will
help in gathering Hydro-meteorological
Answers: (Test-6)
 data which will be stored and analysed on
a real time basis and can be seamlessly
accessed by any user at the State/District/
village level.
The NHP will result in the improvement of:
• Data storage, exchange, analysis and
dissemination through National Water
Informatics Centre.
• Lead time in flood forecast from 1 day to at
least 3 days.
• Mapping of flood inundation areas for use
by the disaster management authorities.
• Assessment of surface and ground water
resources in a river basin for better planning
& allocation for PMKSY and other schemes
•
of Govt. of India.
Reservoir operations through seasonal
yield forecast, drought management,
OR Exp: DFCCIL is a corporation run by the
SCADA systems, etc.
SC
• Design of SW & GW structures,
hydropower units, interlinking of rivers,
Smart Cities.
• Fulfilling the objectives of Digital India.
• People Centric approach.
GS
39. (c)
Exp: Agro-irradation centres are the places
where food stuffs are treated with low
dosage of radiation for keeping them safe
for human consumption.
The radiation doses are recommended by
International Atomic Energy Agency.
Recently India has collaborated with Russia
to set up such centres in India.
40. (b)
Exp: Transhumance is a practice where
nomadic tribes shift from low altitude to
high altitude and vice a versa in the search
of good pasture.
Shifting cultivation is a environment hazard
in India. Hence NCST has the task for
peaceful elimination of this practice in a
phased out manner.
Answers: (Test-6)
Relay Cropping is growing of the
succeeding crop when previous crop attend
its maturity stage
41. (b)
Exp: The most common iron ore minerals are iron
oxides and hydrated iron oxides (the latter
is formed by reactions in water). The most
important iron ores are the iron oxide
minerals called hematite and magnetite.
While many other minerals contain iron and
can be mined (such as the hydrated ore
minerals limonite and goethite, and the iron
carbonate mineral siderite)
E
42. (c)
43. (b)
Ministry of Railways (India)
44. (b)
Exp: Though weeds naturally grow in the fields,
they do not form any symboitic
relationship, rather they compete with the
main crop for inputs.
Weeds do invite various pests and insects.
Pests derive their food from weeds and side
by side harm the main crop too.
Weeds are the indicator both good and bad
type of soil depending on the nature of
weeds. Different soils give birth to different
weeds.
45. (d)
Exp: These seeds are meant for commercial
production. If it had longer life , the returns
would have been low and farmers would
have never accepted this. It has shorter life.
Though HYV seeds are dwarf in nature but
it requires high amount of fertilisers for its
growth. These are hungry seeds.
The micro climate at the fields is hot humid
due to heavy irrigation and high doses of
NPK fertilisers which is conducive for the
growth of insects and pests.
[9]
46. (d)
Exp: Bioremediation can be defined as any
process that uses microorganisms, fungi,
green plants or their enzymes to return the
natural environment altered by
contaminants to its original condition.
Bioremediation may be employed to attack
specific soil contaminants, such as
degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons
by bacteria.
ESSENTIAL FACTORS FOR
MICROBIAL BIOREMEDIATION
Factor Desired Conditions
Microbial Suitable kinds of organisms that
population can biodegrade all of the
contaminants
OR
Oxygen Enough to support aerobic
biodegradation (about 2%
oxygen in the gas phase or 0.4
mg/liter in the soil water)
Water Soil moisture should be from 50-
SC
70% of the water holding
capacity of the soil
Nutrients Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
and other nutrients to support
good microbial growth
GS
Temperature Appropriate temperatures for
microbial growth (0-40?C)
pH Best range is from 6.5 to 7.5
47. (a)
Exp: The passive soil forming factors are those
which represent the source of soil forming
mass and conditions affecting it. These
provide a base on which the active soil
forming factors work or act for the
development of soil. The parent material
transported from their place of origin. They
are named according to the main force
responsible for the transport and
redeposition.
• by gravity -Colluvial
• by water -Alluvial , Marine , Locustrine
• by ice -Glacial
[10]
• by wind -Eolian
Colluvium: It is the poorly sorted materials
near the base of strong slopes transported
by the action of gravity.
Alluvium: The material transported and
deposited by water is, found along major
stream courses at the bottom of slopes of
mountains and along small streams flowing
out of drainage basins.
Lacustrine: Consists of materials that have
settled out of the quiet water of lakes.
Moraine: Consists of all the materials
picked up, mixed, disintegrated,
transported and deposited through the
E
action of glacial ice or of water resulting
primarily from melting of glaciers.
Loess or Aeolian: These are the windblown
materials. When the texture is silty -loss;
when it is sand.
48. (b)
Exp: Surya Mitra Scheme has been launched for
creating 50,000 trained solar photovoltaic
technicians by March 2020.
49. (b)
Exp: Non-renewable energy comes from sources
that will run out or will not be replenished
in our lifetimes-or even in many, many
lifetimes. Most non-renewable energy
sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and
natural gas.
50. (d)
Exp: Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a
specifically delineated duty-free enclave
and shall be deemed to be foreign territory
for the purposes of trade operations and
duties and tariffs. In order words, SEZ is a
geographical region that has economic laws
different from a country's typical economic
laws. Usually the goal is to increase foreign
investments. SEZs have been established in
several countries, including China, India,
Jordan, Poland, Kazakhstan, Philippines
and Russia.
Answers: (Test-6)
 Any private/public/joint sector or state
government or its agencies can set up an
SEZ.
51. (c)
Exp: Laterisation of the soil is mainly the
outcome of heavy rainfall and subsequent
weathering. Thus it is generally found
between the tropics not in temperate
regions.
Because of high leaching , they don't have
silica content and thus posses iron oxide on
top layer. This soil is mainly beneficial for
tea and coffee cultivation as in western
ghats.
52. (d)
Exp: India Aspiration Fund aim is to catalyse tens
of thousands of crores of equity investment
into start-ups and MSMEs. It will also create
employment for lakhs of persons, mostly
OR Exp: As compared to uranium, the geographical
educated youth, over the next four to five
years.
SC
SMILE scheme is to provide soft loans in
the nature of quasi-equity and term loans
on relatively soft terms to MSMEs to meet
the required debt-equity ratio norm as also
for pursuing opportunities of growth by
existing MSMEs.
GS
The AIM would focus on inviting aspiring
entrepreneurs to solve India's contemporary
socio-economic problems via 'grand
challenges' that offer substantial awards to
incubate and scale up winning ideas, the
SETU scheme's resources would be devoted
to strengthening incubators and setting up
'tinkering labs' where ideas can be shaped
into prototypes before they are ripe for
funding.
53. (b)
Exp: Western disturbances bring winter rainfall
in north western India. This is the time rabi
crops were being sown in fields. It helps in
wheat and mustard cultivation.
Orographic rainfall happens in the
windward side of mountainous regions like
that of Western Ghats. It helps in tea, coffee,
cashew cultivation.
Answers: (Test-6)
Cyclonic disturbances happen in summer
generally or during retreat of monsoon.
Rabi season has not arrived yet. Hence
wheat can't get help out of it.
54. (a)
Exp: The Diamond Quadrilateral is a project of
the Indian railways to establish high speed
rail network in India. This quadrilateral
will connect the four metro cities in India,
i.e. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
High-speed train on Mumbai-Ahmedabad
section will be the first bullet train corridor
to be implemented in the country.
It will be operated by Indian railways.
E
55. (c)
distribution of thorium is much more
restrictive.
56. (c)
Exp: The main problems of cotton textile
industries are shortages of raw material,
erratic power supply, strikes and lockouts,
competition with synthetic fibres and
competition in internal market.
57. (d)
Exp: Different types of crop are grown on
different soils such as:
• Sandy soil: Sandy soil is not fit for any crop
as it does not retain water. However, some
thorns and bushes do grow on sandy soil.
Millets can be grown on sandy soil.
• Clayey Soil: Clayey soil is best suited for
paddy, as it can retain water for a longer
time. This is also suitable for wheat and
grams.
• Loamy Soil: Loamy soil is considered the
best for almost all types of crops. It is suitable
for lentils and other pulses.
• Sandy Loam: Sandy loam soil is suitable for
the growth of cotton plants as it can easily
drain water and is well aerated.
• Rubber is grown on laterite soil.
[11]
58. (a)
Exp: TISCO is located at Mumbai and Kolkata
railway line which is close to Kolkata port.
The plant is located at Jamshedpur at the
confluence of the Subarnarekha and the
Kharkai rivers about 240 km north-west of
Kolkata along the Kolkata-Nagpur rail-line
in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand. It is
the second largest steel plant. It obtains the
supply of iron ore from the captive mines
at Gurumahisani, Badampahar
(Mayurbhanj district), and Noamundi
(Singhbhum district) mines at a distance of
72.5 km to 96.6 km.; coking coal from
Jharia, Sijya, Jamdoba and West Bokaro
coal fields at a distance of about 177 km;
limestone from Birmitrapur, Hathibari and
Baraduar; manganese from the captive
mines at Joda (Keonjhar district) and
OR
Madhya Pradesh; dolomite from Pasposh
(Gangpur); fireclay from Belapahar
(Sundargarh district); fresh water from the
Subarnarekha and Kharkai rivers; port
facilities from Kolkata port; and cheap
SC
labour from the densely populated areas of
the Ganga valley mostly from Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh.
59. (b)
Exp: Sugarcane : Uttar Pradesh; West Bengal
GS
:Jute; Soyabean : Madhya Pradesh; Ragi :
Karnataka; Bajra : Rajasthan; Jowar :
Maharashtra.
60. (d)
Exp: Role of Jumming cultivation in agriculture
system:
• Rainforest soils are usually thin and poor,
lacking minerals
• Heat and heavy rainfall destroys most of
the organic matter in the soils within four
years of it reaching the forest floor, causing
this lack of minerals.
• This causes the topsoil to contain few of the
necessary minerals needed for long term
farming.
• The ash from the fire improves soil fertility.
[12]
• The fire decreases the incidence of weeds
and other pests.
• More space for the crops to grow.
61. (b)
Exp: The Industrial Policy of 1991 abolished
industrial licensing for all industries
(encouraged disinvestment) except those in
security and strategic concerns, hazardous
chemicals and environmental factors.
Further, it has permitted direct foreign
investments upto 51 per cent in high priority
industries. Moreover, liberalisation policy
permitted NRIs and Overseas Corporate
Bodies to invest upto 100 per cent foreign
equity in high priority industries. Further,
E
the trade policy of 1991 freed export-import
trade from the clutches of administrative
controls and linceses.
62. (c)
Exp: Natural gas is a naturally occurring
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting
primarily of methane, but commonly
including varying amounts of other higher
alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage
of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen
sulfide, or helium. Natural gas is a fossil fuel
used as a source of energy for heating,
cooking, and electricity generation.
63. (b)
Exp: Top World Producers of Some Grain
Legumes (FAOSTAT, 2016):
• Beans, dry- Myanmar
• Broad beans, horse beans, dry- China,
mainland
• Chick peas- India
• Cowpeas, dry- Nigeria
• Groundnuts, with shell- China, mainland
• Lentils- Canada
• Lupins- Australia
• Peas, dry- Canada
• Pigeon peas- India
Answers: (Test-6)
• Soybeans- USA
• Vetches- Ethiopia
64. (a)
Exp: U-235 nucleus is 'fissile', that of U-238 is
said to be 'fertile'. This means that it can
capture one of the neutrons which are
flying about in the core of the reactor and
become (indirectly) plutonium-239, which
is fissile. Pu-239 is very much like
65. (a)
Exp: Agricultural drought occurs when
available water supplies are not able to meet
crop water demands. Agricultural
droughts can occur for a variety of reasons,
including low precipitation, the timing of
water availability, or decreased access to
water supplies. For instance, earlier
snowmelt may not change the total quantity
of water available but can lead to earlier
OR Exp: The plant has been set up at Salem in the
runoff that is out of phase with peak water
SC
demand in the summer. Thus, it is possible
to suffer an agricultural drought in the
absence of a meteorological drought.
Meteorological drought is defined usually
comparing the precipitation of a precise
place and moment to the average of
GS
precipitation of that place for a long period.
This is why the definition is specific to each
region. Meteorological drought results in
depletion of soil moisture that almost
always has an impact on crop production.
Hydrological drought is associated with the
effects of periods of rainfall shortfalls on the
water levels of rivers, reservoirs and lakes,
and aquifers. Hydrological droughts usually
are noticed some time after meteorological
droughts. First precipitation decreases and
sometime after that, levels of rivers and
lakes decrease.
66. (c)
Exp: The extraction process of shale gas involves
two methods:-
Horizontal drilling
Under this technique a vertical well is
drilled to the targeted rock formation and
Answers: (Test-6)
then at the desired depth, the drill bit is
turned horizontally, exposing the well to
more of the producing shale.
Hydraulic Fracturing
In this technique, water along with
chemicals and sand are pumped into the
well and a fracture or crack is developed in
the shale rock to release the hydrocarbons
trapped in shale formations to flow from
the shale into the well. Hydraulic fracturing
when used in conjunction with horizontal
drilling, it enables gas producers to extract
shale gas at reasonable cost and rapidly as
it enhances the flow of gas quickly to the
E
desired well.
67. (b)
Salem district of Tamil Nadu. The plant has
the advantage of rich iron ore and
limestone, which is readily available in the
adjoining areas. It also enjoys the facilities
of cheap power, charcoal and vast market.
The iron ore available here has low sulphur
and phosphorus content and is suitable for
producing special grade iron and steel.
Bhilai iron and steel centre was set up in
Durg district of Chhattisgarh.
Rourkela Steel Plant is situated in the
Sundargarh district of Orissa.
Conditions for the growth of Iron and Steel
Industries are:
• Coal and iron-ore are required in large
amounts in the production of iron and steel.
The industry is, therefore, located either
near coal producing areas or iron-ore
producing areas.
• Large amount of water is required to cool
the smelt iron, which is heated to very high
temperatures with the help of coal. The
factories are generally located near rivers
or lakes and near coal or iron-ore mines.
• Availability of cheap labor near the steel
plant.
• Good transport system, market, ports, etc.
[13]
68. (a)
Exp: Chernozem in Eurasian steppe is known
as black earth. It has high content of humus.
It is highly fertile. It is the base of granary
of the world.
Mediterranean climate experiences winter
rainfall. Here the citrus fruits are grown
which promotes wine production.
Though Sri Lanka has tropical climate but
its rubber production is not that much high.
In rubber production Indonesia, Thailand
and Vietnam top in the list.
69. (c)
Exp: White revolution and Operation Flood are
the same thing. The man behind this
revolution is Dr. Varghese Kurien . Dr M S
OR
Swaminathan is credited for Green
Revolution.
India is the world's largest producer of milk.
It per capita milk availability has increased
to 322 grams per day and it is today more
SC
than the world 's average of 294 grams.
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan are the
leading producer of milk.
Milk production is an outcome of integrated
milk cooperative society where collection,
GS
processing, transport, etc are taken care of.
But India lacks the sufficient amount of
pasture land and thus the fodder crops.
This is a bottleneck still unresolved for cattle
rearing.
70. (b)
Exp: Stationary fuel cells can be used for backup
power, power for remote locations,
distributed power generation, and
cogeneration (in which excess heat released
during electricity generation is used for
other applications).
Fuel cells can power almost any portable
application that typically uses batteries,
from hand-held devices to portable
generators.
Fuel cells can also power our
transportation, including personal vehicles,
[14]
trucks, buses, and marine vessels, as well
as provide auxiliary power to traditional
transportation technologies. Hydrogen can
play a particularly important role in the
future by replacing the imported petroleum
we currently use in our cars and trucks.
71. (d)
Exp: Mulches are used to minimize rain splash,
reduce evaporation, control weeds, reduce
temperature of soil in hot climates, and
moderate the temperature to a level
conducive to microbial activity. Mulches
help in breaking the energy of raindrops,
prevent splash and dissipation of soil
structure, obstruct the flow of runoff to
reduce their velocity and prevent sheet and
E
rill erosion. They also help in improving the
infiltration capacity by maintaining a
conductive soil structure at the top surface
of land.
In contour strip cropping, alternate strips
of crop are sown more or less following the
contours, similar to contouring. Suitable
rotation of crops and tillage operations are
followed during the farming operations.
Contour Cropping is a conservation
farming method that is used on slopes to
control soil losses due to water erosion.
Contour cropping involves planting crops
across the slope instead of up and down
the slope. Use of contour cropping protects
the valuable top soil by reducing the velocity
of runoff water and inducing more
infiltration.
There are eight agronomic measures for soil
and water conservation. These measures
are: 1. Conservation Tillage, 2. Deep Tillage,
3.Conservation Farming, 4. Contour-
Farming, 5. Mulching, 6. Growing Of Cover
Crops, 7. Strip Cropping, 8. Mixed
Cropping.
72. (d)
Exp: Assam and Gujarat are well known for
crude oil and natural gas reserves.
Rajasthan also has natural gas reserves.
Presently, 7 to 7.8 MMSCMD Natural gas
is being produced from Jaisalmer Basin by
Answers: (Test-6)
 Oil India & ONGC and in future the gas
production would increase to many fold.
The Rajasthan Basin is a sedimentary basin
located in the north west part of India. This
sedimentary basin is one of India's major
sources of petroleum and natural gas and
has a geographical extent of about 126,000
square kilometres (49,000 sq mi). The
Rajasthan Basin unconfirmably lies over a
pre-Cambrian basement.
The Rajasthan Basin has been further
divided into three sub-basins.
1. Jaisalmer sub basin or Jaisalmer basin
2. Bikaner Nagaur sub basin or BNG basin
(after Bikaner Nagaur and Ganganagar,
town of Rajasthan)
3.
73.
Barmer Sanchor sub basin.
(b)
OR
Exp: GM crops are transgenic in nature, means
their genes have been altered by the
SC
scientists to get the desired results. But such
crop rather damages the genetic resources
of the region.
GM crops are approved with the
recommendations of Genetic Engineering
Appraisal Committee which is under the
GS
Ministry of Environment.
In India Bt-cotton is only the successfully
and widely adopted crop, but bt-brinjal
applications have been stopped by the
government for 7-8 years.
74. (c)
Exp: Livestock rearing releases much of fecal
matter . This upon decomposition releases
greenhouses gases especially methane.
Invasive species can occupy a region very
quickly and start propagating too. They
extract all the possible resources meant for
plants for themselves only.
Phosphorus fertilisers can made out of the
phosphorous rocks which contains small
amounts of cadmium and flouride too. This
leads to cadmium and flouride
contamination.
Answers: (Test-6)
75. (c)
Exp: Water erosion is the removal of soil from
the land's surface by running water,
including runoff from melted snow and ice.
Depending upon the form of the lost soil,
water erosion is subdivided into Sheet, Rill
and Gully erosion.
Rill erosion: It is the removal of soil by water
from small but well-defined channel or
streamlets where there is a concentration
of overland flow. Rills are small enough to
be easily removed by normal tillage
operation. Detachability and
transportability are both greater in rill
E
erosion than in sheet erosion because of
high velocities. Rill erosion is the most
serious where intense storm occurs on soil
having high runoff producing
characteristics and loose, shallow topsoil.
Sheet erosion: It is the uniform removal of
soil in thin layer from sloping land. This
results from sheet or overland flows, the
runoff from the surface in thin layer
(although important, sheet erosion in
unnoticed because it occurs gradually). The
beating action of raindrops combined with
surface flow causes the major portion of the
sheet erosion.
Gully erosion: It produces channels larger
than rills. These channels carry water
during and immediately after rains and as
distinguished from rills, gullies cannot be
obliterated by tillage. Thus gully erosion is
an advanced stage of sheet erosion. The rate
of gully erosion depends primarily on the
runoff producing characteristics of water
shed, the drainage area, soil characteristics,
the alignment, size and shape of the gully,
and the slope in the channel.
76. (c)
Exp: In agricultural conditions, prolonged
drought periods and scanty or erratic
rainfall cause widespread damage to crop
plants. Drought resistance may be defined
as "referring to various means by which
plants survive periods of environmental
water stress".
[15]
 Plant response to water deficit is dependent
on the level of the deficit, but growth and
survival can be achieved through
desiccation avoidance or tolerance.
Desiccation tolerance, or tolerance of low
water potential, often results in plant
responses such as wilting that are not
desired in plants used in gardens and
landscapes. Desiccation avoidance
strategies allow for avoidance of low plant
water potentials by reducing water loss or
increasing water uptake, accomplished via
reduced stomatal aperture, reduced leaf
area and/or osmotic adjustment. These
responses are more likely to be tolerated in
landscape plantings, but the degree to
which reduced leaf area is achieved through
leaf abscission and/or senescence is also an
important factor.
OR
77. (d)
Exp: The human factors for land degradation
are:
• Mineral processing activities: - The mineral
SC
processing like grinding of limestone for
cement industry and calcite and soapstone
for ceramic industry generate huge quantity
of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the
process of infiltration of water into the soil
after it settles down on the land.
GS
• Industrial activities: - In recent years,
industrial effluents as waste have become
a major source of land and water pollution
in many parts of the country.
• Mining activities: - Mining sites are
abandoned after excavation work is
complete leaving deep scars and traces of
over-burdening.
• Deforestation: - In states like Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
deforestation due to mining have caused
severe land degradation.
• Overgrazing: - In states like Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main
reasons for land degradation.
• Over irrigation: - In the states of Punjab,
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over
[16]
irrigation is responsible for land
degradation due to water logging leading
to increase in salinity.
78. (a)
Exp: Singareni coal mine- Telanagana
Kaiga Nuclear Power plant - Karnataka
79. (a)
Exp: Organic manure has that advantage of
binding the soil and improving its water
holding capacity.
The nutrients of the soil are not only
replenished with the help of manures but
are also retained for a longer duration.
E
There are various types of organic manure.
Compost manure is a type which is
prepared in compost in a large biological
process out of the decomposition of organic
matter by microorganisms.
80. (c)
Exp: India shale gas availability is less than USA;
USA Shale gas: 80-90 trillion; India Shale
gas: 65 trillion.
81. (a)
Exp: Some amounts of the salts are always
present in soil. When concentration of these
salts are low, they are not harmful but with
the increase in the salt content the plant
growth is adversely affected which in turn
decrease the productivity.
Sesbania, Rice, Sugarcane, Oats are the
other salt tolerant crops.
82. (b)
83. (c)
Exp: Lac is a resinous secretion from an insect
reared mainly in the Chhotanagpur
Plateau. It is not produced from wood.
84. (d)
Exp: Day-neutral plants, such as cucumbers,
roses, and tomatoes, do not initiate
Answers: (Test-6)
 flowering based on photoperiodism.
Instead, they may initiate flowering after
attaining a certain overall developmental
stage or age, or in response to alternative
environmental stimuli, such as
vernalisation (a period of low temperature).
85. (d)
Exp: The Major Forest Products comprise
Pulpwood, Sandalwood, Social Forestry
that incudes Fuel and Timber. The Minor
Forest Products include the items such as
tamarind, curry leaf, Tendu Patta, gallnut,
Cane, Soapnut, tree moss and Bamboo also.
There are also 12 different Minor Forest
Produce (MFP), identified by the Ministry
for coverage under the scheme of
"Mechanism for Marketing of Minor Forest
Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support
Price (MSP) and Development of Value
Chain for MFP" which include: (i) Tendu,
OR 88.
(ii) Bamboo, (iii) Mahuwa Seed, (iv) Sal
Leaf, (v) Sal Seed, (vi) Lac, (vii) Chironjee,
SC
(viii) Wild Honey, (ix) Myrobalan, (x)
Tamarind, (xi) Gums (Gum Karaya) and
(xii) Karanj.
86. (a)
Exp: The policy aims to increase the share of
GS
manufacturing in the country's GDP from
the current 16% to 25% by 2022. The
National Manufacturing Policy aims to
create 100 million additional jobs in the next
decade (not to double the present
employment structure). The draft policy
envisages establishment of National
Investment and Manufacturing Zones
(NIMZ) equipped with world-class
infrastructure that would be autonomous
and self-regulated developed in partnership
with the private sector.
87. (b)
Exp: Molasses is a by-product produced during
the manufacture of sugar. Sugar cane or
sugar beets are processed so that the sugar
can be extracted. The material that is left
after most of the sugar is removed is a black
sticky material called molasses. Molasses
contains sugar, some other carbohydrates,
Answers: (Test-6)
vitamins and a number of minerals like
calcium and iron.
Molasses soil amendments supply
carbohydrates and alter the C/N ratio. This
affects the soil microbial ecology, usually
resulting in lowered populations of plant
parasitic nematodes as well as having other
favorable effects on plant growth.
Molasses provides a carbon source which
alters the C/N ratio in soil and this affects
the soil micro biota which in turn affects
the available nutrients.
Molasses are used to reclaim alkali soils. It
provide source of energy for micro-
E
organisms and on fermentation, produce
organic acids which reduce alkalinity while
press mud help in reducing exchangeable
sodium.
(a)
Exp: APMC Model Act was released by Ministry
of Agriculture and it was later on passed
many state legislature one by one.
There is no compulsion over the farmers to
sell in APMC market only.
APMC Act allows for contract farming by
laying down the specific provisions in this
regard.
89. (a)
Exp: Pomology is a branch of horticulture that
focuses on the cultivation of edible fruit and
nut crops, especially tree-grown crops.
90. (d)
Exp: Management practices that alter the living
and nutrient conditions of soil organisms,
such as repetitive tillage or burning of
vegetation, result in a degradation of their
microenvironments. In turn, this results in
a reduction of soil biota, both in biomass
and diversity. Where there are no longer
organisms to decompose soil organic
matter and bind soil particles, the soil
structure is damaged easily by rain, wind
and sun. This can lead to rainwater runoff
and soil erosion, removing the potential
food for organisms, i.e. the organic matter
[17]
 of the topsoil. Therefore, soil biota are the
most important property of the soil, and
"when devoid of its biota, the uppermost
layer of earth ceases to be soil".
91. (a)
Exp: Hindustan Copper Limited - Bulk Reducing
Industry.
Toyota Motor Corporation - Bulk Gaining
Industry.
92. (d)
Exp: It is manufactured using aluminosilicates
instead of the more environmentally
damaging calcium oxide. These silicates can
be obtained from industrial waste materials
such as fly ash, thereby making them a
viable green resource.
OR
Compared with traditional cement, green
cement functions better, requires less
natural materials in production, and
releases less carbon dioxide.
SC
It greatly reduces the amount of energy
needed for both heating and cooling. It dries
quickly and has superior strength.
It is resistant to acid rain and is longlasting.
93. (d)
GS
Exp: The size of crystals depends on several
factors:
• The rate at which magma cools Slow
cooling leads to the formation of large
crystals. If the crystals remain undisturbed
while cooling, they grow according to a
regular pattern. Magma closer to the
surface cools much faster than magma that
hardens deep below ground. With rapid
cooling, there is no time for magma to form
large crystals. If magma erupts to the
surface and becomes lava, the lava will also
cool quickly and form minerals with small
crystals.
• The amount of gas magma contains.
• The chemical composition of magma.
[18]
94. (b)
Exp: Agglomeration may also lead to traffic
congestion, pollution and other negative
externalities caused by the clustering of a
population of firms and people and that this
may lead to diseconomies of scale. Another
source of agglomeration diseconomies-
higher crowding and increased waiting
time-can be observed in disciplines or
industries that are characterized by
constrained access to relevant production
facilities or resources. It increases
competition and lead to shortage of supply
of labour.
95. (d)
E
Exp: The basic applications of solar ponds are:
Heating and Cooling of Buildings;
Production of Power; Desalination; Heating
animal housing and drying crops on farms
and Heat for biomass conversion.
96. (a)
97. (c)
Exp: The most common minerals that are
generally considered to be the most
representative of marine evaporates are
calcite, gypsum and anhydrite, halite,
sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite,
and kainite.
98. (c)
Exp: The Global Methane Initiative (GMI) is a
voluntary, international partnership that
brings together national governments,
private sector entities, development banks,
NGOs and other interested stakeholders in
a collaborative effort to reduce methane gas
emissions and advance methane recovery
and use as a clean energy source. National
governments are encouraged to join GMI
as Partner Countries, while other non-State
organizations may join GMI's extensive
Project Network. As a public-private
initiative, GMI creates an international
platform to build capacity, development
methane abatement strategies, engage in
technology transfer, and remove political
Answers: (Test-6)
 and economic barriers to project
development for emissions reduction.
The initiative currently focuses on five
sectors, which are known sources of
anthropogenic methane emissions:
agriculture, coal mining, municipal solid
waste, municipal wastewater, and oil and
gas systems.
99. (d)
Exp: Crop rotation is a systematically planned
cultivation cycle that involves growing
plants of different taxonomic families on the
OR
SC

GS
Answers: (Test-6)
same plot of land over sequential seasons.
Usually extending over a period of 3-4
years, the choice and sequence of rotation
crops usually depends on the nature of the
soil, the climate, and rainfall of that
particular region. Due to agricultural price
policy, crops to be grown are also decided.
100. (a)
Exp: The process of Quarrying causes noise
pollution, air pollution, damage to
biodiversity and habitat destruction.
E
[19]

TRANSPORT
An efficient transport system is a pre-requisite for
sustained economic development. It is not only the
key infrastructural input for the growth process but
also plays a significant role in promoting national
integration, which is particularly important in a large
country like India. The transport system also plays
an important role of promoting the development of
the backward regions and integrating them with the
mainstream economy by opening them to trade and
investment.
India has a well-developed transport network
comprising rail, road, coastal shipping, air transport,
etc.
Road transport
India has an extensive system of roads that plays a
vital role, as far as the national economic growth of
the country is concerned.
Data:
• World’s second largest road network – 4.87
million km.
• 97,135 kms of national Highways.
• NHs are 2% but carry 40% of the traffic.
• 65% of freight & 80% passenger traffic carried
by roads.
• Implementation Authorities – NHAI, State
PWDs etc., BRO, newly formed NHIDCL for
projects at border and other strategic locations.
• Project implementation modes for highways in
India.
a. Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) – Toll
b. BOT – Annuity
c. Hybrid Annuity Model
d. Engineering, Procurement and Construction
(EPC) – Public funded.
Supplementary Notes 2017
Benefits of roads transport
1. Roads play a very important role in the
transportation of goods and passengers for short
and medium distances.
2. It helps farmers to move their perishable
agricultural products soon to markets and mandis.
Thus encourage farmers to switch to more
commercially viable agricultural products.
3. Road transport system establishes easy contact
between farms, fields, factories and markets, thus
leading to better linkage between consumer and
producer.
4. Mobility is one of the most fundamental and
important characteristics of economic activity as
it satisfies the basic need of going from one
location to the other, a need shared by passengers,
freight and information. Road transport provides
a better mobility that leads to economic
development.
5. It is suitable for transportation of both perishable
and non-perishable goods, controlling the price
level in the economy.
6. It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as
compared to other modes.
7. It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and
unloading is possible at any destination. It
provides door-to-door service.
8. It helps people to travel and carry goods from
one place to another, in places which are not
connected by other means of transport like hilly
areas.
Classification of Roads
1. National Highways: These roads are of prime
importance for the country and connect large
cities and big industrial centers. There
[1]
 development and maintenance is the
responsibility of the central government.
2. State Highways: These roads connect all the
important centers of industr y, trade and
commerce of the states and the national
highways. There responsibility of the
development and maintenance lies with the state
government.
3. District Roads: These roads connect different
parts of the district, important industrial centers
and market centers and usually lead to local
railway stations. The responsibility of
development and maintenance lies with the local
government.
4. Rural Roads: These are roads found in the
villages and are usually of two types; pukka
(metal) and kacha (non metal). The responsibility
of maintenance and development lies with the
local government.
Major National Highways in India
The few important national highways along with their
routes are discussed below:
 NH1 - Delhi - Ambala - Jalandhar - Ludhiana -
Amritsar - Wagah Border.
 NH1A - Jalandhar - Jammu - Udhampur - Banihal
- Srinagar - Baramula - Uri.
 NH1D - Srinagar - Kargil – Leh.
 NH2 - Delhi - Agra - Allahabad - Kolkata.
 NH3 - Agra - Gwalior - Indore - Dhule - Nasik-
Mumbai.
 NH4 - Thane - Pune - Bangalore - Chennai.
(Mumbai - Pune-1st 6 lane express highway)
 NH 5 - Baharagora - Cuttack - Bhuvaneshwar -
Vishakhapatnam - Chennai.
 NH6 - Hazira - Surat - Dhule - Nagpur - Raipur
- Baharagora – Kolkata.
 NH7 - Varanasi - Nagpur - Hyderabad - Bangalore-
Kanyakumari (Longest Highway)
 NH8 - Delhi - Jaipur - Ajmer - Udaipur-
Ahmedabad - Vadodara - Surat - Mumbai.
 NH 24 - Delhi - Moradabad - Bareilly – Lucknow
 NH 47A - Kundannur - Willington Island in
Kochi (Shortest NH - 6 km)
[ 2 ]
Different projects
A. National Highways Development Project
(NHDP)National Highways Development
Project (NHDP)
NHDP is being implemented by NHAI. NHDP Phases
are:
Phase I: Golden Quadrilateral.
Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors.
Phase III: Upgrade 12,109 km of national highways
on a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis.
Phase IV: Convert existing single lane highways into
two lanes.
Phase V: Upgrade four lane highways to six lanes.
Phase VI: Expressways.
Phase VII:  Improvements to city road networks.
Golden Quadrilateral Highway Network
Golden Quadrilateral is a network of highways
connecting India’s four top metropolitan cities, namely
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, thereby,
forming a quadrilateral.
The overall length of the quadrilateral is 5,846 km
consisting of four/six lane express highways.
N-S and E-W corridor
The North-South–East-West Corridor (NS-EW) is the
largest ongoing highway project in India. It will connect
Srinagar with Kanyakumari and Porbandar with Silchar.
The meeting point of the two corridors is at Jhansi.
B. New Initiatives
1. Bharat Mala - 5500 km to develop roads along
the international borders and coastal areas.
2. Special Scheme – 6000 km roads facilitating
connectivity to religious/tourist places and
providing connectivity to backward regions.
3. District Connectivity –  Development of National
Highways providing connectivity to district
headquarters.z
4. Setu Bharatam – All the level crossings and
narrow/weak bridges to be replaced by Railway
Over / Under Bridges and new constructions.
National Urban Transport Policy
It envisages safe, affordable, quick, comfortable,
reliable and sustainable urban transport systems,
establishment of quality focused multi-modal public
transport systems that are well integrated, providing
seamless travel across modes, land use transport
integration, introducing intelligent transport systems
for traffic management etc.
Key objectives:
• Incorporate urban transport as an important
parameter in urban planning.
b) Fund Infusion to Salvage Languishing Projects:
This initiative authorizes the National Highways
Authority of India (NHAI) to intervene in
projects that are in the advanced stage of
completion but are stuck due to lack of
funds. NHAI has been authorized to provide
funds to such projects from within its overall
budget/corpus on a loan basis at a pre-determined
rate of return.

• Bring about more equitable allocation of road c) Rationalized compensation to concessionaires for
space with people rather than vehicles as the main languishing NH projects in BOT mode for delays
focus. not attributable to concessionaires:

• Encourage greater use of public transport and
non-motorized modes of transport.
Challenges faced by the Road Transport Sector
• Inadequacy of road network. Lakhs of villages
are still not connected by surface roads.
• Low surfaced roads.
• Poor infrastructure.
• Poor financial structure of state road transport
undertakings.
• India’s roads are congested and of poor quality.
Major policy initiatives
The Government has progressively taken many policy
decisions in the sector, designed to facilitate the
execution of work and make it speedier, more efficient
and transparent. Some of the major initiatives of 2015
are as follows:
a) The Exit Policy framework permits
concessionaires/developers to divest 100 percent
equity and exit all operational BOT projects two
years after completion of construction. This
would help unlock equity from completed
projects making it potentially available for
investment into new infrastructure projects across
the country.
d) A new mode of delivery under Public-Private
Partnership (PPP) mode, namely Hybrid Annuity
Model, is being promoted for awarding road
projects for implementation under which 40% of
project cost is being provided by the Government
to the concessionaire. Remaining 60% is to be
arranged in form of debt and equity to be
compensated over 15 years as bi-annual annuities.
The private party does not have to bear the traffic
risk.
e) National Highways Authority of India is raising
funds through public issue of tax free, secured,
redeemable non-convertible bonds with Face
Value of Rs 1,000 each for an amount of Rs
1,000 crore with an option to retain over
subscription of upto additional Rs 9,000 crore, 
aggregating upto a total of Rs 10,000 crore.
Railways
The Indian railway system is the second largest system
in the world under the single management. Railways
virtually forms the life-line of the country, catering to
its needs for large scale movement of traffic, both
freight and passenger, thereby contributing to
economic growth as well as promoting national
integration. It is a multi - gauge system operating on
three gauges – the broad, the metre and the narrow.

Railway zones and Headquarters

S.No. Name Abbr. Headquarters Date of Establishment
1. Northern Railway NR Delhi April 14, 1952
2. North Eastern Railway NER Gorakhpur 1952
3. Northeast Frontier Railway NFR Maligaon (Guwahati) 1958
4. Eastern Railway ER Kolkata April 14, 1952
5. South Eastern Railway SER Kolkata 1955

[3]
6. South Central Railway SCR Secunderabad Oct 2, 1966
7. Southern Railway SR Chennai April 14, 1951
8. Central Railway CR Mumbai Nov 5, 1951
9. Western Railway WR Mumbai Nov 5, 1951
10. South Western Railway SWR Hubli April 1, 2003
11. North Western Railway NWR Jaipur Oct 1, 2002
12. West Central Railway WCR Jabalpur April 1, 2003
13. North Central Railway NCR Allahabad April 1, 2003
14. South East Central Railway SECR Bilaspur, CG April 1, 2003
15. East Coast Railway ECoR Bhubaneswar April 1, 2003
16. East Central Railway ECR Hajipur Oct 1, 2002
17. Konkan Railway KR Navi Mumbai Jan 26, 1998

Effect on Indian economy
• The construction and expansion of the railways
have been proved to be beneficial for the
economic and inclusive growth of the economy.
It provides a better linkage between producer,
retailer and consumer.
2. Indian Railways has suffered from chronic and
significant under-investment as a result of which
the network expansion and modernization has
not happened at the requisite pace leading to an
erosion of the share in national freight and
passenger traffic.

• It has played a significant role in the development
of cotton textile industry, jute industry as it
provides free flow of raw materials with proper
penetration to market areas.
• Railways have been ver y helpful in the
development of Indian agriculture. Now farmers
can send their agricultural goods to distant places
and can fetch good incomes.
• Railways also help in maintaining uniform price
level for agricultural products through better
movement.
• New industrials hubs have emerged as higher
mobility of raw materials reduced the
concentration of industries mainly around raw
material centres. As Kanpur is known for cotton
garments whereas the raw materials are present
in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Railways are playing significant role in running
country’s administration and safeguarding its
freedom and integrity, as it provides easy
movement of police, troops, defence equipments
etc.
Problems and Issues in Railway’s Development
1. Problem of acquiring land.
3. Cleanliness, punctuality of services, safety,
quality of terminals, capacity of trains, quality
of food, security of passengers and ease of
booking tickets are issues that need urgent
attention.
4. The high density networks of the Indian Railways
are facing acute capacity constraints coupled with
a low passenger fares thereby leading to increases
in freight tariffs to cross subsidize passenger
revenues.
5. Investments in safety have also suffered on
account of low internal generation of resources.
Environmental side effects
1. The laying of new tracks requires clearance of
forests that affects the biodiversity and forest
dwellers both.
2. Due to presence of railway track in elephant
corridor accidents and death of elephants take
place.
3. For the establishment of railway tracks in hilly
areas dynamites are used to break hills which in
turn cause air pollution as well as lead to frequent
landslides.

[ 4 ]
 Water Transport
Waterways provide the cheapest-means for
transportation of commodities in bulk because there
is no fixed cost associated with them. Costly
construction of routes is not required.
Inland waterways
India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways
which comprise rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc.
However, there is a number of conditionality attached
to the river transport, viz:
(a) The rivers must have enough water flowing in
them althrough the year;
(b) The rivers must be free from waterfall or rapids;
(c) The rivers must have stabilized courses;
(d) The rivers must not have fluctuating regimes;
(e) The rivers must flow in the right direction; i.e.,
the direction of dominant trade flows.
National waterways in India
National Waterway 1
The National Waterway 1 lies on the Allahabad-Haldia
stretch of the Ganges, Bhagirath and Hooghly river
system. It was established in October 1986 and has
a length of 1620 km.
National Waterway 2
The National Waterway 2 lies on the Sadiya-Dhubri
stretch of the Brahmaputra River. It was established
in September 1982 and has a total length of 891 km.
National Waterway 3
The National Waterway 3 lies on the Kottapuram-
Kollam stretch of the West Coast Canal, Champakara
Canal and Udyogmandal Canal. It was established in
February 1993 and has a length of 205 km.
National Waterway 4
The National Waterway 4 lies on the Kakinada-
Puducherry stretch of Canals and the Kaluvelly Tank,
Bhadrachalam-Rajahmundry stretch of River Godavari
and Wazirabad-Vijayawada stretch of River Krishna.
It was established in November 2008 and has a length
of 1095 km.
National Waterway 5
The National Waterway 5 lies on the Talcher-Dhamra
stretch of the Brahmani River, the Geonkhali-
Charbatia stretch of the East Coast Canal, the
Charbatia-Dhamra stretch of Matai River and the
Mangalgadi-Paradip stretch of the Mahanadi River
Delta. It was established in November 2008 and has
a length of 623 km.
National Waterway 6
The National Waterway 6 will be from Lakhipur to
Bhanga on the River Barak with a total length of 121
km.
Impediments to the Growth of IWT
• Insufficient depths throughout the stretch of
navigable waters.
• Excessive siltation in major rivers from erosion
of uplands and deforestation.
• Navigation being relegated to the fourth position
due to priorities to drinking water, irrigation and
power (hydel) sectors that results in reduced draft.
• Non-availability of low draft high technology
vessels.
• Non-availability of adequate navigational aids
resulting in restricted sailing over long periods of
time.
• Non-availability of permanent terminals with
adequate infrastructure for loading/unloading,
storage etc.
• Non-availability of bulk commodities along the
water front.
• Non-availability of return cargo on most of the
routes.
Advantages of IWT
• Low capital cost- Cost of development of inland
waterway has been estimated to be a mere 5-10
percent of the cost of developing of an
equivalent 4-lane highway or railway.
• Low maintenance cost- Cost of maintenance of
inland waterway is placed at 20 percent of that
of roads.
• Low fuel cost- Inland Water Transport is a highly
fuel-efficient mode of transport. This fact is borne
out by the estimate that one litre of fuel can
move 24 tonnes/km of freight by road, 85 by
rail and 105 by IWT.
• Cost-effective transport mode- It has also been
estimated that diversion of one billion tonne-km
of cargo to the IWT mode will reduce transport
fuel costs by 5 million USD and the overall
transport costs by 9 million USD.
[5]
• Need for Infrastructure building- An analysis
of the need for building essential infrastructure
like mechanized handling at terminals and night
navigation facilities reveals how these can translate
into reduction of cost of transportation per tonne-
km (TKM) over short haul as well as long haul
carriage by IWT. It was observed that the TKM
cost of movement would come down from the
present Rs.3.55 to Rs.1.44 for a short haul of
100 km and from Rs. 0.95 to 0.39 for a long
haul of 2000 km.
Coastal Shipping  •
• Coastal shipping is an energy-efficient,
environment-friendly and economical mode of
transport in the Indian transport network.
• The immediate hinterland for the Coastal trade
comprises of 40 districts of five states on the
west and four on the East Coast and Pondichery.
The hinterland covers an area of over 3,80,000
sq.km. Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar
group of Islands in the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal respectively also forms part of the
Coastal hinterland.
• Fuel consumed by shipping is 15% that of road
transport and 54% of rail transport.
• There would be massive CO2 and CO emission
cuts from using coastal shipping over road and
rail networks.
• Coastal shipping is much better suited to handling
large parcels, which rail and road networks can’t
compete with because of size and infrastructure
constraints.
Obstacles to growth
• However there are obstacles to the growth of
coastal shipping, which need to be overcome
before it can really take off.
• The Customs process is slow and cumbersome.
• Bunker fuel oil is not duty free for coastal
shipping.
• Lack of infrastructure at major ports for coastal
vessels, and lack of infrastructure at minor ports.
• Taxation: Indian Ocean going accorded tax breaks
but this benefit has not been extended to coastal
shipping.
Seaports in India
The coastline of India is dotted with 12 Major Ports
and about 200 Non-major Ports.
[ 6 ]
• Kandla - It is a tidal port located at the eastern
end of Gulf of Kuchchh.
• Mumbai – It is situated on Salsette Island on the
western coast. It is a natural harbour and the
largest port of India handling about 1/5th of
India’s foreign trade.
• Jawaharlal Nehru port – It has been built at
Nhava Sheva Island across the Elephanta caves,
about 10 km from Mumbai. Main objective is to
relieve the pressure on the Mumbai Port.
Marmagao – It is a natural port located at the
entrance of Zuvari estuary in Goa.
• New Mangalore - Located at the southern tip
of Karnataka coast, north of Gurpur River.
• Kochi - A natural harbour on the western coast
of Kerala (in Vembanad Lake).
• Tuticorin – It is an artificial deep sea harbour in
Tamil Nadu, north of Adam Bridge and east of
Sri Lanka.
• Chennai - It is the oldest artificial port on the
eastern coast of India.
• Ennore: Recently developed to reduce pressure
of traffic on Chennai port. It is located slightly
north of Chennai on T.N. coast. It is country’s
first corporate port.
• Vishakhapatnam - It is the deepest land-locked
and protected port at the coast of Andhra Pradesh.
• Paradeep – It is a deep-water & all weather port
on Orissa coast in Mahanadi delta region.
• Kolkata-Haldia – It is a river rine port located
on the west bank of the Hooghly River.
New initiatives
A. Sagarmala project
• Sagarmala will lead to large scale employment
generation of skilled and semi-skilled manpower.
Industrial clusters and parks, large ports, maritime
services, logistics services, and other sectors of
the economy will be directly and indirectly
impacted by port-led development under
Sagarmala.  
• Manufacture of ships, vessels, cruise ships, barges
and tugs will also increase industrial output and
also contribute to employment generation.
• It will result in sustainable development of the
population living in the Coastal Economic Zones
 (CEZ) by synergising and coordinating with State
Governments and line Ministries of Central
Government through their existing schemes and
programmes such as those related to community
and rural development, tribal development and
employment generation, fisheries, skill
development, tourism promotion etc.  Today
about 70 lakhs persons are dependent on fisheries
for their livelihood.
• It will enhance the capacity of major and non-
major ports and modernize them to make them
efficient, thereby enabling them to become
drivers of port-led economic development,
optimizing the use of existing and future transport
assets and developing new lines/linkages for
transport (including roads, rail, inland waterways
and coastal routes), setting up of logistics hubs,
and establishment of industries and
manufacturing centres to be served by the ports
in EXIM and domestic trade. 
• It also aims at simplifying procedures used at
ports for cargo movement and promotes usage
of electronic channels for information exchange
leading to quick, efficient, hassle-free and
seamless cargo movement.
B. Jal Marg Vikas Project
• The Project’s objective is to provide an
environment friendly, fuel efficient and cost-
effective alternative mode of transportation,
especially for bulk goods, hazardous goods,
captive cargo and over dimensional cargo.  Mumbai
• The projects include construction of terminals,
jetties, river training and conservancy works,
modern automated information system,
navigation aids, etc.  b)
Issues in sea transport
• Most major ports were originally designed to
handle specific categories of cargo which have
declined in time while other types of cargoes
gained importance. The ports have not been able
to adjust to the categories of cargo which grew
the most. There are thus several berths for
traditional cargo, which are under-utilised, and
only a few for new cargo, which are overutilised.
• Equipment utilisation is very poor both because
equipment is obsolete and poorly maintained.
• Over staffing at Indian ports remains rampant
and productivity indicators in respect of cargo
and equipment handling continue to be poor.
• Documentary procedures relating to cargo
handling such as customs clearance requirements
are unduly complicated and time consuming.
Electronic document processing is still to be
introduced in all the ports.
• Port access facilities and arrangements for moving
in-bound and out-bound cargo are inadequate and
unsatisfactory.
• Absence of inter-port and intra-port competition
which have been conductive to substantial
productivity increases in other countries is absent
in Indian due to poor inland connectivity and a
policy regime that protected domestic ports
against competitive pressures.
Air Transport
Aviation as an infrastructure segment has played vital
role in facilitating the growth of business and economy
in India. A robust civil aviation set-up is key to
seamless flow of investment, trade and tourism, with
significant multiplier effects through the economy.
International Airports:
1. Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
a) It is the busiest airport in South Asia handling
the most traffic movements and passengers on
the subcontinent.
b) Was previously operated by the Indian Air Force
and was a part of the Palam Airport.
2. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport,
a) Formerly called Sahar (international) Airport and
Santa Cruz (domestic) Airport.
The two airports were merged and renamed as
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.
c) India’s and South Asia’s largest airport.
d) Country’s second busiest airport.
3. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International
Airport, Kolkata
a) The airport was originally known as Dum-Dum
Airport.
b) The airport is the largest in eastern India.
4. Meenambakam International Airport, Chennai
a) It is located in Tirusulam, 7 km south of Chennai.
b) This is the third-busiest airport in India (after
Delhi and Mumbai).
[7]
c) It is the second-largest cargo hub in the country, 12. Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International
after Mumbai. Airport, Guwahati

5. Bengaluru International Airport, Bengaluru a) Known as Guwahati International Airport and

formerly as Borjhar Airport.
a) The airport is located 4 km south of Devanahalli
in Bengaluru covering 4,000 acres. b) The airport is managed by Airports Authority of
India and also serves as Indian Air Force base.
b) It replaced the old HAL Bangalore International
Airport. c) It is named after Gopinath Bordoloi who was a
freedom fighter and also the first CM of Assam
6. Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad after independence.

a) Earlier it was known as Begumpet airport. GAGAN Project

b) It is the second public-private partnership venture • GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation ‘‘Gagan’’
in the Indian airports, the first being the Cochin is an augmentation system to enhance the
International Airport. accuracy and integrity of GPS signals to meet
precision approach requirements in Civil Aviation.
7. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport,
Ahmedabad • Being implemented jointly by AAI and ISRO.

a) It is India’s eighth busiest airport with an average • Provide navigation system for all phases of flight
of 150 aircraft movements a day. over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area.

8. Nedumbassery International Airport, Kochi • Cover a vast geographical area from Africa to
Australia and hence facilitates expansion of the
a) It is the fourth busiest airport in India in terms of the service area of ‘‘Gagan’’ far beyond Indian
of international traffic & is the busiest airport in airspace.
Kerala in terms of domestic and international
traffic. • Provides precision approach and landing guidance
up to category I to aircraft hitherto not available
b) The airport is the first international airport in due to terrain conditions.
India incorporated as a public limited company.
• Flight Management System based on GAGAN
9. Raja Sansi International Airport, Amritsar is poised to save operators time and money.
a) It is also known as Guru Ram Das International • The FMS will improve the efficiency and
Airport. flexibility by increasing the use of operator-
b) It handles about 90 commercial flights a week, preferred trajectories.
both international and domestic. • It will improve airport and airspace access in all
10. Trivandr um Inter national Air port, weather conditions, and the ability to meet the
Thiruvanathapuram environmental and obstacle clearance constraints.

a) It is the first International airport in a non-metro Key Challenges in aviation sector

city in India.
b) It is considered as an “all weather” airport in the
country and is ISO 9001-2000 certified.
c) It is the 8th busiest airport in the country in
terms of international passenger traffic and 10th
busiest in terms of overall passenger traffic.
11. Dabolim Airport International Airport, Goa
a) It is the only airport in the state and operates as
a civil enclave in a military airbase named INS
Hansa.
a) Issues relating to investment in Air port
infrastructure
b) Aviation sector in India face many taxes on the
inputs to production – fuel, aircraft leases, airport
charges, air passenger tickets, air navigation
ser vice charges, maintenance costs, fuel
throughout fees, into-plane fuel fees, and other
items subject to service taxes. These fees and
taxes on inputs are either not present in other
matured aviation markets, or are much lower
there.

[ 8 ]
c) Land requirement for Airport development.
d) Safety and security in civil aviation.
Dharmadhikari Committee Report Recommendations-
I. Instilling seniority among employees of Indian
Airlines and Air India (except for pilots and
engineers who will be given line seniority based
on type of aircraft assigned, and cabin crew will
be provided uniform seniority).
II. Promotions should be based on seniority and
merit, but for the next two years the Rota-Quota
system should be implemented. This system
draws on maintaining a fixed quota for a particular
position, and the rotational component states that
the next eligible candidate be considered.
III. The Postal Life Insurance (PLI) system is a
violation of the Department of Public
Enterprises’ guidelines and should be replaced
by another incentive system.
IV. Pay should be a product of the profit earned by
the company and target achievement. A
committee comprising airline officials was formed
to implement these stipulations.
V. Transfer the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul
business into a separate entity. Subjected to the
new regulations and global standards, it will be
supported financially by Air India and is projected
to be a profit-making body by 2017.
Draft National Civil Aviation Policy
• Draft National Civil Aviation Policy was  released
by Minister of Civil Aviation  on 30th October
2015. 
• The mission of the Draft Civil Aviation Policy is
to provide safe, secure, affordable and
maintainable air travel with access to various parts
of India and the world with an objective of
enhanced regional connectivity, ease of doing
business and promoting entire aviation sector
chain from cargo, general aviation, aerospace
manufacturing to skill development.
Pipeline Transport
Pipelines are the most convenient mode of transporting
liquids and gases over long distances. Even solids can
also be transported by pipelines after converting them
into slurry. The country had a network of about 5,035
km long pipelines in 1980 which has increased to
over 7,000 km now.
Effect on economy
• It provides easy transportation of petroleum
products from refineries to consumer market
maintaining a balance between demand and
supply.
• Keep the cost of petroleum products at desired
point.
• Helps in transfer of petroleum products to
fertilizer plants thus effects the agricultural
production of the country.
• Decreases the transportation cost, and making it
easily available to the masses.
• Refineries can be set up at far distance from the
raw material source thus helps in reducing regional
disparity.
Advantages of pipelines
• Advantageous for fluid transport, fluids being a
special commodity.
• Cost effective mode of transport since low
recurring cost, low energy consumption.
• Environment friendly.
• Possess safety benefits.
• Highly efficient compared to trucking, rail
transport.
• The pipelines can be laid on a wide variety of
terrains without much difficulty.
• Do not require of being ‘emptied’ to the starting
point and as such are ideal for uni-directional
traffic.
• They are insensitive to surface conditions such
as storms, inclement weather, etc.
Disadvantages of pipelines
• It takes longer time to put in place.
• Its capacity cannot be increased once they are
laid.
• They are not flexible and can be used only for
few fixed points.
• Underground pipelines cannot be easily repaired
and the detection of leakage is also difficult.
• If the pipeline installation is not simultaneous
with drilling and completion, there will be a delay
in the sales that offset development costs.
[9]
• If the field is expanded, the initial pipeline may
not have the capacity to handle additional wells
causing another line to be laid.
• Distance and line friction pressure losses cause
problems.
Major pipelines of India
• Naharkatia-Nunamati-Barauni pipeline:
• This is the first time that criss cross country
pipeline has been used to transport LPG.
• Kandla-Bhatinda pipeline:
• This is a new pipeline in the offing and is 1331
km long.
• It has been constructed to transport crude oil to
Bhatinda refinery.

• The first oil pipeline of India. Issues of Pipeline Safety:

• It is 1167 km long. • Factors

• Earlier it was meant to transport crude oil from • Aging infrastructure

Naharkatia to Nunamati and became operative
in 1962.
• Later it was extended to bring oil till Barauni
(1964) and now up till Kanpur (1966).
• Mumbai high-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali
pipeline:
• Lack of safety standards
• Weak oversight and enforcement
The following are the recommendations for improved
pipeline safety and accountability:
1. Prevent Pipeline Disasters

• Connects oilfields of Mumbai high with oil • Require Better Monitoring

refinery at Koyali in Gujarat. a) Require regular integrity testing of pipelines.
• It can transport both oil and gas. b) Require better training and oversight of staff.
• Salya Koyali Mathura pipeline: c) Require pipeline companies to provide pipeline
mapping data with the possible exception of
• it is 1075 km long pipeline.
gathering lines.
• Has been laid down in between Salya (Gulf of
• Require Safer Pipelines
Kachch) to Koyali and Mathura to supply crude
oil to these two refineries. a) Require double-walled pipelines especially in high
consequence areas.
• It has an offshore terminal for the imported crude
oil as well. b) Require state of the art leak detection system
and automatic shut-off valves.
• Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur gas pipeline:
c) Dig up and inspect pipelines more than 20 years
• It is 1750 km long. old.
• The world’s largest underground pipeline and d) Require setbacks of at least 1,000 feet for high-
connects Hazira in Maharastra, Bijapur in MP risk areas for pipelines larger than 8 inches.
and Jagdishpur in UP.
2. Hold Pipeline Companies Responsible for
• It provides gas to three power houses at Kawas Accidents
in Gujarat, Anta in Rajasthan and Auraiya in UP
a) Establish mandatory fines.
• It also provides gas to many fertilizer plants like
Bijapur, Swaimadhopur, Jagdishpur Shahjahanpur b) Require strict and thorough reporting.

• Jamnagar-Loni LPG pipeline: Organizations related to Transport in India

• It is 1269 km long pipeline connects Jamnagar in Road Transport

Gujarat to Loni in UP and near Delhi The organizations related to road transport which play
• Passes through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan an important role in maintenance and development
and Haryana and is the longest LPG pipeline of of road infrastructure and provide facilities to the
the world. masses even in the remote areas are:

[10]
1. National Highways Authority Of India
• The National Highways Authority of India was
constituted by an Act of Parliament, the National
Highways Authority of India Act, 1988.
• It is responsible for the development,
maintenance and management of National
Highways entrusted to it and for matters
connected or incidental thereto.
• Functions of authority
a) Survey, develop, maintain and manage highways
vested to it.
b) Regulate and control the plying of vehicles on
highways.
c) Develop and provide consultancy and
construction services and carry on research
activities for development, management and
maintenance activities of highways.
d) Provide such facilities and amenities for users
e) Form one or more companies under the
companies act 1956 for efficient discharge of
functions.
f) Advise the state government on matters relating
to state highways.
g) Collect fees on behalf of state government on
such terms and conditions as may be specified
by the state government.
h) Engage or entrust any of its function to any
person on such terms and condition as may be
prescribed. 
2. State Public Works Department
• Public Works Department is the premier agency
engaged in planning, designing, construction and
maintenance of Government assets in the field
of built environment and infrastr ucture
development.
• Assets in built environment include Hospitals,
Schools, Colleges, Technical Institutes, Police
Buildings, Prisons, Courts etc; assets in
infrastr ucture development include Roads,
Bridges, Flyovers, Footpaths, Subways, etc.
3. Border Roads Organisation
• The Border Roads Organization [BRO] plays a
very vital role in connecting the inaccessible
border areas.
• The BRO constructs and maintains roads in the
border areas, classified as General Staff (GS)
roads, in keeping with defence requirements.
These roads are developed and maintained with
the funds provided by the Border Roads
Development Board (BRDB), through the
Department of Road Transport and Highways.
• Besides General Staff roads, BRO also executes
Agency Works, which are entrusted to it by other
Central government ministries and departments.
• Works entrusted by public sector undertakings,
state governments and other semi-government
organizations are executed as Deposit Works.
• Over the years, the BRO has diversified into the
construction of airfields, permanent steel and pre-
stressed concrete bridges and accommodation
projects. 
• The BRO has not only linked borders areas of
north and north-east with the rest of the country,
but also developed the road infrastructure in
Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Uttarkhand and Chhattisgarh.
• These organizations play an important role in
bringing the people of different religions, cultures,
classes together by development of road
transport, thus increases the national integration
in the country.
4. National Highways and Infrastr ucture
Development Corporation
• The National Highways and Infrastructure
Development Corporation is a fully owned
company of the Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways.
• The company envisages to promote, survey,
establish, design, build, operate, maintain and
upgrade National Highways and other
infrastructure including interconnecting roads
particularly in the North Eastern region and
strategic areas of the country.
• The regional connectivity so enhanced would
promote cross border trade and commerce and
help safeguard India’s international borders.
• The infrastructure so created would lead to the
formation of a more integrated and economically
consolidated South and South East Asia.
• In addition, this would also lead to overall
economic benefits for the local population and
[11]
 help integrate the peripheral areas with the
mainstream in a more robust manner.
• An approximate aggregate length of 10,000 kms
has been identified to begin with for development
through this company. In the first phase, the
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has
entrusted 60 works to the company for
constructing 3586 Kms at a total cost of Rs
34300 crore.  railway stations and railway infrastructure and
Rail transport
1. Ministry of Railways
• The Ministry of Railways is a ministry in
the Government of India, responsible for
the country’s rail transport. The ministry operates
the state-owned Indian Railways, an organisation
that operates as a monopoly in rail transport and
is headed by the Chairman, Railway Board.
• The Railway Board, which is the apex body of
the Indian Railways reports to the Minister of
Railways. The Railway Board comprises
one Chairman, five “members of the Railway
Board.”,and a Financial Commissioner (who is
the representative of the Ministry of Finance in
the Railway Board). It also includes a Director-
General (Railway Health Services) and a Director-
General (Railway Protection Force). A number
of directorates report to the Railway Board.
2. Indian Railway Stations Development
Corporation Limited
• Indian Railway Stations Development
Corporation Limited (IRSDC) is a SPV, a Joint
Venture company of Ircon International Limited
(IRCON) (A Govt. of India Undertaking, under
Ministry of Railways) and Rail Land
Development Authority (RLDA), a statutory
authority under the Ministry of Railways, was
incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956.
• The main objects of the Company as enshrined
in its Memorandum and Articles of Association
are:
a) To develop/ re-develop the existing/new railway
station (s) which will consist of upgrading the
level of passenger amenities by new
constructions/renovations including re-
development of the station buildings, platform
surfaces, circulating area, etc., to better standards
so as to serve the need of the passengers.
b) To undertake projects for development of real
estate on Railway/ Government land and its
[12]
commercial utilization as may be required in
connection with development of railway stations.
c) To undertake projects including planning,
designing, development, construction,
improvement, commissioning, operation,
maintenance, and financing of projects and
various services relating thereto including
marketing, collecting revenues, etc. relating to
all matters relating thereto.
d) To carry on any railway infrastructure work
including development of railway stations on
Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT), Build-Own-
Operate-Transfer (BOOT), Build-Lease-Transfer
(BLT), etc. or otherwise or any other scheme or
project found suitable in and related to the field
of railway station infrastructure projects and other
ancillary fields that may be assigned to or secured
by the Company on its own or through its holding
company or subsidiary(ies) including financing
of those projects and their services including
commissioning, operation, maintenance, etc., as
well as marketing, collecting revenues, etc.
3. Research, designs and standards organization
• Research, designs and standards organization
(RDSO) is the sole research and development
wing of Indian Railways, functioning as the
technical adviser and consultant to the Ministry,
Zonal Railways and production units. RDSO has
been reorganized by elevating its status from
‘Attached office’ to ‘Zonal Railway’ to give it
greater flexibility and a boost to the research and
development activities.
4. Rail Tariff Authority
• The Rail Tariff Authority comprise a Chairperson
and four Members at the apex level and vested
with the function to develop an integrated,
transparent and dynamic pricing mechanism for
the passenger and freight segments of the Indian
Railway’s business.
• It also advise the Central Government on fixation
of tariff, based on cost of operations and factors
impinging it, to help generate requisite surpluses
for healthy growth in the future. 
Water transport
1. Ministry of shipping
• The Ministry of Shipping, a branch of the
Government of India, is the apex body for
 formulation and administration of the rules and
regulations and laws relating to Shipping.  and monitoring of flight crew standards;
2. Inland Waterways Authority of India
• The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI)
came into existence in1986 for development and
regulation of inland waterways for shipping and
navigation.
• The Authority primarily undertakes projects for
development and maintenance of IWT
infrastructure on national waterways through
grant received from Ministry of Shipping.
• The head office of the Authority is at Noida.
The Authority also has its regional offices at
Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Kochi and sub-
offices at Allahabad, Varanasi, Bhaglapur, Farakka
and Kollam.
3. Shipping Corporation of India Limited:
• The Shipping Corporation of India was
established on October 2nd, 1961, by the
amalgamation of Eastern Shipping Corporation
and Western Shipping Corporation. SCI’s owned
fleet includes Bulk carriers, Crude oil tankers,
Product tankers, Container vessels, Passenger-
cum-Cargo vessels, Phosphoric Acid / Chemical
carriers, LPG / Ammonia carriers and Offshore
Supply Vessels.
• The SCI owns and operates around one-third of
the Indian tonnage, and has operating interests in
practically all areas of the shipping business;
servicing both national and international trades.
• Over the years, SCI has been a lifeline for the
country in times of emergency and distress, by
ensuring continued and uninterrupted supply of
crude oil, which drives the country’s economy.
• The Government of India has conferred
“Navratna” status to SCI in 2008 which
enhanced autonomy and delegation of powers to
the Company towards capital expenditure,
formation of Joint Ventures, mergers, etc.  country and is responsible for laying down the
Air Transport
1. Directorate General of Civil Aviation
• The Directorate General of Civil Aviation
(DGCA) is the regulatory body in the field of
civil aviation. It is responsible for:-
a) Regulation of air transport services to/from and
within India in accordance with the provisions
of the Aircraft Rules, 1937;
b) Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers
c) Registration of civil aircraft;
d) Laying down airworthiness requirements for civil
aircraft registered in India and grant of certificate
of airworthiness to such aircraft;
e) Coordination of the work relating to International
Civil Aviation Organization;
f) Investigation of minor air accidents and incidents
and rendering technical assistance to the Courts
/ Committees of Inquiry appointed by the
Government;
g) Supervision of Training activities of Flying/
Gliding Clubs’
h) Licensing of aerodromes and air carriers;
i) Safety oversight and surveillance of air carriers
and aerodromes;
j) Rendering advice to Government on matters
pertaining to air transport including bilateral air
services agreements with foreign countries;
k) Processing amendments to the Aircraft Act, 1934
and the Aircraft Rules 1937, and other Acts
relating to aviation, with a view to implementing
in India the provisions of the Chicago convention
and annexes thereto and other international
conventions relating to aviation;
l) Type certification of aircraft.
2. Bureau of Civil Aviation Security
• The main responsibility of BCAS is to lay down
standards and measures in respect of security of
civil flights at international and domestic airports
in India and Indian aircraft operators at foreign
airports.
• It is the regulator for civil aviation security in the
standards for pre-embarkation security and anti-
sabotage measures in respect of civil flights and
ensuring their compliance through regular
Inspections and Security Audits.
• The aim of BCAS is to safeguard Civil Aviation
operations against acts of unlawful interference
and it is the regulatory authority for discharging
all relevant national and international obligations
in respect of training of personnel in aviation
security responsibilities which include, interalia,
[13]
 planning and co-ordination of all aviation security
related activities, operational emergencies and
crisis management.
• The BCAS has its headquarters in New Delhi and
4 Regional Offices located at Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkata and Chennai airports
3. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi
• The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi
located at Fursatganj (UP) is an Autonomous
Body under Government of India, Ministry of
Civil Aviation.
• The Akademi has been established to train pilots
to achieve higher standards in Flying and Ground
training.
• The Akademi is equipped with modern and
sophisticated Trainer Aircraft, Fight Simulators,
Computer-Based Training System (CBT), own
ATC, runway with modern Navigational and
Landing Aids like DVOR/DME & ILS and own
Airspace.
4. Airports Authority of India
• Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted
on 1st April, 1995 by merging erstwhile National
Airports Authority (NAA) and International
Airports Authority of India (IAAI).
• The integration of NAA and IAAI was aimed to
derive the synergy of merger and build a new
organization to take up upcoming challenges in
competitive environment.
5. Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited (PHHL)
• Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. (PHHL) an ISO
9001:2000 certified company, is one of the India’s
leading helicopter companies and is known for
its reliable helicopter operations.
• The company was incorporated in 1985 with the
objective of providing helicopter services to the
petroleum sector, linking inaccessible areas of
the country and operating charters for promotion
of tourism.
• Pawan Hans is a leader in providing offshore
helicopter support in India.
Public Private Partnership in Transport Sector
Meaning
• Public Private Partnership means an arrangement
between a government / statutory entity /
government owned entity on one side and a
[14]
private sector entity on the other, for the provision
of public assets and/or public services, through
investments being made and/or management
being undertaken by the private sector entity, for
a specified period of time, where there is well
defined allocation of risk between the private
sector and the public entity and the private entity
receives performance linked payments that
conform (or are benchmarked) to specified and
pre-determined performance standards,
measurable by the public entity or its
representative.
Different types of PPP
1. BOT-Toll (Build Operate Transfer – Toll) : The
private entity meets the upfront cost of design,
construction and recurring cost on operation and
maintenance. The Private entity recovers the
entire cost along with the interest from collection
of user utilization during the agreed concession
period. Capital infusion is available from the
public entity. A risk sharing model is predominant
in this model.
2. BOOT (Build Operate Own Transfer) : This
engagement model is similar to the “Build
Operate Transfer” model except that the private
entity has to transfer the facility back to the public
sector
3. Joint Venture (JV) : In a PPP arrangement
commonly followed in our country (such as for
airport development), the private sector body is
encouraged to form a joint venture company
(JVC) along with the participating public sector
agency with the latter holding only minority
shares. The private sector body will be responsible
for the design; construction and management of
the operations targeted for the PPP and will also
bring in most of the investment requirements.
The public sector partner’s contribution will be
by way of fixed assets at a pre-determined value,
whether it is land, buildings or facilities or it may
contribute to the shareholding capital. It may also
provide assurances and guarantees required by
the private partner to raise funds and to ensure
smooth construction and operation.
4. Management Contract (MC) : A management
contract is a contractual arrangement for the
management of a part or whole of a public
enterprise by the private sector. Management
contracts allow private sector skills to be brought
into service design and delivery, operational
control, labour management and equipment
procurement. However, the public sector retains
 the ownership of facility and equipment. The
private sector is provided specified responsibilities
concerning a service and is generally not asked
to assume commercial risk. The private contractor
is paid a fee to manage and operate services.
Normally, payment of such fees is performance-
based. Usually, the contract period is short,
typically two to five years. But longer period
may be used for large and complex operational
facilities such as a port or airport.
5. BOT (Build Operate Transfer) : The private
business builds and operates the public facility
for an agreed period of time. Once the facility is
operational as agreed, or at the end of the time
period, the private entity transfers the facility
ownership to the public, here it may be construed
as Government. Under this category, the private
partner is responsible to design, build, operate
(during the contracted period) and transfer back
the facility to the public sector. The private sector
partner is expected to bring the finance for the
project and take the responsibility to construct
and maintain it. The public sector will either pay
a rent for using the facility or allow it to collect
revenue from the users. The national highway
projects contracted out by NHAI under PPP
mode is an example. This model is a classic
example for IT industry
6. BOT – Annuity (Build Operate Transfer –
Annuity): This model though is globally accepted
one does not have the favour of the Planning
Commission of India. In case of annuity model,
the cost of building the entity is paid to the
private entity or the developer annually after the
starting commercial operations of the facility.
7. DBFOT (Design Build Finance Operate
Transfer): These are other variations of PPP and
as the nomenclatures highlight, the private party
assumes the entire responsibility for the design,
construct, finance, and operate or operate and
maintain the project for the period of concession.
8. BOO (Build Own Operate): In a BOO project,
ownership of the project usually remains with
the Private entity. The government grants the
rights to design, finance, build, operate and
maintain the project to a private entity, which
retains ownership of the project. In BOO the
private entity is usually not required to transfer
the facility back to the government
9. BOOST (Build Operate Own Share Transfer):
This model is very similar to the BOOT model,
except that there exists an arrangement or sharing
the revenue to the private entity for a longer
time even after the rights of the private entity
are transferred to the public entity.
The Government has facilitated the PPP sector by offering:
a) Viability Gap Funding (VGF) subsidy: Viability
Gap Funding of upto 40% of the cost of the
project can be accessed in the form of a capital
grant.
b) India Infrastructure Project Development Fund
(IIPDF): Scheme supports the Central and the
State Governments and local bodies through
financial support for project development
activities ( feasibility reports,  project structuring
etc) for PPP project
c) IIFCL: long-term debt for financing infrastructure
projects that typically involve long gestation
periods since debt finance for such projects should
be of a sufficient.
d) Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) upto 100% FDI
in equity of SPVs in the PPP sector is allowed
on the automatic route for most sectors.
Advantages of PPP model
a. Better quality since the concessionaire (private
sector) is to maintain the road for the period of
concession.
b. Early completion of the project, since the
concessionaire could save interest and earn early
toll (in the case of BOT project) / additional
annuity installments (in the case of Annuity
project).
c. No costs overrun (price escalation).
d. The Client (Government/NHAI) does not have
the burden of maintaining the highways.
e. Involving the private sector leads to greater
efficiency. 
f. The private sector has more flexible procurement
and decision-making procedures and therefore, it
can speed up implementation efforts. 
Potential risks associated with PPP
There are a number of potential risks associated with
Public Private Partnerships:
a) Development, bidding and ongoing costs in PPP
projects are likely to be greater than for traditional
government procurement processes - the
government should therefore determine whether
the greater costs involved are justified. A number
of the PPP and implementation units around the
[15]
 world have developed methods for analysing these
costs and looking at Value for Money.  under the PPP agreement and to monitor
b) There is a cost attached to debt – While private
sector can make it easier to get finance, finance
will only be available where the operating
cashflows of the project company are expected
to provide a return on investment (i.e., the cost
has to be borne either by the customers or the
government through subsidies, etc.)  requirements imposed on the private operator to
c) Some projects may be easier to finance than
others (if there is proven technology involved
and/ or the extent of the private sectors
obligations and liability is clearly identifiable),
some projects will generate revenue in local
currency only (eg water projects) while others
(eg ports and airports) will provide currency in
dollar or other international currency and so
constraints of local finance markets may have
less impact.
d) Some projects may be more politically or socially
challenging to introduce and implement than
others - particularly if there is an existing public
sector workforce that fears being transferred to
the private sector, if significant tariff increases
are required to make the project viable, if there
are signficant land or resettlement issues, etc.
e) There is no unlimited risk bearing – private firms
(and their lenders) will be cautious about
accepting major risks beyond their control, such
as exchange rate risks/risk of existing assets. If
they bear these risks then their price for the
service will reflect this. Private firms will also
want to know that the rules of the game are to
be respected by government as regards
undertakings to increase tariffs/fair regulation,
etc. Private sector will also expect a significant
level of control over operations if it is to accept
significant risks.
f) Private sector will do what it is said to do and no
more than that – therefore incentives and
performance requirements need to be clearly set
out in the contract. Focus should be on
performance requirements that are out-put based
and relatively easy to monitor.
g) Government responsibility continues – citizens
will continue to hold government accountable
for quality of utility services. Government will
also need to retain sufficient expertise, whether
the implementing agency and/ or via a regulatory
body, to be able to understand the PPP
[16]
arrangements, to carry out its own obligations
performance of the private sector and enforce its
obligations.
h) The private sector is likely to have more expertise
and after a short time have an advantage in the
data relating to the project.  It is important to
ensure that there are clear and detailed reporting
reduce this potential imbalance.
i) A clear legal and regulatory framework is crucial
to achieving a sustainable solution (for more, go
to Legislation and Regulation).
j) Given the long-term nature of these projects and
the complexity associated, it is difficult to identify
all possible contingencies during project
development and events and issues may arise
that were not anticipated in the documents or by
the parties at the time of the contract.  It is more
likely than not that the parties will need to
renegotiate the contract to accommodate these
contingencies.  It is also possible that some of
the projects may fail or may be terminated prior
to the projected term of the project, for a number
of reasons including changes in government
policy, failure by the private operator or the
government to perform their obligations or
indeed due to external circumstances such as
force majeure.  While some of these issues will
be able to be addressed in the PPP agreement, it
is likely that some of them will need to be
managed during the course of the project.
Hence government has introduced Hybrid Annuity Model
• Under this model, the government will provide
40 per cent of the project cost to the developer
to start work while the remaining investment has
to be made by the developer.
• The main objective of the approval is to revive
highway projects in the country by making one
more mode of delivery of highway projects.
• Under this, all major stakeholders in the PPP
arrangement — the Authority, Lender and the
Developer, Concessionaire would have an
increased comfort level resulting in revival of
the sector through renewed interest of private
developers/investors in highway projects and this
will bring relief thereby to citizens/travelers in
the area of a respective project.
• It will facilitate uplifting the socio-economic
condition of the entire nation due to increased
connectivity across the length and breadth of
the country leading to enhanced economic
activity.
• This model also provide an increased comfort
level for the lenders and concessionaires as traffic
and inflation risks are taken by the Authority.

• An important feature of the Hybrid Annuity
Model for highways development is the rational
approach adopted for allocation of risks between
the PPP partners — the Government and the
private partner i.e. the developer/investor. While
the private partner continues to bear the
construction and maintenance risks as in BOT
(Toll) projects, it is required only to partly bear
the financing risk.
[17]

AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Sector is the mainstay of the rural Indian
economy around which socio-economic privileges and
deprivations revolve and any change in its structure
is likely to have a corresponding impact on the
existing pattern of social equity.
According to the new series of national income
released by the CSO, at 2011-12 prices the share of
update agriculture in total GDP is 18 per cent in
2013-14. As against a growth target of 4 per cent for
agriculture and allied sectors in the Twelfth Plan, the
growth registered in the first year at 2011-12 prices
was 1.2 per cent, 3.7 per cent in 2013-14, and 1.1 per
cent in 2014-15.
Role of Agriculture in Indian Economy
a) The billion-plus-people will continue to depend
for their food, as in the past, on agriculture.
b) Because of comparative advantage, India
produces the agricultural products cheaply.
c) The variety of agro-climatic regions enable India
to produce infinite variety of agricultural
products.
d) Agriculture supplies raw materials for different
agro-industries like textile, (cotton, woollen, jute
or silk) sugar, food processing, vanaspati leather,
etc. which dominate the industrial landscape.
e) Agriculture creates demand for several industrial
products like tractors, pumping sets, threshers,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc.
f) The prosperity of the industrial sector is highly
dependent on the productivity in agriculture.
Types of farming
A. Dryland farming:
• Dry land areas may be characterized by the following
features:
Supplementary Notes
a) Uncertain, ill-.distributed and limited annual
rainfall.
b) Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like
draught, flood, etc.
c) Undulating soil surface.
d) Occurrence of extensive and large holdings.
e) Practice of extensive agriculture, i.e., prevalence
of mono-cropping etc.
• Problems of dry land farming in India:
a) Uncertain and scarce rainfall make the region
susceptible to draught and famine.
b) The soil here is sandy which lacks nutrient
materials for soil fertility. Besides the area is prone
to soil erosion.
c) The productivity is low and the crops are more
susceptible to pests and diseases.
d) These areas lack basic infrastructural facilities like
market, transport, storage, refrigeration, etc.,
hence farmers do not get remunerative prices.
• Strategies for the development of dryland areas :
a) Bunding across the slope and leveling the land
should be done before onset of monsoon.
b) Draught resistant varieties of crops should be
developed and popularized in these areas.
c) Crop rotation should be followed which should
preferably have at least one legume every year.
Inter-cropping of oil seeds and pulses should be
done with jowar, bajra and maize crops.
d) The sowing period and variety of crops should
be decided on the basis of arrival, duration and
amount of rainfall.
[1]
B. Organic farming:
• As per United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA), organic farming is a system which avoids
or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs
(such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed
additive,s etc) and feasibly rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm
organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and
biological system of nutrient mobilization and
plant protection.
• The key characteristics of organic farming
a) Protecting the long term fertility of soils by
maintaining organic matter levels.
b) Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively
insoluble nutrient sources.
c) Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of
legumes and biological nitrogen fixation.
d) Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily
on crop rotations, natural predators.
e) The extensive management of livestock, paying
full regard to their evolutionary adaptations.
f) Careful attention to the impact of the farming
system on the wider environment and the
conservation of wildlife and natural habitats.
Cropping Seasons of India
Different cropping seasons are discussed below:
a) Kharif Season
• Sown in the beginning of the south west monsoon
and harvested at the end of the south west
monsoon.
• Sowing season: May to July
• Harvesting season: September to October
• Important crops: Jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton,
groundnut, jute, sugarcane etc.
• Some of the most important kharif regions:
Assam, West Bengal, coastal Regions of Orissa,
the Konkan coast, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
b) Rabi Season
• Sowing season: October to December
• Harvesting season: February to April
• Important crops: Wheat, barley, gram, linseed,
peas, potatoes etc.
[ 2 ]
• Some of the most important rabi regions:
Northern and north-western states such as Punjab,
Har yana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
• Success of Rabi crops depend on the availability
of precipitation during winter months due to the
western temperate cyclones. However, the
success of the green revolution in Punjab,
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Rajasthan has also been an important factor in
the growth of the above-mentioned rabi crops.
c) Zaid Kharif
• Sowing season: August–September
• Harvesting season: December–January
• Important crops: Cotton, rapeseed, oilseed jawar
etc.
d) Zaid Rabi
• Sowing season: February and March
• Harvesting season: April and May
• Important crops: Watermelon, cucumber, leafy
and other vegetables.
Cropping Pattern in India
• Cropping Pattern is the acreage distribution of
different crops in any one year in a given farm
area such as a county, water agency, or farm.
Thus, a change in a cropping pattern from one
year to the next can occur by changing the
relative acreage of existing crops, and/or by
introducing new crops, and/or by cropping
existing crops.
• Factors affecting cropping pattern:
a) Geographical factors like soil moisture
temperature, etc. determine the suitability of an
area to grow particular crops.
b) However, area actually devoted to a particular
will be determined by socio-economic factors like
dietary habits, land leveling cost of cultivation,
capacity of farmer’s diffusion of innovation, etc.
c) Besides in any locality, the prevalent cropping
systems are the cumulative results of past and
present decisions by individuals, communities or
governments and their agencies. These decisions
are usually based on experience, tradition,
expected profit, personal preferences and
resources, social and political pressures and so
on.
d) The climatic, edaphic and socio-economic
diversity of the Indian crop-production scene is
dotted with many cropping patterns.
e) Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the
relatively affluent Punjabi farmers who operate
with a high input intensity in agriculture to the
subsistent farmers of eastern and central India.
• Changes in Cropping Patterns:
With the advent of modern agricultural technology
there is a continuous surge for diversified agriculture
in terms of crops, primarily on economic
considerations. The crop pattern changes due to:
a) Resource related factors covering irrigation,
rainfall and soil fertility.
b) Technology related factors covering not only seed,
fertilizer, and water technologies but also those
related to marketing, storage and processing.
c) Household related factors covering food and
fodder self-sufficiency requirement as well as
investment capacity.
d) Price related factors covering output and input
prices as well as trade policies and other
economic policies that affect these prices either
directly or indirectly.
e) Institutional and infrastructure related factors
covering farm size and tenancy arrangements,
research, extension and marketing systems and
government regulatory policies.
Agro-Climate Regions
1. Western Himalayan Region: Ladakh, Kashmir,
Punjab, Jammu etc. Brown soils & silty loam,
steep slopes.
2. Eastern Himalayan Region: Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim and Darjeeling. Manipur etc. High rainfall
and high forest covers heavy soil erosion.
3. Lower Gangatic plants Regions: West Bengal.
Soils mostly alluvial are prone to floods.
4. Middle Gangatic plans Region: Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh. High rainfall, 39% irrigation, cropping
intensity 142%.
5. Upper Gangatic Plains Region: North region of
U.P. (32 districts). Irrigated by canal & tube wells
good ground water.
6. Trans Gangatic plains Region: Punjab, Haryana
Union territory of Delhi, Highest sown area and
highly irrigated.
7. Eastern Plateaus & Hills Region: Chota Nagpur,
Garhjat hills, M.P, W. Banghelkhand plateau,
Orissa. Soils shallow to medium sloppy,
undulating Irrigation tank & tube wells.
8. Central Plateau & hills Region: Madhya Pradesh
9. Western Plateau & hills Region: Sahyadry. M.P.
Rainfall 904 mm, Sown area 65%, forest 11%,
irrigation 12.4%.
10. Southern Plateau & Hills Region: Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka. Typically semi and
zone, Dry land farming 81%, cropping Intensity
11%.
11. East coast plains & Hills Region: Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Soils, alluvial, coastal
sand.
12. West coast plains & Hills Region: Sourashtra,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, T. Nadu. Variety
of cropping pattern, rainfall & soil types.
13. Gujarat plains & Hills Region: Gujarat (19
districts). Low rainfall arid zone. Irrigation 32%
well and tube wells.
14. Western Dry Region: Rajasthan (9 districts) Hot.
Sandy desert, rainfallerratic, high evaporation.
scanty vegetation, famine, draughts.
15. The Island Region: Eastern Andaman, Nicobar,
Western Lakshdweep. Typical equatorial, rainfall
3000 mm (9 months) forest zone undulating.
Crop Productivity: features
Rice
• Rice covers about 23% of gross cropped area.
• Climatic Conditions- Rainfall more than 125 cm.,
clayey loam is best, tolerate acidic as well as
alkali soil, average monthly temperature should
not fall below 21°C as in Orissa, West Bengal,
Bihar, Assam & South India.
• Area- Coastal India (south of Bombay in the
western coast), eastern India, Chattisgarh plain,
Wainganga valley, alluvial plain of West Bengal,
Mahanadi Delta, eastern Assam valley, Cauvery
delta.
Wheat
• Climatic Condition- Cool climate, 30 cm. rainfall
during growing period, clayey alluvial is best
suitable, raised mainly in area of rainfall annually
less than 100cm.
[3]
• India is not ideally suited for wheat cultivation
due to short & relatively warm and dry winter
season. In Punjab best favourable climate exists.
It requires 5 to 5 ½ months to ripen but in south
the growing period is shorter.
Barley
• Climatic conditions for its growth are the same
as for wheat. However, it can well thrive even in
more cooler climate so its potential area is much
wider. But its yield is not as of wheat so its
percentage contribution in total food grain
production is not much.
• It is useful for production of malt which again is
used for brewing beer and other alcoholic
products.
Maize
• Climatic Condition- area of 4 ½ months free
from frost, temperature during growing period -
21°- 27°C, but should not fall below 13°C,
rainfall - 50-100 cm, well drained loamy soil rich
in N2, grown as kharif crop in all the States,
• Area- mainly north of a line connecting Surat
with Calcutta (excluding Kutch, West Rajasthan
and Ladakh), in the North East (Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram), northern districts
of Andhra and adjoining districts of Maharashtra
& Bastar (M.P.).
Jowar/Sarghum
• Climatic Condition - Rainfall below 100 cm,
needs 30 cm rain during growing season, mean
monthly temperature - 20°C-33°C, clayey deep
regur and alluvium for better yield.
• Area - On Indian Plateau west of 80°E meridian;
in Maharashtra Plateau region it is the most
important cereal, south of Pune 80%
agriculturable land under it; in Andhra,
Maharashtra, Karnataka as Rabi and as Kharif
elsewhere.
Pulse
• Kharif crop- Arhar/Tur, Moong, Urad, Moth,
etc. throughout India.
• Rabi crop- Gram, Peas, Khesari, Masur, Urad,
etc. in North India.
• Pulses occupies 13% of total Indian cropped area
while 90% area under it is rainfed.
• Gram, Peas & Arhar together occupies about 50%
of area under all pulses.
[ 4 ]
• Kharif pulses are grown more in T.N., Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Punjab.
• Rabi pulses are grown mainly in MP, UP, Haryana
and West Bengal.
Oil Seeds
A. Groundnut : India is the leading producer (1/3
of total world production) and area-wise first in
world.
• Climatic Conditions- Highly susceptible to frost
so not grown in winter season in north of Tropic
of Cancer, well drained sandy loam is more
suitable, eastern limit in Deccan Plateau is 100
cm Isohyet.
• Area- raised as “kharif ” throughout India but as
“Rabi” in T.N., Karnataka, Andhra, Orissa;
leading producers are Deccan Plateau & Gujarat
state; Kharif crop is 90-95% of total area.
B. Rapeseed and Mustard
• Area-wise India ranks 2nd in world.
• Climate- Like wheat and gram they thrive only
in cool climate and frost damages it; grown as
Rabi crop.
• UP & Rajasthan are the chief producer and
together accounts 60% of the country production.
C. Sesamum/Til
• Accounts for 1/3 of world production & areawise
first in world.
• Climate - Raised throughout India; as Kharif in
North India and as Rabi in South India, average
monthly temperature - 21°C.
D. Linseed
• India accounts 10% of world production & area
wise stands first in world.
• Grown in winter as Rabi crop north of 16° N.
• Production areas MP, UP, Maharastra, Bihar,
Rajasthan.
E. Castor seed
• India contributes 20% world production & area
wise first in world.
• Climate- generally raised as a mixed crop in
tropical & sub-tropical climate; rainfall - 50-
75cm.; light soil; in India all area under castor-
seed is rainfed.
• Raised as Kharif in North India where winters
are cool and as Rabi in South India.
F. Niger Seed
• Area-wise first in world; used for making soap.
• Area- Orissa, M.P., Bihar, Maharashtra.
G. Sun flower
• Area - wise first in the world; raised as Rabi
crop.
• Area - Maharashtra alone contributes 75% of
total production.
H. Cotton Seed
• Used in chemical industries and as lubricant.
• Area - Gujarat (25%), Maharashtra (17%), Punjab
(15%), Karnataka (9%), Andhra (11%) Haryana
(7%), T.N. (8%)
Cotton
• India contributes 10% of world production.
• Climatic Condition- A sub-tropical crop;
temperature - above 21° C & 200 frost free days;
rainfall - 75c.m. during growing season (grown
mainly in area of 50-100 c.m. rainfall); soil- regur
in rain-fed area & heavy alluvial in irrigated area.
• Area- mainly in area west of 80°E (excluding
arid West Rajasthan West Punjab & Haryana,
Ganganagar (Rajasthan), South - West UP, South
East - Rajasthan, black cotton soil of Malwa
plateau Bihar, Nagpur plain, Kathiawar & Gujarat
plain, Northern-Karnataka & neighbouring
Andhra and Maharashtra, Western T.N.
• Almost whole of the cotton is picked by the end
of December, before winter frost.
• 16% of total area under cotton is irrigated. More
than 90% of cotton land of Punjab, Haryana and
U.P. are irrigated. Yield is high in rain-fed areas
as well as irrigated areas. Plateau of peninsular
India is a rain-fed area so low yield without
irrigation.
Jute
• India ranks 1st in both area and production,
however, Bangladesh stands 1st in export.
• Climatic condition-  rainfall between 150-300 cm,
humidity over 80% , temperature between 24°C
& 35°C during growing period, preferred to land
subjected to annual flooding, plenty of water is
required for cultivation of this crop and for
processing it after the harvesting, it occupies the
field for 3½ months.
• Area- Sown in March and May in lower
Brahmaputra valley, West Bengal Plain, Mahanadi
Delta & NE- Bihar. Mesta is produced in Andhra,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, Karnataka, West
Bengal, MP, T.N. and NE States.
Tobacco
• India is the 3rd largest producer with 2nd largest
growing area, and stands 5th in Flavoueed Virginia
tobacco production.
• Climatic Conditions - In tropical and sub- tropical
area with rainfall about 60 cm. during growing
period, 80% humidity is most suitable, well
drained sandy loam rich in potash is most
favourable.
• Area- Production is concentrated in the Ganga
basin of N. Bihar, Godavari & Krishna delta of
Andhra, Madurai, Belgaum, Baroda, Satara and
Kaira near Mumbai.
• In production Gujarat ranks first followed by A.P.,
U.P., Karnataka and Bihar.
Sugarcane
• India has the largest area in sugarcane production
in the world and also leads in production.
• Climatic Conditions-  Temperature - 25°C, hot
dry wind is inimical, annual rainfall from 75 to
100 cm plus limited irrigation, well drained
raddish loamy soil rich in N2, Ca and Phosphorus
are essential for good yield, cool dry climate
during the maturing period promotes the sucrose
content, occupies the field for 10 to 12 month.
• Area- South India has advantage in sugarcane as
it reflects the best suited tropical conditions and
a longer period of crushing almost twice over
the north.
• North India produces the sugarcane in sub-tropical
condition. Main area in Ganga plain west of the
longitude of Patna and to the north of Yamuna
contributing 50% of the total cane production in
India.
• Cost of manufacturing sugar in India is high
mainly due to low yield and short crushing period
as in N-Indian plain. Its cultivation in S. India is
confined to those area where irrigation is available.
In Andhra, T.N., Karnataka, and Maharashtra
100% of the area under sugarcane is irrigated.
[5]
• North India produces 70% of the total
production.
Tea
• India accounts about 30% of global output
followed by China (21.5%), Sri Lanka (9.5%) and
Kenya (8%). However, Sri Lanka has overtaken
India in terms of volume of export but in value
term of export India is ahead.
• South India’s productivity is highest in the world
specially in Nilgiri of T.N.
• Climatic Conditions- Hot climate with
tempetature 21°C-32°C, rainfall more than 150
cm. Most suited soil is deep loamy rich in humus,
virgin forest soil with very little calcium but
enough of iron are best suited to tea.
• Area- NE- India contributes about 80% of the
total country production while the south India
contributes 20% of India’s total output.
a) Assam- On flat and alluvial lands on either side
of Brahmputra river and in the region south of
Assam hills like in Cachar. These tea have poor
flavour but good liquor.
b) W.Bengal- In Darjeeling (3000-4000 ft hight) and
Jalpaiguri. Darjeeling tea has good flavour and so
fetches high price.
c) South India- Annamalai Hills; Hassan &
Chikmangalur districts of Karnataka, Kottayam,
Quilon & Trivandrum districts of Kerala. All
these production areas are situated at the
elevation of 760 to 1520 meter above the sea
level.
d) Dehradoon district of UP & Dharmasala in
Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh also
produces some amount of tea.
e) Kolkata and Cochin - Chief tea exporting port.
However the tea export from India faces the
problems of over supply in the world market,
increased cost of production and increasing
competition from Sri Lanka and East African
countries. The new comers in the field of export
like E. Africa, Argentina and other traditional
exporting countries like Taiwan, Japan and Sri
Lanka are gradually replacing Indian tea in the
world market.
Coffee
• The first plantation in India was started on the
Malawar coasts. English planters commenced
coffee planting industry with large estates near
Chikmangalur in 1826.
[ 6 ]
• India contributes 4% of total world production
of which 70% is reserved for export.
• Arabica & Robusta are the two main varietes of
coffee grown in India accounting for 49% and
51% of area under cultivation respectively.
• Area- Coffee is largely grown on the eastern
sheltered slopes of Western Ghats near 15°N
latitude in Kerala, Karnataka and T.N.
Spices
• Since the ancient time, India has been holding an
important position in production and export of
various types of spices. In India about 60 kinds
of spices are grown though the most important
species are - Chillies, Cardomom, Black-Pepper,
Turmeric, Ginger, Large cardamom, Cumin,
Coriander, Fenu­greek, Garlic, Saffron, Celery,
etc.
• About 95% of total production is consumed in
the domestic market.
• Indian share in trade of spices is of about 27%
in volume and 9% in terms of value and earns
substantial amount of foreign exchange.
• Indian spices export in value terms - Black pepper
>Chilli Turmeric > Coriander> Ginger >
Cardamom.
Chillies : A.P, T.N, Mahrashtra, Karnataka.
Turmeric : Eastern coast specially Andhra, Orissa,
T.N.
Cordamom : India is the largest producer and exporter
of cardamom. Idukki district of Kerela has the highest
concentration and Kerela is also largest producer.
• Area wise Kerala stands first followed by
Karnataka and T.N.
• Production wise Kerala also is on the top followed
by Karnataka and T.N.
Black-pepper : India is the second largest producer
after Indonesia.
• Kerala is the largest producer followed by
Karnataka, T.N. and Andaman.
Ginger : Kerala is the most important producer (70%).
Other procucing States are H.P., M.P., Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Rajasthan & W. Bengal.
Arecanut : Meghalaya stands first in the production
followed by Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Assam, Maharashtra and T.N.
• India produces 75% of world turmeric and 65%
world ginger.
FRUITS
• India holds the first position in fruit production,
Brazil holds the second position.
Mango : Largest acreage (42%) and production (40%).
• Some important varieties are Alphanso of
Maharashtra, Bangnapalli of Andhra,Dashehari
& Langra of UP Malda of W. Bengal.
• Largest hectereage of mango is in UP. Other
important producing regions are Bihar (second
largest producer) A.P., West Bengal, Orissa, T.N.,
Coastal Maharashtra.
Banana : India produces 11% of world banana, second
and largest producer after Brazil.
• Main producing areas are T.N. (Tiruchi),
Maharashtra (Jalgaon), Gujarat, M.P., S. Kerala.
Grape : Known as “Anab-e-Shahi”, its productivity
is highest in India (85 tonnes/ha).
• Main producing area are Coorg district of
Karnataka; Wynad in Kerala; Nilgiri in T.N.;
Khasi, Jaintia and Lushai hills in Meghalaya;
Pune, Nasik, Sholapur, Songli Ahmed nagar
district of Maharashtra; Himachal Pradesh and
Andhra.
Citrus : Maharashtra cover 20% of total citrus area,
Nagpur Mandarins is considerd to be best in the world.
Other main districts are Amravati, Wardha and
Vidarbha.
Apple : Among temperate fruits, it alone accounts
for more than 50% of total production. NW
Himalayan region covers 95% of total area and 85%
of total production.
Sapota : India holds the first position in the
production.
• High productivity is achieved in Karnataka
followed by Maharashtra.
Glimpse of Indian Horticulture
• India is endowed with a remarkably heterogeneous
area characterized by a great diversity of agro
climatic zones, allowing for production of a
variety of horticultural crops - fruits, vegetables,
flowers, spices, plantation crops, root and tuber
crops, and medicinal and aromatic crops.
• Globally, second largest producer of fruits and
vegetables.
• Largest producer of mango, banana, coconut,
cashew, papaya, pomegranate etc.
• Largest producer and exporter of spices.
• Ranks first in productivity of grapes, banana,
cassava, peas, papaya, etc.
• Export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables in
term of value is 14% and of processed fruits and
vegetables is 16.27%.
Livestock Resources
• India has the largest livestock population in the
world. It accounts for 57% of the buffalo
population of the world and 20% of the cattle
population. According to the Livestock Census
India has about 210 million cattle (42% bullock,
32% cows and 26% young livestock) and 84
million buffaloes.
A. Cattle
• India has about 20 per cent of the world’s cattle
population. These animals are the backbone of
the country’s agriculture and have significant
contribution in rural economy. Cow provides
nutritious milk, while bullocks as draught animals
have important contribution in agricultural
operations.
• At the state level, Madhya Pradesh has the largest
number of cattle (14%), followed by U.P. (12.5%),
Bihar (11%), West Bengal (8.5%), Orissa (6.8%),
and Karnataka (6.5%).
• The cattle may be classified in the following two
categories:
(i) Milch Breeds : Gir (Saurashtra-Gujarat,
Rajasthan, M.P. and Maharashtra), Red Sindhi,
Sahiwal and Deoni are the best milk producing
breeds. The Sahiwal original Montgomery are
found in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi. The Deonibreed
is low yielding but hardy for draught purposes.
Indian cows yield about 150 kg/year while
buffalo yield 500 kg/year.
(ii) Draught Breeds: Nagori (Native Jodhpur),
Bachaur (Bhagalpur), Kankatha (U.P.), Malwai,
Khairgarh, Killari (Sholapur), Bargur, Panwar
(Combatore), and Siri (Darjeeling, Sikkim).
B. Buffaloes
• Buffaloes produce more milk than cows in India.
The main breeds of buffalo are the Murrah
(Rohtak, Hissar, and Gurgaon), Bhadrawati,
Jaffarabadi, Surati, Mehsana, Nagpuri, and the
Nili-Ravi.
[7]
Cattle and Buffalo Development Programmes
The central cattle breeding farms have been set up at
Suratgarh (Rajasthan), Dhamroad (Gujarat), Alamadi
(T.N.), Similigudi (Orissa), Adarshnagar (UP). These
farms are developing better breeds of cattle and
buffaloes.
Problems of Dairying
1. Adverse climate.
2. Shortage of good fodder.
3. Poor breeds, low yields.
4. Problems of collection and marketing.
C. Sheep
• India is the 6th largest sheep rearing country in
the world. Most of the sheep in India are however,
of poor quality.
• About 55% of the total population of the country
is found in Rajasthan. Among other states,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, U.P.
Maharashtra, J&K, Bihar and M.P. have a
substantial proportion of the sheep population.
D. Goats
• About 100 million, Bihar and Jharkhand lead all
other states in goat population, followed by
Rajasthan, U.P., M.P., Maharashtra, W. Bengal.
• In peninsular India desi goat is popular. Others
are Chamba, Mohair (Kashmir) and Barbari (U.P.).
Agricultural Revolutions
A. White Revolution
• A package programme adopted in India to
increase the production of milk is known as White
Revolution.
• White revolution in India was started in 1970,
when the National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) was established to organize dairy
development through co-operative societies.
• Dairy development through co-operative societies
was first established in the state of Gujarat.
• The co-operative societies are owned and
managed by the rural milk producers. The co-
operatives, apart from financial help also provide
consultancy.
[ 8 ]
• These co-operative societies were most successful
in the Anand district of Gujarat.
• After 1970 the Anand Model was replicated in
other districts and states of the country.
• In 1970, the National Dairy Development Board
started the Operation Flood which is considered
to be the largest dairy development programme
in the world.
Objective
• The main objective of these cooperative societies
is the procurement, storage and transport of milk.
• Production of a wide varieties of milk products
and their marketing management.
• The societies also provide superior breeds of
cattle, health service, artificial insemination and
veterinary treatment.
Phase of the White Revolution
• Phase I (1970-1981) : During this period, the
dairy development programme was set up in ten
states to provide milk to the cosmopolitan cities
(Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, etc.) The
Dairy co-operative societies were set up in 1300
villages with a membership of 15 lakhs.
• Phase II (1981-85) : During this phase the dairy
development programme was extended to the
states of Karnataka, M.P. and Rajasthan. The
Dairy Co-operative Societies were set up in 35,000
villages and the membership exceeded 36 lakhs.
• Phase III (1985-2000) : The number of co-
operative societies went up by 73000 with a
membership of 10 million.
Achievements
• The milk production that was 17 million tones
in 1951 rose to 140 million tones in 2013-14.
• Reduction in the import of milk and milk
product.
• The per capita milk availability per day at present
is 290 gms as against only 100 gms before the
White Revolution.
• The small and marginal farmers and the landless
workers have been especially benefited.
Problems and Prospects
• Collection of milk from remote areas and small
dairy farmer is quite expensive.
• Unhygienic production.
• Inadequate marketing facilities.
• Inferior breeds of cattle.
B. Blue Revolution
• Blue revolution means the adoption of a package
programme to increase the production of fish,
etc.
• The Blue Revolution in India was started during
the 5th Five Year Plan (1970) when the Central
Government sponsored the Fish Farmers
Development Agencies (FFDA).
• Subsequently, the Brackish Water Fish Farms
Development Agencies were set up to develop
aquaculture.
• As a result of Blue Revolution the production
of fish has gone up form 6 lakh tones in 1950 to
10 million tonnes at present.
• The fresh water fish has also gone up five times
after the Blue Revolution.
• To enhance the production of fish now bio-
fertilizers and processed organic wastes are being
applied in ponds, lakes, backwaters, rivers and
coastal lakes.
Problems
• Inadequate information about the environment
(temperature, etc.) of sea, lakes, water bodies.
• Unpredictable nature of Monsoon.
• Inadequacy of research facilities.
• Problems of marketing, storage and
transportation.
• Pollution in water bodies, river, lakes, ponds and
coastal seas.
C. Green Revolultion:
Elements involved:
• Continuing expansion of farming areas;
• Double-cropping in the existing farmland; and
• Using seeds with improved genetics.
Positive Impacts:
• This established India as one of the world’s
biggest agricultural producers.
• India became an exporter of various food grains
around that time.
• Growth of local manufacturing units to produce
more fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals.
• Construction of dams boosted industrial growth,
created jobs and improved the quality of life of
the people in villages.
• India paid back loans it had taken from the World
Bank and its affiliates. This improved India’s
creditworthiness in the eyes of the lending
agencies.
• Developed countries, especially Canada, asked
the Indian government to supply them with
farmers, experienced in the methods of the Green
Revolution. These people remitted part of their
incomes India. This added, albeit modestly, to
India’s foreign exchange earnings.
• There was creation of massive employment
opportunities.
Negative Impacts:
• Sluggish increase in Productivity: There are signs
of stagnation in the increase of productivity in
major foodgrain, despite enhanced application of
inputs.
• Partial Revolution : GR remained confined to
only a few crops, the productivity of coarse grains
like Bajra, millets, maize and pulses has declined.
• High cost of cultivation: The cost of cultivation
including fertilizer consumption, the consumption
of pesticides, cost of irrigation has gone up many
fold.
• Regional Disparity: Green revolution being the
activity of pro rich farmess confined only to the
economically developed states within a region.
• Environment Deterioration: The user of
fertilizers and pesticides have polluted both
surface water and groundwater sources. Erection
of dams have created inundation of forests and
monuments, increased susceptibility to
earthquakes.
[9]
 List of other agricultural revolutions
Black Revolution
Golden Fiber Revolution
Grey Revolution
Pink Revolution
Red Revolution
Round Revolution
Silver Fiber Revolution
Silver Revolution
White Revolution
Yellow Revolution
Evergreen Revolution
Petroleum production
Jute production
Fertilizer production
Meat & Poultry
Tomato production
Potato production
Cotton production
Egg/Poultry production
Milk/Dairy production (In India - Operation Flood)
Oil Seeds production
Overall development of Agriculture

Problems faced by agricultural sector f) Weak Natural Resources Management:

a) Poor composition of public expenditures:
• Inadequate productivity–enhancing investments
in agricultural research, investments in rural
infrastructure, and the health and education of
the farmers.
b) Over-regulation of domestic agricultural trade:
• Over-regulation of domestic trade has increased
costs, price risks and uncertainty, undermining
the sector’s competitiveness.
c) Government interventions in labor, land, and
credit markets:
• This is constraining the rapid growth of the rural
non-farm sector.
d) Weak Framework for Sustainable Water
Management and Irrigation:
• Inequitable allocation of water.
• Deteriorating irrigation infrastructure.
e) Inadequate Access to Land and Finance:
• Stringent land regulations discourage rural
investments.
• Computerization of land records has brought to
light institutional weaknesses.
• Rural poor have little access to credit.
• A purely conservation approach to natural
resources management does not work effectively
and does little to reduce poverty.
g) Weak delivery of basic services in rural areas
• A highly centralized bureaucracy with low
accountability and inefficient use of public funds
limit their impact on poverty.
Recent initiatives by the government
1. Mera Gaon, Mera Gaurav
• This scheme is being launched involving
agricultural experts of agricultural universities and
ICAR institutes for effective and deeper reach
of scientific farming to the villages.
• A group of experts will be associated with one
particular village to create awareness and adoption
of new technologies including farm investment,
loans, availability of inputs and marketing.
• All the scientists from ICAR and agricultural
universities will participate in this initiative.
2. Krishi Dak
• IARI initiated this novel scheme in 20 districts
in which postmen supplied seeds of improved
varieties of crops to the farmers in far-flung areas.
• Owing to its success and popularity, this scheme
is being extended in 100 districts of 14 states
with the association of Krishi Vigyan Kendras.

[10]
• This will provide improved seed to farmers at
their doorstep.
3. Soil Health Card
• Soil Health Cards are necessary to ensure that
only requisite nutrients are applied in the soil in
a balanced manner to enhance productivity of
specific crops in a sustainable manner.
• Values on soil parameters such as pH, EC, N, P,
K, S, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu & B.
• Recommendation on appropriate dosage of
fertilizer application based on test values and
requirement of crop, use of organic manures and
soil amendments to acidic/alkaline/sodic soils.
4. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojna (PKVY)
• Aim of the project is to maximize the utilization
of natural resources through eco-friendly
cultivation.
• Organic farming is a method of farming system
which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and
raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil
alive and in good health by use of organic wastes
(crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes)
and other biological materials along with
beneficial microbes (bio-fertilizers) to release
nutrients to crops for increased sustainable
production in an eco friendly pollution free
environment.
5. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
(PMKSY)
• GOI had announced ‘Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana’ with the motto of water to
every farm ‘Har Khet Ko Paani’. The scheme is
aimed at irrigating the field of every farmer and
improving water use efficiency to provide “Per
Drop More Crop’’.
6. Promotion of National Market through Agri
Tech Infrastructure Fund (ATIF)
• Central Sector Scheme for Promotion of National
Agricultural Market through Agri-Tech
Infrastructure Fund (ATIF) for Rs.200 crores to
be implemented during 2014-15 to 2016-17.
• The Scheme envisages initiation of e-marketing
platform at the national level and will support
creation of infrastructure to enable e-marketing
in 642 regulated markets across the country.
• For creation of a National Market, a common
platform across all States is necessary. It is,
therefore, proposed that a Service Provider be
engaged centrally who would build, operate and
maintain the e-platform on PPP (Build, Own,
Operate, Transfer - BOOT) model. This platform
would be customized/configured to address the
variations in different states.
• As an initiative of deregulation, States have been
advised by the Government of India to bring
fruits and vegetables out of the ambit of APMC
Act. In pursuance of this advisory, 12 States have,
so far, either de-regulated the marketing of fruits
and vegetables or have exempted from levying
of market fee.
7. Agriculture credit to RIDF
• The RIDF was set up by the Government in
1995-96 for financing ongoing rural Infrastructure
projects. The Fund is maintained by the National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD). Domestic commercial banks
contribute to the Fund to the extent of their
shortfall in stipulated priority sector lending to
agriculture. The main objective of the Fund is to
provide loans to State Governments and State-
owned corporations to enable them to complete
ongoing rural infrastructure projects.
8. MUDRA Bank
• The Finance Minister has proposed to create a
Micro Units Development Refinance Agency
(MUDRA) Bank, with a corpus of Rs. 20,000
crore, and credit guarantee corpus of 3,000 crore,
which will refinance Micro-Finance Institutions
through a Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana.
• Priority will be given to SC/ST enterprises in
lending. MUDRA Bank will operate through
regional level financing institutions who in turn
will connect with last mile lenders such as MFIs,
Small Banks, Primary Credit Cooperative
Societies, Self Help Groups (SHGs), NBFC
(other than MFI) and other lending institutions.
• MUDRA Bank will refinance Micro-Finance
Institutions through a Pradhan Mantri Mudra
Yojana (PMMY). In lending, priority will be given
to SC/ST enterprises. These measures will greatly
increase the confidence of young, educated or
skilled workers who would not be able to aspire
to become first generation entrepreneurs; existing
small businesses, too will be able to expand their
activities. Since the MUDRA Bank will be set
up through an enactment of law and it will take
some time.
[11]
9. Rashtriya Gokul Mission
• India ranks first among the world’s milk producing
Nations and milk production peaked at 137.97
million tonnes in 2013-14.
• India has the largest bovine population in the
world. The bovine genetic resource of India is
represented by 37 well recognized indigenous
Breeds of cattle and 13 breeds of buffaloes.
Indigenous bovines are robust and resilient and
are particularly suited to the climate and
environment of their respective breeding tracts.
• Rashtriya Gokul Mission, a project under the
National Program for Bovine Breeding and Dairy
Development is being launched with the objective
of conserving and developing indigenous breeds
in a focused and scientific manner.
• The potential to enhance the productivity of the
indigenous breeds through professional farm
management and superior nutrition, as well as
gradation of indigenous bovine germplasm will
be done with an outlay of Rs.550 crores.
10. Participatory Guarantee System
• Participatory Guarantee System is a process of
certifying organic products, which ensures
agriculture production process in accordance with
the standards laid down for organic products, and
that desired quality has been maintained.
• This is exhibited in the form of documented logo
or a statement. In order to promote domestic
organic market growth and also to enable small
and marginal farmers to have easy access to
organic certification, a decentralised organic
farming certification system called Participatory
Guarantee System - India (PGS-India) is
implemented by the Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India. It is cost-effective, farmer-
friendly and hassle-free. It is outside the
framework of third party system of certification,
which is a pre-requisite to enter export market
of organic produce.
• It is a quality assurance initiative that is locally
relevant with active participation of stakeholders,
including producers/farmers, traders and
consumers in certification system. This group
certification system is supported by
Paramaparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
scheme. It, in a way, supports domestic demand
for organic produce and trains farmers in
document management and adherence to other
requirements of certification process and prepares
[12]
them to opt for third party certification if they
wishes to go for export.
11. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
• The main motto of this new crop insurance
scheme is to provide a more efficient insurance
support to the farmers of the country and
become a financial support to thousands of
farmers.
• There will be a uniform premium of only 2% to
be paid by farmers for all Kharif crops and 1.5%
for all Rabi crops. In case of annual commercial
and horticultural crops, the premium to be paid
by farmers will be only 5%. The premium rates
to be paid by farmers are very low and balance
premium will be paid by the Government to
provide full insured amount to the farmers
against crop loss on account of natural calamities.
• There is no upper limit on Government subsidy.
Even if balance premium is 90%, it will be borne
by the Government.
• Earlier, there was a provision of capping the
premium rate which resulted in low claims being
paid to farmers. This capping was done to limit
Government outgo on the premium subsidy. This
capping has now been removed and farmers will
get claim against full sum insured without any
reduction.
• The use of technology will be encouraged to a
great extent. Smart phones will be used to capture
and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the
delays in claim payment to farmers. Remote
sensing will be used to reduce the number of
crop cutting experiments.
Impact of Climate change on agriculture
• More extreme temperature and precipitation can
prevent crops from growing.
• Extreme events, especially floods and droughts,
can harm crops and reduce yields.
• A shift in climate and agricultural zones towards
the poles.
• Changes in production patterns due to higher
temperature.
• A boost in agricultural productivity due to
increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• Increased vulnerability of the landless and the
poor.
• Many weeds, pests and fungi thrive under warmer
temperatures, wetter climates, and increased CO2
levels.
Sustainable agriculture
• Agriculture is sensitive to short-term changes in
weather and to seasonal, annual and long term
variations in climate.
• Sustainable agriculture aims to produce healthful
food without compromising future generations’
ability to do the same.
Benefits of sustainable agriculture:
1. Environmental Preservation
• No use of toxic chemical pesticides, synthetic
fertilizers, genetically modified seeds.
• Devoid of practices that degrade soil, water, or
other natural resources.
• Uses techniques such as crop rotation,
conservation tillage, and pasture-based livestock
husbandry. 
• Sustainable farms protect biodiversity and foster
the development and maintenance of healthy
ecosystems.
2. Protection of Public Health
• Absence of harmful chemicals in the food
products adds a high degree safety angle to the
consumers.

• Abstaining from chemicals is a factor to good
health of farm workers and the communities.
• Rejecting the use of non therapeutic antibiotics
or arsenic-based growth promoters in feed animals
and fish farming saves the humanity from the
dangerous menace of antibiotics resistance.
• Careful, responsible management of livestock
waste; sustainable farmers also protect humans
from exposure to pathogens, toxins, and other
hazardous pollutants.
3. Sustaining Vibrant Communities
• Has ability to remain economically viable.
• Providing farmers, farm workers, food processors,
and others employed in the food system with a
livable wage, and safe, fair working conditions. 
• Sustainable farms also bolster local and regional
economies, creating good jobs and building strong
communities.
4. Upholding Animal Welfare
• Sustainable farmers and ranchers treat animals
with care and respect.
• Livestock husbandry practices implemented that
protect animals’ health and wellbeing.
• Livestock being raised on pasture, animals are
able to move freely, engage in instinctive
behaviors, consume a natural diet, and avoid the
stress and illness associated with confinement.
[13]

INDUSTRY
Industry implies the transformation of existent
materials into something new, into goods that are
used as end-products themselves, or are utilized to
manufacture more goods.
Industries can be classified into several groups. A
brief account is given below:
1. On the basis of strength of Labour:
(i) Large-scale Industries
(ii) Medium-scale Industries
(iii) Small-scale Industries
2. On the basis of Raw Material and Finished
Goods:
(i) Heavy Industries: Industries, which use heavy
and bulky raw materials and produce products
of the same category, are called heavy industries.
Iron and steel industry presents a good example
of heavy industries.
(ii) Light Industries. The light industries use light
raw materials and produce similar finished
products. Textile industry, electronics, fans,
sewing machines are light industries.
3. On the basis of Ownership:
Since the beginning of the planned development of
Indian economy in 1951, industries are divided into
the following three classes:
(i) Private Sector Industries: Industries owned by
individuals or firms such as Bajaj Auto or TISCO
situated at Jamshedpur are called private sector
industries.
(ii) Public Sector Industries: Industries owned by
the state and its agencies, like Bharat heavy
Electricals Ltd. or Bhilai Steel Plant or Durgapur
Steel Plant and Integral Coach Factory at
Kapurthala are public sector industries.
Supplementary Notes
(iii) Joint Sector Industries: Industries owned jointly
by the private firms and the state or its agencies,
such as Gujarat alkalies Ltd. or Oil India Ltd.,
fall in the group of joint sector industries.
4. On the basis of source of Raw Material:
(i) Agro-based Industries: Agro-based industries are
those industries which obtain raw material from
agriculture. Cotton textile, jute textile, silk, sugar,
vegetable oil and paper industry are representative
industries of agro-based group of industries.
(ii) Mineral-based Industries: The industries that
receive raw material primarily from minerals such
as iron and steel, aluminium and cement
industries fall in this category.
(iii) Pastoral-based Industries: These industries
depend upon animals for their raw material. Hide,
skin, bone, horn, shoes, dairy, etc., are some of
the pastoral-based industries.
(iv) Forest-based Industries: The industries which use
forest products as their raw materials are known
as forest-based industries. Paper, card-board, lac,
rayon, resin, basket, etc. are examples of forest
based industries:
5. Miscellaneous Industries:
Industries can also be classified into the following
categories:
(i) Village industries: Village industries are located
in villages and primarily cater to the needs of
the rural people. They usually employ local
machinery such as oil extractor, flour-grinding and
agricultural implements.
(ii) Cottage Industries: Industries which artisans set
up in their own houses, work with wood, cane,
brass, stone, etc., are called cottage industries.
Handloom Khadi and leather work at the artisans’
house fall in this category.
[1]
(iii) Consumer Industries: Consumer industries
convert raw materials or primary products into
commodities directly used by the people. Textile
industry, bakeries, etc., are some of the consumer
industries.
(iv) Basic Industries: Industries, on which depend
many other industries for their manufacturing
processes, are called basic industries. Iron and
steel industry and power generating industry are
included in this category.
(v) Capital-intensive Industries: Industries requiring
huge investments are called capital-intensive
industries. Iron and steel, cement and aluminium
are capital-intensive industries.
(vi) Labour-intensive Industries: Such industries
which require huge labour force for running them
are called labour-intensive industries. In these
industries, labour is more important than capital.
Shoe- manufacturing and bidi making, etc. are
included in these industries.
Iron and Steel Industry
Locational Pattern:
• The location of steel industry is generally oriented
to one or the other raw material sources, mainly
iron ore or coal.
• However, recent technological developments in
transport as well as processing, the use of scrap
as raw material and agglomeration economies
make market location, especially coastal,
advantageous as well.
• The steel manufacturing centers all the world over,
exhibit different sorts of locational orientation,
viz,
a) Near coal deposits or iron ore mining areas,
especially for inland location;
b) Near the major steel consuming centers; or
c) Sea port locations.
• Distribution
a) TISCO: Jamshedpur (Singhbhum district,
Jharkhand),
• Iron-ore - Guruma­hisani, Noamundi.
• Manganese- Jada (Keonjhar).
• Limestone- Sundargarh, Birmitrapur.
• Coal- Jharia, Western Bokaro fields.
• Water Subarnarakha and Kharkai rivers.
[ 2 ]
• Process- Open-Hearth furnance for pig-iron &
steel, Electric- furnance for stainless steel.
• Transport - on calcutta- Bombay rail line.
b) Other Major Iron Ore Plants in India
• IISCO (Burnpur, Hirapur, Kalti)
• VISL (Bhadravati): (1923) on Bhadra River in
Karnataka, Shimoga district
• HSL- Bhilai: Largest plant in India established
with Soviet assistance in 1959 in Raipur district
of M.P.
• HSL- Rourkela: established in 1965 with German
assistance in Sundargarh district of Orissa.
• HSL - Durgapur: established in 1962 with British
assistance in Burdwan district of West- Bengal.
• BSL-Bokro: established in 1972 with Soviet
collaboration in Hazaribag district on the
confluence of Bokaro and Damodar rivers.
• Salem: Tamil Nadusalem : Tamil Nadu
• Vishakhpatnam: first integrated plant in the
coastal area
Aluminum Industry
• Aluminium Industry in India is one of the leading
industries in the Indian economy. The main
operations of the India aluminium industry is
mining of ores, refining of the ore, casting,
alloying, sheet, and rolling into foils. India is the
sixth largest producer of bauxite and ninth largest
producer of alumina in the world.
• Locational Factors:
a) Aluminium is a raw material oriented industry as
it grossly weight loosing.
b) Bauxite is the basic raw material in the aluminium
manufacturing process. Bauxite is converted into
alumina in alumina refineries.
c) Due to the high quality of bauxite and close
proximity between bauxite mines and alumina
refineries, the cost of bauxite to Indian producer
is one-third of that of global producers.
d) Other raw materials used in the manufacturing
process are calcine, petroleum, coke, caustic soda,
aluminium fluoride, fuel oil, steam coal and
anthracite coal.
e) The reduction of bauxite into alumina requires
heavy amount of energy. Therefore, beside
 nearness to bauxite deposits, cheap availability
of power is the major consideration in the
location of this industry.
• Major Production Centers
a) Korba - (Bharat Al. Co. Ltd): Bauxite -
Amarkantak - Phula- Kapahara region, Electricity-
Korba Thermal Power Plant. Transport - Harwa-
Nagpur Rail-line.
b) Renukoot (Hindustan All. Co. Ltd): set up in
1988 as one of the biggest unit. Bauxite - Bagni
Hills (Bihar) and Amarkanatak Mts. Electricity -
Rihand Dam.
c) Belgaum (Indian Al. Co. Ltd.): Bauxite -
Chandgad, (Kohlapur Dist). Electricity - Sharavati
Hep.
d) Alwaye (Indian Al. Co. Ltd.): both convert
alumina into Aluminium metal. Alumina is
produced at Muri from bauxite available at Bagru
Hills.
e) Mettur (Madras Al. Co. Ltd.) T. N.: Bauxite -
Sheravoy Hill. Electricity - Mettur HEP.
f) Ratnagiri (Bharat Al. Co. Ltd.) Maharashtra:
Bauxite - Kolaba, Kolhapur, satara of Udaigiri
Dhangarvedi region. Koyna HEP provides power.
g) Nalco (National Al. CO Ltd): established in 1981.
• Growth Potential
a) The per capita consumption of aluminium in
India is only 0.5 kg as against 25 kg in USA, 19
kg in Japan and 10 kg in Europe.
b) One reason of low consumption in the country
could be that consumption pattern of aluminium
in India is vastly different from that of developed
countries.
c) The demand of aluminium is expected to grow
by about 9 percent per annum from present
consumption levels.
d) Raw materials account for 35% of the cost of
production as compared to the global average of
49%.This is due to cheaper availability of
abundant reserves of bauxite.
Textile Industry
A. Cotton Textile Industry
• Cotton textile industry comprises of three sectors:
mill sector, handloom and power-loom. The share
of large mill, handloom and power-loom sector
in the total production of cotton cloth in 1998-
99 was 5.4 per cent, 20.6 per cent and 74 per
cent respectively.
• The Cotton and synthetic fiber textile industry
has made tremendous progress. Per capita
availability of cloth from both the types was 15
meters only in 1960-61. In the year 1995-96, it
has risen to 28 meters.
• This has enabled us to export cotton yarn, cotton
fabrics and cotton and synthetic garments on a
large scale. In 1995-96 we earned 2.6 billion
dollars by their exports.
• Distribution: Cotton Textile Industry
a) Cotton textile industry is one of the most widely
distributed industries in our country. These mills
are located in more than 88 centers in different
parts of the country. But majority of cotton
textile mills are still located in the cotton growing
areas of the Great Plains and peninsular India.
b) Maharashtra is the leading producer of cotton
textile in the country. Mumbai is the major centre
of textile mills. About a half of the Cotton
textile mills are located in Mumbai alone. It is,
therefore, rightly called as ‘Cottonpolis’ of India.
Sholapur, Kohlapur, Nagpur, Pune, Aurangabad
and Jalgaon are other important centers in
Maharashtra.
c) Gujarat, which ranks second in the production
of cotton textiles, Ahamedabad is the major
centre of the state. Surat, Bharauch, Vadodara,
Bhavnagar and Rajkot are other centers in the
state.
d) Tamil Nadu has emerged as an important
producer of cotton textiles in southern states.
Coimbatore is an important centre in the state.
Tirunelveli, Chennai, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli,
Salem and Thanjavour are other important centers
here.
e) In Karnataka, cotton textile industry is
concentrated at Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and
Gulberga.
f) Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Varanasi, and
Hathras are important centers in Uttar Pradesh.
g) In MadhyaPradesh this industry is concentrated
at Indore and Gwalior.
h) Howrah, Serampur and Murshidabad are
important Cotton textile centers in West Bengal.
[3]
i) Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh
are the other states producing cotton textiles.
• Factors for the localization of textile industry:
Ahmadabad– Mumbai – Pune region
a) Availability of raw material – A large amount of
cotton is grown in this belt.
b) Availability of capital – Mumbai, Ahmadabad
and Pure are the places where capital for
investment is easily available.
c) Means of transport – This region is well
connected with the rest of India by roads and
railways. It, therefore, facilities transportation of
finished products.
d) Accessibility to the market – Maharashtra and
Gujarat has a large market to sell textile products
here. Developed means of transportation help in
movement of textile products to other market
centers as well as to foreign market. Nowadays
the market has become a dominant factor in
determining the location of cotton textile
industry.
e) Nearness to ports – Mumbai port facilitates the
import of machinery and good quality of cotton
from abroad and export of the finished products.
f) Cheap labour – Cheap and skilled labour is
easily available from the surrounding areas.
g) Availability of power – Cheap and sufficient
power is easily available here.
B. Silk Textile Industry
• Indian Silk is known for its exquisiteness world
over and has a long history of silk exports. The
silk was mainly produced by the handloom sector.
Only in the late 20th century the modern silk
fabric manufacturing techniques developed. Even
today the finer or the special textured fabrics are
done on the handlooms.
• India holds 2nd position after China in the field
of silk production. There are four different types
of silk- (1) Mulberry (2) Tasar (3) Eri (4) Muga
(golden yellow).
• India is also the 2nd largest producer of tasar
after China. India has also a monopoly in Muga,
Assam is the only producer.
• The first modern factory was established in 1932
at Howrah. State wise the distribution of silk
industry is as follow:-
[ 4 ]
• Karnataka: 70% of total country’s silk output
(only Mulberry).
a) Production area: Banglore, Mysore, Kolar,
Mandya, Tumkur, Belgaum and Coorg
districts.
b) Mill- Channapatna, Mysore.
• Assam: 2% of total country putput, third largest
producer of non-mulberry silk and the only Muga
producing region.
a) Production - Goalpara, Kamrup, Nawgaong;
Mill - Jagi-Road.
• West Bengal: 13% of the country’s production,
mostly mulberry.
a) Production - Malda, Murshidabad, Birbhum,
Bankura.
b) Mill- Bishnerpur, Baswa, Raghunathpur, Chak-
Islampur
• Jharkhand: 8% of the country’s production,
mostly tassar.
a) Production- Palamu, Ranchi, Hazaribagh.
• Bihar - Bhagalpur.
• M.P.: 2.7% of the country, largest tassar producer
after Bihar
a) Production - Balaghat, Bastar, Bilaspur,
Raigarh, Surguja
• J&K: mostly mulberry producer; “Tabby”- white
plain silk of J&K
b) Production - Anantnag, Baramula, Doda,
Jammu, Udhampur.
• Orissa: Tasar producer.
• Varanasi & Bombay are the main silk weaving
centres.
C. Synthetic or Man-Made Fibers Industry
• Man-made fibers are generally divided into two
groups’ viz., cellulose (rayon and acetate) and
non-cellulose (nylon, polyster, etc.)
• The basic raw material for producing viscose
rayon yam is the cellulose pulp derived from
bamboo, eucalyptus and other soft wood trees.
• The chemicals used for making these fibers
include caustic soda, sodium sulphate, sulphuric
acid, carbon disulphide and soda sulphate. For
acetate yam and staple fibre, the primary raw
materials are alcohol and cotton linters.
• The other materials are acetic acid, acetic acetone
and ethyl acetate. For the production of synthetic
fibers like nylon, polyester, acrylic, etc. we require
caprolactum, naphtha, polyster chips, ethylene,
glycole, etc.
D. Jute Industry
• Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer
or pesticides. The production is concentrated in
India and Bangladesh. India with overall of 66%
of world’s production tops the production of jute.
Bangladesh with 25% lies at second position
followed way behind by China with 3%.
• It supports nearly 4 million farm families, besides
providing direct employment to about 2.6 lakh
industrial workers and livelihood to another 1.4
lakh people in the tertiary and allied activities.
• Locational factors for high concentration of
jute mills in Hugli basin are as follows:
a) The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta grows about 90
per cent of India’s jute and provides raw material
to jute mills here.
b) Coal is obtained from Raniganj fields which are
hardly 200 km away.
c) Cheap water transportation is available. The area
is also served by a network of roads and railways.
d) Abundant water is available for processing,
washing and dyeing jute.
e) Humid climate is very convenient for spinning
and weaving.
f) Kolkata is a big port which helps in the import
of machinery and spare parts and in the export
of finished jute products.
g) High density of population in West Bengal and
in the neighbouring parts of Jharkhand and Bihar
provides abundant cheap labour. Some labour
comes from Uttar Pradesh also.
h) Big capitalists are living in and around Kolkata
which makes easy flow of capital in this industry.
i) Banking and insurance facilities are also available
in and around Kolkata.
j) The early arrival of British merchants under the
aegis of East India Company in Kolkata helped
in setting this industry here. So Kolkata enjoys
the advantage of an early start.
E. Woolen Textile
• Though the first woolen textile mill was
established in 1876 in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh but
it was not very successful.
• The main concentration of woolen textile
industry is found in Punjab, Maharashtra and
Uttar Pradesh. These states account for about
three-fourths of the total spindle-age capacity.
• Gujarat,” Karnataka, West Bengal and Jammu
and Kashmir are next in order of importance.
• Woolen knotted carpets of Kashmir and Namdas
(Namda) of Rajasthan are world famous.
Agro Industries
A. Sugar Industry
Sugar industry is the second largest agro-based industry
of India. If we take Gur, Khandsari and Sugar
together, then India becomes the largest producer of
sugar product in the world. This industry employs
about 2.5 lakh people.
Distribution
Most of the sugar mills are concentrated in six states,
namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Localization Factors
The following are the factors for the localization of
sugar industry –
1) Sugarcane is the main raw material for making
sugar. Sugar mills can be set up only in the
sugarcane producing areas. Sugarcane gets dry
soon after harvesting. It can neither be stored
nor kept for long period of time. Sugarcane should
be taken immediately to the sugar mills after
harvesting.
2) Transportation cost of sugarcane is high.
Generally sugarcane is transported through
bullock carts which can carry it upto 20-25
kilometers. Recently tractor trolleys and trucks
have been used to carry sugarcane to the sugar
mills.
3) Beside these factors, capital, market, labour and
power also play significant role in localization of
this industry.
[5]
Reasons for shifting of sugar industry from North
India to Peninsular India
Sugarcane industry is gradually shifting from north
Indian states to states in Peninsular India. Some of
the important reasons:
1) The production of sugarcane per hectare is higher
is Peninsular India. In fact, sugarcane crop grows
well in the tropical climate of south India.
2) The sucrose content is higher in the tropical
variety of sugarcane grown in the south.
3) The crushing season in south India is longer than
in north India.
4) In south India most of the mills have modern
machinery.
5) Most of the mills in Peninsular India are in
cooperative sector, where profit maximization is
not the sole objective.
B. Tea Industry
• Nearly 98 per cent of the tea production comes
from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Karnataka. Some tea is also grown in
Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur
and Tripura.
• The tea estates are generally set upon cleared hill
slopes while in Assam, tea cultivation is done in
the lowlands, above the flood level. The
production of tea has more than doubled since
independence mainly through increase in yield
by improved varieties and optimum use of inputs.
• The tea industry provides direct gainful
employment to more than one million workers
mainly drawn from the backward and socially
weaker sections of the society.
• It is also a substantial foreign exchange earner
and provides significant contribution to the state
and central exchequer.
• Tea plantations in India are mainly located in
rural, hill and backward areas of north­eastern
and southern states.
C. Coffee Industry
• Coffee was first grown in Bababudan Hills in
Karnataka during the 17th century, but on a
plantation scale, it was cultivated in Chikmaglur
(Karnataka) in 1826. Later, coffee cultivation was
extended to Wynad, Shevaroy and the Nilgiris.
[ 6 ]
• Although India contributes only a small
percentage of the world production, Indian coffee
has created a niche for itself in the international
market. Indian robustas, are highly preferred for
their good blending quality. Arabica coffee from
India is also well received in the international
market.
• Distribution
a) More than half of the country’s coffee production
comes from Karnataka, of which 80 per cent
comes from Coorg and Chikmagalur. Hasan is
the third largest producer in the state.
b) In Kerala, coffee is produced in Wynad (Palghat
region), Kozhikode and Cannanore.
c) In Tamil Nadu, coffee comes from the Nilgiris,
Annamalai (Coimbatore region) Shevaroy hills
(Salem district), Palani hills, Tirunelveli and
Madurai.
d) Small quantities come from Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh and the north-eastern states.
D. Leather Goods Industry
• Hides and skins are the basic raw materials which
come from pelts of cattle and large animals and
small ones like goat and sheep. India has a large
livestock population.
• West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the largest
producers of cattle hides and Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal of the goat skin.
• Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh also produce
substantial quality hides. Major footwear
production centres in the country include Kanpur,
Agra, Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai,
Bengaluru and Jaipur.
• Leather is a highly labour-oriented industry in
India, and has been identified as one of the major
thrust areas for export. It is one of the traditional
industries of India spread over organized and
unorganized sector.
• The small-scale, cottage and artisan sector account
for over 75 per cent of the total leather
production. India has traditionally a rich
advantage in this industry both in terms of raw
material and skilled manpower. People employed
in this sector are predominantly from the
minorities and disadvantaged sections of the
society.
 Petrochemical Industry
• Petro-chemicals industry is one of the fastest
growing industries of India. This industry has
revolutionized the industrial scene by providing
the products which are substituting the traditional
raw materials like wood, glass and metals.
• India is self sufficient in the production of
petrochemicals.
• Petro-chemicals are derived from petroleum or
natural gas. We use a variety of products from
morning till evening made from petrochemicals
such as Toothbrushes, toothpaste, combs, hairpins,
soap cases, plastic mugs, electric switches, lipstick,
and foam etc.
• Locational Pattern
a) The location pattern of existing as well as those
proposed clearly indicates that the refineries seek
mostly sea board location to take advantages of
the imported crude or the crude produced by the
offshore oil field like Mumbai high.
b) Other trend is raw material based like Assam
refineries which are based on inland oilfield.
c) Further, more government policy has played an
important role in setting up of certain market
based refineries like Mathura, Barauni and
Panipat.
d) Indian Petro-Chemical Corporation has set up a
huge petro-chemical complex near vadodara
producing a wide range of products. Gandhar,
and Hazira in Gujarat and Nagathone in
Maharashtra are other important centers of petro-
chemical industry.
Fertilizer Industry
• The fertility of the soil is the most important
factor in agriculture. It depends upon phosphorus,
potassium, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium,
sulphur, and others in proper amounts.
• Phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen are the
principal elements in fertilizer industry which is
an important branch of chemical industry.
Animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms also
contribute many materials used as fertilizer. The
fertilizer manufacture is chiefly dependent on
three principal raw materials: phosphate, potash,
and nitrogen.
• Nitrogen provides vital foods for plants and
sustenance for human life. Ironically, in the form
of nitric acid as an ingredient of munitions and
explosives, it causes enormous human
destruction.
• Localization & Distribution:
a) The localization of fertilizer industry is closely
related to petrochemicals. About 70 per cent of
the plants producing nitrogenous fertilizer use
naphtha as the basic raw material. That is why
most of the fertilizer plants are located near the
oil refineries.
b) However, some fertilizer plants draw their feed
stock from steel slug as well as coke and lignite.
c) Phosphatic fertilizer plants are primarily
dependent upon mineral ‘phosphate’ which is
available in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan. Some plants are based on imported
phosphate mineral.
d) Sulphur is another important mineral used for
manufacturing fertilizers. This is available in Tamil
Nadu.
e) Gujarat is the largest producer of fertilizers in
India and accounts for more than one- fourth of
the total production of nitrogenous as well as
phosphatic fertilizers of the country. This state
has more than 14% of the country’s total installed
capacity.
f) Tamil Nadu accounts for about 11 per cent of
the country’s installed capacity. At present Tamil
Nadu is the second largest producer of phosphate
fertilizers (about 16%) and the fourth largest
producer of nitrogenous fertilizers nearly 9% of
India.
Drugs and Pharmaceutical Industry
• The pharmaceutical industry is one of the oldest
in India. The Indian pharmaceutical industry is
at the top of the chart amongst India’s science-
based industries with wide ranging capabilities in
the complex field of drug manufacture and
technology.
• The drugs and pharmaceutical units are mostly
located in Kolkata, Mumbai, Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Delhi, Pune, Rishikesh, Hyderabad,
Kanpur, Indore and Jaipur.
• The pharma industry of India ranks very high
amongst all the third world countries, in terms
of technology, quality and the vast range of
medicines that are manufactured.
• It ranges from simple headache pills to
sophisticated antibiotics and complex cardiac
[7]
 compounds, almost every type of medicine is
now made by the Indian pharmaceutical industry.
• The pharmaceutical industry in India is among
the most highly organized sectors. This industry
plays an important role in promoting and
sustaining development in the field of global
medicine.
• Due to the presence of low cost manufacturing
facilities, educated and skilled manpower and
cheap labour force among others, the industry is
set to scale new heights in the fields of
production, development, manufacturing and
research.
Cement Industry
• Locational Factors:
a) Manufacturing of cement requires heavy, low
value and weight loosing materials and is primarily
a raw material oriented industry.
b) The availability of raw materials, bulk transport
facilities at reasonably low cost and market are
the three main localization factors, which favour
the growth of cement industry in India.
c) Limestone is the main raw material and comprises
60-65 per cent of the total product. On an
average 1.5 tonnes of limestone are required to
produce one tonne of cement. Hence, the location
of a cement plant is based on the limestone
deposits.
d) The other raw materials used are sea shells, slag
from steel plants and slag from fertilizer plants
and these raw materials influence the localization
of cement industry in their own way.
e) The transportation cost is also reduced if the
manufacturing plant is located near the market.
In fact, ready market is the pre-requisite for the
proper growth of an industry, producing heavy
commodity with low specific cost like cement.
• Distribution of Cement Industry
a) India ranks second in the world next only to
China in the production of cement.
b) It is because of constraint of raw material that
86 per cent of the factories and 75 per cent of
the production capacity is found in Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Bihar.
[ 8 ]
Industrial corridors in India
The Industrial corridor programme concentrates on
infrastructural development of Cities with the
objective to expand manufacturing and services base. 
The industrial corridors in India are:
a) Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
• The corridor project, being developed in co-
operation with the government of Japan
• The DMIC runs across the six states of Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Maharashtra.
b) Amritsar-Kolkata corridor
• AKIC will be developed in a band of 150-200
km on either side of the Eastern Dedicated
Freight Corridor (EDFC) in a phased manner.
• AKIC will be spread across a belt of at least 5.5
lakh sq km comprising 20 cities in seven states
— Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal
• The cities which will covered by the ADKIC
Project are Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana,
Ambala, Saharanpur, Delhi, Roorkee,
Moradabad,Muzaffarnagar, Bareilly,Aligarh,
Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna,
Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Asansol, Durgapur and
Kolkata
c) Chennai-Bangalore Industrial Corridor
• The corridor plans to come up along Chennai,
Sriperumbudur, Ponnapanthangal, Ranipet,
Chittoor, Bangarupalem,Palamaner, Bangarpet,
Hoskote and Bangalore.
• It is expected to boost commerce between south
India and east Asia by enabling quicker
movement of goods from these places to the
Chennai and Ennore ports.
• The corridor project, being developed in co-
operation with the government of Japan.
d) Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic Corridor
• The corridor project, being developed in co-
operation with the government of UK.
• The corridor will start from Bengaluru, passing
through Tumkur, Chitradurga, Hubli, Dharwad
and Belgaum (in Karnataka), Kolhapur, Sangli,
Satara, Karad and Pune, and end in Mumbai (in
Maharashtra).
e) Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor
(VCIC)  raw material supply and high transport cost of
• VCIC’s long coastline and strategically located
ports provide it with an opportunity to create
multiple international gateways to connect India
with the vibrant global production networks of
Southeast and East Asia that form the bedrock
of global manufacturing.
Major Industrial Regions of India
1. Kolkata - Hooghly Belt
• It is an old and important region of the country
stretching along the either side of the river –
from Naihati to Budge- Budge along the left Bank
and from Tribeni to Nalpur in the right bank.
• Cotton textile, silks, jute engineering chemical
and pharmaceuticals, leather and foot-wears
industries are located here.
• The region is facilitated with rich hinterland of
Ganga, Brahmaputra Plain, and the enough
availability of good coal, cheap local labour and
the port facility of Kolkata.
• The region is experiencing stagnation and relative
decline in industrial growth in recent years.
• The main problems are:
a) High degree of congestion
b) Gradual filling of Kolkata port making the
shipping facilities somewhat difficult
c) Bottle-neck in South-East and Eastern rainy-days.
d) Paucity of space
e) Shortage of drinking water and civic amenities
f) Environmental pollution
2. Mumbai-Poona Belt
• It is the most important industrial region of the
country. It has a heavy concentration of cotton
textile, engineering, oil refiners, fertilizers and
chemical industries.
• The belt consists of Mumbai, Kurla, Ghatkopar,
Andheri, Jogeshwari, Thane, Bhandrup, Kalyan,
Pimpri and Poona.
• Cheap labour, easy availability of hydroelectricity,
raw cotton along with the port facilities; act as
the main assets of this area.
• The industrial development of this region has
almost reached its saturation stage. After partition
cotton producing area reduced thus effected the
coal and other minerals effected the growth. But
now it has developed as an economic hub.
3. Ahmedabad-Vadodara-Surat Belt
• It is the third largest industrial region comprising
within its fold the centers of Kalol, Ahmedabad,
Nadiad, and Vadodara, Surat, Nava sari and
Ankleshwar.
• Leather goods and a wide variety of engineering
units are established here.
• The initial advantage was the availability of raw
cotton from the hinterland and the transport
network along with the Kandla port.
4. Madurai-Coimbatore-Bangalore Region
• Cheap and skilled labour, large market were the
chief factors, which attracted a number of
industries.
• Availability of cheap hydel power helped in
various ways. Cotton textile, sugar plants, leather
goods, chemicals, Iron and Steel, Hindustan
Aeronautics have assisted the development of
this area.
5. Chotanagpur Plateau Region
• Locally available coal, iron-ore mica, bauxite
copper, limestone, manganese have given rise to
heavy industries like iron and steel at Jamshedpur,
Durgapur, Kulti, Burnpur, Bokaro along with
many associated industries.
• Proximity to Kolkata port, vast network of
railways, cheap labour supply from the tribal areas
and the development of DVC and numerous
thermal power stations helped the area to develop
as a major industrial region on the map of India.
• Besides, many more mini industrial regions and
industrial districts are fast emerging in different
parts of the country in recent times.
6. Mathura-Delhi-Saharanpur-Ambala belt
• It has the advantage of the proximity of the
national capital; availability of cheap raw
materials; nearness of large market and regular
supply of power.
• This region spreads in two separate belts running
in north-south direction between Faridabad and
Ambala in Haryana and Mathura and Saharanpur
in Uttar Pradesh.
[9]
• The capital city has predominance of engineering,
electronic, chemical, glass and consumer
industries.
7. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region:
• This industrial region extends from
Vishakhapatnam district in the north-eastern part
of Andhra Pradesh to Kurnool and Prakasham
districts in the south-east and covers most of the
coastal Andhra Pradesh.
• The industrial development of this region mainly
depends upon Vishakhapatnam and Machili-
patnam ports.
• Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources
in the hinterlands of these ports provide solid
base to the industrial growth in this region. Coal
fields of the Godavari basin are the main source
of energy.
• The other industries of this region include sugar,
textiles, paper, fertilizers, cement, aluminium and
light engineering.
• The important industrial centres of this region
are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada, Vijaynagar,
Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and Guntur. Recent

[10]
discovery of natural gas in Krishna- Godavari
basin is likely to provide much needed energy
and help in accelerated growth of this industrial
region.
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region:
• This is comparatively small industrial region and
spreads over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam,
Alwaye, Emakulam and Allapuzha districts of
south Kerala.
• The region is located far away from the mineral
belt of the country as a result of which the
industrial scene here is dominated by agricultural
products processing and market oriented light
industries.
• Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity provide
the industrial base to this region.
• The main industries are textiles, sugar, rubber,
match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and
fish processing, paper, coconut coir products,
aluminium and cement.
• Important industrial centres are Kollam,
Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi, Alappuzha
and Punalur.

NATURAL RESOURCE
Natural Resources and its Classification
Definition
• Natural resources are the raw materials supplied
by the earth and its processes and include things
in the physical environment used for housing,
clothing, heating, cooling, transportation and to
meet other human wants and needs. For
example, trees are used for shelter, animals for
food and clothing, plants for medicine, minerals
and fossil fuels for power.
Classification of natural resources
A. Classification Based on the Availability of Resource
1. Inexhaustible and immutable resource: These
include the ocean, water, solar energy, wind
power, climate, gravitation, etc.
2. Inexhaustible but misusable resources: These
include water, power, surface water bodies, area
and space, etc.
3. Maintainable and renewable resources: These
include timber, human numbers, land fertility,
ground water, etc.
4. Maintainable but non-renewable resource:
These include physical soil materials, human
talents and genius fish, wild animals, trees, etc.
5. Exhaustible but reusable resource: They include
gems, some non-metallic minerals, most metals,
e.g. iron, tin, copper, gold and silver.
6. Exhaustible, non-resusable resources: These
include coal, petroleum, natural gas, most non-
metallic and certain metals.
B. Classification Based on Distribution and Frequency
of Occurrence of Resource
1. Ubiquities: Occuring everywhere, for example,
oxgen in the air.
Supplementary Notes
2. Commonalities: Occuring in many places, such
as tillable soil.
3. Rarities: Occuring in few places, for example,
tin.
4. Uniquities: Occuring in one place, for example,
commercial cryolite.
C. Classification According to Use of Resources
1. Unused resources: The resources lying unused
fall in this category. For example, the forests
and mineral resources of North America
remained unused for thousands of years until
the continent was colonized by the Europeans.
2. Unusable resources: Resources which cannot
be used further even with the present day
technique, become unusable. For example, deep
mines which cannot be worked out at further
depth, become unusable.
3. Potential resources: Those resources which can
be developed or used in near future are called
potential resources. For example, the water
available in rivers of India is at present not being
fully utilized for power-generation.
4. Latent resources: There are many resources
which have been unknown to man. Such as
petroleum was lying unused until the eighteenth
century when combustion engine was invented
and distillation process was developed. Later;
the development of the science of geology
helped in prospecting, exploration and source.
D. Classification of Natural Resources on the basis
of rennovability
1. Non-renewable resources: These resources are
not generated or reformed at rates equivalent to
[1]
 the rate at which we use them. When these
resources are gone. There is no hope of their
replacement, e.g. wild life.
2. Recyclable resources: These are a special type
of non-renewable resources which are not lost or
worn out by the way we use them and can be
reprocessed and used again and again, e.g. metals.
Land Resources
The utilization of land depends upon physical factors
like topography, soil and climate as well as upon
human factors such as the density of population
duration of occupation of the area, land tenure and
technical levels of the people.
Land Use in India
The major land uses in India are:
Net sown Area
• Agriculture land means cultivated area, it includes
net cropped area and fallow lands. Cropped area
in the year under consideration in called net sown
area.
• India stands seventh in the world in terms of
total geographical area but second in terms of
cultivated land.
• Net shown Area is about 46%.
• Percentage wise Punjab and Haryana are highest
and Arunachal Pradesh is Lowest (3.2% )
• The net sown area and the area sown more than
once together are called gross cultivated area.
Forest Area
• This includes all land classified either as forest
under any legal enactment, or administered as
forest, whether State-owned or private, and
whether wooded or maintained as potential forest
land.
• The area of crops raised in the forest and grazing
lands or areas open for grazing within the forests
remain included under the “forest area”.
Area under Non-agricultural Uses
• This includes all land occupied by buildings, roads
and railways or under water, e.g. rivers and canals,
and other land put to uses other than agriculture.
Barren and Un-culturable Land
• This includes all land covered by mountains,
deserts, etc.
[ 2 ]
3. Renewable resources: All living things that have
the capacity or reproduction and growth, are
called renewable resources.
4. Inexhaustible resources: These resources such
as sunlight, will continue to pour on to the earth
as long as humanity will be around, whether we
use it in certain way or not. Water and wind are
other examples of inexhaustible natural resources.
• Land which cannot be brought under cultivation
except at an exorbitant cost is classified as
unculturable whether such land is in isolated
blocks or within cultivated holdings.
Permanent Pasture and other Grazing Land
• This includes all grazing land whether it is
permanent pasture/meadows or not.
• Village common grazing land is included under
this category.
Land under Miscellaneous Tree Crops, etc.
• This includes all cultivable land which is not
included in ‘Net area sown’ but is put to some
agricultural use.
• Land under trees, thatching grasses, bamboo
bushes and other groves for fuel, etc. which are
not included under ‘Orchards’ are classified under
this category.
Culturable Waste Land
• This includes land available for cultivation,
whether taken up or not taken up for cultivation
once, but not cultivated during the last five years
or more in succession including the current year
for some reason or the other .
• Such land may be either fallow or covered with
shrubs and jungles which are not put to any use.
Fallow Lands other than Current Fallows
• This includes all land which was taken up for
cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivation
for a period of not less than one year and not
more than five years.
Current Fallows
• This represents cropped area which is kept fallow
during the current year.
 Land Capability Concept
• Land capability classification shows, in a general
way, the suitability of soils for most kinds of
field crops. Crops that require special
management are excluded.
• The soils are grouped according to their limitations
for field crops, the risk of damage if they are
used for crops, and the way they respond to
management.
• The classification is as follows:
Class 1 soils have slight limitations that restrict their
use.
Class 2 soils have moderate limitations that restrict
the choice of plants or that require moderate
conservation practices.
Class 3 soils have severe limitations that restrict the
choice of plants or that require special conservation
practices, or both.
Class 4 soils have very severe limitations that restrict
the choice of plants or that require very careful
management, or both.
Class 5 soils are subject to little or no erosion but
have other limitations, impractical to remove, that
restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland,
forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 6 soils have severe limitations that make them
generally unsuitable for cultivation and that restrict
their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or
wildlife habitat.
Class 7 soils have very severe limitations that make
them unsuitable for cultivation and that restrict their
use mainly to grazing, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 8 soils and miscellaneous areas have limitations
that preclude commercial plant production and that
restrict their use to recreational purposes, wildlife
habitat, watershed, or esthetic purposes.
Land Degradation
As defined by the FAO “Land degradation is a process
which lowers the current and/or potential capability of
soil to produce goods and services”.
There are two types of land degradation:
• Physical Degradation: Water logging, soil crusting,
compaction, desertification, etc.
• Chemical Degradation: Salinization, solidification,
acidification, nutrient removal, decrease of
organic matter.
Causes of Land degradation
• The natural causes includes earthquakes, tsunamis,
droughts, avalanche, landslides and mud flow,
volcanic eruptions, flood, tornado, wild fire.
• Human induced causes include deforestation,
overgrazing by livestock, wrong irrigation
practices, urban sprawl and commercial
development, pollution from industries, quarrying
and mining activities.
Some specific causes are:
a) Soil erosion:
• It is wearing away of the land surface by physical
forces such as rainfall, flowing water, wind, ice,
temperature change, gravity or other natural or
anthropogenic agents.
b) Soil contamination:
• It includes contamination by heavy metals,
acidification, nutrient surplus (eutrophication), etc.
c) Soil salinisation:
• The salts which accumulate include chlorides,
sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium,
potassium, magnesium and calcium.
d) Soil sealing:
• The covering of the soil surface with impervious
materials as a result of urban development and
infrastructure construction.
e) Overgrazing:
• Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to
intensive grazing for extended periods of time,
or without sufficient recovery periods.
f) Acidification of Soil:
• Acid soils are toxic to plants because they can
release toxic levels of aluminium and other
mineral elements.
g) Mining and quarrying activities:
• Due to this excavation process alter the structure
of the land, stacking of top soil, loss of soil due
to dumping of the mine wastes.
h) Improper crop rotations:
• It decreases fertility of soil.
Impact of land degradation
a) Loss of soil organic matter and nutrients.
b) Loss of soil structure.
[3]
c) Loss of soil biodiversity.
d) Loss of water holding capacity and water
infiltration.
e) Soil pollution.
f) Reduced yields of crops.
g) Reduced land value and resilience to future
events.
h) Impact on food security.
i) Reduces ability to adapt to climate change.
Methods for achieving sustainable land use
• Plan and manage land resources in an integrated
manner for maximization of environmental, social
and economic factors apart from ensuring
livelihood and equity.
Soil Resources
Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earth’s
surface that results from the interaction of weathering
and biological activity on the parent material or
underlying hard rock.
Soil Characteristics
Soil Texture
• Textures range from clay, sand, and silt at the
extremes, to a loam which has all three sized
fractions present. The main influence of texture
is on permeability which generally decreases with
decreasing particle size.
A clayey soil may thus be described as fine, a
sandy soil as course, while a silty soil is
intermediate.
Soil Air
• A certain amount of air is contained between
the individual particles except for the waterlogged
soils. The air in the soil helps in the process of
oxidation which converts part of the organic
material into nitrogen in a form readily available
to the plants.
Soil water
• Depending on the texture of the soil, water
moves downward by percolation.
• In damp climates, especially in high latitudes
where the evaporation rate is low, water tends to
move predominantly downward, particularly in
[ 4 ]
• Prepare comprehensive land inventories.
• Prepare a perspective plan for treating degraded
land.
• Develop infrastructural facilities and strengthen
the technology support system.
• Develop proper computerized, updated, on-line
information system on land records.
• Develop and use advanced methodologies for
land use planning.
• Invest in capacity building, education and
awareness on the importance of conservation and
optimum use of all natural resources.
• Continuously monitor and assess the impact of
climate change on land use and take/suggest
appropriate remedial measures.
coarse-grained sandy soils. This dissolves the
soluble minerals in the soil, together with soluble
humus material and carries both downward, a
process called leaching or eluviations.
• In a hot, arid climate, evaporation exceeds
precipitation for greater part of the year, so the
water tends to move upward and the soil dries
out. Consequently, in some areas, a thin salty
layer is formed on the surface. This process of
Stalinization can produce an extremely saline soil
known as reh or kallar.
Soil Colour
• Generally soil colour is determined by the amount
of organic matter and the state of the iron. Soil
colour is also related to soil drainage, with free
draining, well AERATED soils (with pore space
dominated by oxygen) having rich brown colours.
• In contrast, poorly draining soils, often referred
to as gleys, develop under ANAEROBIC
conditions (the pore space dominated by water)
and have grey or blue-grey colours.
Factors Responsible for Soil Formation
Soil formation is the combined effect of physical,
chemical, biological, and anthropogenic processes on
soil parent material.
a) Parent material
• This is the material from which the soil has
developed and can vary from solid rock to
 deposits like alluvium and boulder clay. It has
been defined as ‘the initial state of the soil
system’.
• The parent material can influence the soil in a
number of ways: colour; texture; structure;
mineral composition and permeability/drainage.
b) Climate
• Temperature varies with lattitude and altitude,
and the extent of absorption and reflection of
solar radiation by the atmosphere. The absorption
of the solar radiation at the soil surface is affected
by many variables such as soil color, vegetation
cover, and aspect. In general, the darker the soil
color, the more radiation is absorbed and the
lower the albedo. The absorption differs in areas
with decidious trees (soil surface is shaded by
trees most of the year) and arable land (soil
surface is not shaded throughout the year).
• Temperature also influences the degree of thawing
and freezing (physical weathering) in cold regions.
• Biological processes are intensified by rising
temperatures. Reaction rates are roughly doubled
for each 10°C rise in temperature, although
enzyme-catalysed reactions are sensitive to high
temperatures and usually attain a maximum
between 30 and 35°C.
c) Biological Factors
• The soil and the organisms living on and in it
comprise an ecosystem. The active components
of the soil ecosystem are the vegetation, fauna,
including microorganisms, and man.
1. Vegetation:
• The primary succession of plants that colonize a
weathering rock culminates in the development
of a climax community, the species composition
of which depends on the climate and parent
material, but which, in turn, has a profound
influence on the soil that is formed.
2. Meso-/Macrofauna:
• Earthworms are the most important of the soil
forming fauna in temperate regions, being
supported to a variable extent by the small
arthropods and the larger burrowing animals
(rabbits, moles).
• Earthworms build up a stone-free layer at the
soil surface, as well as intimately mixing the litter
with fine mineral particles they have ingested.
3. Microorganisms:
• The organic matter of the soil is colonized by a
variety of soil organisms, most importantly the
microorganisms, which derive energy for growth
from the oxidative decomposition of complex
organic molecules.
• Types of micro-organisms comprise bacteria,
actinomycetes, fungi, algae, protozoa, and soil
enzymes.
4. Man:
• Man is perhaps now the most influential of all
organisms. He affects the soil by such activities
as: plowing, irrigating, mining, clearing, disposing
and leveling.
d) Time
• Time is a factor in the interactions of all the
above factors as they develop soil. Over time,
soils evolve features dependent on the other
forming factors, and soil formation is a time-
responsive process dependent on how the other
factors interplay with each other.
e) Relief
• Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its
study is called geomorphology). Relief influences
soil formation in several ways:
I. It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of
slope increases so does the erosion hazard.
II. It has an effect on climate which is also a soil
forming factor.
III. Gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass
movement.
IV. It influences aspect which creates microclimatic
conditions.
Soil Forming Processes
The four major processes that change parent material
into soil are additions, losses, translocations, and
transformations.
• Additions
- The most obvious addition is organic matter. As
soon as plant life begins to grow in fresh parent
material, organic matter begins to accumulate.
Organic matter gives a black or dark brown color
to surface layer. Most organic matter additions
to the surface increase the cation exchange
capacity and nutrients, which also increase plant
nutrient availability.
[5]
- Other additions may come with rainfall or
deposition by wind, such as the wind blown or
eolian material. On the average, rainfall adds
about 5 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year. By
causing rivers to flood, rainfall is indirectly
responsible for the addition of new sediment to
the soil on a flood plain.
• Losses
- Most losses occur by leaching. Water moving
through the soil dissolves certain minerals and
transports them into deeper layers. Some
materials, especially sodium salts, gypsum, and
calcium carbonate, are relatively soluble. They
are removed early in the soil’s formation. As a
result, soil in humid regions generally does not
have carbonates in the upper horizons. Quartz,
aluminum, iron oxide, and kaolinitic clay weather
slowly. They remain in the soil and become the
main components of highly weathered soil.
- Fertilizers are relatively soluble, and many, such
as nitrogen and potassium, are readily lost by
leaching, either by natural rainfall or by irrigation
water. Long- term use of fertilizers based on
ammonium may cause acidity in the soil and
contribute to the loss of carbonates in some areas.
- Oxygen, a gas, is released into the atmosphere
by growing plants. Carbon dioxide is consumed
by growing plants, but lost to the soil as fresh
organic matter decays. When soil is wet, nitrogen
can be changed to a gas and lost to the
atmosphere.
- Solid mineral and organic particles are lost by
erosion. Such losses can be serious because the
material lost is usually the most productive part
of the soil profile. On the other hand, the
sediment relocated to lower slope positions or
deposited on bottom lands has the potential to
increase or decrease productive use of soils in
those areas.
• Translocations
- Translocation means movement from one place
to another. In low rainfall areas, leaching often is
incomplete. Water starts moving down through
the soil, dissolving soluble minerals as it goes.
There isn’t enough water, however, to move all
the way through the soil. When the water stops
moving, then evaporates, salts are left behind.
Soil layers with calcium carbonate or other salt
accumulations form this way. If this cycle occurs
enough times, a calcareous hardpan can form.
[ 6 ]
- Translocation upward and lateral movement is
also possible. Even in dry areas, low-lying soils
can have a high water table. Evaporation at the
surface causes water to move upward. Salts that
are dissolved in solution will move upward with
the water and deposit on the surface as the water
evaporates.
• Transformations
- Transformations are changes that take place in
the soil. Microorganisms that live in the soil feed
on fresh organic matter and change it into humus.
Chemical weathering changes parent material.
Some minerals are destroyed completely. Others
are changed into new minerals. Many of the clay-
sized particles in soil are actually new minerals
that form during soil development.
- Other transformations can change the form of
certain materials. Iron oxides (ferric form) usually
give soils a yellowish or reddish color. In
waterlogged soils, however, iron oxides loose
some of their oxygen and are referred to as being
reduced. The reduced form of iron (ferrous) is
quite easily removed from the soil by leaching.
After the iron is gone, generally the leached area
has a grayish or whitish color.
- Repeated cycles of saturation and drying create
a mottled soil (splotches of colored soil in a
matrix of different color). Part of the soil is gray
because of the loss of iron, and part is a browner
color where the iron oxide is not removed. During
long periods of saturation, gray lined root
channels develop. This may indicate a possible
loss of iron or an addition of humus from
decayed roots.
Soil Profiles and Horizons
- Soil formation begins with the breakdown of rock
into regolith. Continued weathering and soil
horizon development process leads to the
development of a soil profile, the vertical display
of soil horizons.
- The top layer of the profile is the O horizon
which is composed of organic matter.
Decomposition of organic matter enriches the
soil with nutrients (nitrogen, potassium, etc.), aids
soil structure (acts to bind particles), and enhances
soil moisture retention.
- Next layer is the A horizon in which organic
material mixes with inorganic products of
weathering. The A horizon typically is dark
coloured horizon due to the presence organic
matter.
- Eluviations, the removal of inorganic and organic
substances from a horizon by leaching occurs in
the A horizon due to the downward movement
of soil water.
- The E horizon generally is a light-colored horizon
with eluviation being the dominant process.
Leaching or the removal of clay particles, organic
matter, and/or oxides of iron and aluminum is
also active in E horizon. 
- The E horizon has a high concentration of quartz
under coniferous forests, giving the horizon an
ash-gray appearance.
- The B horizon is a zone of illuviation where
downward moving, especially fine material, is
accumulated.  The accumulation of fine material
leads to the creation of a dense layer in the soil.
- Eluviation is significant in humid climates where
ample precipitation leads to the downward
movement of minerals in the soil.
- Illuviation are found closer to the surface in
semiarid and arid climates where precipitation is
scarce because due to capillary action cations
like calcium and sodium dissolved in soil moves
upward.
- The C horizon represents the soil parent material,
either created in situ or transported into its
present location. Beneath the C horizon lays
bedrock.
Type of Soils in India
A. Alluvial Soil
• Occupying about 24 per cent of the total area of
the country, alluvial are the most important soils
of India.
• They are deposited by rivers.
• The Great Plains of India from Punjab to
Brahmputra Valley are covered by alluvial soils.
These soils are also found in the plains and deltas
of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri
rivers, and in the valleys of Narmada, Tapi, Mahi
and Loni rivers.
• The alluvial soils are divided geologically into
the :
(i) Bhangar (old alluviums) and Khadar (new
alluviums)
(ii) Bhabar (Found in the foothills of Siwaliks).
(iii) Terai (marshy land)
• The alluvial soils being renewed every year by
the rivers are highly productive. These soils are
devoted to the cultivation of wheat, rice, pulses,
sugarcane, Jute, oilseeds, vegetable, fodder and
orchards.
B. Black, Cotton or Regur Soil
• Sprawling on the Deccan Trap, it is found in the
states of Maharasthra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
southern Parts of Rajasthan.
• Regur soil varies in colour from black to chestnut
brown.
• They are generally deficient in humus, nitrogen,
and phosphate, but rich in potash.
• These are finely grained and become sticky when
wet and develop cracks when dry.
• Regur soils are suitable for the cultivation of
cotton sugarcane, maize, millets, vegetables and
citrus fruits.
C. Red Soil
• Red soils cover about 5.2 lakh sq km mainly in
the peninsular India and hilly states of North
East India.
• These soils have light texture.
• They are generally deficient in humus, nitrogen,
phosphate and lime.
• These soils are mainly suitable for cotton, rice,
wheat, pulses, tobacco, groundnut, millets,
potatoes and fruits.
D. Lateritic Soil
• Laterite means brick. These silts are rich in oxides
of iron and aluminium.
• Lateritic soils are found in Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajmahal Hills, West Bengal,
Westurn Ghats in Maharasthra, Karnataka, Garo
and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya.
• These are poor in humus, nitrogen, potash lime
and phosphate.
• Rice, Sugarcane, lapioca and cashewnuts are the
main crops grown in them.
E. Forest Soil
• Forest soils are found mainly in the forest and
hilly areas. They are spread over about 3 lakh sq.
km.
[7]
• There soils are found in the Himalayas Western
and Eastern Ghats.
• Millets, maize and pulses are the main crops grown
in them.
F. Arid and Desert Soils
• Covering about 1.4 lakh sq. km they are mainly
found in Rajasthan, Haryana and Parts of Punjab.
• Being sandy the water retaining capacity of these
soils is low.
• These soils are rich in phosphate and poor in
humus content.
• Wherever, irrigation is available, they are devoted
to cotton and wheat. Milletes, bajra and pulses
are the main crops grown in them.
G. Saline and Alkaline Soils
• These are the infertile soils which occur due to
the capillary action.
• The soils are known as ‘Kallar’, ‘Usar’.
H. Peaty and Marshy Soils
• These soils originate in the humid region. They
have large amount of organic matter (10 to 40
per cent)
• Peaty soils are found in Kottayam district of
Kerala where they are called as Kari. They are
also found in Orissa, Tamil Nadu, the Sundarban
(Called as Kari), Bihar and Almora District of
Uttranchal.
• Most of the peaty soils are under water.
Soil Erosion
- Soil erosion has been defined as the gradual
removal of the top soil by running water, wind,
glacier, sea-waves, anthropogenic agents and
animals.
- Soil erosion is a universal phenomenon.
- According to one estimate about 75, 000 million
tonnes of soil is removed by these agents
annually.
- Agents of soil Erosion:
• Running water:
1. Uniform removal of soil
2. Rill erosion
[ 8 ]
3. Gully erosion (e.g. northern Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, M.P. U.P)
• Wind Erosion: Mainly in the arid and semi -arid
regions.
• Anthropogenic factors: Farmland can be degraded
in several other ways besides erosion. Physical
degradation from mechanical tilling can lead to
compaction and crusting. Repeated cropping
without sufficient fallow periods or replacement
of nutrients with cover crops, manure or fertilizer
can deplete soil nutrients. In addition over
application of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and
pesticides can kill beneficial soil organism.
- Poor water management on irrigated crop land is
a leading cause of degraded farmland.
- Inadequate drainage can lead to water logging of
the soil or to Salinization, in which salt levels
built up in the soil to toxic levels. About 15 to
20 percent of the irrigated land is suffering from
some degree of waterlogging and salinization.
Effects of Soil Erosion
a) Loss of fertile top soil leading to gradual loss of
soil fertility and agricultural productivity.
b) Loss of mineral nutrients from soil through
leaching and flooding.
c) Lowering of the underground water table and
decrease in the percentage of soil moisture.
d) Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands.
e) Increase in frequency of droughts and floods.
f) Silting of river and canal belts.
g) Recurrence of landslides.
h) Adverse effect on economic prosperity and
cultural development.
Soil Conservation
Unchecked soil erosion leads to poverty and reduces
the strength of a nation. Some of the important steps
for soil conservation areas under:
1. Rotate soil protecting crops.
2. Application of green and compost manures.
3. Divide agricultural fields into fairly narrow
contour strips, wherever possible.
4. Develop terrace channels to carry water off slope
to safe waterways.
5. Control gullies by keeping water out of them
and check the movement of water in gullies by
means of straw vegetation.
6. Develop a protective vegetation cover in the
deserts.
7. Plant crops in strips at right angles to the principal
wind directions on sandy shores.
8. Plant beach grass with wild legumes and nitrogen
fixing shrubs.
Soil health card scheme
• SHC is a printed report that a farmer will be
handed over for each of his holdings.
• It will contain the status of his soil with respect
to 12 parameters, namely N,P,K (Macro-
Forest Resource
Definition of forests
• All lands which are more than 1 hectare in area
and with a Canopy density of more than 10%
irrespective of the ownership and legal status is
called Forest Cover.
• The forest ecosystem has two components- the
non-living (abiotic) and the living (biotic)
component.
• Climate, soil type are part of the non-living
component and the living component includes
plants, animals and other life forms.
Forest Resource of India
• The total forest and tree cover is 79.42 million
hectare, which is 24.16 percent of the total
geographical area.
• The total carbon stock in the country’s forest is
estimated to be 7, 044 million tones, an increase
of 103 million tonnes, which is an increase of
1.48 in percentage terms over the previous
assessments.  •
• According to the Report, the maximum increase
in forest cover has been observed in Tamil Nadu
– 2, 501 sq km, followed by Kerala – 1, 317 sq
km and Jammu & Kashmir – 450 sq km.
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover of
77, 462 sq km in the country, followed by
Arunachal Pradesh, with a forest cover of 67,
248 sq km and Chhattisgarh – 55, 586 sq km.
nutrients) ; S (Secondary- nutrient); Zn, Fe, Cu,
Mn, Bo (Micro - nutrients); and pH, EC, OC
(Physical parameters).
• Based on this, the SHC will also indicate fertilizer
recommendations and soil amendment required
for the farm.
• Further, it will advise the farmer on the fertilizers
and their quantities he should apply, and also the
soil amendments that he should undertake, so as
to realize optimal yields.
• It will be made available once in a cycle of 3
years, which will indicate the status of soil health
of a farmer’s holding for that particular period.
• Soil samples will be drawn in a grid of 2.5 ha in
irrigated area and 10 ha in rain- fed area with the
help of GPS tools and revenue maps.
• Mizoram, with 88.93 percentage of forest cover
has the highest forest cover in percentage terms,
followed by Lakshadweep with 84.56 per cent. 
• The states where forest cover has decreased
substantially are Mizoram , Telangana,
Uttarakhand, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.
• In world’s total mangrove vegetation, India’s
share stands at 3%. Currently Mangrove cover
in India is 4740 km² which is 0.14 % of the
country’s geographical area. Sundarbans in West
Bengal accounts for almost half of the total area.
As compared to 2013 there is a net increase of
112 sq km in the mangrove cover. 
Role of Forests
• Plants provide habitat to different types of
organisms. Birds build their nests on the branches
of trees, animals and birds live in the hollows,
insects and other organisms live in various parts
of the plant.
Forests act as hydrologic flow modulators. Plants
provide a protective canopy that lessens the
impact of raindrops on the soil, thereby reducing
soil erosion. Roots help to hold the soil in place.
They provide shade which prevents the soil to
become too dry. Thus increases the soil moisture
holding capacity.
• Forests help in maintaining microclimate of the
area. Plants clean the air, cool it on hot days,
conserve heat at night, and act as excellent sound
[9]
 absorbers. Transpiration from the forests affects
the relative humidity and precipitation in a place.
Forests clean the environment by muffling noises,
buffering strong winds and stopping dust and
gases.
• The layer of leaves that fall around the tree
prevents runoff and allows the water to percolate
into the soil. Thus helping in ground water
recharge.
• Dead plants decompose to form humus, organic
matter that holds the water and provides nutrients
to the soil.
• Through the process of photosynthesis, forests
renew the oxygen supply in the atmosphere by
absorbing atmospheric CO2 and moderating the
greenhouse effect.
• Forest play an important role in maintaining water
cycle of the area.
• Some species of trees have the ability to return
nitrogen to the soil through root decomposition
or fallen leaves. Such trees are planted to increase
the nitrogen content of the soil.
• Forests also helps in the process of soil formation
by causing weathering of rock.
• The play vital role in maintaining healthy
watershed.
• It provides forest food which has great medicinal
value and used by local people in respective
season.
Classification of natural vegetation in India
A. Tropical Wet Evergreen forests
• These are the typical rain forests of India.
• Annual rainfall: above 250 cm.
• Mean annual temperature: 27°C.
• Dry season is very brief.
• Western Ghats, parts of Karnataka (Anamalai
Hills, Coorg, Mysore Plateau), Cachar and
Brahmaputra valley of Assam and Andaman-
Nicobar islands.
B. Tropical Moist Semi-evergreen forests
• These forests are intermediate between the
evergreen and the deciduous forms.
• Annual rainfall: between 200-250 cm.
[10]
• Mean annual temperature: 26°C.
• Some trees shed their leaves for brief periods in
winter and spring.
• Western Ghats, parts of upper Assam, Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa and Andamans.
C. Tropical Moist Deciduous forests
• Annual rainfall: 150-200 cm.
• Drought period is for 1-2 months.
• Eastern side of Western Ghats, Chhota Nagpur,
Khasi Hills and a narrow belt along the foothills
of Himalayas.
• Based on dominant species, they are generally of
3 types: Sandal, Teak and Sal forests.
D. Littoral and Swamp forests
• They are subdivided into 3 years: beach, tidal
and fresh water swamp forests.
(a) Beach forests
• These are distributed all along the sandy sea
beaches and sandy flats of river deltas.
(b) Tidal forests
• These grow over the deltas of various rivers,
creeks along the coast and swampy margins of
islands.
• The plants often have prop roots with well
developed pneumatophores for support and
aeration.
(c) Fresh Water Swamp forests
• They grow in depressions where rain-water or
swollen river-water collects for some period.
• Elephant grass (Typha species) is quite common
in these forests.
E. Tropical Dry Deciduous forests
• They cover about 40% of total land in India.
• Annual rainfall: 75-125 cm.
• Dry season extends for about 6 months.
• They spread from foot of Himalayas to extreme
South (except Wester n Ghats, Rajasthan,
Kashmir, Bengal and other Eastern States).
F. Tropical Thorn forests
• They occur on rocky substrata.
• Annual rainfall: 25-75 cm.
• The vegetation is dominated by Acacia and
Euphorbia (thorny plants).
• Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi,
Bundelkhand part of Uttar Pradesh, parts of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
G. Tropical Dry Evergreen forests
• They receive rain from retreating monsoon.
• Parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
H. Montane Subtropical forests
• These are intermediate between tropical and
temperate forest and therefore, exhibit mixed
vegetation of both types.
• They are divisible into three sub-types:
(a) Broad-leaved hill forests: Nilgiri and Palni Hills of
South, Mahableshwar and other areas of
Maharashtra, Mout Abu, Pachmarhi in M.P.,
Parasnath in Bihar, kalimpong and Darjeeling.
(b) Pine forests: Foothills of Himalayas and in the
East over Khasi, Naga, Manipur and Lushai hills.
(c) Dry evergreen forests: Shiwalik Hills, Punjab,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir.
I. Montane Temperate forests
• These forests develop at a height of 1700 metres
in the hills of both North and South.
• They are not humid.
• They are of three types:
(a) Montane wet temperate forests: these are found in
both North and South. The Southern wet
temperate forests are called Shoals. They occur
in Nilgiris, Annamalai, Palni, Tinnevelly hills of
both Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
(b) Himalayan moist temperate Forests: Western and
central Himalayas.
(c) Himalayan Dry temperate Forests: Inner Himalayas.
J. Sub-Alpine forests
• They are found throughout Himalayas till the
timber line.
• It spreads from Ladakh in west to Arunachal
Pradesh in East.
• Annual rainfall is less than 65 cm.
• Snowfall occurs for several weeks in a year.
• It has two types of forests: Silver fir-Birch Forest
and Birch-Rhododendron Forest.
K. Alpine forest
• These are found above the timber line and upto
snow line in Himalayas.
• Rainfall is almost absent.
• Snowfall is common.
• The vegetation is commonly known as elfin scrub
(short stems; branches come out of soil and creep
along the ground and form tangled masses).
• This vegetation is divided into four types: moist
alpine scrub, dry alpine scrub, alpine stony deserts
and alpine meadows.
L. Grassland Vegetation
• Natural grasslands are hardly present in India but
have developed secondarily by the sestruction of
forests. This is known as secondary development.
• Indian grasslands are of three major types:
(i) Xerophilous (North-West India under semi-desert
conditions).
(ii) Mesophilous (Savannahs) are typical of moist
deciduous forests of UP.
(iii) Hygrophilous (Wet Savannahs).
M. Desert Vegetation
• Rainfall is scanty, infrequent and irregular (10cm)
• The vegetation cover is sparse.
• Vegetation is of thorn forest type.
• Natural vegetation contributes to productivity of
trees like Khejri (Prosopis cineraria).
Deforestation
Definition
According to FAO, deforestation is the conversion of
forest to another land use or the long-term reduction
of tree canopy cover below the 10% threshold.
Deforestation defined broadly can include not only
conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that
reduces forest quality - the density and structure of
the trees, the ecological services supplied, the biomass
of plants and animals, the species diversity and the
genetic diversity.
[11]
Causes of deforestation
• Expansion of farming land.
• Shifting cultivation.
• Demand for firewood.
• Demand of wood for industry and commercial
purposes.
• Urbanization and developmental projects.
• Increase of wildlife tourism.
• Overpopulation and poverty.
• Construction of dam reservoirs.
Consequences of deforestation
• Soil degradation and erosion.
• Changes in climatic conditions.
• Destruction of natural habitats.
• Destruction of a valuable sink for environmental
pollutants.
Remedial measures:
• Intensive development schemes for afforestation
should be adopted. High yielding varieties should
be planted in suitable areas.
• Latest techniques of seasoning and preservation
are necessary to avoid wastage.
• Proper arrangement to save forests from fires and
plant diseases can go a long way to solve several
problems.
• A thorough inventory of forest resources is
necessary to make an accurate assessment of
our forest resources and make plans for their
proper use.
• Shifting cultivation should be discouraged and
tribals depending on this type of cultivation
should be provided with alternate sources of
livelihood.
• People associated with forest protection should
be properly trained.
Government initiatives
a) Survey and inventorisation of floral and faunal
resources are carried out by Botanical Survey of
India (BSI) and Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).
The Forest Survey of India assesses the forest
cover to develop an accurate database for planning
and monitoring purposes.
[12]
b) Biological Diversity Act 2002 has been enacted
and Biological Diversity Rules 2004 have been
notified, which aim at conservation of biological
resources of the country and regulation of access
to these resources to ensure equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of their use.
c) Industries to obtain “Consent for Establishment”
as well as “Consent to Operate” under the
provisions of the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 from the
concerned State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
prior to carrying out operations.
d) Environmental Impact Assessment of
developmental projects and preparation of
Environmental Management Plan as per the
provisions of the Environmental Impact
Assessment notification of September, 2006.
e) Adoption of cleaner technologies and use of
improved fuel quality.
f) Regular monitoring of industrial units for
environmental compliance.
g) In acknowledging this factor, the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India
issued policy guidelines for the involvement of
village communities and voluntary agencies in
the regeneration of degraded forest lands on June
1, 1990 under the JFM (joint forest management)
programme. Joint Forest Management is a process
in which protection and management of forests
is jointly undertaken by Forest Department and
the local communities.
h) Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or
natural vegetation – from a few trees to forests
of several acres – that are usually dedicated
to local folk deities or tree spirits (Vanadevatais).
These spaces are protected by local
communities because of their religious beliefs and
traditional rituals that run through several
generations.
i) The National Mission for a Green India for
enhancing quality of forest cover and improving
ecosystem services from 4.9 million hectares
(mha) of predominantly forest lands, including
1.5 mha of moderately dense forest cover, 3 mha
of open forest cover, 0.4 mha of degraded grass
lands.
j) Eco-restoration/afforestation to increase forest
cover and eco system services from 1.8 m ha
forest/non forest lands, including scrub lands,
shifting cultivation areas, abandoned mining areas,
ravine lands, mangroves and sea-buckthorn areas.
k) Enhancing tree cover in 0.2 mha Urban and Peri-
Urban areas (including institutional lands)
Social Forestry
• Social forestry has been defined differently by
the different social scientists. In the opinion of
some of the experts, the trees planted by the
community, individuals, government or the
individuals outside the conventional forest areas
is known as social forestry.
• Social Forestry has also been defined as the forest
by the people; of the people; and for the people.
Objectives
• The main objectives of social forestry are as
under:
1. To meet the fuelwood and timber requirements
of the fast growing rural population.
2. To provide fodder to livestock and cattle.
3. To provide raw materials for the cottage and
household industries, e.g. basket making, bidi-
making, manufacturing of cane goods, sports
goods, etc.
4. To obtain forest products like, gum, lac, wax,
honey, resins, etc.
5. To generate rural employment for the landless
workers and marginal farmers.
6. To work as a wind break.
7. To check soil erosion and flood control.
8. To keep the environment in a healthy condition
and to improve the resilience characteristics of
the ecosystem.
9. To provide the places of recreation for the rural
people.
Classification of Social Forestry
• Rural forestry developed on the community land.
• Social forestry developed on culturable wastelands
along the roads, railways, canals and river banks.
• Forestry developed by the individual farmers along
the field boundaries.
• Urban forestry developed by the government,
NGOs or community on the outskirts of the
urban areas.
• Forestry developed by the tribals in the degraded
forest areas.
Problems and prospects
• In India, social forestry has great scope in the
degraded tracts of the Himalayas, hills of North
-East India. Chhotanagpur Plateau, Vindhyan and
Satpura Systems. Aravallis, Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats, and on the culturable wastelands
along the railway tracts, roads, canals and rivers.
• The survival rate is very poor and mass
involvement is not at the desired level. Apart
from the good quality seedlings, fencing of the
planted trees is a must to get better results.
• Extension services and co-operation of the rural
people by providing them incentives may go a
long way in making social forestry a big success
in the country.
`Agro Forestry
• Agro forestry is a system of land use in which
perennial trees are used as annual agricultural
crops to obtain more income.
• Apart from money, agro-forestry provides wood,
timber and fodder to the cultivator.
• Agro forestry, however, lowers the underground
water table and depletes the natural fertility of
the soil Agro-forestry has become quite popular
in the Sutlej-Ganga Plain.
Various Forms of Agroforestry
• Agri-silviculture system: Concurrent production
of agricultural corps & forest trees.
• Silvipastoral System: Forest based livestock
production system where production of wood
and rearing of domestic animals are done
simultaneously.
• Agro-silvipastoral system: Land is utilized
simultaneously for the production of agricultural
crops, forest trees and rearing of domestic animals.
• Multipurpose forest tree production system: In
this system trees are grown not only for wood
but also for leaves, fruits, fodder and other useful
by-products, including soil cover crops and
intercropping with high value spices in man-made
plantations.
Benefits of Agroforestry System
A) Environmental benefits
• Reduction of pressure on natural forests.
[13]
• More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep
rooted trees on the site.
• Better protection of ecological systems.
• Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching
and soil erosion through impeding effect of tree
roots and stems on these processes.
• Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering
of soil surface temperature and reduction of
evaporation of soil moisture through a
combination of mulching and shading.
• Increment in soil nutrients through addition and
decomposition of litter fall.
• Improvement of soil structure through the
constant addition of organic matter from
decomposed litter.
B) Economic benefits
• Increment in the output of food, fuel wood,
fodder, fertilizer and timber;
• Reduction in incidences of total crop failure,
which is common to single cropping or
monoculture systems;
• Increase in levels of farm income due to improved
and sustained productivity.
C) Social benefits    
• Improvement in rural living standards from
sustained employ­ment and higher income.
• Improvement in nutrition and health due to
increased quality and diversity of food outputs.
• Stabilization and improvement of communities
through elimination of the need to shift sites of
farm activities.

Water Resource
India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s • About two–third of the total surface water flows
surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources into three major rivers of the country – Indus,
and about 16 per cent of world’s population. The Ganges and Brahmaputras. The water storage
total water available from precipitation in the country capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far
in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability is about 17,400 billion cubic metres.
from surface water and replenishable groundwater is
1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be • The storage capacity of usable water in the
put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water Ganges basin is the maximum, but in spite of
resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km. maximum annual flow, the storage capacity of
usable water is the least in Brahmaputras basin.
River Basins of India
• The storage capacity in Godavari, Krishna,
River Basin Area (km2) Per cent Mahanadi and Indus is sufficient.
1. Ganga 861,404 21.2% • If storage capacity of usable water is seen in
2. Indus 321,284 9.8% terms of ratio, then of Tapi river basin is 97
percent.
3. Godavri 312,812 9.5%
Ground water resources
4. Krishna 258,948 7.9%
• The total Annual Replenishable ground water
5. Brahmaputra 258,008 7.8% resources of the Country have been estimated as
6. Mahanadi 141,589 4.3% 431 billion cubic meter (BCM). 

Surface Water Resource
• The main source of surface water is precipitation.
• About 20 percent part of the precipitation
evaporates and mixes with the environment.
• The large part of surface water is found in rivers,
riverlets, ponds and lakes. Remaining water flows
into the seas, oceans. Water found on the surface
is called surface water.
• Keeping 35 BCM for natural discharge, the net
annual ground water availability for the entire
Country is 396 BCM.
• The Annual ground water draft is 243 BCM out
of which 221 BCM is for irrigation use and 22
BCM is for domestic & industrial use.
• The groundwater utilisation is very high in the
states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil
Nadu.

[14]
• However, there are States like Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small
proportion of their groundwater potentials. States
like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and
Maharashtra are utilising their ground water
resources at a moderate rate.
• If the present trend continues, the demands for
water would need the supplies. And such
situation, will be detrimental to development, and
can cause social upheaval and disruptions.
Lagoons and Backwaters
• India has a vast coastline and the coast is very
indented in some states.
• Due to this, a number of lagoons and lakes have
formed.
• The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal
have vast surface water resources in these lagoons
and lakes.
• Although, water is generally brackish in these
water-bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating
certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
Inland Water Resources
• Inland water resources include streams (rivers),
canals, lakes, ponds and wet lands.
• These resources’ offer several services to man
which include:
1. Domestic water supply:
• Inland water resources cater to the domestic
needs of man for drinking, cooking, bathing,
cleaning, watering plants, and crops.
• The water should be pure, free from bacteria and
other contaminants (salts, sediments, etc.), taste,
smell, and colour.
2. Industrial water supply:
• Industrial plants require water in more quantities
than for domestic purposes. Water is needed in-
industries for producing steam, for condensing
steam, for solution chemical, for humidifiers and
refrigerators, for cooling hot Metals, for washing
coke; for the manufacture of acids and alkalies
in chemical industries, and for washing and dying
of hides, etc.
• Water often gets contaminated when it comes
from mining areas.
3. Fishing:
• Rivers, lakes and ponds are sources of inland
fishery.
• The Ganga, Sutlej, Mahanadi, etc. in India and
many other rivers provide fish for local
consumption.
4. Irrigation of Crops:
• In India, various means of irrigation—Canals,
wells and tube wells, tanks, are extensively used.
• Selection of crops is largely determined by the
availability of water for irrigation.
5. Navigation:
• Navigation in rivers, canals and lakes is
determined by a number of factors including : (i)
the direction of river flow, (ii) geographical
location of water bodies, (iii) extent of the water
body, (iv) amount of water in rivers or lakes, (v)
depth and width of water, (vi) meandering of
rivers, (vii) swift flow of the stream, (viii) rocks,
sand bars etc. in the river channels, (ix) rapids
and waterfalls on the rivers, (x) weather conditions
and floods, (xi) shifting of river channels, (xii)
landing places.
6. Generation of Steam Power and Hydro-electricity:
• Steam power is generated from water to drive
machines of plants and locomotives. This steam
power is used to generate thermal electricity for
plants.
• Hydro-electricity is the cheapest and the cleanest
of all the sources of power.
• Besides, it is a renewable and inexhaustible
resource.
• A major advantage of hydro-electricity is its
utility in decentralization of industries, while the
use of coal favours the centralization of industries
which creates ninny adverse environmental
effects.
7. Availability of minerals:
• Some lakes provide minerals such as salts,
potassium etc.
• The Sambhar Lake, the Pachpadra Lake and the
Lunkaransar in Rajasthan are sources of salt
production in India.
[15]
 Irrigation in India
• Indian agriculture depends on the monsoon for
its water requirement. Even if the monsoon is
normal all the places need not get sufficient
rainfall, some place may get high rainfall, or some
places get very low rainfall as in Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, etc.
• The early or delayed withdrawal of monsoon
affects the cropping pattern. In the dry period
after monsoon, crops cannot be raised without
irrigation.
• So irrigation becomes indispensable in India as
many people directly or indirectly still depends
on agriculture for their subsistence.
• The sources of irrigation can be divided into four
categories viz. Canals, Wells, Tanks and other
Channels.
• Wells: Wells and tube wells account about 55.9%
of the total irrigation, derives water from
underground sources, so it is a widely distributed
source of irrigation. The major states where well
irrigation is utilised are Punjab, UP, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharastra, MP and TN.
• Canals: Canals account 31.7% of the total
irrigation, it uses surface water from rivers and
becomes a principal source of irrigation in India.
UP has a good network of canals followed by
Punjab, Haryana and Andra Pradesh.
• Tanks: Tanks account 5.9% of the total irrigation,
mainly found in peninsular India, most of them
Major Dams of India
[16]
are small in size and due to high evaporation, it
supplies water only for one crop in year. TN,
Karnataka, AP and Orissa tops in tank irrigation.
• Other sources: The other sources of irrigation
include as small dams like ahars and pynes in
Bihar, spring channels of TN, water holes in flood
plains, etc account for 6.4 of the total irrigation.
Distribution of Irrigated Areas
a) The percentage of irrigated land varies from state
to state. It varies from state to state with lowest
being in Mizoram (6.4 per cent) and highest in
Punjab (92.9 per cent).
b) Punjab is at the top in proportion of irrigated
area followed by Haryana, U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand,
Jammu and Kashmir. Manipur in the north east
region irrigate more than 40 per cent of their net
cropped area.
• For the better utilization of the total potential
the irrigation schemes have been divided into-
(1) Major Projects: Cultivable command area of
more than 10,000 hectare, (including canal
irrigation).
(2) Medium Project: Cultivable command area
between 2000 and 10000 hectare.
(3) Minor Projects: Cultivable command area less
than 2000 hectare, include mainly well-irrigation.
(4) Micro Projects: Drip irrigation and the use of
sprinklers.
 Oceanic Water Resources
• Oceans comprise nearly 71% of the total area of
the earth.
• Oceans differ from continents not only in their
areal extent but also in depth.
• The Pacific, the largest ocean, occupying two
fifth of the total area of the hydrosphere, is called
‘the water hemisphere’.
• The Indian ocean, the only ocean named after a
country is bounded in the North by South Asia.
The Arctic ocean surrounds the North Pole.
• The Atlantic ocean is S-shaped and opens into
the Arctic ocean in the North and into the
Antarctic Ocean in the South.
• The Antarctic ocean, according to some
geographers, is the extension of the Indian, the
Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
Main Features of Oceans
The oceans have some peculiar physical and chemical
properties, mentioned as under:
i. Oceanic water is saline. The average salinity of
oceans is about 35%. These salts are deposited
in oceans by rivers.
ii. The average temperature of the oceanic surface
is about 26.5°C in the tropical regions, 15.5°C in
the temperate regions and 1.11°C in sub-polar
regions
iii. The density of oceanic water is slightly more
than that of pure water.
iv. Two types of deposits are found in ocean bottom
: (a) terrigenous deposits, and (b) pelagic deposits.
The former includes those brought by rivers and
waves, e.g., sand, gravel, mud, coral, etc. The
latter are found far away from the coast and
include clays volcanic dusts and oozes.
v. The sun light penetrates the ocean water upto a
depth of a few hundred metres only. Below 600
metres, it becomes quite dark and farther below
1000 metres it is pitch dark, the only source of
light being that produced by phosphorescent
animal.
vi. The ocean contains a vivid marine life-ranging
from the least developed protozoa to huge
mammals.
Importance of Oceans
• Oceans affect climate in a big way; for they are
the source of rainfall and they control and
moderate temperatures.
• Proximity to sea is favourable for human health.
• Oceans provide many mineral and chemical
products.
• Fishing provides food material.
• Oceans provide nearly 98% of the international
trade and commercial transport.
• Oceans are a great store house of potential energy.
Industrial energy can be produced from Sea waves
and tides.
• Human civilization is greatly affected by oceans.
• Navigation develops in coastal areas and such
countries become a great naval power.
• Oceanic waters keep the coastal areas clean.
Water Resources Management- Challenges/Issues
in the Country
The major challenges/issues associated with the water
resources management and development in the
country is varied and complex and could be
categorized as follows:
• Natural situation (Tropical Monsoon climate) –
Causes large scale spatial and temporal variation
in water availability, recurring droughts and
frequent floods.
• Human, Managerial and Developmental
challenges – These is increasing water demand
and falling per capita availability, water use and
energy efficiency, deterioration of water quality,
reduction or deterioration of available resources
(loss of surface storage), increasing competition/
conflict within sectors, under and inefficient
utilization of irrigation potential, over exploitation
and depletion of ground water resources, water-
logging and soil salinity in irrigated lands,
fragmentation of management of water/
management of shared resources, lack of spatial
inventory for large number of water infrastructure
in the country, currently used water resources
potential estimates are old, significant change in
land use / land cover, demographic and utilization
pattern in past few decades.
[17]
• Climate change impact –Addressing the impact
of climate change on water availability and
economy. Analysis of scenarios for impacts on
resources and use is required to evaluate water
policies.
Water conservation initiatives by the government
• “Hamara Jal – Hamara Jeevan” organised in 485
districts to engage scientists, engineers, water
communities, Panchayati Raj Institutions, NGO’s
and other stake holders to address issues of water
resources planning at village level to generate
awareness for water conservation.  efficient use of water.
• National Aquifer Management project undertaken
for optimal utilisation of groundwater with
community participation. 5.89 lakh sq. km area
mapped - partly through innovative heliborne
surveys.  Issue of Water Pollution
• Web based application system for issuing NOC
for ground water extraction launched.  1.
• Master Plan on Water harvesting and
conservation prepared and circulated to all States. 
• Simplification of guidelines for centrally
sponsored schemes, viz. AIBP and Flood
Management Programme (FMP) on the basis of
consultations in ‘Jal Manthan’ - resulting in faster
release of funds – from Rs. 800 crore. in the first
six months of the year to Rs. 4800 crore in the
next six months.  •
• National Hydrology Project launched at a cost
of Rs. 3600 crore. This project will establish and
upgrade Hydro-met network in all the river basins
and bring the entire hydro-meteorological data
on a standardized central database for easy
storage, validation and dissemination for
development of Decision Support Systems for
flood forecasting, reservoir operations, water
resources planning and management, conjunctive
use, etc. following a river basin approach. The
project will also enhance the capacity of the
States in these issues.  release efffuents with a wide variety of inorganic
• “Namami Gange” - Integrated Ganga
Conservation Programme approved at the cost
of Rs. 20000 crore to be implemented by year
2020.  acids, dyes, cyanides, DM, etc Industrial Wastes
• Strengthening of Participatory Irrigation
Management and involving public participation
in Ground Water management and rain water
harvesting
[18]
• Rejuvenation of Yamuna River. 
• Expeditious implementation of Pancheshwar
Multipurpose Project and middle Siang project. 
• Launching of ‘JAL KRANTI ABHIYAAN’. The
aim is to consolidate water conservation and
management in the country through a holistic
and integrated approach involving all stakeholders,
making it a mass movement.
• National Bureau of Water Use Efficiency is
proposed to be set up to control and regulate
 
• Modernization and expansion of Flood
Forecasting Network of Central Water
Commission.
The chief sources of pollution are:
Sewage and other waste: 
• Sewage is the water-borne waste derived from
home (domestic waste) and animal or food
processing plants. It includes human excreta,
paper, cloth, soap; detergents etc.
• There is uncontrolled dumping, of wastes of rural
and urban areas into ponds, lakes, streams or
rivers.
One of the most common primary source of
water pollution is the discharge of untreated or
partially treated sewage in water bodies.
• Such a discharge of sewage and other wastes in
water results into depletion of oxygen levels of
water and stimulation of algal growth. Such water-
bodies become rich in nutrients and eutrophic.
2. Industrial effluents: 
• Breweries, tanneries, dying textiles; paper and
pulp-mills, steel plants, mining operations, etc.,
and organic pollutants.
• The pollutants include oils, greases, plastics,,
metallic wastes; suspended solids, phenols, toxins,
contain toxicants, which have harmful effects due
to presence, of heavy metals and pesticides are
not readily degraded and they enter the food chain
causing much damage to biota of ecosystem.
3. Agricultural discharges:  h)
• These includes chiefly the chemicals used as
fertilisers and pesticides.
• These discharges reach into the water-bodies and
make their water unfit for drinking, besides
causing diseases and even death.
4. Industrial wastes:
• Heat and radio-active substances are the two chief
pollutants. These  wastes chiefly come from
power plants. The quantity of waste water is
highest in thermal plants.
• Heat contributes to thermal pollution. Some
plants and animals are killed outright by this hot
water. Aquatic life is adversely affected.
Water conservation methodologies
A. Watershed development
• The meaning of watershed refers to an area whose
water flows towards a point.
• Watershed management is the process of guiding
and organizing land use and use of other resources
in a watershed to provide desired goods and
services without adversely affecting soil and water
resources. Embedded in this concept is the
recognition of the interrelationships among land
use, soil and water and the linkages between
uplands and downstream areas.
• The chief purpose is to prevent rapid run-off
and underground water percolation in the water
shed area.
• Benefits:
a) Supply of water for drinking and irrigation.
b) Increase in bio-diversity.
c) Loss of acidity in the soil and free for standing
water.
d) Increase in the agricultural production and
productivity.
e) Decrease in the cutting of forests.
f) Increase in the standard of living.
g) Increase in employment.
Increase in personal get together by participation
of local people.
B. Rainwater Harvesting
• Rain water harvesting is done to store rainwater
in containers above or below the ground or
charged into soil for withdrawal later. It is a
method of utilizing rain water for domestic and
agricultural use.
• Benefits of Rain Water Harvesting:
a) It increases the availability of water.
b) It checks declining water table.
c) It improves the quality of ground water through
the dilation of fluoride, nitrate and salinity.
d) It prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in
urban areas.
C. Other measures:
• Educate the community about the importance
of recycling.
• Provide containers to recycle paper, glass, tin and
plastic.
• Enforce large fines for the illegal dumping of
sewage into rivers and streams.
• Ensure that informal settlements are supplied
with the proper facilities for the sewage removal
by municipalities
• Enforce strict laws to prevent factories from
dumping wastes into rivers, streams, dams and
seas.
• Check oil tankers thoroughly checked for
seaworthiness before they leave harbours.
• Enforce strict laws and very large penalties when
oil tankers leak or sink and spill oil. Hold the oil
companies accountable for cleaning up any oil
spills.
• Encourage the use of organic fertilisers instead
of inorganic fertilisers.
• Encourage farmers to use natural pesticides and
natural enemies instead of artificial pesticides
and herbicides.
• Educate farmers about the use of approved
pesticides and herbicides.
[19]
 Energy Resources
Energy is the key to development. In fact, the amount
of energy production and consumption is sometimes
considered as an index of a country’s economic
development.
Conventional (Non-Renewable) Energy Resources
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are found inside the earth’s crust where
they have formed through heat and compression of
forests, waste and other organic matter, which got
buried due to earthquake, landslide, etc.
Classification of Fossil Fuels
(A) Solid (e.g. Coal)
Coal is the most abundantly found fossil fuel in the
world. It contains carbon, water, sulphur and nitrogen.
Coal meets 70 per cent of the total energy needs of
the world found and 87.4 per cent of all commercial
energy. In India about 58 per cent of commercial
energy is obtained from coal and 38 per cent from
petroleum along with natural gas.
Coal is used for cooking, heating, in industries and
thermal power plants. Petroleum is useful for
transportation; agricultural equipments and, some
industries. Natural gas is used both in cooking and in
industries.
Types of Coal or Coal Energy
The amount of fixed carbon and hydro carbons forms
the basis of classification of coal into various types
given as under:
• Anthracite is a hard and dense coal which is
relatively free of iron compounds and moisture.
The amount affixed carbon may be as high as 95
percent. It is jet black, lustrous and has a fine
texture. It burns with a blue flame and gives no
smoke.
• Bituminous coal is unusually black and highly
lustrous. The moisture content is relatively low.
The fixed carbon content ranges from about 50
to over 80% and that of volatile matter from 40
to 15 per cent.
• Lignite is also known as brown coal. The higher
grades vary from dark brown to almost black. It
is characterized by high moisture content,
generally about 40%. The fixed carbon content
is also about 40%. The structure is fibrous, and
sometimes woody. It has the tendency to crumble
into fine coal in shipment and in storage.
[20]
• Peat occurs in bogs, especially in areas of cool
temperate climates.
Advantages of Coal
• Coal is present in large amount (Most abundant).
So it can be used as an energy source.
Disadvantages of Coal
• Release of CO2 and SO2 gas in the atmosphere
cause Green House Effect and Global Warming.
• In thermal power plants, burning of coal also
generates large amount of flyash. Flyash is a toxic
waste, contains toxic heavy metals.
• Workers in the coal mines suffer from following
lung diseases: Black-lung disease, Asthma,
Bronchitis, Lung cancer.
(B) Liquid (e.g. Petroleum)
Petroleum or Crude Oil
• The gaseous fuels are basically derived from
petroleum. It is a natural, underground fossil
energy resource. It is formed due to
decomposition of micro plankton deposited upon
the sea beds, lakes and rivers for millions of years.
The decomposition takes place by the action of
bacteria, under lack of oxygen and also by
catalytic cracking. It is also called crude oil.
• The following are the various uses of petroleum:
a) For heating homes particularly in the cold regions.
b) As industrial power to drive/move engines and
for heating furnaces and producing thermal
electricity.
c) As transport power for driving railways, motor
cars, ships and aeroplanes.
d) As lubricants of machines especially high speed
machines.
e) As a raw material in various petro-chemical
industries, such as synthetic rubber, synthetic
fibres, fertilizers, medicines, etc.
• Advantages of Petroleum
a) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is easy to transport.
b) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is comparatively cleaner.
c) They have made possible the introduction and
development of newer means of transport.
• Disadvantages
a) After extraction it causes contamination in the
water when the leakage takes place.
b) It’s burning produces CO2 and enhances the green
house effect.
c) All combustion processes produce the pollutants
like NO, SO2, CO, NO2, CO2, Smog.
d) Petroleum contributes to acid rain and urban
pollution.
(c) Gaseous (e.g. Natural Gas)
• Natural gas is a fossil fuel.
• It is eco-friendly fuel.
• It is a mixture, of hydrocarbon gases trapped
under the earth’s surface. It is mainly consisting
of methane (CH4), Propane (C3H8) and Butane
(C4H10). After processing it is transported to
supply filling stations. Natural gas can be used in
two different forms.
1. LPG (Liquefied petroleum Gas)
It is the mixture of Propane, Butane and Ethane.
2. CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
It is mainly Methane (CH4.).
The major uses of natural gas include:
• It is widely used as fuel in industries and in
domestic cooking.
• Petro-chemical industries use natural gas as fuel
and raw material.
• Chemical industries such as artificial rubber,
plastics, fertilizers, ink, carbon, etc. use natural
gas as raw material.
• Natural gas is sometimes used for artificial
lighting.
Advantages
• It is a clean fuel, requiring little processing.
• It can be readily transported.
• Smog formation is less in its use.
• It is cheaper than petroleum.
Disadvantages
• It requires both high pressure and low temperature
for compression.
• Thick walled tanks are required for storage as it
is stored at a high pressure.
• Methane is a green house gas.
• Leakage, in any case, is a serious threat to the
environment.
Shale gas
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within
shale formations. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary
rocks that can be rich resources of petroleum and
natural gas. Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by
the accumulation of sediments at the Earth’s surface
and within bodies of water. Common sedimentary
rocks include sandstone, limestone, and shale.
Environmental Impact
• Unavoidable impacts are area consumption due
to drilling pads, parking and manouvering areas
for tr ucks, equipment, gas processing and
transporting facilities as well as access roads.
• Major possible impacts are air emissions of
pollutants, groundwater contamination due to
uncontrolled gas or fluid flows due to blowouts
or spills, leaking fracturing fluid, and uncontrolled
waste water discharge.
• Fracturing fluids contain hazardous substances,
and flow-back in addition contains heavy metals
and radioactive materials from the deposit.
Groundwater contamination by methane, in
extreme cases leading to explosion of residential
buildings, and potassium chloride leading to
salinization of drinking water is reported in the
vicinity of gas wells.
• The impacts add up as shale formations are
developed with a high well density (up to six
wells per km²).
Coal bed Methane
• Coal Bed Methane is methane (natural gas)
trapped in coal seams underground.
• To extract the gas, after drilling into the seam, it
is necessary to pump large amounts of water out
of the coal seam to lower the pressure.
• It is often also necessary to frack the seam to
extract the gas.
• There are a similar catalogue of negative
environmental and social effects as with Shale
Gas.
• This includes methane migration, toxic water
contamination, air pollution, increased carbon
[21]
 emissions and a general industrialisation of the
countryside. Impacts that are specific to CBM
include depletion of the water table and
potentially subsidence.
Nuclear Energy
• It is a highly developed alternative for energy
production in place of coal.
• Nuclear energy by can be derived by two
processes: Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion.
• Nuclear Fission (Chain-Reaction Mechanism)
a) The heavy nucleus on bombardment with neutron
splits into lighter nuclei (Barium and Krypton)
releases large amount of energy. One a.m.u.
(Atomic Mass Unit) of uranium-235 yield energy
equal to burning of 15 metric tons of coal.
b) Nuclear reactors are the devices need to liberate
energy from nuclear fuels, under controlled
conditions. The output of these reactors is in the
form of a high temperature fluid. This can be
used in the generation of electricity or as a direct
source of heat for intensive industries.
• Advantages of Nuclear Energy
a) Large amount of energy is produced in nuclear
fission reaction.
• Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
a) High safety measures are required in the
operations of Nuclear Reactors.
b) Highly equipped (knowledge + equipments)
engineers are required for operating nuclear
reactors.
c) Radioactive waste is released from Nuclear Power
plants. It cannot be buried inside the earth and
under the groundwater.
d) Due to high safety measures, nuclear reactors are
located in isolated areas. To reduce the risks.
Nuclear power plants are far distance away from
the industries that require high energy in the areas
of high population.
e) Due to uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction in
the nuclear reactor, explosion Occurs. e.g.
Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Chernobyl, 1986
and Fukushima nuclear disaster, 2011.
• Due to radioactive pollution of iodine-131;
Cesium 134, Cesium 137, thousands of people
died and suffered from variety of diseases biz.
loss of hair, thyroid; blood cancers, nausea,
anaemia and ulcerating skirt:
[22]
• Large social and economic loss occurred.
• Genetic Diseases: Sudden change in the genes is
known as mutation, causes genetic diseases. Atom
bomb explosion in Hiroshima Nagasaki, Japan
also caused genetic diseases and large socio-
economic loss.
Renewable Energy Resources
Solar Energy
• Solar energy is available in very large amount,
thus considered perpetual energy resource and is
considered major future source of energy.
• Ultimate source of energy in an ecosystem is
Sun.
• Solar energy influences earth’s climate. Wind
energy, biomass and hydropower are the resultant
of solar energy.
Applications of Solar energy
A. Photovoltaic: Conversion of Solar Energy of
Electricity
• Semiconductors when irradiated with sunlight,
electrons present in their ground state get
energized to jump to an excited state i.e. flow of
electrons occur and generates electricity. The
phenomenon is known as Photovoltaic’s (PVs).
• Thus, Photovoltaic’s are the arrays of cells
consisting of semiconductors that effectively
converts solar radiation into electricity (Direct
Current), used to power bulb or equipment or to
recharge a battery. An inverter converts DC to
AC for, grid connected power generation.
B. Solar Thermal
• Solar Thermal Power systems, also known
as Concentrating Solar Power systems, use
concentrated solar radiation as a high temperature
energy source to produce electricity using thermal
route.
C. Other Applications of Solar Energy
• Solar cooker
• Solar water heater
• Solar furnace
• Solar power plant
• Solar toys
• Solar air-conditioning
• Solar vehicles
• Solar chimney
• Space cooling and heating
• Day lighting (solar street lights and traffic lights)
• Solar desalination
Advantages of Solar Energy
(i) It is renewable energy resource.
(ii) Solar power is pollution free.
(iii) Solar powered instruments are easy to install and
use e.g. solar panels, solar water heaters, solar
lighting, solar Pumps, solar fountains.
(iv) Long life and low maintenance.
(v) Solar system based electricity is a cheaper source
of energy as compared to energy obtained from
conventional electric systems.
(vi) Solar Photovoltaics are used for the electricity
generation in remote and isolated areas e.g. forest,
hills, deserts. PV is frequently used in watches,
pocket calculators and toys.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
(i) Solar energy production is hampered when the
Sun is not available (i.e. during nights, less sunny
days and cloudy days).
(ii) Technology is to be kept advancing in such a
way to efficiently capture the solar radiations over
a larger area.
(iii) Initial cost of installation is high. In case of
photovoltaic cell, price of silicon wafers makes
it very costly.
(iv) Solar cooking is a long time taking process. The
food kept in the container can be over-heated if
not removed from solar-cooker timely.
(v) Solar cooker cannot work as a substitute of LPG
chullas because all type of foods cannot be
prepared in solar cooker, e.g., chapatti.
Potential available in India
• India is endowed with vast solar energy potential.
About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is
incident over India’s land area with most parts
receiving 3-5 kWh per sq. m per day. Based upon
the availability of land and solar radiation, the
potential of solar power in the country has been
assessed to be 750 GW.
Hydro Energy
Generation of electricity by using the force of falling
water is called hydro electricity or hydel power. It is
cheaper than thermal or nuclear power. Dams are built
to store water at a higher level; which is made to fall
to rotate turbines that generate electricity.
The basic principle behind hydropower energy is the
damming of rivers to create artificial in waterfalls,
sometimes natural waterfalls are also used. The falling
water is used to turn the turbines that drive electrical
generators.
Advantages:
(i) Clean source of energy (eco-friendly or non-
polluting).
(ii) Cheaper than thermal power plants.
(iii) Other benefits e.g. fishing, beauty of land- area.
Disadvantages:
(i) Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS). The
continuous pressure of water column on the earth
core increases the probability of occurrences of
earthquakes.
(ii) Water-borne and water induced diseases are
caused.
(iii) Flood is caused if leakage occurs in the dam.
Potential:
India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric
potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-
potential on global scenario. As per assessment made
by CEA, India is endowed with economically
exploitable hydro-power potential to the tune of
148700 MW of installed capacity.
Wind Energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the
movement of atmospheric air. Wind energy systems
convert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of
power.
The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity
of 23,439.26 MW (as on March 31, 2015). In terms
of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked 5th
in the World. Today India is a major player in the
global wind energy market.
Advantages
(i) Cost of production is not high, can be reduced
by research.
[23]
(ii) Initial investment is moderate.
(iii) Operation and maintenance cost is not high.
(iv) Eco-friendly.
(v) Available in large amount.
(vi) Produce more energy due to high efficiency.
(vi) Land below turbines can be used for growing
crops and stock (animal) grazing.
Disadvantages
(i) Availability depends on steady (continuous) winds
or climate.
(ii) Unsteady winds affect power production.
(iii) Noise pollution (a) due to rotation of blades; (b)
due to rotation of turbines.
(iv) Large open area is required for electricity
production.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Energy is the energy obtained from heat
stored in the earth crust and used for various purposes
like electricity generation or direct heating
applications. Geothermal energy is basically stored in
earth crust up to depth of 3 to 4 km. 
Hot water and steam from deep underground can be
piped up through underground wells and used to
generate electricity in a power plant.
Benefits of Geothermal Energy
• It is a clean fuel as compared to fossil fuel such
as oil, gas or coal. A geothermal field emits only
1/6th CO2 as compared to any clean natural gas
fired power plant. Binary plants are further less
polluter among all geothermal power plants. 
• Ground Source Heat Pumps can be a good source
of saving money for consumers by reducing
electricity bill as it includes only capital cost and
maintenance cost is very less. 
• The capital cost of geothermal power plant is
very high but average units produced per year is
very high as compared to other renewable energy
resources such as solar, hydro, wind, etc.
• Salts and dissolved minerals contained in
geothermal fluids are usually re-injected with
excess water back into the reservoir at a depth
well below groundwater aquifers. This system
prolongs the life of the reservoir as it recycles
the treated waste water.
[24]
• Geothermal Energy (Other than Power) can also
be applied in Cold Storage, Tourist Resorts and
pools, Melting snow, Poultry & Fish Farming,
Mushroom Farming, Horticulture, Greenhouses,
Aquaculture, Industrial processes, Space heating,
etc. 
Geothermal Energy in India
In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields
started in 1970. The GSI (Geological Survey of India)
has identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the
country. The most promising of these is in Puga valley
of Ladakh. The estimated potential for geothermal
energy in India is about 10000 MW.  
The major sites for geothermal energy are:
• Himalayas: J&K, HP and Sikkim; PUGA hot
spring in J&K and Manikaran in HP.
• Sohana: Haryana, Rajasthan.
• Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA): MP, Chhattisgarh
and Jharkhand; Tattapani spring in Chhattisgarh.
• Cambay: Mainly Gujarat and some parts of
Rajasthan
• Godavari: AP
• Mahanadi: Orissa, Taptapani Spring in Orissa.
Hydrogen as a source of energy
• Hydrogen energy is at present only at the
Research, Development and Demonstration
(RD&D) stage. 
• Hydrogen is burned electrochemically with oxygen
to produce electricity. Electrodes are clipped in
electrolyte preferably Sodium Hydroxide.
• Hydrogen and oxygen is passed in the fuel cell
and following chemical reaction generates
electricity:
Advantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen has highest calorific value (150 kj/g).
Thus it is an excellent fuel.
(ii) It is an eco-freindly source of energy.
(iii) Source of hydrogen (water) is present in large
amount.
(iv) Simplest and lightest fuel in gaseous form.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen gas is highly explosive (inflammable).
(ii) High (safety measures) are required in storage an
transportation saferty measure.
(iii) Production of hydrogen is costly.
Biogas
Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases consists
mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
and is formed from the anaerobic bacterial
decomposition of organic compounds, i.e. without
oxygen. The gases formed are the waste products of
the respiration of these decomposer microorganisms
and the composition of the gases depends on the
substance that is being decomposed.
The principal benefits of biogas include:
a) Conversion of natural organic waste into
fertilizer: The conversion is carried out in a
machine called the polythene bio gas digester.
Cow dung slurry is put into the machine. The
product is organic fertilizer of high quality. The
fertilizer obtained is rich in nitrogen. It has been
analyzed, that, fertilizer made by the polythene
bio gas digester contains nitrogen content 3 times
more than the product made by conventional
processes. It is completely natural and free from
harmful synthetic chemicals.
b) Eco friendly energy production: The calorific
value of biogas is equal to that of half liter of
diesel oil (6 kWh/m3). Methane is a key
component of the gas. Biogas is fully capable of
replacing other rural energy sources like wood,
hard coal, kerosene, plant residues, and propane.
Hard coal possesses a calorific value of 8.5kWh/
kg per 0.7 kilograms. Larger biogas plants
generate and feed electricity into mainstream
power grids. Smaller biogas production units can
support lighting and cooking requirements.
c) Considerable workload reduction in rural areas:
This is particularly true for rural women engaged
in day to day household work. Installing a biogas
unit will relieve her of the tiring and tedious job
of collecting and ferrying firewood. Since, biogas
burns cleanly, the rural homes will not suffer from
smoke and consequently rural denizens will suffer
less from physical problems like bronchial
complications. Cooking is also easier with a gas
stove and takes less time.
d) Visible improvement in rural hygiene: Biogas
contributes positively to rural health conditions.
Biogas plants lower the incidence of respiratory
diseases. Diseases like asthma, lung problems,
and eye infections have considerably decreased
in the same area when compared to the pre-biogas
plant times. Biogas plants also kill pathogens like
cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and paratyphoid.
e) Environmental benefits on a global scale: Biogas
plants significantly lower the greenhouse effects
on the earth’s atmosphere. The plants lower
methane emissions by entrapping the harmful gas
and using it as fuel.
f) Protects the earth’s natural resources: 1 biogas
plant is computed to save 32 liters of kerosene
and 4 tons of firewood every year. The organic
chemical plant also contributes indirectly to the
protection of soil.
Disadvantages of Biogas:
a) The process is not very attractive economically
(as compared to other biofuels) on a large
industrial scale.
b) It is very difficult to enhance the efficiency of
biogas systems.
c) Biogas contains some gases as impurities, which
are corrosive to the metal parts of internal
combustion engines.
d) Not feasible to locate at all the locations.
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines
that is produced by chemically reacting a
vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such
as methanol. The reaction requires a catalyst,
usually a strong base, such as sodium or
potassium hydroxide, and produces new chemical
compounds called methyl esters. It is these esters
are known as biodiesel.
• Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or
blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends
include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20.
• The following plant species are known to be good
sources for the biodiesel
1. Jatropha curcas (Jatropha)
2. Pongamia pinnata (Karanj)
3. Azadirachta indica (Neem)
4. Madhuca indica (Mahua)Advantages of Bio
Diesel
[25]
• Bio Diesel is the most valuable form of renewable
energy that can be used directly in any existing,
unmodified diesel engine. 
• Producing more biofuels will save foreign
exchange and reduce energy expenditures and
allow developing countries to put more of their
resources into health, education and other
services for their neediest citizens.  to be transferred to a great distance from the
• Biofuels burn more cleanly than gasoline and
diesel. Using biofuels means producing fewer
emissions of carbon monoxide, particulates, and
toxic chemicals that cause smog, aggravate
respiratory and heart disease, and contribute to
thousands of premature deaths each year.
Marine Energy or Ocean Energy
a. Wave Energy   energy are very complicated.
• Wave energy is generated by the movement of
a device either floating on the surface of the
ocean or moored to the ocean floor.
• Wave conversion devices that float on the surface
have joints hinged together that bend with the
waves. This kinetic energy pumps fluid through
turbines and creates electric power.
Advantages:
a) Wave energy has this advantage over solar or
wind energy that the energy has been naturally
concentrated by accumulation over time and
space and transported from the point at which it
was originally present in the winds. 
b) A much greater amount of power is concentrated
in the waves than in the wind. If we compare the
power concentrated in a good wind energy to the
corresponding area having wave energy then we
will find that wave energy is 100 times greater
than wind energy.
c) It is a free and renewable energy source.  •
d) Wave power devices do not need huge land
masses like solar energy wind energy. 
e) These devices are almost pollution-free. After
removing the energy from the waves waters are
left in a placid state.
f) No wastes or greenhouse gases are produced in
the process. In my opinion this is the most
important advantage of wave energy.  a)
[26]
Disadvantages:
a) The major demerit of wave energy, in comparison
to wind, is that the energy is available in the
ocean. So the equipment needed for the extraction
of wave energy must operate in a marine
environment. The transportation of energy is a
great factor because the energy produced needed
shore. 
b) Wave energy converters must be capable of
withstanding very severe peak stresses in storms. 
c) Finding a proper site for the extraction of energy
from the wave is pretty tough because wave
energy is totally related to ocean! 
d) Devices needed for the harnessing of the wave
 
e) Many economic factors are important in the
installation of a wave energy based power plant.
These factors are capital, maintenance cost, repair
cost as well as replacement cost. For the power
generation companies economic factors can play
as the major disadvantage of wave energy.
b. Tidal Energy  
• The tidal cycle occurs every 12 hours due to the
gravitational force of the moon. The difference
in water height from low tide and high tide is
potential energy.
• Similar to traditional hydropower generated from
dams, tidal water can be captured in a barrage
across an estuary during high tide and forced
through a hydro-turbine during low tide.
• To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy
potential, the height of high tide must be at least
five meters (16 feet) greater than low tide.
There are only approximately 20 locations on
earth with tides this high and India is one of
them.
• The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in
Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum
tidal range of 11m and 8m with average tidal
range of 6.77m and 5.23m respectively.   
Advantages of Tidal Energy:
It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
b) Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and
doesn’t produce greenhouse gases.
c) As 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water,
there is scope to generate this energy on large
scale.
d) We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they
follow cyclic fashion.
e) Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as
compared to coal, solar or wind energy. Its
efficiency is around 80%.
f) Although cost of construction of tidal power is
high but maintenance costs are relatively low.
g) Tidal Energy doesn’t require any kind of fuel to
run.
h) The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.
i) The energy density of tidal energy is relatively
higher than other renewable energy sources.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy:
a) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.
b) There are very few ideal locations for construction
of plant and they too are localized to coastal
regions only.
c) Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there
can be damage to power generation units.
d) Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt
migration of fish.
e) The actual generation is for a short period of
time. The tides only happen twice a day so
electricity can be produced only for that time.
f) Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines,
low tidal rise or fall are some of the obstructions.
g) This technology is still not cost effective and
more technological advancements are required
to make it commercially viable.
h) Usually the places where tidal energy is produced
are far away from the places where it is
consumed. This transmission is expensive and
difficult.
c. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)   and dissolved gases.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is a
technology that converts solar radiation to electric
power.
• OTEC systems use the ocean’s natural thermal
gradient, consequently the temperature difference
between the warm surface water and the cold
deep water below 600 meters by about 20o C, an
OTEC system can produce a significant amount
of power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable
resource, with the potential to help us produce
billions of watts of electric power.
• OTEC has a potential installed capacity
of 180,000 MW in India.
Advantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources.
Warm surface seawater and cold water from the
ocean depths replace fossil fuels to produce
electricity.
b) Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little
or no carbon dioxide or other polluting chemicals.
c) OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well
as electricity. This is a significant advantage in
island areas where fresh water is limited.
d) There is enough solar energy received and stored
in the warm tropical ocean surface layer to
provide most of present human energy needs.
e) The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will
help reduce the state’s almost complete
dependence on imported fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC produced electricity at present would cost
more than electricity generated from fossil fuels
at their current costs.
b) OTEC plants must be located where a difference
of about 20º C occurs year round.
c) Ocean depths must be available fairly close to
shore-based facilities for economic operation.
d) Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes
in coastal waters may cause localised damage to
reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.
e) Discharging the cold water at the oceans’ surface
could change local concentrations of nutrients
[27]
 Mineral Resources
• India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral
resources due to its varied geological structure.
• On the basis of chemical and physical properties,
minerals may be grouped under two main
categories of metallics and non-metallics.
• Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron
ore, copper, gold produce metal and are included
in this category. Metallic minerals are further
divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic
minerals. All those minerals which have iron
content are ferrous such as iron ore itself and
those which do not have iron content are non-
ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc.
• Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin
such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels
which are derived from the buried animal and
plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other type
of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin
such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.
Mineral Belts of India
(1) North-Eastern Peninsular Belt:
• It is the richest mineral belt of India.
• Comprises of Chotanagpur plateau and Orissa
plateau in Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa.
• The Chhotanagpur plateau is known as the
mineral heart land of India, also Ruhr of India.
• It contains large quantities of coal, iron,
manganese, mica, bauxite, Copper, Chromites, and
Kyanite.
(2) Central Belt:
• It is the 2 nd
largest mineral belt of India.
• Comprises of Chhattisgarh, M.P, Andhra Pradesh
and Maharashtra.
• It has large deposits of Manganese, bauxite,
limestone, marble, coal, gems (Panna), mica, iron
ore, graphite, etc.
(3) Southern Belt:
• It comprises mostly of Karnataka plateau and
contiguous T.N. upland.
• It lacks coal deposits except lignite at Neyveli
(T.N.).
[28]
• It is more or less similar to northeastern peninsular
belt as far as deposits of ferrous minerals and
bauxite is concerned.
(4) South-Western Belt:
• Southern Karnataka & Goa are included.
• It has deposits of iron-ore and clay.
(5) North-West Belt:
• Extends along the Aravallis in Rajasthan and in
adjoining parts of Gujarat.
• Important minerals – Copper, lead, zinc, Uranium,
mica, bauxite, gypsum, manganese, salt.
(6) The Indian Ocean
• Along with availability of petroleum and natural
gas in the off shore areas the sea bed contains
manganese nodules, phosphorite nodules and
barium sulphate concentration
• The best quality nodules are found in water depths
of more than 4000m.
• Phosphate nodules are mainly found near
Andaman Islands.
Distribution of minerals in India
 IRON-ORE
• India has the vast resources of iron ore, 20% of
total world reserves not only quantitatively but
qualitatively too as it contain iron upto 65% and
sulphur never above 0.6%.
• Ore-Types
a) Haematite- Iron content up to 86%; of Dharwar
& Chuddapah system of peninsular India; also
called “Red Ores”; contribute about 85% of total
production.
b) Magnetite- Iron content of 60% ; of Dharwar &
Chuddapah system of peninsula; also called
“Block Ores”; contribute about 8% of total
production.
c) Limonite- Iron content of 30-50%; prominent
constituent of laterite; contribute 7% of total
production.
· Occurance
a) Orissa- Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh,
Cuttak, Karaput.
b) Jharkhand- Singahbhum- Notu- Buru, Noamundi,  CROMITE
Ansira Baru, Brajamda, Gua, Sasangda.
• Used for producing “Dasomium” which is used
c) M.P- Bastar- Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri; Durg- for producing stainless steel.
Dhalli-Rajhara.
• Occurance
d) Goa (Black iron /Magnetite): North Goa: Pirna-
a) Orissa: Contributes 90% of the country’s total
Adolpale- Asnora; Central Goa: Tolsai-
production, main centers are Sukinda (between
Dongarvado; South- Goa: Borgadongar, Netarlim,.
Daiteri & Mahagiri Range) in Cuttak, Nausahi in
e) Karnataka: Bellary (Sandur-Hos­pet area), Keonjhar.
Chikmanglur, Kemman­gundi(in Bababudan
b) Karnataka: 2nd largest producer.
Hills), Kudremukh, Shimonga.
c) Maharashtra
f) Andhra Pradesh: Jaggayapeta, Ramallakota,
Veldurti, Nayudu­petta, Baygarm. d) Jharkhand: Singhbhum
g) T.N.: Coimbatore— Madurai, Tir u­nelveli, e) T.N.: 96% of cromite is exported to Japan and
Ramnathpuram districts. the rest to Australia.
h) Maharashtra- Chandrapur, Ratnagiri.  PYRITE
 MANGANESE- ORE • Occurance
• In India a major part of its deposit occurs in the a) Jharkhand- Sahabad (Amjhor, Kasisiyakoh,
form of sedimentary stratified metamorphic Kurriari).
deposits of Gondite & Kodurite series in the
Dharwar system of Peninsula which holds 90% b) T.N. - Arcot (Polur), Nilgiri (Pandalur- Devala-
of total reserves. India is the 3rd largest producer. Nadghani region).

• Ore-Types: c) Karnataka - N. Kanara (Kaiga), Chittradurga

(Indldhal).
a) Psilomelane : It has-manganese content around
d) Himachal Pradesh - Ashmi river.
50%.
e) Rajasthan- Sikar.
b) Bronite: Manganese content varies between 52-
54%. f) Meghalaya- Khasi, Jaintia.
c) Manganite : Manganese content’s less than 50%.  NICKEL
d) Hosmanite: Manganese content is less than 40%. • It is a silvery metal which does not gather rust.
It is therefore, much useful for plating purposes.
e) Polianite: Manganese content is less than 40%.
• Hardness and high malleability, high tensible
• Occurrence
strength, great elasticity, and resistance to
a) Orissa: Sundargarh, Kalahandi (Nishi­khal), abrasion, shock and corrosion are its special
Koraput (Kutinga), Bolangir, Keonjhar, qualities. Nickel is therefore, largely used in
Mayurbhanj. or nament, aircraft, automobiles, industrial
machinery etc.
b) Maharashtra: Nagpur (Kodergaon, Gumgaon,
Ramdongiri), Bhandara, Ratnagiri. • Occurrence in India

c) Karnakata: Shimoga, Chitradurga, Tumkur, a) Cuttak & Mayurbhanj districts of Orissa have
Bellary, N. Kanara. the major reserves of Nickel. The total reserves
is of 5..8% crore tonnes of which 4.08 crore
d) Andhra Pradesh: Srikakulam, Visakha­patnam tonnes are in Kausa block and 1.5% crore tonnes
e) M.P.: Balaghat, Chindwara, Jhabua, Jabalpur. in Saruabil - Sukaragi area. Sirkinda is another
famous mine.
f) Gujarat: Panchmahal.
b) Some amount is also produced in Maharashtra,
g) Jharkhand: Singhbhum. J&K, M.P.

[29]
c) India imports nickel to fulfill its domestic demand.
 TUNGESTION
• Its importance is due to the toughness, strength,
hardness, and resistance to abrasion which it
engenders in tool steels which retain their strength
and efficiency at very high temperatures (3375°C)
and speed. Tungsten carbide is a substance
second only to diamond in hardness.
• Tungsten, also known as ‘high speed steel’, is
highly desirable for valves in internal-combustion
engines. It is also used in cold chisels, hack saws,
files, razor blades, springs, armour plate, and
armourpiercing shells.
• The most important and known use of tungsten
is as a filament in electric light bulbs. Tungsten
has high electric resistance and a very high melting
point which allows a high degree of efficiency in
the conversion of electricity into light.
• Principal Ore: Wol-framite and schedite.
• Occurance- Deganal near Rawat Hills in Rajasthan.
 BAUXITE
• These deposit are mainly associated with laterite
soil, formed in the Tertiary period.
• Up to 1988 India was an importer of aluminium
but in 1993 India has become an important
exporter of alumina, mainly to Italy, Germany,
U.K., Japan.
• India contributes 14% of the world’s output which
is second largest in the world after Australia.
• Occurrence
a) M.P.: Amarkantak Plateau- Sargujar, Raigarh,
Bilaspur; Maikala Range – Balaghat; Katni Range
- Jabalpur.
b) Jharkhand: Palamu, Lohardagga, Ranchi, Sahabad
(Netarhat Plateau).
c) Gujarat: Jamnagar, Khaira, Kutch.
d) Maharashtra: Kolhapur, Kolaba, Satara, Ratnagiri,
e) Karnataka: Belgaum (Karle Hills, Jamboti, Bakur-
Navge- Ridge)
f) T.N.: Salem, Nilgiri, Madurai ( Palni Hills,
Kodaikanal Hills), Coimbatone (Sandabkuli).
g) Goa: Quepem, Canacora.
 COPPER
[30]
• The development of electrical industries gave rise
to unprecedented growth of copper industry,
because of its conductivity of electrical energy,
ductibility, and malleability.
• Copper plays a basic role in modem facilities for
light; power and heat, in telephone, telegraph,
and radio, in automobiles, railroad equipment,
aeroplanes, and ships in refrigerators and other
household appliances, and in weapons.
• It is also used for roofing, plumbing, hardware,
utensils, jewellery, and decorative items.
• Copper occurs in three forms: (i) as native metal,
in igneous rocks; (ii) as oxides and (iii) as
sulphides. Although, sulphides have very little
copper content (1 to 3 per cent), yet, 90% of the
world’s total output is obtained as sulphides.
• Porphyries or pyrites rocks contain sulphides and
oxides of copper. Copper minerals occur mostly
in veins, therefore, the ore as mined contains a
high percentage of rock material known as
‘gangue’.
• Copper ores in India are found as sulphides
(Chalcopyrite, Chalcocite , Bronite), Oxide
(Cuprite) and Carbanates (Malachite & Azurite).
• They generally occur in veins and in peninsular
India in highly metamorphosed rocks.
• Occurance
a) Jharkhand - Singhbhum ( 50% of total country’s
reserves at Mosabani, Rakha, Dhobani, Rajdah,
Surdah, Pathargara, Tamapahar, Turamdih), Lota-
pahar- Fault.
b) Rajasthan - Khetri- Singhana Area (Kolihan,
Mandhan, Akwali, Berkhera), Kho- Dariba Area,
Delwara- Kerovle Area.
c) M.P. - Balaghat (Malanjkhand, Madarkhand)
 ZINC and LEAD
• The chief use of zinc is for galvanizing or coating
iron and-steel to ‘make it resistant to rust.
• Another important use of zinc is in the form of
alloys, for die casting, in which the molten metal
is cast in steel dies to form small automobile and
machinery parts and hardware items of various
shape.
• The major zinc material is sphalerite a
combination of zinc and sulphur. Zinc content
of ores generally ranges from 2 to over 12
percent.
• It can be easily rolled or hammered into sheets,
but unlike copper or iron, it lacks ductility, so it
cannot be drawn out into wire.
• Its resistance to corrosion makes it exceptionally
valuable for plumbing fixtures, storage batteries
and for cable, widely used in telegraph and
telephone industries.
• Galena, a combination of lead and sulphur is the
principal ore of lead. Cerussite and anglesite are
the other important lead minerals.
• Occurance
a) Rajasthan - Zawar deposit of Udaipur(Mochia-
Mogra,Balaria, Zawarmala,Baroi,Baba-Hill),
Taragarh Hill area (lead ore), Ajmer (Taragarh,
Ganeshpura, sawar), Alwar (Jodhawas).
b) Andhra Pradesh - Zangamarajupalle (in
Chuddapah district)
c) Bihar - Bhagalpur (Dudiar, Gauripur)
d) Jharkhand - Hazaribagh (Hatasu, Parasia),
Santhal. Paragana (Panchpahar, Bhairkuhi,
Sankera)
 GOLD
• Gold is used extensively for jewelley and many
other articles, and smaller amounts are used in
dentistry the making of glass and porcelain, in
dyes, in medicine; and in other industries.
• Generally found in veins or reefs of quartz and
sometime associated with iron & Copper
sulphides.
• Gold occurs in nature as native gold. It may be
found as a constituent of solid rock (a lode
deposit), as flakes, grains, or nuggets of native
gold in sands and gravels (a placer deposit) eroded
from the original merit-rock.
• Shaft tunnel mining is required in the first case,
whereas placer mining is used in the second. Rich
gold ores may contain 4 to 6 ounces of gold per
tonne.
• Occurance
a) Karnataka- Kolar Gold field/KGF (since 1871
when mining first started in Ooregum mines,
Marikuppam quartz vein bearing gold,
Champion, Nandidroog, Mysore),Hutti,
Topuldedi, Wondalli.
b) Andhra Pradesh- Ramagiri Gold field
(Ananta­puram district).
c) Jharkhand- alluvial gold in the beds of Garra-
Nadi, S-Koyel, Sanjai, Sona-Nadi, Subarnarekha
rivers in Singhbhum district.
d) Kolar & Hutti goldfields all together produce 98%
of total country production.
 SILVER
• In Nature, silver mostly occurs as sulphides. It
rarely occurs in pure form. It is often mixed with
zinc blende, galena (lead), and copper pyrites.
• It is used for making coins, jewellery, and
decorative items, in silver plating, electroplating,
and in several other industries.
• Occurance
a) Produced as by product during the smelting of
galana, also produced from lead ore of Kurnool,
Cuddapah and Guntur of Andhra, Singhbhum &
Ranchi of Jharkhand and Vadodara of Gujarat.
Quartzites of Mysore gold field and cupriferous
pyrites of Chitradurga are also yield some
amount of silver.
 MICA
• There are several kinds of mica, important being
muscovite (white colour), phlogopite (yellow
colour), and biotite (black coloured).
• The two important ores found in India are
Muscovite and Biotite.
• It is non conductor therefore, makes an ideal
electrical insulator. It is used in the electrical
industry and hardly has it had a substitute.
• Occurance
a) Jharkhand- A belt existing over 150 km in length
and 20-22 km in width from Gaya in west through
Hajaribag and Mungar districts to Bhargalpur
districts in the east; Kodarma, Damchanch,
Maenodils, Parsabad, Tisri, Mohesari, Chakai are
the main centres. Kodarma is the world largest
Mica market. Ruby - mica & Bangal- mica,which
is of high quality is found in Jharkhand.
b) Andhra Pradesh- Gudur , Sangam & Nellore are
the main producing regions of Green- mica, also
called Electrical- mica (lightest of all types).
c) Rajasthan- chief mining centres are Barla,
Naukhand. Sohlenwara, Barani, Palmin in Tonk
and Jaipur districts. Bhilwara is also the important
centre. In Rajasthan green or pink colour high
quality mica is found.
[31]
 LIMESTIONE • Occurrence
• Consumption of limestone in the country: a) Meghalaya- Sonapahar, Nagpur, Nangbain in the
Cement industry 67% (of higher silica content Nongtoin area.
limestone); Iron & steel industry - 16% and
Chemical industry- 4%. b) M.P.- Sidhi & Reewa.

• Types of Limestone and their Distribution c) Maharashtra- Bhawara, Nagpur.

A. Cement-Grade Limestone d) T.N.- Coimbatore, South Arcot.

a) Andhra Pradesh - (13 of total reserves)- Cuddapah, e) Kerala- Palghat, Kottayam.

Guntur, Krishna, Khammam, Kurnool, Godavari  KYANITE
b) Karnataka-(1/3 of total reserves) Gulbarga, Bija- • India has the largest reserves of Kyanite in the
pur, Shimoga. world.
c) Gujarat- (13% of total reserves)- Junagarh, • Occurrence
Amreli, Kutch, Banas- Kantha, Surat.
a) Jharkhand- A belt extending from Lapsa Buru to
d) Rajasthan - (6% of total reserves) - Ajmer, Jaipur, Kharasawan in Saraikala. with the important mines
Pali, Madhopur, Banswara, Jodhpur, Bundi at Lapsa-Buru, Ghagidih, Bachia- Bakro & Mauy
B. Flux-Grade Limestone aluka.

a) M.P- (36% of the total reserves)- Belaspur, b) Maharashtra- Pahergaon & Pipalgaon in Sakohi
Jabalpur, Rewa, Satna, Raipur. Tehsil and Gorkha- Buranga and Asvalpain in
Bhandara districts.
b) Meghalaya- (30% of the total reserves) Khasi &
Jaintia Hillls.  SALT

 ASBESTOS • About 75% of total salt produced in India is

• Cryostile and Amphibole varieties of asbestos
are found in India.
• Asbestos has the fibrous structure and has a great
economic importance as it has the capacity to be
separated quickly into fine filaments of high
tensile strength and its great resistance to fire.
• State-wise Production as % of total production -
Rajasthan> Andhra > Karnataka.
manufactured from saline sea- water by the
process of solar evaporation.
• Production as % of total production-Gujarat>
T.N.>Rajasthan.
• Occurrence India
a) Sea-salt- Mithapur, Jamnagar, Dharsana, Okha,
Bulsar in Gujarat; Bhandrup, Uran, Bhayandar in
Maharashtra; Madras & Taticorin in T.N.

• Occurrence b) Salt- lake- Sambhar, Didwana, Pach­bhadra,

Lankaesara lakes in Rajasthan.
a) Rajasthan- Ajmer, Bhilwara, Dungarpur, Pali,
Sirohi, Udaipur. c) Rock-salt- mined at present in Mandi District at
Drang & Guna in Himachal Pradesh.
b) Karnataka- Gopalpur, Mavinhalli, Hassan,
Mandya, Shimoga, Chikmanglur.  RARE-EARTHS
c) Andhra Pradesh- Cudapah, Anantapur, • In the South-west tip of India on the Kerala and
Mehbubnagar. T.N. cost,an extremely rich minerals like Ilmenite
and Monazite.
d) Jharkhand- Singhbhum, West Bengal, Purulia.
• Ilmenite- from Quilon to Kanyakumari
 SILLIMANITE
• Ilmenite and Rutire are by- products in the
• Used in the manufacturing of bricks, refracting
extraction of monazites.
fitting for the electrical appliances.

[32]
 Problems posed by mineral resources
• Depletion of Mineral
• Rapidly growing mining activity has rendered
large agricultural tracts almost useless.
• Miners have to work under most hazardous
conditions.
• Many mineral producing areas lead to air and
water pollution.
• Huge displacement of tribal people.
Conservation of mineral resources
• New researches should be undertaken to find out
and develop replacement minerals for use in place
of scarce minerals which are in short supply and
are going to be depleted soon.
• Researches should be carried on to develop new
technology which should avoid wastage and
promote maximum utilization of by- products
• There should be curbing on wastage mining
methods that deplete the environment too
• Use of alternate sources of energy like solar
energy, hydroelectric energy, etc.
• Walking on a path that leads to sustainable
development.

• Use of renewable sources of energy.
• Avoid over-exploitation of the mineral resources.
• Use of biogas as a fuel for cooking instead of
the non-renewable sources of energy.
Sustainable mining
Sustainable mining is defined as “Mining that is
financially viable; socially responsible; environmentally,
technically and scientifically sound; with a long term
view of development; uses mineral resources
optimally; and, ensures sustainable post-closure land
uses. Also one based on creating long-term, genuine,
mutually beneficial partnerships between government,
communities and miners, based on integrity,
cooperation and transparency”.
It includes:
• Mining operations that have a broad-based social
license to operate- creating lasting social and
economic wealth which will outlast the life of
the mine.
• Environmentally, technically and scientifically
sound implying proper management of natural
resources
• Uses mineral resources optimally.
[33]