CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction.

One only has to experience a power outage to be reminded of the role electricity play in every sphere
of human endeavour. Our lightening, heating, cooling will no longer operate television, computers
and other communication systems become unusable. Even industries, schools and commercial
buildings will become virtually inoperable.

The need to develop a sustainable power generation in order to meet the growing demand of both
domestic and industrial activities in the Nigerian energy sector has brought about the idea of
designing a power plant. A power plant is an assembly of systems or subsystems to generate
electricity. It may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and delivers a
flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the generation of electric power is a
generator.

Power Plant classification.

Power plants are primarily determined by the type of prime mover they use. Varieties of power
plant exist and these are as outlined below:

(a) Conventional power plant

Steam Engines Power Plants
Steam Turbine Power Plants
Diesel Power Plants
Gas Turbine Power Plants
Hydro-Electric Power Plants

(b) Non conventional Power Plant

Nuclear Power Plants Thermoelectric Generator
Therm-ionic generator
Fuel-cells Power Plants
Photovoltaic solar cells Power System
MH D Power Plants
Fusion Reactor NPP Power S y stem
Biogas, Biomass Energy Power system
Geothermal Energy
Wind Energy Power System
Ocean Thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Wave and Tidal Wave
Energy Plantation Scheme

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF POWER GENERATION IN NIGERIA.

Power generation in Nigeria can be historically traced back to 1898 when the first generating plant
was installed in the city of Lagos. From then, until 1950, the pattern of electricity development was
in the form of individual electricity power undertakings scattered all over the country .By 1950, the
integration of electricity power development lead to the passage of the ECN (Electric Corporation of
Nigeria) ordinance No 15 of 1950.The ordinance enabled electricity department and all other
undertakings to come under one body. The ECN and NDA (Niger Dam Authority) were merged to
form the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) which took effect from first of April’ 1972.
What is currently called Power Holding of Nigeria was an offshoot of NEPA. The electric Power sub
sector is dominated by the Power Holding of Nigeria. The PHCN co-exist with Independent Power
Producers (IPP), some of which has its power purchase agreement.

Following the introduction of electric power sector reform Act in 2005,NEPA was transformed into
a holding company which was subsequently unbundled into eighteen(18) companies including 6
power generation plants,11 distributors and 1 transmission company. The power sector reform
initiated in 1999 has introduced a new set of players (IPPs).Currently, about 29 power generation
licenses have been granted to IPPs by the National Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC)
since 2006.

Till date, Nigeria has about 6,380MW of installed electric power generation capacity consisting of
three hydropower plants and six thermal power plants. These include the following:
Afam electric power unit
Delta electric power business unit
Egbin electric power business unit
Jebba hydropower station
Kainji hydropower station
Sapele electric power business unit
Shiroro hydropower business unit
Mambila hydropower plant

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF THE NIGERIAN POWER SECTOR.

Nigeria is currently facing a serious energy crisis. Power outages are more frequent than ever and the
energy sector operates well below its capacity. The Nigerian Power Holding Company, which is in
charge of the sector is grossly inefficient. Various power projects have been embarked upon over the
years. Some of which include the following:

A 400MW gas turbine power plant in Afam, under the federal government shell agreement which
was later expanded to 900MW capacity in 2001.
A 480MW integrated cycle electric power plant built by ENI of Italy and operating on a two gas
turbine and one steam turbine, which was inaugurated in April 1, 2005 at Okpai, in Delta state.
A 3-335MW gas fired turbine power plant built by Chinese firm (CMEC) in Okitipupa effective
from November 1, 2002.
A 3,960MW hydropower plant project approved by the government to be constructed on the
Mambila Plateau in North -East Nigeria

In addition to the above various initiatives, several independent power plant projects have equally
been embarked upon in order to harness the Nation’s oil and gas potentials and bridge the gap of
energy demand in Nigeria.
PROBLEM STATEMENT

The importance of electricity as it reflects in our day to day activities cannot be overemphasized.
Nigeria’s demand for energy is estimated to be 7,600 (MW). However, the country only has a total
installed generating capacity of 6,000MW, which is far from being optimized as the country is only
able to achieve 3,000MW output (Nigerian Energy Report, 2009). In order to ameliorate the power
crisis being faced in the energy sector in Nigeria and Kaduna in particular, there is need to embark
on an increased power generation drive which will also serve as part of the roadmap for the
attainment of the Nigerian Energy Vision 2020.
This has lead to the development of a blueprint for the design of a 200MW oil fired power plant to
be cited in Zungeru axis of Kaduna.
The power plant will be steam driven due to its economic scale. The choice of Kaduna for its
location is born out of the fact that cheap source of fuel (low pour fuel oil) can be made readily
available from the Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company. The fuel delivery mode will be by
pipeline facilities. The Zungeru site has been chosen due to its vast land and hydrological resources
with a capacity of sustaining well above 900MW power plant water requirements as indicated by
table 1a, according to the Nigerian Energy Report.

Surveys and review of maps, aerial photographs have been carried out in order to determine
available data on soil, vegetation and land use. Further efforts have also been made to ascertain the
existing water-ways, accessibility to adequate transmission lines, and provision for combustion
waste disposal, land availability, environmental impact and availability of workforce.
Table 1a-Estimate of current exploitable hydropower sites in Nigeria (From Nigerian Energy Report).
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF PROJECT.

The design of a 200MW oil fired power plant within the framework of an academic research
involves some level of assumptions. However, this project will be target specific and will tend to
address key components in the design of a 200MW oil fired power plant.
Considerations shall be given to the following plant parameters which will serve as the design limits
to be observed:

The project shall take into account the site selection for power plant erection.
The design, specification and selection of boilers for setting up the power plant.
The prime movers (steam turbines) parameters shall be duely considered with emphasis on its
design, specification and selection process.
Process condenser design and selection with due recourse to prevailing ambient conditions in
Kaduna.
Cooling and circulation water supply and requirements (make up, treatment etc).
Cooling tower design, specification and selection.
Fuel oils selection, characteristics and analysis of air- fuel system for boiler load optimization shall
be considered.
Feed water heating design and selection.
Heat balances, plant cycle analysis and plant requirements.
plant citing parameters
However, the following will not be included in the scheme of project: the details of civil-structural,
mechanical and chemical designs, ancillaries such as pipe, valves and insulation, jacketing details,
instrumentations and controls, detailed corrosion protection measures, detailed emission controls
and flue gas analysis .

SIGNIFICANCE OF DESIGNING A 200MW POWER PLANT IN KADUNA.

Kaduna and indeed Nigeria at large have been grappling with an epileptic power supply over the
years. This has taken a toll of both domestic and industrial activities. More worrisome is the closing
up of our textile companies, majour manufacturing companies such as Michelin, Dunlop and others
(which in the past accounted for over 15 percent employment generation in the country) due to
unstable power situation.

There is need to increase the power generation capacity in addition to improving the capacity
utilization of the existing ones in Nigeria. The design and citing of a 200mw oil fired power plant
could not have come at a better time most especially when viewed against the backdrop of energy
crisis rocking our nation. Moreover, with the PHCN available energy statistic showing 4,428mw as
current power generation capacity as against the Nigerian energy vision 2020 target of 6000mw by
2010 and 10,000mw by December,2011, the 200mw power plant plan will further complement the
attainment of this drive and help in reducing the existing energy gap.

The choice of Kaduna for citing the power plant was well conceived in that the source of fuel supply
can be readily made available through piping facilities or otherwise from the Kaduna Refining and
Petrochemical plant .In addition to this, cooling water and other process water requirements can be
met from the primary plant citing-Zungeru which has a proven record with the capacity to sustain a
500mw power plant utility water requirements (according to the National Energy Commission
report).

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the project is to design a 200MW oil fired power plant to be situated in Kaduna in
order to boost the power generation capacity of Nigeria at large.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY.

Studies of power plant by different researchers have been an interesting feature of the Nigerian
energy sector. The concept itself is by no means a new technology. However, what may be new is its
domestication and adaptation to suit the present day realities in Kaduna environs. The reasons for
embarking on this project are not far-fetched:

There is an urgent need to address the shortfall in the energy sector through the development of
power generation scheme.
Though, intense power sector reforms are currently being engineered nation-wide as revealed by
studies, very little has been done to harness the abundant potentials resident in Kaduna in terms of
industry based fuel source from the Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company and vast
hydrological resources in Zungeru.
A steam driven power plant with an oil based firing method has the capacity to generate over
3000MW power plant as compared to any other conventional power plant scheme (Diesel, gas).This
will, no doubt, have a far reaching effect on ameliorating the energy crisis in Kaduna ailing
industries and its environs.
It requires less space when compared with hydro power plant and has lower cost of generation as
compared with diesel power plant.
Furthermore, steam power plants have lower installation cost, with readily available components and
has the capacity to generate higher employment opportunities.

REFERENCES

Nigeria’s Dual Problems: Policy Issues and Challenges. International Association for Energy
Economics, Akin Iwayemi.
Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria; O.I Okoro, I.P Govenderand E. Chikumi.
National Energy Databank, www.energydatabank.org.
Power Plant Engineering, Black and Veatch-1996.
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.www.wikipedia.com
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION.

It is no exaggeration that the whole mankind, indeed the entire world economy are today governed
by the forces of electricity. (Engr.M.N Manata, 1979-The development of electricity in Nigeria,
1896-1972).
The drive for achieving energy sufficiency on a sustainable platform in Nigeria and Kaduna in
particular has been the motivating factor behind the current studies in power plant.

2.1 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF POWER PLANT.

Early studies showed that Thomas Savery (1650–1715) and Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729)
designed and developed the first steam power plant. See figure 1. The limitation of their studies was
that the power plant was used to pump water from mines, so that coal could be brought up from a
greater depth, previously inaccessible. A lot of energy was wasted and this resulted in very low plant
efficiency. James Watt (1736–1819) furthered the advances in the development of steam power plant
by designing a separate cooler (condenser) into which the steam is injected before being sent back
to the boiler. The Watt’s engine was employed in driving locomotives, ships etc.(fig 2.2)

Figure 2.1-Thomas Savery and Newcomer plant.

Fig2,2

2.2 CURRENT ADVANCES IN POWER PLANT IN NIGERIA

Hitachi engineering company.(1985) under the auspices of the Nigeria Electric Power
Authority(now PHCN) designed the Egbin power plant which was commissioned in 1985 with an
initial two 220MW steam turbines, each having its own dual fuel gas/oil fired boiler. This was later
upgraded to 6-220MW steam turbines bringing it to a total of 1,320MW in 1987.
 Chiyoda Chemical Engineering Company (1978) designed a four 14MW steam turbine generator
power plant for the Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company in 1978 .The power plant operates
on a dual fired(fuel gas/heavy oil) 5 water tube boilers with each having a steam capacity of 120
tons/hr at 412°C and 42.5kg/cm2 .

2.3 REVIEW OF STEAM POWER PLANT COMPONENTS.

The steam power plant is an integration of various components. A typical steam plant is illustrated in
fig 2.2.
Studies have shown that a steam power plant must meet the following requirements:
1. Furnace to burn the fuel.
2. Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to convert
water in steam.
3. Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform work.
4. Piping system to convey steam and water.

In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending
upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:
(i) Feed water and steam flow circuit
(ii) Fuel and fuel handling with waste disposal circuit
(iii) Air and gas circuit
(iv) Cooling water circuit.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is
generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover (steam turbine) and condensed in the condenser
and fed into the boiler again.
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows:
(i) High pressure boiler
(ii) Steam turbines
(iii) Condensers and cooling towers
(iv) Fuel handling system. E.g. fuel oil, coal, fuel gas
(v) Flue gas, ash and dust handling system
(vi) Draught system
(vii) Feed water purification plant
(viii) Pumping system
(ix) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.
Fig 2.2 A pulverized coal fired steam power plant

2.3.1 STEAM GENERATORS

A steam generator is a device that generates steam at the desired rate, pressure and temperature. It is
a complex integration of furnace, superheater, reheater, boiler or evaporator, economizer and air
preheater along with various auxiliariessuch as pulverizers,burners,fans, stokers,dust collectors and
precipitators,ash handling equipment and chimney or stack.
The thermal structure of a typical boiler is shown in figure 2.3 while the component structure is
given in figure 2.4
Fig 2.3
Thermal structure of a boiler furnace (APH – air preheater, EPS – electrostatic precipitator, ID fan –
induced draft fan, LTSH – latent superheater, platen SHTR – platen superheater, RHTR –
reheater,SH – superheater)

2.3.1.1 STEAM GENERATOR CLASSIFICATION.

Steam generators or boilers come under various classifications. From the viewpoint of applications,
they can be (i) utility steam generators (ii) Industrial steam generators (iii) marine steam generators.
Utility steam generators are those used by utilities for electric power generating plants. They can be
either subcritical (steam pressure below 221.2 bar) or supercritical (above 221.2 bar).Subcritical
steam generators are water tube drum type and their operating is between 130 to 180 bar steam
pressure. The supercritical steam generators are drumless once-through type and operate at 240 bar
pressure or higher. Most utility steam generators are of 170-180 bar water tube –drum variety, which
produce superheated steam at about 540-560°C with one or two stage reheat and steam capacities of
120-1300 kg/s with power plant unit output of 125-1300MW. They come in straight, bent (best
orientation) or cross tube orientation with either natural (for boiler pressure below 180 bar) or forced
circulation system (pressure above 180 bar). They can be single, double or four drum boiler. They
can be either fired by pulverized coal or heavy oil
Industrial steam generators are those used in process industries like sugar, paper, institutions,
commercial and residential buildings. They are smaller in size and operate at 5-105 bars with steam
capacities up to 125 kg/s.They do not produce superheated steam but rather supply wet or saturated
steam.
Marine steam generators are used in mainly marine ships and ocean liners driven by steam turbine.
They are usually oil fired and they produce superheated steam at about 60-65 bar and 540°C.

They can also be classified according to the relative flow of products of combustion or flue gases or
water. While fire tube boiler have its products of combustion (hot flue gas) flowing through tubes
surrounded by water in a shell, the water tube boiler is designed to allow water from a drum flow
through the tubes and the hot flue gases flow over it. Further classification is given in figure 2.5

Fire tube boilers are suitable for small steam requirement with operating limits of 18 bar and 6.2 kg/s
steaming capacity. Though they have low first cost, less draught and skill requirement and reliability
in operation, there application is limited to saturated steam production in industrial plant. They are
no longer used in utility plant. The following are the obvious advantages of water tube boiler over
fire tube boiler:

MERITS OF WATER TUBE BOILERS OVER FIRE TUBE BOILERS

1. Generation of steam is much quicker due to small ratio of water content to steam content. This
also helps in reaching the steaming temperature in short time.
2. Its evaporative capacity is considerably larger and the steam pressure range is also high-220 bar.
3. Heating surfaces are more effective as the hot gases travel at right angles to the direction of
water flow.
4. The combustion efficiency is higher because complete combustion of fuel is possible as the
combustion space is much larger.
5. The thermal stresses in the boiler parts are less as different parts of the boiler remain at
uniform temperature due to quick circulation of water.
6. The boiler can be easily transported and erected as its different parts can be separated.
7. Damage due to the bursting of water tube is less serious. Therefore, water tube boilers are
sometimes called safety boilers.
8. All parts of the water tube boilers are easily accessible for cleaning, inspecting and repairing.
9. The water tube boiler's furnace area can be easily altered to meet the fuel requirements.
Fig.2.4 Nomenclature of a typical boiler
Figure 2.5 gives a detailed classification of steam generators.

2.3.2 STEAM GENERATOR COMPONENTS.

2.3.2.1 SUPERHEATER

A superheater is utilized to remove the moisture content in the steam by raising the temperature
while keeping the pressure constant. Steam that undergoes this process is referred to as superheated
steam. Superheating improves the turbine internal efficiency and hence the lifetime of the turbine. A
superheater therefore increases the capacity of the plant, reduces corrosion of the steam turbine and
reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine. Superheaters are classified into three types-
Radiant superheaters, Convective superheaters and Combined radiative and convective
superheaters.
Convective superheaters are normally called primary superheaters and are located near the
convective zone of the furnace, whereas radiant and combined superheaters are termed secondary
superheaters. Superheaters are often divided into more than one stage such as:
A platen superheater 2. A pendent superheater 3. A horizontal superheater 4. A radiant superheaters.
Figure below gives the arrangement of platen, pendent and convective superheater.

The radiant superheaters receive energy by thermal radiation from the furnace and are located close
to the furnace exit. The convective superheater is located in a low-gas temperature region ranging
from 423 to 813K lower, depending on the degree of superheating required. It is shielded by several
rows of screen tubes and the gas is well mixed and cooled before it encounters the superheater.
However, Pendent superheaters receive heat by both convection and radiation; they are normally
hung from the top of furnace usually located in the crossover duct between the furnace and the back
pass.
The outside tube diameters of the pendent superheaters normally falls in the range 32–51mm and the
tube thickness is usually in the range 3–7mm. The platen superheaters are made from flat panels of
tubes located in the upper part of the furnace, where the gas temperature is high. The tubes of the
platen superheater receive very high radiation. The mass flow velocity of steam in the platen
superheater is normally in the range 800–1000 kg/(m2 s). The outer diameter of the platen
superheater tubes is in the range 32–42 mm. The number of parallel tubes in a platen is generally
15–35, depending on the design steam velocity.

Fig 2.6 arrangement of platen superheater

2.3.2.2 REHEATERS

The reheater is usually located above the primary or convective superheater in the convective
zone of utility boilers. A schematic view of a convective reheater is shown in Fig.2.8. The pressure
drop inside the reheater tubes has an important adverse effect on the efficiency of the turbine. The
pressure drop through the reheater should be kept as low as possible. The tube diameter of the
reheater is normally 42–60mm and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 90–110W/(m2 K).
Fig 2.7 pendent superheater

Fig 2.8 schematic diagram of a reheater.

2.3.2.3 ECONOMIZER
The feedwater from the first high-pressure heater passing through a heat exchanger and heats up to
the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. This heat exchanger is normally
called the economizer; it extracts waste heat from hot stack gases to heat the feedwater to the desired
saturation temperature, hence the energy input to the boiler increases and the efficiency as well as
economy of the power plant increase. The economizer is generally placed between the convective
superheater and the air preheater. Economizers are designed for downward flow of gas and upward
flow of water, consisting of more than 250–300 coils in a staggered arrangement in a single bank.
Figure 2.9 depicts the arrangement of the economizer. The materials are usually of steel tube- type
economizers. The outside diameter of the economizer tubes is normally in the range 25–75mm and
the tube thickness is 3–5mm.

Fig 2.9 Arrangement of economizer

FEED WATER HEATERS

Feedwater heaters are used to raise the temperature of the water or to increase the mean temperature
of heat addition in the cycle before it enters the boiler. The feedwater heater utilizes the steam which
is extracted along the turbine expansion line for water heating. Feedwater heaters are used in a
regenerative feedwater cycle to increase thermal efficiency and thus provide fuel savings.
Feedwater heaters are normally classified into two types:
.1. Open feedwater heaters 2. Closed feedwater heaters.
Closed Feedwater Heater (Heat Exchange Institute Standards for Closed Feedwater Heaters. ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec. VIII,2000 ) is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger that warms
feedwater by means of superheated steam or dry saturated or wet steam. Normally water flows inside
the pipe and steam flows on the shell side. The number and types of heaters usually employed are:
(1) plant sizes of up to 70 mW, two closed low-pressure heaters, one open heater, one closed high-
pressure heater; (2) plant sizes of 75 to 300 mW, two or three closed low-pressure heaters, one open
heater, two closed high-pressure heaters; (3) fossil-fueled plant sizes above 300 mW, three or four
closed low-pressure heaters, one open heater, two or three high pressure heaters. Table 1a gives the
general range of feedwater selection for various power plant sizes.
Minimum heater cost prevails with minimum restrictive specifications, e.g., horizontal, two-pass,
high water velocity (10 ft/s at 60_F), no length limits. Overall heater length is limited by maximum
available tube lengths of 100 ft for copper alloys, admiralty metal, and copper-nickel and 85 ft
for Monel. With U-tube construction, this results in heater lengths of about 48 and 40 ft,
respectively. A general rule, to ensure good steam distribution, is that the length in feet shall not
exceed the shell diameter in inches plus 2; i.e., with a 30-in diam shell, the length should not exceed
32 ft.
Pressure drop through the tubes must be economically evaluated as it varies approximately with the
square of the water velocity.
If a length restriction is imposed, the designer may have to substitute a four-pass arrangement for the
two-pass design, with consequent large diameter shell and water chamber, heavier walls, more tube
holes to be drilled, more tubes to be installed, and a cost increase. If a pressure-drop restriction is
imposed, a lower water velocity results, with more tubes, larger shell and chamber diameter, and
more surface because of the lower heat-transfer rate. Vertical heaters, with appropriate construction
details, are also higher in cost. Fig 2.10 gives a diagram of a typical close feed water heater.
According to the method of releasing the drain, closed feedwater arrangements are further classified
into two types:
1. Drain cascaded forward
2. Drain cascaded backward

Table 1a-Nos of feedwater heaters

Fig 2.10a condensing heater.

In open feedwater heaters, heat

transfer takes place by direct
mixing of steam and water.
Normally open feedwater heaters
are more efficient than closed
feedwater heaters. Though the efficiency of open feedwater heater is higher, closed feedwater is
normally used for modern power plants utilizing a large number of feedwater heaters to avoid a large
number of pumps at each entrance and exit of the heater.
Deaerators or deaerating heaters are also another form of open feedwater heater but they serve the
following functions (1) to degasify feedwater and thus reduce equipment corrosion (2) to heat
feedwater regeneratively and improve thermodynamic efficiency and (3) to provide storage, positive
submergence, and surge protection on the boiler feed-pump suction.
Removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide from boiler feedwater and process water at elevated
temperature is essential for adequate conditioning.
A modern deaerator will, by mechanical action, reduce O2 content of effluent to less than 0.005
cm3/L and CO2 content to a negligible amount. Water must (1) be heated to and kept at saturation
temperature, as the gas solubility is zero at the boiling point of the liquid, and (2) be mechanically
agitated by spraying or cascading over trays for effective scrubbing, release, and removal of gases.
Gases must be swept away by an adequate supply of steam. Since the water is heated to saturation
conditions, the terminal temperature difference is zero with maximum improvement in associated
turbine heat rate.
There are two majour types of deaerator: spray and tray-type deaerator. The tray type is prevalent
(Fig.2.10b) .While it has some tendency to scale; it will operate at wide load conditions and is
practically independent of water-inlet temperature. Trays can be loaded to some 10,000 lb/(ft2 _ h),
and the deaerator seldom exceeds 8 ft in height.
The spray type uses a high-velocity steam jet to atomize and scrub the preheated water. Applications
are (1) marine service, where it is unaffected by ship roll and pitch, and (2) industrial plants where
operating pressures are stable. It requires a temperature gradient, e.g., 50_F minimum, to
produce the fine sprays and vacuums with the cold water required.

Fig 2.10b Tray type deaerator

AIR PREHEATERS

The flue gas leaving the chimney is normally in the range 280–480 ◦C. leaving the flue to the
atmosphere at this high temperature causes high energy losses. Air heaters are used to utilize this
hot flue gas to heat the air required for combustion, and lead to an improvement in combustion
efficiency. Since this is a gas-to-gas heat exchanger, its heat transfer surface area is extremely large.
There are two different types of air pre heater. These are recuperative and regenerative air preheaters
Recuperative Air Preheater: A recuperative air preheater is nothing but a shell-and tube heat
exchanger in which hot flue gas flows inside the tubes and air flows outside. Since this is a gas-to-
gas heat exchanger it requires a huge heat transfer surface area and hence larger size.
Rotary or Regenerative Air Preheater: Rotary preheaters works on the counterflow principle, and
consist of a rotor and housing. The rotor is normally divided into 12–24 radial divisions of heat
transfer elements and is made up of steel sheets. The rotor is driven by an electric motor and is
coupled with worm-gear drive that helps to reduce the speed of the rotor device to 2–6 rpm. During
the rotation through the flue gas side the heat transfer element absorbs heat which is later given off
during the rotation through the air section. Based on the number of sections rotary preheaters are
further classified into three types: bisector, trisector, and quadsector types. Trisector-type air
preheaters are divided into three sections: one for the flue gas, one for the primary, and one for the
secondary section. In the quadsector type, the secondary air section is divided into two sections,
taking up primary air. Figure 2.11 gives an example of a rotary air preheater.

Fig 2.10 Isometric view of Rothemuhle air heater (From Babcock & Wilcox, Brochure)

Although rotary air preheaters are compact heat exchanger with a large heat transfer surface,
relatively cheap and have good heat transfer characteristics, they have some drawbacks. These
include flow openings being plugged by fly ash, sealing of gas to air path and large pressure drop for
both air and gas.
When air is required to be heated up to 400-C or above, two stages of air preheating are normally
used with an economizer installed in between the two air preheaters. The first air preheaters may be
tubular while the second one rotary
Fig 2.11 Bisector Ljungstrom air preheater isometric cut-away view. (From ABB Air Preheater, Inc.
Used with permission.)

STEAM TURBINES.

The steam turbine generator is the primary power conversion component of the power plant. It is a
prime mover which continuously converts the energy of high pressure, high temperature steam
supplied by a steam generator into a shaft work with the low temperature steam exhausted to a
condenser. The function of the steam turbine generator is to convert the thermal energy of the steam
from the steam generator to electrical energy. Two separate components are provided: the steam
turbine to convert the thermal energy to rotating mechanical energy, and the generator to convert the
mechanical energy to electrical energy. Typically, the turbine is directly coupled to the generator.
The operation of the steam turbine generator involves the expansion of steam through numerous
stages in the turbine, causing the turbine rotor to turn the generator rotor. The generator rotor is
magnetized, and its rotation generates the electrical power in the generator stator.

2.4.1 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION.

Turbines can be classified, depending on the types of blades used and the method of energy transfer
from the fluid to the rotor wheel. It could be impulse or reaction stage turbine or a combination of
both types.
 Impulse Stage. An impulse stage consists of a stationary nozzle with rotating buckets or blades (Fig
2.12).
The steam expands through the nozzle, increasing in velocity as a result of the decrease in pressure.
The steam then strikes the rotating buckets and performs work on the rotating buckets, which in turn
decreases the steam velocity. The impulse stages can be grouped together in velocity compound
stages or pressure compound stages (Fig. 2.13). The velocity compound stage involves a stationary
nozzle followed by several rotating and stationary buckets. The nozzle has a large pressure drop with
a resulting increase in velocity. The first set of rotating buckets partially decreases the velocity as a
result of the work performed on the buckets. The steam then passes through a set of stationary
buckets in that the steam direction is changed back to the original direction. The steam then enters a
second set of rotating buckets where the steam velocity is completely dissipated by performing work
on this row of buckets. The velocity compound stage can consist of the stationary nozzles and many
rotating and stationary buckets; however, there usually are only two rotating bucket rows and one
stationary bucket row. The velocity compound stage typically is used as the first stage of a turbine
because of its ability to withstand high pressure reductions and the resultant efficiency in quickly
reducing pressure and minimizing the requirements for high pressure casings. The velocity
compound stage is also called a Curtis stage.
In a pressure compound series of impulse stages, rather than involving a large pressure drop in the
one nozzle set, the pressure compound stages involve several sets of nozzles with small pressure
drops through each set of nozzles and complete velocity dissipation in each row of rotating buckets.
The pressure compound stages are also called Rateau impulse stages.

Reaction stage: In a reaction staging, this consists of both rotating and stationary nozzles. This is
shown in figure 2.14 .The steam expands through the stationary nozzles with an increase in velocity.
The steam then enters the rotating nozzles where it expands further. The velocity force from the
initial expansion and the expansion in the rotating blades is imparted to the rotating nozzles.
The expansion of the steam in the stationary nozzles of the reaction turbine is an impulse action.
Therefore, the reaction stage in actual turbine applications is a combination of impulse and reaction
principles. The reaction turbine is classified as percent reaction by the amount of energy conversion
in the rotating nozzles. The term reaction stage generally implies a stage where 50% of the pressure
drop occurs in the rotating blade and 50% occurs in the stationary nozzles. The reaction stage has
pressure drop across the rotating blades, inducing axial thrust in the rotor which is offset by
balancing pistons.
Fig 2.12 Simple impulse turbine stage. (From GP Publishing. Used with permission.)

Fig 2.13 Velocity compounded and pressure compounded turbine. (From GP Publishing. Used with
permission.)
 Fig 2.14 Reaction turbine stages. (From GP Publishing. Used with permission.)

TURBINE TYPES

Steam turbines are divided into many types with various designations. The designations may indicate
the various combinations of turbine types that make up a turbine as well as the turbine size. From 500
to about 2500 kW rated capacity, turbine generators will usually be single stage, geared units without
extraction openings for either back pressure or condensing service. Rated condensing pressures for single
stage turbines range from 3 to 6 inches Hga. Exhaust pressures for back pressure units in cogeneration
service typically range from 15 psig to 250 psig. Figure 2.15 shows various representative turbine types.
The commonly used turbine types are described with the following designations:
Pressure-Reheat Designation: The designation of a turbine by a pressure may also involve the cycle
arrangement with regard to reheat. Small units without reheat, the steam turbine may consist of a
single turbine with the steam flow entering the turbine, expanding through the turbine, then
exhausting either to a condenser or to a process line. This is a straight-flow turbine as shown in Figs.
A) and (B). For a large unit without reheat, the steam may expand through an initial section and then
exhaust to another turbine. This later turbine may then exhaust to a condenser or to a process. In this
arrangement, the initial turbine is designated the high pressure turbine and the second turbine the
low-pressure turbine, as shown in Fig.2.15(C).
For a single reheat cycle, the steam from the boiler flows to the high-pressure turbine where it
expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for reheating. The reheat steam coming from the boiler
flows to the intermediate-pressure or reheat turbine where it expands and exhausts into a crossover
line that supplies the steam to the low-pressure turbine. The steam expands through the low-pressure
turbine and exhausts to a condenser. Thus, the single-reheat cycle has high-, intermediate-, and low-
pressure turbine sections as shown in Fig. 2.15(D). The designation is based on the location of the
turbine in the cycle relative to inlet pressure. The intermediate-pressure turbine also is called the
reheat turbine since it receives the reheated steam.
For a double-reheat cycle, the steam from the boiler flows to the high-pressure turbine where it
expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for reheating. The reheat steam flows to the
intermediate-pressure turbine where it expands and is exhausted back to the boiler again for
reheating. The second stage of reheated steam flows from the boiler to the reheat turbine where it
expands and exhausts to the crossover line that provides the steam to the low-pressure turbine. The
steam expands through the low-pressure turbine and exhausts to the condenser. Thus in the double-
reheat cycle, high-, intermediate-, and low-pressure turbine designations are used as for the single-
reheat cycle, with the addition of the reheat turbine designation for the turbine required for the
second stage of reheat. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.15(E).

(a) Exhaust Conditions: Two designations exist based on the turbine exhaust conditions: condensing
and noncondensing. These two designations are shown in Figs. 2.15(A) and (B). The condensing
turbine exhausts to a condenser where the steam is condensed at sub atmospheric pressure (vacuum).
The low pressure turbines of a typical power plant cycle are condensing turbines in that they exhaust
to a steam surface condenser or to a direct condensing air-cooled condenser. The condensing
turbines have large exhaust areas since the steam is expanded to low pressures, extracting as much of
the useful energy as reasonably possible prior to being exhausted. The
low pressures result in a large volume of steam, requiring a large exhaust area to minimize energy
loss in the exhausting process. The noncondensing turbine exhausts the steam above atmospheric
pressure into a line for supply to the boiler, another turbine, or a process. The high- and intermediate
pressure turbines and the reheat turbines in the single- and double-reheat cycles described previously
are noncondensing turbines. Turbines used in processes that first expand the steam through the
turbine with the exhaust steam supplied to a heat exchanger or other process functions are of the
noncondensing type. Because of the higher exhaust pressure, the noncondensing turbine exhaust area
is significantly smaller than for a condensing turbine.
(b) Flow Designation
The turbine can also be described by the number of directions steam flows to exhaust from the
turbine. The number of directions (paths) required depends on the amount of steam and the specific
volume (pressure) of the steam. A single flow turbine has the steam flowing in one direction and
exhausting at one end of the turbine. The steam enters the turbine and expands in one direction as
shown in Fig. 2.15(A).
Small nonreheat turbines, mechanical drive turbines, reheat cycle high-pressure, and reheat cycle
intermediate-pressure turbines typically employ single direction flow.
Double-flow turbines have two steam flow paths. The steam enters the center of the turbine and
flows in two opposite directions as shown for the low-pressure sections in Figs. 2.15(D) and (E).
This type of turbine is also called an opposed-flow turbine. Large reheat cycle high-pressure,
intermediate-pressure, reheat, and low-pressure sections typically are double-flow turbines. Low-
pressure turbines in power plant cycles of 150 megawatts (MW) and larger are typically double-flow
turbines. Large unit low-pressure turbines are usually double-flow because of the low pressure,
resulting in a large steam volume.
Flow designations of triple-flow, four-flow, six-flow, and eight-flow are also used. These
designations typically apply to the low-pressure sections of power plants. A triple-flow designation
indicates the use of one double-flow low-pressure turbine in combination with a single-flow low-
pressure turbine, as shown in Fig. 2.15(F). Four-flow designation indicates the use of two double-
flow low-pressure turbines as shown in Fig. 2.15(G). Six- and eight- flow designations indicate the
use of three and four double-flow low-pressure turbines, respectively.

© Extraction Types

Turbines are also designated by the type of extraction involved, if any. During the expansion of the
steam through a turbine, removing steam from an intermediate stage of the turbine is called an
extraction. In most power plants, some steam is extracted from the turbine expansion process and
supplied to heat exchangers for feedwater heating. This type of extraction varies in pressure and flow
as a function of load. This variation is acceptable and therefore no effort is made to regulate the
pressure. This type of extraction is called uncontrolled, simple, or nonautomatic extraction, and is
shown in Fig. 2.15(H).
Turbines supplying steam for process applications typically must supply steam at a constant
pressure. Since the pressure available varies with load unless controlled, valving is included in the
turbine steam expansion path to control the pressure. This valving restricts the flow to the
downstream stages as required to maintain the pressure of the extraction stage. This type of turbine
is called a controlled or automatic extraction turbine and is shown in Fig. 2.15(1). If several
controlled extraction points are required in any one turbine, multiple internal control valves are
provided. One controlled extraction would be called a single automatic extraction
turbine; two would be called a double automatic extraction turbine. Some turbines have no
extraction points and therefore are called nonextraction turbines. This type of turbine is shown in
Fig. 2.15(A).

(d) Shaft Orientation

The overall steam turbine generator arrangement of a power plant is designated as tandem-
compound or cross-compound on the basis of the shaft orientation. These two arrangements are
shown in Fig. 2.16. The tandem-compound unit has all turbines and the generator in-line, connected
to the same shaft. The turbines all drive the same generator and thus operate at the same speed. The
cross-compound unit has two turbine generator alignments. This type of arrangement is used to
increase turbine efficiency. The cross-compound arrangement typically consists of high-pressure and
intermediate-pressure turbines operating at 3,600 rpm (for 60Hz country) driving a generator. The
exhaust steam of the intermediate turbine crosses over to a low-pressure turbine that operates at
1,800 rpm, driving a separate generator. The low-pressure turbine operating at the slower speed
allows the use of longer last-stage turbine blades with expansion to higher moisture percentages and
less exhaust losses. These characteristics result in higher overall turbine efficiencies.
Large cross-compound units in the 1,300-MW range with both shaft orientations operating at 3,600
rpm have been built. The dual-shaft arrangement is used to minimize shaft length and any single
generator size.
(e) Designations
Power plant steam turbines are typically designated by shaft orientation, number of low-pressure
turbine steam flow paths, and the last-stage blade length of the low-pressure turbine. A turbine
designated as TC4F30, for example, indicates a unit that is tandem-compound (TC) having two
double-flow (4F) low-pressure turbines with 30 in. (76.2 cm) last-stage blade length. A CC2F23
indicates a unit that is cross-compound (CC) having one double-flow (2F) low pressure turbine with
23 in. (58.4 cm) last-stage blade length.
The last two parts of the designations are related to the low-pressure turbine since low-pressure
turbines are standard designs. The manufacturer’s custom design or adapt existing designs of the
high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and reheat turbines for each power plant project. A range of
standard low-pressure designs exist and the optimum standard low-pressure design is used with the
custom designed higher-pressure turbines. The low-pressure designs are designated by the length of
the last-stage blades.
The Japanese designation also includes the number of casings in the arrangement. A designation of
TC2C2F23 indicates a tandem-compound (TC) unit having two casings (2C) and a double-flow (2F)
low-pressure turbine with 23 in. (58.4 cm) last-stage blade length. If the unit is a reheat unit, the two
casing designation indicates that the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure turbine are in the same
casing (representing one casing designation) with the low-pressure turbine being the second casing.
For small units in the United States, the casing designation is also included. The designation SCSF17
indicates a single casing turbine (SC) with a single-flow path (SF) and last-stage blade length of 17
in. (43.2 cm).

STEAM TURBINE ARRANGEMENT.

Power generation in modern day is largely from fossil or nuclear feeds. For fossil plants, the
turbines typically operate at 3,600 rpm in countries with 60 hertz (Hz) electrical systems and 3,000
rpm for 50 Hz electrical systems. The high main steam pressures allow the use of compact high-
speed designs. While turbine arrangement can be tandem compound, some are cross compound as
said earlier. Units typically are tandem-compound because the cross compound arrangement cannot
be justified economically. The cross-compound units cost significantly more than tandem-compound
units because of the need for separate generators and larger foundations. The use of reheat and
number of turbines increases with the plant size. Main steam and reheat steam temperature are
typically 1,000° F (537.8° C). Steam expansion in the turbine cycle is mainly in superheated steam
with only the last one or two stages of the low pressure turbine expanding in saturated steam.
Typically, the expansion in the low-pressure turbine is to a moisture content of 6% to 8%. For sizes
up to 600 MW, the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure sections may be in a single casing with
an opposed flow arrangement. Last-stage blade lengths vary from 17 to 40 in. (43.2 to 101.6 cm).
The general turbine arrangements used in modern day power plants are summarized in Table 1b by
listing the number of reheat stages, steam pressures, and turbine configurations as a function of the
unit output while table 1c also gives the range. Figure 2.17 shows the typical steam expansion
conditions for nuclear and fossil plants.
Table 1b-Turbine arrangement from general electric company.

Table 1c-Adapted from ASME/IEEE Joint Power Generation Conference, Oct. 1979.

The turbine throttle steam temperature and pressure is however subject to economic considerations
which affect the metallurgical limits of piping materials that include various fittings, valves and
other accessories. General limits of steam temperature are 750 F (399 degrees C) for carbon steel,
850 degrees F (454 degrees C) for carbon molybdenum steel, 900 degrees F (482 degrees C) for 1/2
to 1 percent chromium - 1/2 percent molybdenum steel, 950 degrees F (510 degrees C) for 1-1/4
percent chromium - 1/2 percent molybdenum steel, and 1,000 degrees F (538 degrees C) for 2-1/4
percent chromium - 1 percent molybdenum. Throttle steam temperature is also dependent on
moisture content of steam existing at the final stages of the turbine. Moisture content must be limited
to not more than 10 percent to avoid excessive erosion of turbine blades
FIG 2.17 Typical expansion lines for nuclear and fossil turbines. (From General Electric Company.
Used with permission.
STEAM TURBINE CYCLES

The cycle of a steam power plant is the group of interconnected major equipment components
selected for optimum thermodynamic characteristics, including pressures, temperatures, and
capacities, and integrated into a practical arrangement to serve the electrical (and sometimes by-
product steam) requirements of a particular project. Selection of the optimum cycle depends upon
plant size, cost of money, fuel costs, non-fuel operating costs, and maintenance costs.
The function or purpose for which a plant is intended determines the conditions, types, and sizes of
steam generators and turbine drives and extraction pressures. Various types of steam turbine cycles
exist and they include the following:

(a) Simple Condensing Cycles. Straight condensing cycles or condensing units with
uncontrolled extractions are applicable to plants or situations where security or
isolation from public utility power supply is more important than lowest power cost.
Because of their higher heat rates and operating costs per unit output, it is not likely
that simple condensing cycles will be economically justified for an independent power plant
application as compared with that associated with public utility purchased power costs.
(b) Controlled Extraction-Condensing Cycles and Back Pressure Cycles. Back pressure and
controlled extraction-condensing cycles are attractive and applicable to a cogeneration plant, which
is defined as a power plant simultaneously supplying either electric power or mechanical energy and
heat energy.
© Topping Cycle. The topping cycle consists of a high pressure steam boiler and turbine generator
with the high pressure turbine exhausting steam to one or more low pressure steam turbine
generators. High pressure topping turbines are usually installed as an addition to an existing lower
pressure steam electric plant.

2.4.4 STEAM TURBINE COMPONENTS.

The details and names of components of a steam turbine vary by manufacturer and type (impulse or
reaction). However, when several terms are used for a particular component or item, the most
commonly used terms are given. The arrangement and cross-section drawings used here are for a
reaction turbine. A typical 400-MW reheat, tandem-compound steam turbine generator perspective
arrangement is shown in Fig.2.18, with side and plan views shown in Figs. 2.19 and 2.20
respectively.
(1)Valves
Major valves associated with the steam turbine are shown in Fig. 2.21. The functions and significant
features of the valves are discussed in this section as they occur in the steam path flow.
2.4.4.1 Main Steam Stop (Throttle) Valves. The steam from the steam generator flows to the main
steam stop or throttling valves. The primary function of the stop valves is to provide backup
protection for the steam turbine during turbine generator trips in the event the main steam control
valves do not close. . A secondary function of the stop valves is to provide steam throttling control
during startup.

2.4.4.2 Main Steam Control (Governor) Valves. The steam flows from the stop valves to the main
steam control or governor valves. The primary function of the control valves is to regulate the steam
flow to the turbine and thus control the power output of the steam turbine generator. The control
valves also serve as the primary shutoff of the steam to the turbine on unit normal shutdowns and
trips.
The control valves are normally mounted on a steam chest that receives steam from the stop valves.
For some units, the stop and control valves are directly connected, one stop valve providing steam to
one control valve. For the unit shown in Figs. 2.19 and 2.20, there are two steam chests, each having
three control or governor valves mounted on top. Each control valve supplies steam to one section or
arc of the high-pressure turbine first stage. The unit shown has six control valves, and therefore six
steam lines (leads) from the steam chest to the high-pressure turbine section. Each lead supplies
steam to one arc (a segment of the full 360 degrees; 60-degree arc, in this example) of the turbine's
first stage.
2.4.4.3 Reheat Stop and Intercept Valves. As shown in Fig. 2.21,the steam exhausted from the high-
pressure turbine flows through the cold reheat lines to the reheater in the steam generator. The
reheated steam then flows through the hot reheat piping to the reheat stop and intercept valves. The
reheat stop and intercept valves function similarly to the main steam stop and control valves. The
reheat stop valves offer backup protection for the steam turbine in the event of a unit trip and failure
of the intercept valves to close. The intercept valves control unit speed during shutdowns and on
large load swings, and protect against destructive overspeeds on unit trips. The need for these valves
is a result of the large amount of energy available in the steam present in the high-pressure turbine,
the hot and cold reheat lines, and the reheater. On large load changes, the main steam control valves
start to close to control speed; however, energy in the steam present after the main steam control
valves may be sufficient to cause the unit to overspeed. The steam after the main steam control
valves could expand through the intermediate- and low pressure turbines to the condenser, supplying
more power output than is required, causing the turbine to overspeed. The intercept valves are used
to throttle the steam flow to the intermediate-pressure turbine in this situation to control turbine
speed. The unit shown in Figs.2.19 and2.20 has two reheat stop and intercept valve assemblies. Each
assembly is connected to the intermediate-pressure turbine through a separate steam lead that
supplies steam to half the intermediate-pressure turbine first stage.

2.4.4.4 Ventilator Valves. During a unit trip, the closure of the main steam stop and control valves
and of the reheat stop and intercept valves traps steam in the high-pressure turbine. During the
turbine overspeed and subsequent coastdown, the high-pressure turbine blades are subject to
windage losses from rotating in this trapped steam. The windage losses cause the blades to be
heated. This heating, in combination with the overspeed stress, can damage the highpressure turbine.
To prevent this, a ventilator valve is provided to bleed the trapped steam to the condenser. The
ventilator valve is connected to one of the main steam leads between the main steam control valves
and the high-pressure turbine, as shown in Fig.2.21. On some combined high pressure-intermediate-
pressure turbines, the ventilator valve is connected to the steam seal between the two pressure
sections. On a unit trip, the valve automatically opens, bleeding the trapped steam to the condenser.
This bleeding action causes the trapped steam to flow through the high-pressure turbine, maintaining
the high-pressure turbine temperature within acceptable limits by preventing heat buildup from the
windage losses.
Fig 2.15A-I Turbine types. (Adapted from Power, June 1989. Used with permission of McGraw-
Hill.)

Fig 2.16A-B Turbine shaft orientations. (Adapted from Power, June 1989. Used with permission of
McGraw-Hill.)
Fig 2.18 Steam turbine generator arrangement (From Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Used with
permission.)
Fig 2.19 Steam turbine generator general arrangement (side view). (From Westinghouse Electric
Corporation. Used with permission.)

Fig 2.20 Steam turbine generator general arrangement (plan view). (From Westinghouse Electric
Corporation. Used with permission.)
Fig 2.21 Typical power plant steam flow diagram.
Fig 2.22 Combined high-pressure/intermediate-pressure turbine longitudinal section. (From
Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Used with permission.)
Fig 2.23

2.5 Turbine Stationary Parts

The major stationary parts of the steam turbine are mainly those associated with the casing of the
various turbine sections.
The combined high-pressure-intermediate-pressure turbine of the 400 MW units is shown in Fig.
2.22, with the low-pressure turbine shown in Fig. 2.23.
2.5.1 High-Pressure-Intermediate-Pressure Turbine. Figure 2.22 shows an opposed flow, combined
high-pressure intermediate- pressure turbine. This type of arrangement is used on units up to 600
MW to save space and cost. Separate high-pressure and intermediate-pressure shells are used on
larger units because of the larger steam volumes requiring the use of separate high-pressure and
intermediate-pressure sections. The use of a single shell instead of two separate shells eliminates the
intermediate casing seals, shaft couplings, and bearings. The opposed flow arrangement also helps in
balancing axial thrusts. The steam flows to the high-pressure and intermediate pressure turbine
sections are high-pressure, high-temperature flows. Outer and inner cylinders or casings contain the
steam.
2.5.2 Low-Pressure Turbine. Like the high-pressure-intermediate- pressure turbine, the low-pressure
turbine has an outer cylinder, inner cylinder, blade rings, and casing seals. Outer and inner cylinders
are provided because of thermal considerations. The outer cylinder of the low pressure turbine is
exposed to the vacuum pressure of the condenser. A section of the outer cylinder is the exhaust flow
guide or hood that directs the steam from the last stage of rotating blades to the condenser. The zone
nearest the turbine is supplied low-pressure steam that leaks into the condenser and to the other zone
that is at a slight vacuum. This arrangement prevents drawing cool ambient air over the shaft,
causing thermal stresses in the shaft and reducing the condenser vacuum.

2.5.2 Rotor Assembly

The major components of a turbine rotor assembly are the shaft (rotor), the wheels, and the buckets
or blades.
2.5.3 Bearings
Steam turbines have journal bearings and thrust bearings. Journal bearings are at each end of each
rotor to support the weight of the rotor. One thrust bearing typically is provided for the entire steam
turbine to maintain the axial position of the rotor.
2.5.4 Turning Gear
A turning gear rotates the turbine rotor at slow speeds before startup and just after shutdown. This
minimizes the bowing of the rotor, which can cause uneven temperature distribution in the covers
and bases of the turbine. The turning gear consists of an electric motor that gear drives the turbine
generator rotor. It is normally used for rotors of turbine generators whose capacity are up to 12.5MW
and above.

2.5.5 Pedestal
The steam turbine generator support foundation of large units is called a pedestal. Larger units have
low-pressure turbines that exhaust downward and have numerous steam lines connected to the
turbines. This requires the installation of the steam turbine generator on an elevated pedestal. Two
types of turbine pedestals are used: heavy reinforced concrete and steel.

General Steam Turbine Plant Economic Rules (Steam power plant, U.S.A military handbook, 2004).
Maximum overall efficiency and economy of the steam turbine power cycle are the objectives of a
satisfactory design. Higher efficiency and a lower heat rate require more complex cycles which are
accompanied with higher initial investment costs and higher operational and maintenance costs but
lower fuel costs.
General rules to consider improving the plant efficiency are thus as listed:
a) Higher steam pressures and temperatures increase the turbine efficiencies, but temperatures above
750 degrees F (399 degrees C) usually require more expensive alloy piping in the high pressure
steam system.
b) Lower condensing pressures increase turbine efficiency. However, there is a limit where lowering
condensing (back) pressure will no longer be economical, because the costs of lowering the exhaust
pressure is more than the savings from the more efficient turbine operation.
c) The use of stage or regenerative feedwater cycles improves heat rates, with greater improvement
corresponding to larger numbers of such heaters. In a regenerative cycle, there is also a
thermodynamic crossover point where lowering of an extraction pressure causes less steam to flow
through the extraction piping to the feed water heaters, reducing the feedwater temperature. There is
also a limit to the number of stages of extraction/feedwater heating, which may be economically
added to the cycle.
This occurs when additional cycle efficiency no longer justifies the increased capital cost.
d) Larger turbine generator units are generally more efficient than smaller units.
e) Multi-stage and multi-valve turbines are more economical than single stage or single valve
machines.
f) Steam generators of more elaborate design and with heat saving accessory equipment are more
efficient.

2.6 ELECTRIC GENERATOR

An electric generator is a device that converts the mechanical energy of a prime mover e.g. a turbine
to an electrical energy. It consist of at least one stationary part (stator) and one rotating part (rotor)
Figure 2.24 gives the diagram of a typical electric generator and the main components.

There are three basic types of rotating electric generators: synchronous ac, induction ac, and rotating
dc. Virtually all of the power generated by electric utilities and industrial turbine generators is
supplied by synchronous ac generators. This type of generator includes an excitation system which is
used to regulate the output voltage and power factor.
Induction generators are squirrel-cage induction motors which are driven above synchronous speed.
They do not have an excitation system and hence cannot control voltage or power factor. The system
must supply the excitation. Induction generators are generally applied where relatively small waste
energy or hydro potential exists; they are driven by a steam turbine, a gas expander, or a hydraulic
turbine to recover the power in the energy stream. Rotating dc generators have been replaced almost
entirely by static silicon rectifiers. The demand for rotating dc generators is limited to a few very
special applications such as elevators and large excavators. The choice of this type of generators for
power plant application comes with a high maintenance cost associated with the commutators and
brushes of dc generators.

2.6.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Synchronous machines (C. James Erickson, 2001) have a stator three-phase winding, and a rotor
winding energized by a DC source that rotates at constant speed proportional to the ratio of the
applied frequency and the number of poles. The magnetic pole of the rotor can be salient (salient-
pole type is used almost entirely for slow and moderate-speed generators since this construction is
the least expensive and permits ample space for the field ampere-turns) or non salient (used in high-
speed turbo alternators because of the excessive windage and the difficulty of obtaining sufficient
mechanical strength).
The fundamental principle of operation of synchronous ac generators is that relative motion between
a conductor and a magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage is
proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts lines of flux. The most common arrangement is
with a cylindrical electromagnet rotating inside a stationary conductor assembly. The electromagnet
is called the field while the conductors constitute the armature. An external source of dc power is
applied through the collector rings on the rotor. The flux strength and hence the induced voltage in
the armature are regulated by the dc current and voltage supplied to the field. Alternating current is
produced in the armature by the reversal of the magnetic field as north and south poles pass the
individual conductors.
Cooling is an important feature of a generator and goes a long way in determining the overall
performance of the system. Synchronous ac generators are classified by their method of cooling and
excitation system. The design chosen is determined by the type of prime mover driving the
generator, the power required, and the operating duty (e.g., continuous versus intermittent operation,
clean versus dirty environment).
The various categories of synchronous generator include air cooled, water cooled and hydrogen
cooled or combination types.
Air-cooled generators are produced in two basic configurations: open ventilated (OV) (for generators
approximately 2000KVA and smaller) and totally enclosed water-to-air-cooled (TEWAC). In the
OV design, outside air is drawn directly from outside the unit through filters, passes through the
generator, and is discharged outside the generator. In the TEWAC design, air is circulated within the
generator and passes through frame-mounted, air-to-water heat exchangers. They are used for
generators whose capacity is less than 50MW .Hydrogen cooling is employed in generator beyond
50MW .The increasing complexities of generators required for large power plants leads to more
windage losses, hence the need for the introduction of a more efficient cooling system which is the
use of hydrogen. Table 2 gives an overview of power of a synchronous generator is limited by its
possible rotor dimension (mechanical stress) and allowable armature current (temperature) while
table 2a gives the performance data for synchronous generators.
Synchronous generators may also be classified according to the speed: (1) the slow-speed engine
driven type; (2) the moderate-speed waterwheel-driven type; and (3) the high-speed turbine-driven
type. In (1) the speed seldom exceeds 75 to 90 r/min, although it may run as high as 150 r/min.
Waterwheel generators also have salient poles which are usually dovetailed to a cylindrical spider
consisting of steel plates riveted together.
Their speeds range from 80 to 900 r/min and sometimes higher, the speed rating of direct connected
waterwheel generators decreases with decrease in head. It is desirable to operate synchronous
generators at the highest permissible speed since the weight and costs diminish with increase in
speed.
Turbine-driven generators operate at speeds of 720 to 3,600 r/min. Direct-connected exciters, belt-
driven exciters from the generator shaft, and separately driven exciters are used. In large stations
separately driven (usually motor) exciters may supply the excitation energy to excitation bus bars.
Steam-driven exciters and storage batteries are frequently held in reserve. With slow-speed
synchronous generators, the belt-driven exciter is frequently used because it can be driven at higher
speed, thus reducing the cost.
Fig 2.24

Typical generator cross-section. (From Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Used with permission.)
Fig 2.25 Synchronous generator (ABB)

Table 2 Synchronous generator limit

Table 2a performance data for synchronous generator

2.6.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR

The stator of an induction generator is similar to that of a synchronous generator. The rotor differs
from the synchronous generator rotor in that there is no excitation and the conductors are shorted
together at the rotor ends by an annular ring. This arrangement resembles a squirrel cage, which
lends its name to the type of winding.
The induction generator supplies real power in kilowatts, which displace high-cost energy from the
system. The imaginary power, kilovars, is drawn by the induction generator; it requires installed
capability by some other device on the system, but consumes only a negligible amount of energy.
An induction machine operates at synchronous speed at zero loads. The rotor turns at the same speed
as the rotating flux field in the stator, and no lines of flux are cut. When a load torque is applied, the
rotor speed drops off or “slips” until full torque is reached at 2 to 5 percent slip. As a generator, the
driver must overspeed the generator by 2 to 5 percent to achieve full electric output. Induction
generators cannot operate independently in an isolated system. They can only function in parallel
with synchronous generators that regulate voltage and supply the kilovars necessary to overcome the
lagging power of the induction generation.
Induction generators are simpler and lower in initial cost than synchronous generators. They have
been applied to recover power by expanding waste-gas streams and low-pressure steam. In some
applications an energy-recovery turbine or expander drives an induction generator-motor and
another pump or compressor on the same shaft. The generator-motor can either supply or absorb
torque when the power of the other two devices is out of balance.

2.63 DC GENERATORS
The operating principle of the dc generator is very similar to that of the ac generator. In the dc
generator the field is located in the stator while the armature rotates, generating alternating current in
the armature windings.The commutator and brushes provide a means of transferring the output from
the rotor to the stator, as well as of mechanically rectifying the alternating current. The commutator
is a wearing surface for the brushes. It consists of individual copper segments
insulated from each other by mica and connected to the armature windings. The armature winding
connections to the commutator and the brush spacing have to be carefully arranged so that brushes of
opposite polarity contact windings which are 180 electrical degrees out of phase. Many dc
generators driven by motors have been installed in industrial plants, such as steel mills, to provide
power for variable-speed drives. However, the advances in static silicon rectifier dc power sources
have reduced the market for dc generators primarily to replacement and repair parts, with very few
new installations.

2.6.4 POWER FACTOR.

An essential component of the generator is the power factor. This is the cosine of the angle between
the voltage waveform and the current waveform in a single phase. It is denoted by cosØ and can be
diagrammatically represented by Fig 2.26 below.

Figure 2.26
Power factor ratings (DONALD L. BASHAM, P.E,2004) of steam turbine driven generators have
been found to be 0.80 for ratings up to 15,625 kVA and 0.85 for 17,650 kVA air-cooled and 25,600
kVA to 32,000 kVA air/water-cooled units. Standard power factor ratings for gas turbine driven air-
cooled generators usually are 0.80 for machines up to 9,375 kVA and 0.90 for 12,500 to 32,000
kVA. Power factors of large hydrogen cooled machines are standardized at 0.90. Power factor for
salient pole generators is usually 0.80. Power factor lower than standard, with increased kVA rating
are obtained at extra price.

2.7 CONDENSER

A condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and where the
pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the function of the condenser are: (1)
to condense the steam leaving the turbine, collect the condensate, and lower the turbine exhaust
pressure.(2) to produce a vacuum or desired back pressure at the turbine exhaust for the
improvement of plant heat rate, (3) to condense turbine exhaust steam for reuse in the closed cycle,
(4) to deaerate the condensate, and (5) to accept heater drains, makeup water, steam drains, and start-
up and emergency drains. The condensing of the steam requires the condenser to remove the heat of
vaporization from the steam and reject it. Condensers are designed to reject this energy directly into
cooling water or directly into the atmosphere. Figure 2.27 depicts a typical condenser

2.7.1 TYPES OF CONDENSER

Condensers are divided into water cooled or air cooled types. The water cooled condensers are
further divided into two types: (a) direct contact type condenser, where the condensate and cooling
water directly mix and come out as a single stream. (b) Surface condensers, which are shell and tube
heat exchangers where two fluids do not come in direct contact and the heat released by the
condensation of steam is transferred through the walls of the tubes into the cooling water
continuously circulating inside them.
Direct contact condenser. When (1) low investment is desired and (2) condensate recovery is not
a factor, direct-contact condensers are effective. They are relatively simple to build and operate, are
limited to sizes less than 250,000 lb of steam per hour. These can be of three types: Spray,
barometric and Jet condenser.
Spray condenser. In spray condenser, the steam is condensed as a result of cooling water being
sprayed into the steam with a provision of steam jet air ejector to remove the non condensable gases.
Part of the condensate from the condenser is circulated through dry cooling towers and returned to
and sprayed into the condenser
In barometric condenser, the cooling water is made to fall in a series of baffles to expose large
surface area for the steam to come in direct contact. The jet condenser utilizes the aspirating effect of
a jet for the entrainment of non condensables and the consequent elimination of a separate air pump.
In the usual direct-contact condenser, where steam and raw circulating water are mixed, the recovery
of pure condensate is precluded; greater feed water makeup is necessary, and poorer vacuums are
attained than with surface condensers. Direct-contact-condenser installations are not found in large
plants, but there is some recent interest in their use with dry cooling towers (Heat Exchange Institute
Standards for Direct Contact and Low Level Condensers, 2000)..
Surface condenser are basically a shell and tube heat exchanger consisting of water boxes for
directing the flow of cooling water to and from horizontal tubes. The tubes are sealed into fixed tube
sheets at each end and are supported at intermediate points along the length of the tubes by tube
support plates. They may have up to four pass configurations but are usually limited to one or two
pass. Figure 2.28 shows the arrangement of different number of pass configuration for a surface
condenser
In a single pass condenser, the cooling water makes one passage from end to end, through the tubes.
Single pass condensers have an inlet water box on one end and an outlet water box on the other end
while two pass condensers have the cooling water inlet and outlet on the same water box at one end
of the condenser, with a return water box at the other end. When a single pass condenser with the
same number and size of the tubes and the same water velocity is compared with a two pass
condenser, a single pass condenser requires twice as much water flow but results in half the water
temperature rise and therefore lower condenser pressure. Thus a single pass condenser is better for
overall plant efficiency and reduces thermal pollution but requires twice the water flow.
 The condenser contains Water boxes which may be divided by a vertical partition and provided with
two separate water box doors or covers. This arrangement requires two separate cooling water inlets
or outlets or both to permit opening the water boxes on one side of the condenser for tube cleaning
while the other side of the condenser remains in operation.
Reheating Hotwell. The hotwell of a condenser is that portion of the condenser bottom or
appendage that receives and contains a certain amount of condensate resulting from steam
condensation. Unless the condenser is provided with a reheating hotwell (also commonly called a
deaerating hotwell), the condensate, while falling down through the tube bundle, will be subcooled
to a temperature lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the condenser steam side
vacuum. For power generation,condenser subcooling is undesirable since it results in an increase in
turbine heat rate that represents a loss of cycle efficiency. Condenser subcooling is also undesirable
because the condensate may contain noncondensible gases that could result in corrosion of piping
and equipment in the feedwater system. Use of a deaerating hotwell provides for reheating the
condensate within the condenser to saturation temperature that effectively deaerates the condensate
and eliminates subcooling. Condensers should be specified to provide condensate effluent at
saturation temperature corresponding to condenser vacuum and with an oxygen content not to
exceed 0.005cc per liter of water (equivalent to 7 parts per billion as specified in the Heat Exchange
Institute (HEI), Standards for Steam Surface Condenser, 1970). The various advantages of a surface
condenser are as follows:
1. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water.
2. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does not come in direct
contact with steam.
3. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser. This increases the
thermal efficiency of the plant.
The various disadvantages of' the surface condensers are as follows:
1. The capital cost is more.
2. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high.
3. It is bulky and requires more space.

Air cooled condenser: In an air-cooled condenser, the steam is condensed inside tubes while
cooling air flows over fins on the external surfaces. These tubes are arranged in the area where
packing or fill would be arranged in a conventional cooling tower, and propeller fans supply air
across the tube surfaces. Turbine design back pressures are normally in the range of 5 in Hga when
served by air-cooled condensers. The air-cooled condenser is used where adequate water is not
available in sufficient quantities to permit the use of conventional cooling towers.
The air-cooled condenser has both advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages are that it
minimizes water make-up requirements and eliminates cooling tower blowdown disposal problems,
cooling tower freeze-up, tower vapor plume, and circulating water pollution restrictions. The
disadvantages of the air-cooled condenser include higher condenser operating pressure (lower cycle
efficiency), higher first cost, larger site, higher noise levels, and higher operating cost.
There are two basic types of air-cooled condenser systems, as shown in Fig.2.29. These are the jet
condenser with dry cooling tower arrangement, and the direct air-cooled condenser system. In the jet
condenser with dry cooling tower, part of the steam condensate is cooled in a dry cooling tower. It is
then returned to the condenser where it is sprayed into the steam flow, causing the steam to condense
and collect in the bottom of the condenser.
In the direct air-cooled condenser, the steam is piped from the turbine exhaust direct to air-cooled
steam coils. The steam condenses in the coils, the condensate draining to the bottom collection tank.
The jet condenser/dry cooling tower has several advantages. The most prominent advantage is that
the cooling tower may be located farther from the plant than the aircooled condenser. The large size
of the steam duct and the need to maintain a low-pressure drop in this duct dictates that the air-
cooled condenser be located as close to the turbine as possible. It also eliminates the cost of the large
steam duct from turbine to condenser.
The advantages of the air-cooled condenser are that it eliminates the cost of the jet condenser and the
cost of the circulating water pumps and piping. It normally also produces slightly better condenser
vacuum. In the air-cooled condenser, there is only one approach temperature involved, from air to
steam. Although the use of air-cooled condensers in Nigeria has been very limited, the scarcity of
water, the need for zero water discharge, and the better modern designs of this equipment indicate
that more of these types of installations will be used in the future.
Fig 2.26 One-pass rectangular surface condenser.

Figure 2.27 Counterflow barometric condenser with two-stage air ejector. (Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
Fig 2.28
Fig 2.29 Air cooled condenser.
2.8 COOLING TOWER
This is a structure used for reducing the temperature of water, by bringing it into contact with an air
stream where a small portion of the liquid is evaporated and the major portion is cooled. Before the
development of cooling towers, once through cooling ponds have been employed for plant heat
removal. In a once-through circulating water system, water is taken from a body of water such as a
river, lake, or ocean, pumped through the plant condenser, and discharged back to the source. A
once-through circulating water system has two significant advantages. First, the relatively low
temperature of most water sources used for oncethrough cooling makes this the most efficient cycle
heat rejection system design. Second, the simple system arrangement typically makes once-through
cooling the cycle heat rejection system design with the lowest capital and operating costs. The
disadvantage of this system is that the heated water is discharged back to the original water source,
where the added heat is gradually dissipated to the earth's atmosphere. However, it may take a long
time for the source water temperature to return to normal, or a new equilibrium temperature may be
reached at a level higher than the normal temperature as long as the plant is in operation . However,
increasing environmental concerns and thermal pollution controls have caused the enactment of
environment related legislation. This has discouraged the practice of once through cooling system in
plant operation and has given way for cooling towers.

Cooling towers are either natural draft (atmospheric type) or mechanical-draft designs (William S.
Lytle, P.E. 2004). The natural-draft design utilizes a large-dimension concrete chimney (height, 300
+/- ft) which operates on air density difference to induce air through the fill. They are either cross or
counterflow designs. There is also a natural draft-fan assisted cooling tower type which is a hybrid
design. The purpose of this design is to augment the airflow produced by fans with airflow produced
by the stack effect of a natural draft tower. Because the fans assist in producing the required airflow,
the cost impact of a large stack is reduced. Because the stack augments the airflow, fan horsepower
requirements are reduced. If designed properly in temperate climates, the fans may need to be
operated only during relatively short periods of high ambient wet-bulb temperatures and high wind
loads. The fan-assisted natural draft cooling tower has many of the same advantages as the
hyperbolic natural draft, such as the high air discharge which precludes potential problems with
recirculation and interference. The tower is also smaller than the hyperbolic natural draft cooling
tower, resulting in less visual impact on the surrounding area.
The natural draft cooling tower has the following advantages (1) no electric power is required except
for pumping head and (2) no mechanical equipment is necessary, reducing maintenance
requirements. The disadvantages are (1) atmospheric towers have limited capacities, since they are
solely dependent on ambient atmospheric conditions, (2) water loss as a result of high wind
velocities can be appreciable, and (3) a rather high pumping head is required to allow for maximum
air–water contact time.
The large natural-draft hyperbolic cooling towers are found in utility power service e.g. in the
United States where their performance is enhanced when wet bulb temperature is low and relative
humidity is high ( temperate environment) .The economics of this plant design will not favour
power plant in Nigeria owing to the pervasive tropical environment. Because of the size of these
units, 500 ft (155 m) high and 400 ft (122 m) in diameter at the base, they are more practical when
the circulating cooling water flow rate is about 200,000 gal/min and higher.
In the mechanical-draft design, large-diameter fans driven by electric motors induce or force the air
through the fill. Mechanical-draft cooling towers use either induced-draft (pulling air through
cooling tower) or forced-draft (pushing air into cooling tower) designs. They can be of cross flow or
counter flow design. In all cooling towers, water is sprayed over the fill while air passes through the
fill. Therefore, they can be designed for close control of cold-water temperature. The various cooling
tower designs are indicated in figure 2.31

Fig 2.31 Cooling tower types. (a) Crossflow-Forced draft; (b) crossflow-induced draft; (c)
hyperbolic or natural type

(d) Counterflow type

The purchase of a cooling tower for power plant is based on performance curves (Fig. 2.32) showing
operation for various wet-bulb temperatures and cooling ranges. The investment for a cooling tower
is essentially a matter of water flow and is influenced by approach, range, and wet bulb (Fig. 2.33).
The cost evaluation should include consideration of tower frame and fill, fans, motors, basin and
pump pit, pump head, fan horsepower, freight, labor, and erection. In the choice of a tower for a
power plant, there should be coordinated study and evaluation of the turbine and condenser for best
overall economy.
The height of a field-erected induced-draft tower, from basin curb to fan deck, ranges from 8 to 50
ft; widths vary from 6 to 60 ft; lengths from 8 to 500 ft; fan-stack height between 2 and 15 ft.

Fig 2.32 Cooling tower performance. Design for 85_F cold water, 95_F hot water, 78_F wet-bulb
temperature, 10_ range; 1,000-gal/min cell.

Fig 2.33
2.9 FUEL AND FUEL HANDLING FACILITIES.

2.9.1 FUEL OIL.

Crude oil has been the majour source of fuel oil for both industrial and utility applications. When
crude is refined in a distillation column; various products are extracted including the heavy oils
which form the base of the coumn. These are referred to as asphaltines, residuum, bottom of the
barrel, residual oil, or bunker С oil. The heavy oil is usually sold to electric utilities, large industrial
users, or as a bunker fuel for ships. Because of their high density (low API gravity) and relatively
high pour point, point, heavy oils are usually heated to pump them from onsite storage tanks to the
burner. Crude oil prices has been floating between $75 and $79 per barrel at the current international
oil pool (Sept.—2010). It proffers excellent potential to have low generation cost of power. With an
effective and time-tested technology of power generation with fuel oil operated steam based power
plants; furnace oil will indeed be the preferred alternative for liquid fuel IPPs.
Fuel storage, handling and transportation are far simpler and easy to establish. It is also expected
that over a period of time, the most predictable and stable price levels will be for the furnace oil. It
also gives the opportunity for having lower levels of import costs on account of fuel while using
furnace oil. All these will help the government to keep the fuel import bills for the future at lower
levels, which is desirable.
Furnace oil being residual fuel has no other commercial use than combusting for energy generation
purpose as compared to other fuel sources like naphtha, diesel which are far more costly to maintain.

2.9.2 FUEL OIL CHARACTERISTICS.

It is common practice in refining petroleum to produce fuel oils complying with several
specifications prepared by the ASTM and adopted as a commercial standard by the National Bureau
of Standards (Table 4). Fuel oils are graded according to gravity and viscosity, the lightest being No.
1 and the heaviest No. 6. Grades 5 and 6 generally require heating for satisfactory pumping and
burning. The range of analyses and heating values of the several grades of fuel oils are given in
Table 5. The gross heating value, density, and specific gravity of various fuel oils for a range of API
gravities are shown in Fig.2.34. The abscissa on this figure is the API (American Petroleum
Institute) gravity and sp gr at 60–60°F (15°C) represents the ratio of oil density at 60°F (15°C) to
water density also at 60°F (15°C).
Since equipment for handling and, especially, burning of fuel oil is usually designed for a maximum
oil viscosity, it is necessary to know the viscosity characteristics of the fuel oil to be used. Figure
2.35 gives the standard ASTM chart for predicting viscosity of the oil at any other temperature
Table 4 ASTM Standard Specifications for Fuel Oils

No. 1: Distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners and other burners requiring this grade
of fuel.
No. 2: distillate oil for general purpose domestic heating for use in burners not requiring No. 1 fuel
oil.
No. 4: Preheating not usually required for handling or burning.
No. 5 (Light): Preheating may be required depending on climate and equipment.
No. 5 (Heavy): Preheating may be required for burning and, in cold climates, may be required for
handling.
No. 6: Preheating required for burning and handling.
Recognizing the necessity for low-sulfur fuel oils used in connection with heat treatment, nonferrous
metal, glass, and ceramic furnaces and other special uses, a sulfur requirement may be specified
in accordance with the following format: The sulfur content of no. 1 and no. 2 fuel oil is limited to
0.5 percent (ASTM D396). The sulfur content of fuels heavier than no. 2 must meet the legal
requirements of the locality in which they are to be used. The additional refinery processing needed
by some residual fuels to meet low-sulfur-content regulations may lower the viscosity enough to
cause the fuels to change the grade classification.
Fuel oil used for domestic purposes or for small heating installations will have lower viscosities and
lower sulfur content. In large-scale industrial boilers, heavier-grade fuel oil is used with sulfur
content (ASTM D129 and D1552) requirements regulated according to the environmental situation
of each installation and the local environmental regulations.
The flash point (ASTM D93) is usually limited to 60_C (140_F) minimum because of safety
considerations. Asphalting content (ASTM D3279), carbon residue value (ASTM D189 and D524),
ash (ASTM D482), water content (ASTM D95), and metal content requirements are included in
some specifications.
The pour point (ASTM D97), indicating the lowest temperature at which the fuel will retain its
fluidity, is limited in the various specifications according to local requirements and fuel-handling
facilities. The upper limit is sometimes 10_C (50_F), in warm climates somewhat higher.
Another important specification requirement is the heat of combustion (ASTM D240). Usually,
specified values are 10,000 cal/kg (gross) or 9,400 cal/kg (net). Because of economic considerations
residual fuel oil has been replacing diesel fuel for marine purposes. Viscosity specifications had
to be adjusted to the particular operational use, and some additional quality requirements had to be
allowed for.

Table 5 Range of Analyses of Fuel Oils

Transportation, Handling, and Storage. A worldwide system for distributing petroleum (and its
products) has been developed because petroleum has a high calorific value per unit volume, is in
easily handled liquid form, and has varied applications. The serious hazard inherent in possible oil-
storage-tank failure is overcome by storing oil in underground tanks or by protecting surface tanks
by surrounding them with cofferdams of sufficient capacity to hold the entire contents of any tank so
protected. To facilitate pumping heavy fuel oil, heating equipment is usually provided in storage and
transportation facilities
Fig. 2.34
Fig.2.35 Approximate viscosity of fuel oil at various temperatures.

2.9.3 Oil-Burning Equipment

The burner is the principal component of equipment for firing oil. Burners are normally located in
the vertical walls of the furnaces.
Oil Burners. The most frequently used burners are the circular type. Figure 2.36 shows a single
circular-register burner for gas and oil firing.
The maximum capacity of the individual circular burner ranges up to 300 × 106 Btu/h (316 × 104
kJ/h). In order to burn fuel oil at the high rates demanded of modern boiler units it is necessary that
the oil be atomized, i.e., dispersed into the furnace as a fine mist, to expose a large amount of oil
particle surface to the air and ensure prompt ignition and rapid combustion.
For proper atomization, oil of grades heavier than No. 2 must be heated to reduce viscosity to 135 to
150 SSU (Saybolt seconds universal). Steam or electric heaters are required to raise the oil
temperature to the required level, i.e., approximately 135°F (57°C) for No. 4 oil, 185°F (74°C) for
No. 5 oil, and 200 to 220°F (93 to 104°C) for No. 6 oil.
Steam or Air Atomizers. Steam atomizers are the most widely used. In general they operate on the
principle of producing a steam-fuel emulsion which, when released into the furnace, atomizes the oil
through the rapid expansion of the steam..
Steam atomizers are available in sizes up to 300 × 106 Btu/h input—about 16,500 lb (7500 kg) of oil
per hour. Oil pressure is much lower than that required for mechanical atomizers.
Maximum oil pressure can be as much as 300 lb/in2 (2040 kPa) and maximum steam pressure 150
lb/in2 (1020 kPa).The steam atomizer performs more efficiently over a wider load range than other
types. It normally atomizes the fuel properly down to 20 percent of rated capacity. A disadvantage of
the steam atomizer is its consumption of steam.
Mechanical Atomizers. In mechanical atomizers the pressure of the fuel itself is used as the means
for atomization.The return-flow atomizer is used in many units where the use of atomizing steam is
objectionable or impractical. The oil pressure required at the atomizer for maximum capacity ranges
from 600 to 1000 lb/in2 (4080 to 6700 kPa), depending on capacity, load range, and fuel.
Mechanical atomizers are available in sizes up to 180 × 106 Btu/h (190 _ 106 kJ) input—about
10,000 lb (4500 kg) of oil per hour.
Excess Air. It is necessary to supply more than the theoretical quantity of air to ensure complete
combustion of the fuel in the furnace. The amount of excess air provided should be just enough to
burn the fuel completely in order to minimize the sensible heat loss in the stack gases. The excess air
normally required for oil firing, expressed as percent of theoretical air, is generally between 5 and 7
percent

Fig 2.36 Circular register burner with water-cooled throat for oil and gas firing.

3.0 PUMPS
A pump is a machine that imparts energy into a liquid to lift the liquid to a higher level, to transport
the liquid from one Place to another, to pressurize the liquid for some useful purpose, or to circulate
the liquid in a piping system by overcoming the frictional resistance of the piping system (Lawrence
J. Seibolt, 1996)
Pumps are used for many purposes and a variety of services: for general utility service, cooling
water, boiler feed, and lubrication; with condensing water and sumps; as booster pumps, etc
Turbines and boilers have increased in size, requiring larger boiler feed pumps. Although there are a
variety of pumps found in a power plant, the basic steam power plant cycle includes a combination
of a condensing and a feedwater heating cycle, and this requires a minimum of three pumps:
1. A condensate pump that transfers the condensate from the condenser hot well into the deaerator
2. A boiler feed pump that transfers feedwater from the feedwater heaters to the economizer or the
boiler steam drum
3. A circulating water pump that provides cooling water through the condenser to condense the
exhaust steam from the turbine. Pumps that are found in power plants come in a variety of sizes and
designs that depend on the fluid and the service. From the Hydraulic Institute Standard, Figure 2.37
illustrates of types of pump. However, pumps are divided into two major categories:
dynamic/centrifugal and displacement pumps (Herbert.B.Lammers, 1998)

1. Dynamic (kinetic) pumps are those in which energy is continuously added to increase fluid
velocities. These pumps include centrifugal and regenerative pumps.
2. Displacement pumps are those in which energy is added periodically by the application of force.
These pumps include reciprocating and rotary-type pumps.
Pumps also can be identified in four general classifications as follows:
1. Reciprocating pumps. These include piston, plunger, and diaphragm pumps, and these can be of
simplex or multiplex design.
Power and vacuum pumps are also part of this classification. 2. Rotary pumps. These include gear,
screw, and vane pumps.
3. Centrifugal pumps. These include radial-flow, mixed-flow, and axial-flow pumps, and the designs
can be single or multiple stage.
4. Special pumps. These include jet, gas-lift, and hydraulic-ram pumps.

There are a great variety of pumps from which to make a selection, and each pump has its specific
advantages that need to be analyzed for a specific application. The simplest pump is the injector or
jet pump, which has been used on small boilers and portable units and has provided a low first cost
and a simple design. Reciprocating pumps find ready acceptance, particularly in the smaller plant,
where first cost is a factor. They are simple in construction, easy to repair, and reliable in operation.
Rotary pumps find application in handling oil and lubricants. Centrifugal pumps are available for a
variety of services and purposes having an almost unlimited range of industrial applications. They
are widely used because of their design simplicity, high efficiency, wide range of
capacity, head, smooth flow rate, and ease of operation and maintenance. The ultimate
selection of pump type will largely depend on the following parameters: Capacity range of liquid to
be moved, Differential head required, NPSHA (Net Positive Suction Head Available), Shape of head
capacity curve, Pump speed, Liquid characteristics and Construction

Much work had been done over the years since the development of pumps. However, the scope of
this study will be limited to pumps bothering on power plant application. These are kinetic/dynamic
pumps. They are broadly divided into centrifugal and regenerative. As listed in Table 6, the most
common type of kinetic pump used in a modern central power plant is the centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pumps include radial, axial, and mixed flow types, with the radial flow volute type used
for the bulk of power plant applications. Regenerative pumps are typically referred to as vortex,
peripheral, or turbine pumps. In most centrifugal pumps, liquid enters the pump through the impeller
eye and is either thrown radially outward through an expanding pump casing, thrown outward along
the impeller vane, is made to flow parallel to the axis or shaft of the pump or it is discharged both
axially and radially into a volute type of casing as found in mixed flow pumps

The various types of centrifugal pumps include Volute type Centrifugal pumps, diffuser Type
Centrifugal Pumps, axial Flow and Mixed Flow Centrifugal Pumps. A regenerative type of
centrifugal pump has an impeller with vanes on both sides of a rim that rotates in a channel in the
pump's casing. Liquid enters through a nozzle into an impeller vane and is forced outward by
centrifugal force. The liquid impacts the pump casing and is turned inward to reenter the impeller at
a different vane. This cycle is repeated throughout the rotation of the impeller, generating pressure
until the liquid is forced out of the pump at the discharge nozzle. Because of close running
tolerances, the regenerative pump is suitable only for clear liquids with relatively low viscosities
(less than 250 SSU). These pumps are useful in pumping liquids containing vapors and gases
because of their resistance to cavitation.
Table 6 - Power Station Pump Applications
Figure 2.37
3.1 POWER PLANT PUMP APPLICATION
Power station pump applications can be divided into the following category:
• Circulating water pumps,
• Condensate pumps,
• Boiler feed pumps, and
• General service/slurry pumps.
Circulating Water Pumps
Circulating water pumps are high-capacity low-head pumps that provide the cooling water flow for
the circulating water system. Because of their large size and continuous operation, they are carefully
selected for economical and reliable operation over the lifetime of the plant.
Circulating water pumps are typically selected from one of three pump designs: vertical wet pit,
horizontal dry pit, and vertical dry pit pumps. For once-through circulating water systems (systems
without cooling towers), vertical wet pit pumps are most commonly used, followed by horizontal dry
pit pumps and vertical dry pit pumps, in that order. For closed cycle circulating water systems
(systems with cooling towers), vertical wet pit and horizontal dry pit pumps are used about equally,
with vertical dry pit pumps used less frequently.
Vertical Wet Pit Pumps. Vertical wet pit pumps, as shown in Figs.2.38 IS typically of the mixed
flow, single-stage, single-suction type for circulating water service. Axial flow pumps are
occasionally used for very low- head applications. Vertical wet pit pumps use a vertical, internally
lubricated shaft to drive the pump impeller. The pump is partially submersed in a wet pit with the
motor mounted directly over the pump above the water level. Location of the motor directly above
the pump column minimizes horizontal space requirements. Vertical wet pit pumps may be of pull-
out or non-pull-out design. Pull-out design allows the rotating elements and critical nonrotating
components such as the impeller shroud and pump bowl/diffuser/volute to be quickly removed
without removing the column or disconnecting the pump discharge.Non-pull-out design has a 20%
to 25% lower capital cost; however, pump disassembly is more difficult and requires a longer pump
outage. Another design variable for vertical wet pit pumps is the location of the discharge relative to
the baseplate. An abovefloor or aboveground discharge indicates that the pump discharge
is above the baseplate, whereas a below-floor or belowground discharge refers to the opposite. The
belowfloor discharge is more difficult to disconnect since access to the discharge is usually limited.
Because disconnecting the discharge is required for disassembly of non-pull-out pumps, below-floor
discharge combined with non-pull-out design may create maintainability problems.
In applications where large variations in water level exist, short column vertical wet pit pumps can
be used to avoid the use of pumps with long column lengths.
Horizontal Dry Pit Pump. For circulating water service, horizontal dry pit pumps are typically split-
case, single-stage, double-suction type with either centrifugal or mixed flow design. Where
horizontal space is limited, horizontal dry pit pumps can be installed in a vertical position with the
motor above the pump.
Vertical Dry Pit Pump. The pump is located in a dry pit below the water level, with suction taken
from a suction tunnel located below the pump. The pump motor is above the pump, thus minimizing
horizontal space requirements.
Vertical wet pit pump components—pullout design.

3.1.1 Circulating Water Pump Design Criteria. The selection of a circulating water pump for a
specific circulating water system application requires an evaluation of several design criteria. Pump
design criteria include pump capacity and total developed head, net positive suction head,
submergence, suction specific speed, and rotative speed.
Circulating Water Pump Selection: Several factors are considered in the selection of the type of
circulating water pump to be used for a particular power plant application. . Some typical factors
considered in the evaluation of water pump include the following: owner/operator experience,
circulating water system configuration/site conditions, cost, space considerations and accessibility,
pump type and arrangement, system design condition, operational requirements, guaranty, materials
at construction and pump testing.

3.1.2 Condensate Pumps. Condensate pumps are medium flow medium-head pumps that pump
condensate from the condenser hot well generally through a series of low-pressure feedwater heaters
to a deaerating heater. These pumps operate at a very low pressure at their suction with cold
condensate, which can lead to pump damage because of cavitation if the pumps are not carefully
selected to allow for these severe operating conditions. They are available in both horizontal and
vertical types. Years ago, typical condensate pumps used in central power stations were horizontal
multistage centrifugal pumps because of their ease of installation, maintainability, availability,
reliability, and operability. However, with the trend toward larger power stations, larger condensers,
and lowered hot wells to reduce building costs, the NPSH available to the condensate pumps,
already low, was reduced considerably more. As a result, the horizontal centrifugal condensate
pumps have been replaced with vertical, multistage pumps, mounted in suction "cans" beneath the
plant ground floor. The suction "can" lengths are determined so that adequate NPSH is provided to
the centerline of the first-stage impeller for proper operation of the condensate pump.
Condensate pumps, as shown in Figs. 2.38, are motor-driven vertical, multistage, wet suction, "can"
type pumps with either single- or double-suction first-stage impellers. The pumps are located near
the condenser with the pump baseplates at approximately ground floor elevation and arranged for
below-floor suction from the condenser hot well and for above-floor discharge. The drive motor is
mounted directly above the condensate pump to minimize horizontal space requirements. The
number and size of condensate pumps vary with each installation.
Condensate Pump Design Criteria: The selection of a condensate pump requires the proper
application and evaluation of several important condensate pump operating parameters and general
guidelines. These include the pump capacity and total head requirements, net positive suction head,
pump/suction can length, suction specific speed, peripheral velocity of the outer tip of the impeller
inlet vanes, and piping system layout.
The design point for condensate pumps is specified by the design capacity and total developed head.
The design capacity for each condensate pump is determined by summing the condensate flow
requirements for the following items:
• Condensate flow requirements from the condenser hot well with the unit operation at maximum
turbine heat balance conditions; typically 5% overpressure conditions with the turbine control valves
wide open (VWO);
• Condensate cycle makeup flow, typically 1% to 3% of the maximum condensate flow;
Soot blowing steam flow, if applicable;
• Auxiliary steam flow, if applicable;
• Secondary air preheating flow, if applicable; and
• Boiler feed pump seal water injection flow, if applicable
A flow margin of 5% of the total flow determined above is typical to provide latitude for future
increase in the flow requirements due to any of the contributing factors. The design total developed
head for each condensate pump is calculated by determining the difference between the condensate
pump discharge head and the suction head as shown in table 7 and 8 . A head margin of 5% of the
total developed head determined is typical the shape of the condensate pump characteristic curve is
important in vertical condensate pump designs. For stable parallel pump operation, the minimum rise
in the pump curve from the design point should be 20% to 25%. The maximum rise should be
approximately 40%. Lower rises to shutoff are acceptable if an independent minimum flow
recirculation system is provided for each pump to guard against possible operation of a pump at or
near shutoff conditions.
The selection of a condensate pump is highly influenced by the configuration and overall space
availability of the power station. As a result, condensate pumps are usually vertical multistaged units
with below-floor suction cans and are located near the condenser. Two important condensate pump
selection factors are the number of condensate pumps required and the type of pump flow control to
be used. These two factors are determined during a detailed investigation and evaluation of the
condensate system. Information regarding the planned plant operating characteristics (base loaded or
peaking), pumping flexibility, and operator requirements are considered as well as the plant
economics, equipment capital cost, and operation and maintenance costs.
.
Fig 2.39 Condensate pump—vertical, multistage, wet suction can type double-suction first-stage
impeller.

Table 7- Condensate Pump Total Suction Head Determination

Table 8- Condensate Pump Design Total Developed Head Determination

3.2 BOILER FEED PUMPS

At the heart of the power station preboiler systems is the boiler feed pump. This is a pump that must
be reliable and rugged to withstand not only continuous normal high-pressure pumping operation but
also transient system upset conditions and possible frequent starting and stopping to match the
plant's load output requirements (cycling operation).
In general terms, a boiler feed pump is any pump that supplies feedwater to a steam generator for the
production of steam either for energy conversion (supply to a steam turbine) or for plant or other
industrial uses. Boiler feed pumps are available in many pump configurations and sizes and supply
the flow and head required for any application. However, the scope of study shall be limited to boiler
feed pumps that are diffuser or volute, horizontal, double-case barrel, single- and double-suction
first-stage impeller, multistage centrifugal. pumps. This is the most common type of boiler feed
pump used in central power station applications today. A typical boiler feed pump configuration is
illustrated in Fig. 2.40.
Many boiler feed pump system configurations have been used in power station applications. The
basic system usually includes a deaerating heater and storage tank at some elevation above the
suction of the boiler feed pump to provide a reservoir of heated, deaerated condensate to the boiler
feed pump and available suction head for the pump. The suction pipeline to the boiler feed pump is
amply sized to maintain the required suction velocity into the boiler feed pump, as well as limit the
friction drop between the deaerator and the boiler feed pump.
A booster boiler feed pump may be included to provide suction head to the main boiler feed pump.
The booster pump may be motor-driven or driven by the main boiler feed pump driver through an
extended shaft off the driver (usually a steam turbine) through reduction gearing. A single-suction
first-stage impeller is usually used in the main boiler feed pump in this system.
A conservative boiler feed pump system would also include a motor-driven startup boiler feed pump.
This pump would be used primarily for plant startup activities, but could also be used to supplement
the reliability and availability of the boiler feed system by operating in parallel with the main boiler
pump at reduced plant loads or even at design load, depending on the capacity and head available
from the startup boiler feed pump. The discharge of the boiler feed pump should include pump
recirculation instrumentation, valving, and piping back to the deaerator storage tank. Downstream,
several stages of regenerative feedwater heating may be used, depending on the plant economics and
cycle efficiency required. Some typical boiler feed pump systems are shown in Figs.2.41 and 2.42

Fig 2.40
Fig 2.41 Boiler feed pump system. One full-capacity boiler feed pump and startup/standby boiler
feed pump

Fig 2.42 Boiler feed pump system. One full-capacity boiler feed pump with booster and
startup/standby boiler feed pump
2 Boiler Feed Pump Design Criteria. The selection of a boiler feed pump is dependent on the
requirements and constraints imposed by the boiler feed pump system configuration and operation.
In addition to the development of system configuration, pump hydraulics, including the boiler feed
pump capacity; total head, net positive suction head, transient operation, specific speed, and pump
physical construction must be considered.
The total developed head for the boiler feed pump is calculated as shown in Tables 9 and 10 by
determining the difference between the boiler feed pump discharge head and suction head. A head
margin of 5% of the total developed head determined is typical.

Table 9 Boiler Feed Pump Total Suction Head Determination

Table 10- Boiler Feed Pump Design Total Developed Head Determination

The parameter used to define the amount of suction head required above the vapor pressure is termed
NPSH and is the total suction head less the vapor pressure. For a typical power plant installation, it is
estimated that the maximum NPSH available (NPSHA) to the boiler feed pumps is approximately
130 to 145 ft depending on the elevation of the deaerator/deaerator storage tank. This value
represents a maximum value, in that the length of the static column between the deaerator storage
tank level and the boiler feed pump center line is at essentially the maximum practical length
permitted by plant arrangement. The desirable maximum deaerator height is limited by the boiler
building height (Hydraulic Institute Standards (1983).The boiler feed pumps are normally installed
at the operating floor level, thereby fixing the lower end of the static column. Most boiler feed
pumps are physically located in the plant in close proximity to the main turbine generator unit. The
type and arrangement requirements of the pump(s) driver are normally specified.
The following system design conditions are usually provided by a power plant engineer to the pump
manufacturer:
• Water chemistry, with the anticipated constituents of the boiler feed water, as well as pH range, to
confirm or select the pump materials of construction.
• Maximum developed head per stage. This is typically about 2,200 feet per stage, based on
operating experience and EPRI recommendations.
• Boiler feed pump suction conditions:
—Design operating pressure at design conditions,
—Minimum feedwater suction temperature,
—Design feedwater operating temperature,
—Design steady-state NPSH available,
—Maximum NPSH available for sudden load reduction, and
—Total boiler feedwater suction flow.
• Boiler feed pump discharge conditions:
—Discharge design operating capacity,
—Total head at design operating capacity,
—Interstage bleedoff flow (if required), and
—Interstage bleedoff discharge pressure.
• Boiler feed pump speed range at design.
• Maximum pump specific speed, typically 1,600 to 1,800.
• Maximum suction specific speed required of first stage, recommended to be approximately 10,000
to 12,000.
• Seal water temperature range.
The actual NPSH available is generally determined with all low-pressure feedwater heaters in
service, with no margin or contingency included. It is important that a boiler feed pump be selected
with conservative margin between the NPSH required by the pump and the NPSH available from the
pump suction system. A boiler feed pump with low NPSH requirements meeting the following
criteria should be considered:
1. The NPSH required by the boiler feed pump at the design operating conditions, based on 3%
reduction in first-stage total head, should not be greater than the calculated NPSH available, divided
by 1.8.
2. The NPSH required during sudden load reduction, based on 3% reduction in first-stage total head,
should not be greater than the calculated NPSH available during sudden load reduction with the
highest pressure low-pressure feedwater heater out of service, divided by 1.3.

3.3 Power Plant Economic and Load Analysis.

Studies have shown that power plant design and operation (Black and Veatch, 1996) is anchored on
several factors of which the prime ones are load, utility, plant operating, reserve factor and plant
capacity factor.
1. Load Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the peak load during a certain prescribed period of
time. The load factor of a power plant should be high so that the total capacity of the plant is utilized
for the maximum period that will result in lower cost of the electricity being generated. It is always
less than unity. High load factor is a desirable quality. Higher load factor means greater average
load, resulting in greater number of power units generated for a given maximum demand. Thus, the
fixed cost, which is proportional to the maximum demand, can be distributed over a greater number
of units (kWh) supplied. This will lower the overall cost of the supply of electric energy.
2. Utility Factor
It is the ratio of the units of electricity generated per year to the capacity of the plant installed in the
station. It can also be defined as the ratio of maximum demand of a plant to the rated capacity of the
plant. Supposing the rated capacity of a plant is 200 mW. The maximum load on the plant is 100
mW at load factor of 80 per cent, then the utility will be = (100 × 0.8)/(200) = 40%
3. Plant Operating Factor
It is the ratio of the duration during which the plant is in actual service, to the total duration of the
period of time considered.
4. Plant Capacity Factor
It is the ratio of the average loads on a machine or equipment to the rating of the machine or
equipment, for a certain period of time considered.
Since the load and diversity factors are not involved with ‘reserve capacity’ of the power plant, a
factor is needed which will measure the reserve, likewise the degree of utilization of the CBM
equipment. For this, the factor “Plant factor, Capacity factor or Plant Capacity factor” is defined as,
Plant Capacity Factor = (Actual kWh Produced)/ (Maximum Possible Energy that might have
produced during the same period

3.31 FACTOR AFFECTING POWER PLANT DESIGN

Following are the factor effecting while designing a power plant.
(1) Location of power plant
(2) Availability of water in power plant
(3) Availability of labour nearer to power plant
(4) Land cost of power plant
(5) Low operating cost
(6) Low maintenance cost
(7) Low cost of energy generation
(8) Low capital cost

The cost of a power plant depends upon, when a new power plant is to set up or an existing plant is
to be replaced or plant to be extended. The cost analysis includes:
1. Fixed Cost
It includes Initial cost of the plant, Rate of interest, Depreciation cost, Taxes, and Insurance.
2. Operational Cost
It includes Fuel cost, Operating labour cost, Maintenance cost, Supplies, Supervision, Operating
taxes.
INITIAL COST
The initial cost of a power station includes the following:
1. Land cost
2. Building cost
3. Equipment cost
4. Installation cost
5. Overhead charges, which will include the transportation cost, stores and storekeeping charges,
interest during construction etc.
Economy is the main principle of design of a power plant. Power plant economics is important in
controlling the total power costs to the consumer. Power should be supplied to the consumer at the
lowest possible cost per kWh. The cost of power generation can be reduced by, (i) Selecting
equipment of longer life and proper capacities. (ii) Running the power station at high load factor.
(iii) Increasing the efficiency of the power plant. (iv) Carrying out proper maintenance of power
plant equipment to avoid plant breakdowns. (v) Keeping proper supervision as a good supervision is
reflected in lesser breakdowns and extended plant life. (vi) Using a plant of simple design that does
not need highly skilled personnel.
Power plant selection depends upon the fixed cost and operating cost. Fuel is the heaviest items of
operating cost in a steam power station. A typical proportion of generating cost for a steam power
station is as follows:
Fuel cost = 30 to 40%
Fixed charges for the plant = 50 to 60%
Operation and maintenance cost = 5 to 10%
The power generating units should be run at about full load or the load at which they can give
maximum efficiency. In an electric power plant the capital cost of the generating equipment’s
increases with an increase in efficiency. The benefit of such increase in the capital investment will
be realized in lower fuel costs as the consumption of fuel decreases with an increase in cycle
efficiency.

REFERENCES:

1. “Evaluated Weather Data for Cooling Equipment Design,” Fluor Products Co. Cooling Towers,
Power, Mar. 1963. Baker and Shryock,
2. A Comprehensive Approach to the Analysis of Cooling Tower Performance, Trans. ASME, 1961.

3. Heat Exchange Institute Standards for Direct Contact and Low Level Condensers.

4 Sherwood,T. K., and R. L. Pigford: Absorption and Extraction, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1952, pp. 102–104.
5. Kern,D.Q.: Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
6 “Cooling Tower Performance Curves,” Blue Book, Cooling Technology Institute, Houston,Tex.,
1970.
7. Robert C. Rosaler (ed.), HVAC Systems and Components Handbook, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1998;
8. CHAUDHRY, M. H. 1979. Applied Hydraulic Transients.

9. HENSLEY, JOHN C, EDITOR. 1985. Cooling Tower Fundamentals,

10 Li, KAM W. and A. PAUL PRIDDY. 1985. Power Plant System Design.
John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY.

11. Black and Veatch,1996.Power Plant Engineering

12. J.Edward Pope, 1997.Rule of Thumb for Mechanical Engineer.

13. A.K Raja.2006. Power Plant Engineering.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 IINTRODUCTION
Chapter three of this project focuses on the design parameters, process and equipment selection as
well as economic considerations and justifications for the design of a 200MW oil fired power plant.
Considerations will be given to suitable choice of power plant site selection and source of fuel and
water requirements. The process design and selection of steam turbine, boiler, condenser and boiler
feedwater pumps shall be discussed. Ancilliary equipment such as cooling towers, air heaters,
feedwater heaters and fuel selection/flue gas handling equipment will also not be spared.
Power plant software (steam/thermo flow) which shall take into account the various process
parameters will be used to simulate the process equipment. The steam turbine design and selection
will form the basis of the power plant design.
In order to design a 200MW power plant, I intend to base my design on the selection of four-
100MW turbine generators. The process will operate on a stand alone cycle arrangement with each
power plant cycle churning out a maximum continuous load of 100MW and a combined capacity of
400MW.The additional capacity of 200mw (two-100mw team turbine) is based on the need to make
provision for two standby spares in the event of failure of one of the process line and one power
plant for future expansion consideration.
The cogeneration power plant which involves a controlled condensing/extraction cycle option will
be adopted in the power plant scheme. This will, in addition to being able to generate a combined
capacity of 200mw, will also supply extracted steam for process heating, prime mover operation and
utility services. Though the cycle is relatively more expensive than other forms like straight
condensing type in terms of installation cost, the lower operational and maintenance cost coupled
with higher plant output will proffer the economic justification of such choice.

3.2 Steam turbine design

The steam turbine design and selection process shall consider the following items:

Turbine Generators. Turbine generators shall be designed and selected in accordance with
outlined procedures. The turbine shall be of the controlled extracting/condensing type. The
following are the major process parameters which must be made for a condensing turbine in a
regenerative cycle using superheated inlet steam.

1) HP turbine throttle temperature.

2) HP turbine throttle pressure.
3) HP turbine exhaust pressure.
4) HP turbine first stage pressure.
5) IP Turbine throttle temperature.
6) IP Turbine throttle pressure.
7) LP Turbine throttle temperature.
8) LP Turbine throttle pressure.
9) LP Turbine exhaust pressure.
10) Generator output.
11) Generator hydrogen pressure.
12) Generator power factor.
13) Boiler feed pump discharge temperature.
14) Boiler feed pump discharge pressure.
15) Superheater spray flow.

16) Highest pressure feedwater heater feedwater inlet temperature.

17) Highest pressure feedwater heater feedwater outlet temperature.
18) Highest pressure feedwater heater drains outlet temperature.
19) Highest pressure feedwater heater extraction temperature.
20) Highest pressure feedwater heater extraction pressure.
21) Feedwater flow to boiler.
22) Feedwater pressure at boiler inlet.

b) As a result of calculations based on above methods, the following design parameters can be
quantified.
1) Maximum capability of steam turbine.
2) Heat rate.
3) Enthalpy-drop efficiency.
4) Type of turbine

APPLICABLE EQUATIONS

TSR (lb/KWh) = 3412.142(Btu/KWh)/AE (Btu/lb)

TSR (Kg/KWh) = 3600. 00(Kj/KWh)/AE (Kj/Kg)

ASR= TSR/ ʅT
REQUIRED STEAM FLOW= ASR*TURBINE GENERATOR POWER OUTPUT (KW) in lb/h
The table below gives the theoretical steam rate from ASME standards

3.3 Steam Generators. Steam generators design shall employ the input/output method.

Input/Output Method
a) The following are the major parameters which must be made for input/output method.
1) Fuel oil flow.
2) Higher heating value.
3) Combustion air temperature.
4) Feedwater flow.
5) Feedwater temperature.
6) Feedwater pressure.
7) Superheat desuperheat spray flow.
8) Superheat desuperheat spray temperature.
9) Superheat desuperheat spray pressure.
10) Sootblowing steam flow.
11) Main steam temperature.
12) Main steam pressure.
13) Flue gas temperature at air heater outlet
14) Flue gas oxygen at economizer outlet
15) Drum pressure

b) As a result of the calculations based on above methods, the following design parameters can be
quantified.
1) Steam generator efficiency.
2) Steam generator flow.
3) Steam temperature and control range.
4) Boiler capacity.
5) Water and steam side pressure drop.
6) Exit flue gas temperature

In addition to these parameters, a fuel ultimate analysis, fuel heating value, and ash (if any) heating
values will be required.

3.4 Condensers. Condensers shall be designed in accordance with listed steps.

a) The following are the major parameters for consideration.

1) Circulating water flow.

2) Condenser pressure.
3) Condenser inlet cooling water pressure.
4) Condenser inlet cooling water temperature.
5) Condenser outlet cooling water pressure.
6) Condenser outlet cooling water temperature.
7) Condenser absolute pressure.
b) As a result of calculations based on above method, the following parameters can be quantified.
1) Condenser tube cleanliness factor.
2) Condenser tube fouling factor.
3) Condenser waterside pressure drop.
4) Condenser heat load.
5) Condenser type

3.4.1 APPLICABLE EQUATIONS FOR CONDENSER DESIGN

S _ condenser tube surface area, ft2
Cc _ cleanliness factor
C1 _ heat-transfer-rate constant
Cm _ material and gage factor –Table 9
Ct _ water temperature correction factor-table 10
cp _ specific heat, Btu/lb, _F
G _ circulating-water quantity, gal/min
h _ enthalpy, Btu/lb
hr _ heat rejected by steam, Btu/lb
L _ length of water travel (active tube length), ft
NPSH _ net positive suction head, ft
OD=tube outside diameter, in
Q _ heat transferred, Btu/h
R _ temperature rise (to _ti), _F
TDH _ total dynamic head, ft
t _ tube wall thickness,
TTD _ terminal temperature difference _ ts _ to
ti _ inlet-water temperature, _F
to _ outlet-water temperature, _F
ts _ saturation temperature in condenser, _F
Uo _ overall heat-transfer rate, Btu/(ft2 _ h _ _F)
V _ water velocity, ft/s
Ws _ steam to be condensed, lb/h
_tm _logarithmic mean temperature difference, _F
P=design pressure lb/in2

For condenser sizing, table 9 and 10 shall be consulted

for steam flows to the condenser with the corresponding
turbine throttle condition and the normal recommended
condenser pressure and circulating water temperature.
The heat rejected to the condenser will be taken as 950
Btu/lb of steam for nonreheat turbines and 975 Btu/lb for
reheat machine.
Tube characteristics.
Material and gage factor

Inlet water temperature correction factor.

3.8 Feedwater heater; Feedwater heaters and auxiliary cooling water heat exchangers shall be
designed based on the following parameters:
Closed Feedwater Heaters.
1) Feedwater flow.
2) Feedwater inlet temperature.
3) Feedwater outlet temperature.
4) Feedwater inlet pressure.
5) Feedwater outlet pressure.
6) Drain inlet flow (where applicable).
7) Drain inlet pressure (where applicable).
8) Drain inlet temperature (where applicable).
9) Drain outlet flow.
10) Drain outlet temperature.
11) Drain outlet pressure.
12) Extraction steam flow.
13) Extraction steam temperature.
14) Extraction steam pressure.
15) Heater pressure.
In addition to these parameters, the heater manufacturer's design data will be considered.
b) As a result of calculations based on above methods, the following parameters can be determined.
1) Terminal temperature difference.
2) Feedwater temperature rise.
3) Drain cooler approach (where applicable).
4) Feedwater pressure drop.
5) Pressure drop through drain cooler (where applicable).

PARAMETERS FOR CONSIDERATION FOR FEEDWATER HEATER

A _ heat-transfer surface, ft2
Cm _ material and gage correction factor, Table 9
D _ tube ID, in, Table 10
d _ OD of tube, in ( and in are most common)
F1 _ friction factor, Table 11
F2 _ water-temperature correction factor, Table 12
h _ enthalpy, Btu/lb
k _ tube diameter and gage factor, Table 13
L _ active length of tubes per pass, ft
N _ number of passes
n _ number of tubes
P _ design pressure, lb/in2
p _ pressure, lb/in2
Q _ total heat transferred, Btu/h
S _ allowable design stress at tube design temperature, lb/in2, from ASME Code
t _ wall thickness, in (see Table 14); temperature, _F
Uo _ overall heat-transfer rate, Btu/(h _ ft2 _ _F) (the material correction factor, Table 15, will be
applied to the overall heat-transfer rate)
V _ water velocity, ft/s
W _ steam flow, lb/h
Ww _ feedwater flow, lb/h
_p _ pressure drop, lb/in2

Active tube length (L) = 500AV / (N Vk),

n = 3.82A/ (Ld)
Pressure drop, ∆p = (L + 5.5D)F1CtN/D1.24.

. The choice of tube diameter and material will be made from table 15 in accordance to the ASME
Boiler and pressure vessel code. Tube thickness is calculated by the given equation:

---------------------------------------------------

Q= UA ∆ tm= Ww(h3- h2) = Ws∆hs----------

Table 9-material and gage factor

Table 10- tube internal diameter from feedwater heater tube constants

Table 11-friction factor

Table 12-water temperature correction factor.

Table 13-tube diameter and gage factor

Table 14-tube wall thickness

Table 15-tube material selection.

3.5 Cooling Towers. Cooling towers shall be designed in accordance with the given procedure.
There are two methods for evaluating the performance of a cooling tower: the characteristic curve
method and the performance curve method. Both methods require the same data and calculate the
same performance parameter.
The following are the major parameters which must be considered.
a) Wet bulb temperature at tower inlet.
b) Dry bulb temperature.
c) Cold water temperature.
d) Hot water temperature.
e) Cooling water flow.
f) Fan power.
g) Makeup water temperature.
h) Makeup water flow.
i) Blowdown temperature.
j) Blowdown flow.
As a result of calculations, it should be possible to make a choice of cooling tower and to quantify
the cooling tower capability as a percent of design.
3.7 Pumps. Centrifugal pumps shall be the favoured choice for process pumps because of its large
volume capacity (condensate, circulating and boiler water feed pump) and it shall be designed in
accordance with the prescribed steps.
a) The following are the major parameters which must considered for each pump.
1) Inlet flow.
2) Inlet temperature.
3) Inlet pressure.
4) Discharge flow.
5) Discharge temperature.
6) Discharge pressure.
7) Bleedoff flow.
8) Bleedoff temperature.
9) Bleedoff pressure.
10) Pump input power.
11) Pump speed.
b) As a result of calculations based on above methods, the following pump parameters should be
able to be determined for pump selection.
1) Capacity.
2) Pump total head.
3) Pump power.
4) Pump efficiency.
5) Suction requirements.
6) Available net positive suction head.
7) Specific speed.

Air Heaters. The regenerative air heaters shall be used in accordance with the outlined procedures.
a) The following are the major parameters which must be made for each air heater.
1) Flue gas inlet temperature.
2) Flue gas outlet temperature.
3) Air inlet temperature.
4) Air outlet temperature.
5) Air inlet flow.
6) Air outlet flow.
7) Flue gas inlet flow
8) Flue gas outlet flow.
9) Flue gas side inlet and outlet static pressure.
10) Flue gas side inlet and outlet velocity pressure.
11) Air side inlet and outlet static pressure.
12) Air side inlet and outlet velocity pressure.
13) Inlet flue gas analysis (CO2, CO, O2).
14) Outlet flue gas analysis (CO2, CO, O2).
15) Fuel flow (calculated by steam generator output and efficiency).
b) In addition to these measured parameters, a fuel ultimate analysis is required.