Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of geophysical methods for geothermal exploration

Janvier Domra Kana a,n, Noël Djongyang a, Danwe Raïdandi a, Philippe Njandjock Nouck b,
Abdouramani Dadjé a,c
a
Department of Renewable Energy, The Higher Institute of the Sahel, University of Maroua, PO Box 46, Maroua, Cameroon
b
Department of Physics, University of Yaoundé I, PO Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon
c
School of Geology and Mining Engineering, University of Ngaoundere, PO Box 454, Ngaoundere, Cameroon

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Exploration of geothermal resources is important from the energy point of view. Geophysical methods are
Received 7 July 2014 among the three main disciplines applied on the surface to explore geothermal resources, including geology
Received in revised form and the chemistry of thermal fluids. This paper presents various geophysical methods of exploring geothermal
12 November 2014
reservoir. Some comparisons, advantages, and disadvantages of each method are discussed. It was found that,
Accepted 12 December 2014
Available online 1 January 2015
the most successful methods are aimed at parameters that are directly influenced by the geothermal activity,
such as Geophysical well logs, self-potential, Geoelectrical and thermal methods, and are usually referred as
Keywords: direct methods. Other methods explore the physical parameters of the host rock, including magnetic
Energy properties, density and seismic velocity, and are usually referred as indirect or structural methods. It appears
Exploration
that, direct methods give information on parameters that are influenced by the geothermal activity, while the
Geophysical method
structural methods give information on geological parameters which may reveal structures or geological
Geothermal resources
bodies that are important for the understanding of the geothermal system.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2. Physical properties and geophysical exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3. Geophysical methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1. Indirect or structural methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.1. Seismic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.2. Magnetic measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.3. Gravimetric method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2. Direct methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.1. Geoelectrical method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.2. Thermal methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.2.3. Other methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.4. Combining methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

1. Introduction

Geothermal energy is one of the cleaner sources of energy

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 237 95261943. which are gaining importance as an alternative to hydrocarbons.
E-mail address: janvierkana@yahoo.fr (J. Domra Kana). According to Gupta and Roy [1], more than 20 countries generate

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.026
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
88 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of an ideal geothermal system by International Geothermal Association (IGA).
Fig. 2. Hot rock and hot sedimentary aquifer systems.
electricity from geothermal resources and about 60 countries
make direct use of geothermal energy. Geothermal studies have
been carried out by many researchers to quantify the thermal
characteristics of different geological region over the world and to
evaluate their suitability for geothermal exploration.
Several types of geothermal resource can be distinguished [2],
but an ideal conventional geothermal system requires heat, perme-
ability, and water (Figs.1 and 2). The heat from the earth’s core
continuously flows outward. Sometimes the heat, as magma,
reaches the surface as lava, but it usually remains below the earth’s
crust, heating nearby rock and water, sometimes to levels as hot as
several hundred degrees Celsius. When water is heated by the
earth’s heat, hot water or steam can be trapped in permeable and
porous rocks under a layer of impermeable rock and a geothermal
reservoir can form. This hot geothermal water can manifest itself on
the surface as hot springs or geysers, but most of it stays deep
underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural
collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir. Although
the deeper crust and interior of the earth is universally hot, an
enhanced geothermal system lacks two of the three ingredients
required for a naturally occurring geothermal reservoir.
Most geophysical exploration methods have been developed for
the oil and gas industry, and ever more sophisticated tools and
refinements in the different approaches are designed to solve specific
problems associated with the detection and characterization of
hydrocarbon reservoirs. The exploration of geothermal resources has
profited greatly from these developments, however, the methods
cannot always directly transferred from oil and gas to hot water
and/or steam. First of all, physical properties of H2O differ from those
of hydrocarbons, resulting in differing responses of physical measure-
ment methods. Second, geothermal reservoirs can be found in highly
varying geological environments, mostly associated with volcanism,
where hydrocarbons are usually not present. Third, the economically
most interesting geothermal reservoirs are much hotter than any oil or
gas reservoir. At the moderate temperatures comparable to those of
hydrocarbons many of the advanced exploration methods are simply
cost prohibitive, as the economic potential of a medium-enthalpy
geothermal reservoir is much lower than for an oil or gas well. For
these reasons, some of the existing geophysical methods have to be
adapted to meet the needs of geothermal exploration or different
methods have to be developed and applied [3].
The use of renewable energies is shot down in many situations
because of the relatively high start-up costs and long-term commit-
ment it requires to actually become profitable. It is reason that,
underdeveloped country like African ones doesn’t use geothermal
energy. Nevertheless they have great potential for this form of power.
For example the basin of Rio del Rey and Douala basin in Cameroon
(Fig. 3), where many geophysical explorations are made for oil and gas
research, showed interesting geophysical results.
 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
Fig. 3. Geographical map of coastal basin in Cameroon (adapted from [46]).
Geophysical exploration of geothermal resources deals with
measurements on the physical properties of the earth. The
emphasis is mainly on parameters that are sensitive to tempera-
ture and fluid content of the rocks, or on parameters that may
reveal structures that influence the properties of the geothermal
system. The aim can be to: delineate a geothermal resource;
outline a production field; locate aquifers, or structures that may
control aquifers in order to site wells; or assess the general
properties of the geothermal system.
The important physical parameters in a geothermal system are:
temperature; porosity; permeability; chemical content of fluid
(salinity); and (pressure) [4].
Geophysical methods used in geothermal exploration can be
divided into four main groups, depending on the physical para-
meters measured: potential methods; electrical and electromag-
netic (EM) methods, seismic methods, radiometric methods. These
methods are most commonly used in well-logging. Each method
has a specific application, depending on the physical properties of
the target and how precisely these properties can be detected by
the technology available.
This paper aims to present various methods and approaches of
geothermal exploration using geophysical method. In this paper
we classify the geophysical method in two mains groups: indirect
and direct method. The direct methods include logging method,
thermal methods, electrical (resistivity) methods and self-
potential (SP), while the indirect methods include magnetic
measurements, gravity measurements, and seismic methods and
others method like remote sensing and gamma ray spectrometry
are also presented. Some comparison, advantage, and disadvan-
tage of each method will also be discussed.
2. Physical properties and geophysical exploration
A geophysical survey consists of a set of measurements made
over the surface of the earth, in the air above and parallel to it, and
89
in boreholes within the earth. The measurements are of the
variations in space or time of one of several physical fields of
force. These fields are determined, among other things, by the
nature and structure of the subsurface, and because rocks vary
widely in their physical properties, at least one of these properties
usually shows marked discontinuities from place to place. These
physical properties include thermal conductivity, electrical con-
ductivity, propagation velocity of elastic waves, density, tempera-
ture and magnetic susceptibility.
Geothermal systems often give distinctive and fairly easily
measured discontinuities in physical properties (e.g., high heat
flow, low electrical resistivity, attenuation of high frequency elastic
waves). Clearly the ease with which discontinuities can be
detected depends on the degree of contrast in the physical
properties between the rocks comprising the geothermal system
and surrounding subsurface. Presently, an accurate and unambig-
uous interpretation of geophysical data is only possible where the
subsurface structure is simply and known from drill hole data, and
even then it is by no means always achieved.
Geothermal reservoirs usually have irregular shapes and occur
in rocks of complex structure and varying type. Emphasis in
geophysical exploration is therefore upon detection of geothermal
systems and the determination of their relative physical proper-
ties, rather than on precise quantitative interpretation, never-
theless some indication of the quality, size and depth of a
geothermal system may often be obtained. In other words,
geophysical surveys are conducted in order to provide data for
the location of geothermal systems and the estimation of geother-
mal drill hole locations.
Considerable volumes of rock at high temperatures are known
to exist below all major geothermal areas [5–8].
It is evident that geothermal reservoirs and their immediate
surroundings have certain specific physical characteristics that are
susceptible to detection and mapping by geophysical methods. The
temperature within the reservoir, i.e., the base temperature [9,10],
is the most important physical characteristic of a geothermal
90 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
Fig. 4. Main components of a seismic reflection.
system. Simply stated, the base temperature is the highest tem-
perature observed in the thermally uniform part of a geothermal
reservoir.
From theoretical calculations [11,12], indicate that a reservoir
with a base temperature of 250 1C would need to have a volume of
2 to 3 km3 in order to justify exploitation for electric power
production with present day economics and technology.
The geothermal reservoir rock must have an adequate and
suitably distributed permeability should produce at least 20 t/h of
steam; many wells produce at much higher rates [13–19].
The maintenance of high flow rates implies a high degree of
permeability in the reservoir, with a good geothermal well. The
principal geothermal heat carrier, water, must be available in
adequate quantities. As hot geothermal fluids are withdrawn from
wells or from surface manifestations, the hydrological balance of
the system is restored, or partially restored, by the inflow of new
or recharge water [20]. Knowledge of water movements in
geothermal systems can be obtained with geophysical techniques
[21–23].
3. Geophysical methods
Various methods of geothermal exploration using geophysical
are reported in the literature. According to the basic approaches
used, they can be classified into two main groups: direct and
indirect method.
3.1. Indirect or structural methods
The indirect or structural methods give information on geolo-
gical parameters which may reveal structures or geological bodies
that are important for the understanding of the geothermal
system. These methods are classified as follows:
3.1.1. Seismic methods
The application of seismic methods for geothermal exploration
has employed almost every aspect of the seismic spectrum, using
both active and passive methods.
Seismic methods measure sound velocity distribution and
anomalies in the earth as well as attenuation of the sound waves.
Active methods where an external source is used to create sound
waves, such as explosions or hammer devices, while passive
methods detect the seismic activity in the earth and use that to
get information on parameters that may be influential for the
geothermal system.
Seismic methods rely on elastic waves which have different
velocities when travelling through different rock types, and are
refracted or reflected at discontinuities in or between formations
(Fig. 4). There are two types of elastic body waves: P-waves, where
the wave movement is in the travel direction; and S-waves, where
the material movement is perpendicular to the wave direction;
due to the wave movement, S-waves do not penetrate through
fluids, but only solid rocks.
In active measurements a distinction is made between refrac-
tion measurements and reflection measurements, depending on
the procedures. Active measurements give information on the
density of the formations, the porosity and texture, boundaries
and discontinuities and fluid-filled zones and thus even
temperature.
The information can therefore be quite difficult to interpret and
depth penetration not high, and the method thus not cost-
effective. The strength of the active methods is in sedimentary
surroundings as is to be expected for the basic methods used for
oil carrying formations [24]. Passive methods use the natural
seismic activity to delineate active faults and permeable zones
(shear wave splitting) or to locate the boundary between brittle
and ductile crust, which can be indicative of depth to hear source.
This can be important for the understanding of the geothermal
activity in the measured area. Ganbat, plot a Distribution of
earthquakes from the Olkaria field in Kenya. The cross-section
below shows that the main production fields are associated with
relatively high elevation of the brittle/ductile boundary, indicating
high temperatures and shallow depth to heat source [25].
Finally, S-wave shadows can be used to predict locations of
bodies of partial melt, or magma chambers [5].
3.1.2. Magnetic measurements
Magnetic methods are widely used in geothermal exploration,
often together with gravity measurements and seismic refraction,
in mapping geological structures. Magnetization of rocks is of two
types: induced magnetization (MI), which has the same direction
as the ambient earth’s field; and permanent magnetization (MP),
which often predominates in igneous rocks and depends upon
their properties and history.
The measurements for local structures such as individual faults
or dykes are done on the ground by regular measurements along
parallel profiles or in a grid [24]. Measurements aimed at larger
anomalies such as mapping of deeper intrusions or outlining
sedimentary basins are done through aeromagnetic surveys,
where the height and spacing of the profiles relies on the
preferred data density [25]. In geothermal exploration an elevation
of about 100 m above ground and 100 m spacing between profile
lines is often used, but this is also influenced by the topography
below. Data presentation is through contour maps, and quite
advanced filtering techniques can be used to distinguish anomalies
in the data. Magnetic map of the Hengill high-temperature area,
showing also main tectonic features, Postglacial volcanic eruption
sites, and the distribution of hot springs and fumaroles; the main
geothermal activity correlates with low magnetic intensity [24].
Measurements are made using fluxgate, proton-precession,
over hauser, and optical absorption magnetometers. In most cases,
total-magnetic field data are acquired; vector measurements are
made in some instances. Magnetic rocks contain various combina-
tions of induced and remanent magnetization that perturb the
earth’s primary field [26]. The magnitudes of both induced and
remanent magnetization depend on the quantity, composition,
and size of magnetic-mineral grains.
Magnetic anomalies may be related to primary igneous or
sedimentary processes that establish the magnetic mineralogy,
or they may be related to secondary alteration that either
 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
introduces or removes magnetic minerals. In mineral exploration
and its geoenvironmental considerations, the secondary effects in
rocks that host ore deposits associated with hydrothermal systems
are important [27,28] and magnetic surveys may outline zones of
fossil hydrothermal activity.
3.1.3. Gravimetric method
The purpose of a relative gravity survey is to directly map the
structure of the subsurface. Gravity is the attractive force between
two or more bodies of mass. The force is proportional to the mass
of the object, and decreases with distance as seen in the 1/R2 term
of Eq. (1) [29].
GM
g¼
R2
The density contrast leads to a different gravitational force
which is measured, and usually presented in mgal or 10  3 cm/s2.
In order to obtain information about the subsurface density from
the gravity measurement, it is necessary to make several correc-
tions to the measured value. The final corrected values of the
gravity anomaly, is called Bouguer anomaly and is given by [25]:
g ¼ g obs  g n þ 0:3086h  0:04193rh þ TC
where g obs is gravity readings observed at each gravity station after
corrections have been applied for instrument drift and earth tides.
0.3086h is the gravity variations caused by elevation differences in
the observation locations. 0.04193rh is the correction from the
excess mass material between the station and sea level. g n is the
normal reference gravity according to an international formula. TC
is the field correction accounts for variations in the observed
gravitational values.
Assuming these corrections have accurately accounted for the
variations in gravitational acceleration, the Corrected Bouguer
Gravity can be assumed to be caused by variation density beneath
the observation point.
The density of the rocks depends mainly on the rock composi-
tion and its porosity, but partial saturation of the rocks may also
influence the values. Normally the density is between 2 and 3 g/
cm3. The raw data needs to be corrected for several factors. The
results are usually presented or shown in Bouger maps based on
the Bouger anomaly Δg B , where corrections have been done on
the measured value g M for tidal effects, elevation, local topogra-
phy, latitude and drift in the gravimeter. An example is plotted by
Arnason, [24], shows a Bouger gravity anomaly map of the Hengill
area. An important additional application has been the use of
precision gravity measurements for monitoring mass extraction in
geothermal systems with production [30].
3.2. Direct methods
The direct methods give information on parameters that are
influenced by the geothermal activity. These methods are:
3.2.1. Geoelectrical method
A survey in the geophysical literature concerning geothermal
exploration, and more particularly in electrical methods, reveals
the existence of various techniques and methodologies used.
Electrical methods which are used in geothermal exploration
measure the electrical resistivity distribution of the ground in
one or another way. From the resistivity distribution in the ground,
structural and stratigraphic information can be obtained.
3.2.1.1. Principle. The main principle is that electrical current is
induced into the earth which generates an electromagnetic signal
that is monitored at the surface. The basic relationship behind
91
resistivity measurements is the Ohm’s law, which states that [29]:
E ¼ ρj ð3Þ
where E is the electrical field strength (V/m); j is the current
density (A/m2); and ρ is the electrical resistivity (S/m), which is a
material constant. For a unit cube/bar, the relationship for
resistivity is defined as:
V
ρ¼ ð4Þ
I
The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity (S/m), thus it is also
possible to talk about conductivity measurements. However, in
geothermal, the tradition is to refer to electrical or resistivity
ð1Þ measurements.
According to the type of power, the electrical methods are grouped
into two mains groups. The first is called active method. This group is
subdivided in methods that pass alternative current (AC) or direct
current (DC) current into the ground, and into methods that use the
induction phenomenon. In the first case, the DC/AC vertical electrical
sounding (VES) of Schlumberger or Wenner array, dipole–dipole and
bipole–dipole arrays are the examples. In the second case transient
ð2Þ electromagnetics (TEM) and controlled source electromagnetics
(CSEM) and Sirotem methods are typical examples. The second group,
called passive, consists of methods that use natural electromagnetic
(EM) fields as power sources energizing the ground. According to the
range of frequencies of the EM field used these methods are
distinguished in the magneto telluric (MT) (very long periods) and
audiomagnetotellurics (AMT) (in the range of audio frequencies).
3.2.1.2. DC method. The developed electrical potential field is
measured ðΔVÞ and generally the following equation holds [29]:
K ΔV
ρa ¼ ð5Þ
I
where ρa is the apparent resistivity, K is the geometrical factor of
the array used, ΔV is the measured potential difference and I is the
current passed through the ground.
DC measurements are the oldest of the resistivity methods, at
least as methods used for geothermal exploration but their
application is not as common nowadays. Most of the configura-
tions rely on two pairs of electrodes, one pair for current
transmission and the other for measuring the potential difference.
According to the geometry on the ground surface of the
electrodes, various methodologies have been developed. The most
important are:
 Schlumberger sounding, which has been widely used for a long
time and is still the most popular one. The electrodes are on a
line, and the set-up is mirrored around the center. The pair of
potential electrodes is kept close to the center, while the pair of
current electrodes is gradually moved away from the center, for
the current to probe deeper and deeper into the earth.
 Dipole sounding or profiling; here various arrays exist, many
used quite extensively in the 1970s into the 1980s.
 Wenner method, electrodes are placed in line, equally spaced at
a distance L. Depth probing is achieved by changing the
interelectrode spacing a in successively increasing steps. The
geometrical factor is equal to 2πL and the measurements are
displayed as ρa versus L.
Georgsson et al. [31] plot a regional resistivity map from
Husavik, N-Iceland based on Schlumberger soundings reflecting
the resistivity at 500 m below sea level. It shows well a defined
low-resistivity anomaly associated with the powerful Hveravellir
low-temperature area.
92 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
3.2.1.3. Induction method. This category consists of methods based
on the study of the electromagnetic field set up by a current
transmitting in the audio frequency range grounded dipole. Active
audiomagnetotellurics (AAMT), transient electro-magnetic (TEM)
Sirotem methods time domain electromagnetic method (TDEM)
controlled source electromagnetics (CSEM) and controlled source
audiomagnetotellurics (CSAMT) fall into this category [32].
In this methodology the electromagnetic field, set up by the
transmitting dipole, is measured. The two components Ex and Ey of
the electric field and the associated three components H x , H y and
H z of the magnetic field are measured. The apparent resistivity is
generally calculated as [33]:
ρa ¼ 0:2T jZ j2
where ρa is the apparent resistivity, T is the period in seconds of
the spectral component of the EM wave, and
Ex  Ey
z¼ ¼ ð7Þ
Hy Hx
Depth penetration of these methods may be expressed in terms
of skin depth (d¼ 0.5 (ρ/f)2 km), where a plane wave is attenuated
at 37% of its original amplitude.
3.2.1.4. Frequency domain electromagnetic (FEM) methods. In the group
of passive electrical methods, we have: telluric, the self-potential (SP),
the magnetotelluric (MT), the audiomagnetotelluric (AMT).
MT and AMT methods use natural electromagnetic fields for
energizing the ground. The method has been well-described by
Strangway et al. [34] in relation to mineral explorations. The
details will not be repeated here. For our purposes it is sufficient
to know that the scalar apparent resistivity (in ohm m) is given by
[35],
jEx j2
ρa ¼

2
5f
H y

where f is the frequency in hertz, Ex is the horizontal x-directed
electric field component, and Hy is the horizontal y-directed
magnetic field in gammas. Hence to determine the apparent
resistivity at a given frequency the mutually orthogonal electric
and magnetic fields of the distant lightning are measured. The skin
depth, δ in meters, is an approximate measure of exploration
depth and is given by [35],
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

ρ  Radiation, which does not influence geothermal systems.
δ ¼ 503 ð9Þ
f
Thus the maximum exploration depth varies with the square
root of the resistivity of the section and with the inverse square
root of the frequency. Natural EM fields with variable direction,
frequency and strength are used to investigate the resistivity
distribution of the earth [36]. An example is giving by a resistivity
cross-section from the Menengai high-temperature geothermal
system in Kenya down to about 8 km depth. It shows low
resistivity in the uppermost kilometer inside the Menengai crater,
but higher resistivity at deeper levels [37].
The telluric method is based on the assumption that horizontal
lateral changes in resistivities, caused by geological structures,
affect the flow of telluric currents. Measurements are taken, in a
reference and at a remote station, of the telluric field, and the ratio
of the two fields is used in order to obtain qualitatively results for
the resistivity variations.
The self-potential (SP) method is based totally on a different
concept. Electrokinetic and thermoelectric phenomena provoke
electrical polarization of fracture zones where hot brines circulate.
These polarized fault zones generate a static electrical potential
field, which can be measured on the ground surface. Mapping of
this field provides an insight of the SP anomalies observed in the
study area. Positive, negative, and, more often, dipolar anomalies
are observed. In Japan the method has also been used for reservoir
monitoring especially for liquid-dominated geothermal systems,
assuming that the main cause of the SP anomaly is streaming
potential [38].
An example is given by resistivity cross-section from the Krafla
high-temperature system in N-Iceland. It reflects well the low
resistivity close to the surface and the higher resistivity below
associated with the exploitable geothermal reservoir at 1–4 km
depth. Below that an extensive low-resistivity body may reflect
ð6Þ
partially molten magma [26].
3.2.2. Thermal methods
In the thermal method, two distinct techniques can be distin-
guish: borehole or shallow probe methods for measuring thermal
gradient, which is useful itself, and with a knowledge of the
thermal conductivity provides a measure of heat flow, and air-
borne or satellite-based measurements, which can be used to
determine the earth’s surface temperature and thermal inertia of
surficial materials, of thermal infrared radiation emitted at the
earth’s surface [39].
Thermal methods include direct measurements of temperature
and/or heat, and thus correlate better with the properties of the
geothermal system than other methods. However, as a (near-)
surface method they are limited to shallow levels. To measure
temperatures close to the surface, in the uppermost meter or so, is
fairly simple [40]. Knowledge about status at deeper levels is based
on the existence of wells, usually shallow gradient wells (e.g. 30–
100 m deep) [5], from which the thermal gradient can be calcu-
lated and possibly the depth to the exploitable geothermal
resource. Drilling is though usually fairly expensive, and puts
ð8Þ practical limits to the use of the method. Furthermore, shallow
wells are not always adequate to get reliable values on the thermal
gradient.
The heat exchange mechanism in the earth is important for
interpretation of thermal methods. A distinction is made between:
 Conduction, which is based on atomic vibrations, and is impor-
tant for transfer of heat in the earth’s crust;
 Convection, which transfers heat by motion of mass, e.g. natural
circulation of hot water; and
The simplified geothermal relationship for thermal conduction
is (conductive heat transfer only) [5]:
 k ΔT
Q condz ¼ ð10Þ
Δz
The parameter k, the thermal conductivity (W/m 1C), is a
material constant, which ranges between 1 and 5 W/m 1C, with
the low values usually associated with sedimentary formations
and the higher for crystalline rocks. The thermal gradient, ΔT/Δz,
gives information on the increase of temperature with depth, and
its distribution can be important in formation for understanding
and delineation of the geothermal resource, both on a regional
scale and local scale [41]. If the conductive hear transfer, Q, is 80–
100 mW/m2 or higher, it may indicate geothermal conditions in
the subsurface.
For convection, a distinction is made between free convection,
which is driven by density gradients in the fluid (due to a
difference in temperature), and thus the heat is transferred, while
forced convection is driven by an external pressure gradient, such
as hydrostatic head. Convection is a much more powerful way of
 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
transmitting heat, but relies on the permeability of the rocks.
High-temperature geothermal systems are based on the free
convection of the geothermal fluids, while geothermal systems
in sedimentary basins are based on conductive heat flow. How-
ever, geothermal systems are often of a mixed type. Thermal
infrared imaging methods are a specialized branch of more
generalized remote sensing techniques.
3.2.3. Other methods
3.2.3.1. Remote sensing. Remote sensing includes methods that
utilize images obtained in the ultra-violet, visible, and near
infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thermal
infrared observations, discussed previously under thermal
methods, are also part of remote sensing. Remote sensing data
are treated in image format, often in digital form, so that they can
be processed conveniently. By comparison with known spectral
responses of minerals or mineral groups, iron hydroxide minerals,
silica, clay alteration, etc., can be defined over broad areas. Remote
sensing can be used in geoenvironmental studies to map surface
alteration patterns [42], And to identify anomalous vegetation
patterns in areas related to abnormal metal content in soil [43].
There are two main types of remote sensing: passive and active.
Passive sensors detect natural emitted and reflected radiation.
Active remote sensing uses the reflected, or backscattered, signal
from energy emitted at pre-determined wavelengths. Satellite and
airborne imagery can map zones of secondary mineral precipita-
tion associated with emerging geothermal fluids and attributes
such as heat flux. Aerial photography and terrain mapping with
laser ranging also illuminate surface structural features associated
with geologic settings.
3.2.3.2. Gamma-ray spectrometry. Gamma-ray methods [44,45]
use scintillometry to identify the presence of the natural
radioelements potassium, uranium, and thorium; multi-channel
spectrometers can provide measures of individual radioelement
abundances. Gamma-ray methods have had wide application in
uranium exploration because they provide direct detection.
Thorium is generally the most immobile of the three radio
elements and has geochemical behavior similar to that of
zirconium. Thorium content, like uranium content, tends to
increase in felsic rocks and generally increases with alkalinity.
Gamma ray logs send rays into the walls of the well and collect
information about relative rock types. This is important for
differentiating between sandstones, which are good sources of
fluids, and shale, which has low porosity and permeability and can
surround other rock layers and trap fluids.
3.2.4. Combining methods
Good geophysical surveys are usually based on a combination
of methods. It is necessary in order to get a better understanding
of the geothermal system. Usually, routine methods are to be
preferred, but if they do not suffice, then other methods or
possibly improvised methods need to be taken into account.
Combined parameter was illustrate in 2005 at W-Iceland and
shows a simple model of the Asgardur geothermal system, based
on the temperature measurements and the magnetic measure-
ments [24]. The NE–SW trending fault mapped by the magnetic
measurements is believed to carry the water towards the geother-
mal field from the highlands, but the geothermal up flow is at its
intersection with a northwesterly fracture delineated through the
soil temperature measurements. Also, before any geophysical
exploration, reconnaissance of field can be needed and evaluated
by some indirect method and confirmed by direct method. So, the
problem of the expensively of geophysical tools can be taken into
account.
93
4. Discussion
Different methods may be applied for the exploration of
geothermal resources. Furthermore, different methods are some-
times used from one country to another despite similar geother-
mal surroundings, based on the routines that have been developed
at the different institutions. It is also important to combine
different methods, as relying on the results of measurements of
a single parameter usually does not give adequate information for
good understanding of the geothermal system.
According to indirect methods, seismic method is an ideal
method for geophysical exploration due to his precision, the
standard tool for prospecting, as they can be used to supply a
detailed image of the subsurface structure in the sedimentary and
other environment of most oil, gas and geothermal reservoirs
[4,23]. But this method is so expensive and need many times and
attention by geophysicist.
Nevertheless, Magnetic method can be benefit for to infer the
presence of veins, faults, ore bodies, or igneous rocks, all of which
are indicators of structural changes possibly associated with a
geothermal heat source [4,24–28]. This method can be classified as
preliminary for geothermal exploration. This method has been
very popular during the last 30 years for the rapidity with which
the measurements can be made and the low cost of operation.
Restrictions are the resolution with depth, the complexity of the
interpretation which makes it most reliable only for structures
with simple geometric shapes, and the insensitivity to the actual
presence of water. But this method has limited by many uncer-
tainties (data need filtering) and others things like topography etc.
this method is most use in Mine exploration.
Similarly, Gravimetric methods are comparatively easy to use
and fairly economical; they provide a good estimate of the extent
of bodies with certain density. The resolution and quality of data,
however, decrease considerably with depth. Gravimetric studies
therefore provide a useful tool to be used for shallow reservoirs in
combination with other geophysical methods. Gravity measure-
ments are used to detect geological formations with different
densities topography, latitude and drift in the gravimeter. How-
ever, the gravity method is somewhat limited due to the ambiguity
that theoretically an infinite number of density distributions fits a
given gravity field and infinite number of applications in geother-
mal exploration include mapping of: basement depth variations in
sedimentary areas, intrusive rocks sometimes associated with a
possible heat source, fault or dyke systems, and alteration/cemen-
tation due to thermal effects [4,30]. Therefore, other information is
needed to be able to fix values, e.g. thicknesses of formations etc.
A survey in the geothermal geophysical literature reveals the
existence of many examples for the various geophysical electrical
methodologies that have been used in geothermal exploration [33].
Electrical methods, in particular, have been employed in the
study of most of the geothermal fields. This method is low
expensive than others methods. The “efficiency” of the geoelectrical
methods used in geothermal exploration varies very much, and
depends mainly upon the specific target sought. Thus, resistivity
methods are used for hot brines/alteration zones and faults detec-
tion, induced polarization (IP) is used for alteration zones/miner-
alization, controlled source electromagnetics (CSEM) and scalar
audiomagnetotellurics (AMT) are used for hot brines/alteration
zones and faults. MT/AMT are used for hot brines/magma chambers
partially melt/regional structure, self-potential (SP) is used for flow
of fluids and heat, while Tellurics are used for hot brines/alteration
zones and fault detection. Electrical methods can be generally used,
in all phases of geothermal research [4,33–36].
Similarly, Thermal methods (gradient, heat flow, shallow tempera-
ture, infrared photography) are used to delineate the geothermal field
and its extent, while micro seismic studies are often employed to
94 J. Domra Kana et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 87–95
delineate the geothermal reservoir and micro-earthquakes are used to
detect major hydrothermal convection systems [4,26,39–41]. They
include the Mapping of thermal distribution at the surface, with,
detailed geothermal surface mapping; Soil temperature measure-
ments in the uppermost meter or so and Airborne IR survey.
Temperature measurements in 20–100 m gradient wells, used to
delineate regional or local gradient anomalies. Heat flow surveys for
regional assessment for assessing thermal output of areas; here
thermal conductivity measurements may be necessary and possibly
terrain correction of the gradient survey.
Thermoelectric and electrokinetic coupling mechanisms gen-
erate self-potential anomalies of several decades of millivolts over
geothermal fluid flow paths (fracture zones in the basement rock).
Consequently, thermal and electrical methods are probably the
most useful and widely used in geothermal research. But are
limited to detecting relatively shallow features.
Geophysical well logs provide detailed vertical profiles through
the bedrock and may provide useful point data on geological
structure. Gamma-ray spectrometry and remote sensing, measure
surface attributes [42–45].
Economic exploitation of a geothermal system is usually limited
to the uppermost 1–3 km of the crust, and the actual target depth
or the selection of a drill rig may be important for the selection of
methods. It is sound to apply methods with which you are well
acquainted if it is believed that they suit the purpose of the survey.
However, it also important to have the knowledge and capacity to
be able to improvise or adapt new methods if the conventional
methods are not providing the information that is needed. Finally,
the geophysicist must always remember that he does not stand
alone. His results need to be integrated with information on the
geology of the geothermal area and the chemistry of the geothermal
fluids, for good understanding of the geothermal system.
A successful survey hopefully leads to the development of the
resource, and if so, its success can be measured by the time, effort
and money it has saved, for example by production of electricity or
hot water for heating from a renewable energy source instead of oil
or coal. Or if the measurements have managed to spare the drilling
of one failed production well, they surely have saved a lot of money.
5. Conclusion
This paper presents various geophysical methods for geother-
mal exploration. All geophysical techniques are expensive,
although some more than others. Nor they can be used indis-
criminately in any situation or condition, as a method that
produces excellent results in a determinate geological environ-
ment may give very unsatisfactory results in another. In order to
reduce costs, it is therefore very important that the geophysical
method(s) be selected very carefully beforehand by geophysicists
working in close collaboration with geologists. Furthermore,
different methods are sometimes used from one country to
another despite similar geothermal surroundings, based on the
routines that have been developed at the different institutions.
Then Geophysical data has been proven to have the capability of
accurately characterizing geothermal reservoirs and exploring for
new ones, as long as more than one method is being considered
for interpretation. Nevertheless, geoelectrical method must be
used in underdevelopment country like sub-Saharan region
because electrical methods (not excluding thermal ones) are
probably the most powerful tools in geothermal exploration.
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