STRUCTURESANDPROPERTI

ESOFCERAMI
CS
Cryst
alStr
uctur
es
Forthoseceramicmat
eri
alsforwhi
chtheatomi
cbondi
ngispredominant
lyi
oni
c,t
he
cr
ystalst
ruct
uresmaybethoughtofasbei
ngcomposedofel
ectri
cal
l
ychargedi
onsinst
ead
ofatoms.

● Cations–al socalledmet alli

cionsareposit
ivel
ychargedbecausetheyhavegiv
enup
thei
rv al
enceel ectronst otheani ons
● Anions–Al socallednonmet all
icionsarenegati
velychar
ged
● Therearet woChar acteri
sticsofcomponenti onsincryst
all
i
neceramicmateri
alst
hat
i
nfluencethecr ystalstructure
1)Magni tudeoft heel ectr
icalchargeoneachoft hecomponentions
2)Ther el
at i
vesizesoft hecat i
onsandanions
● Stablecerami ccrystalstructuresform whenthoseanionssurr
oundingacati
onareal
li
n
contactwitht hatcation.

● Thecoordinat
ionnumber (
i.
e.,
numberofani onnearestneighborsforacat
ion)i
srelat
ed
tothecat
ion–anionradiusrat
io.Foraspecif
iccoordi
nationnumber ,t
her
eisacrit
icalor
minimum rC/r
Ar at
ioforwhichthiscat
ion–anioncontactisestabl
i
shed.Refert
othe
tabl
e.
AX-TypeCr ystalStructures
Someoft hecommoncer amicmat eri
alsarethoseinwhi chthereareequal number sof
cati
onsandani ons.Thesear eoft
enr eferr
edtoasAXcompounds, wher eAdenot esthe
cati
onandXt heanion.Ther earesev eraldi
ff
erentcrystalst
ructuresforAXcompounds;
eachistypicallynamedaf teracommonmat eri
althatassumest hepar t
icularstruct
ure.
● RockSal tStructure-Perhapst hemostcommonAXcr ystalstructureisthesodium
chloride( NaCl),orrocksalt
, t
ype.Thecoor dinati
onnumberf orbot hcationsandanions
i
s6, andt hereforethecati
on–ani onradiusratioisbet
weenappr oximat ely0.414and
0.732.

● Cesium Chl
ori
deStruct
ure-t
hecoordi
nat
ionnumberi s8forbothiontypes.Theani
ons
arelocat
edateachofthecorner
sofacube,whereasthecubecent eri
sasinglecat
ion.
Int
erchangeofani
onswi t
hcati
ons,
andvi
cev er
sa,producesthesamecr ystal
str
uct
ure.
 ● ZincBlendeStructure-thecoordi
nat
ionnumberis4—t hatis,al
lionsaretet
rahedral
l
y
coordi
nated.al
l cornerandfaceposi
tionsofthecubiccel
lar eoccupi
edbySat oms,
whereastheZnat omsf i
ll
int
eri
ortet
rahedral
posit
ions.Anequi val
entst
ruct
ureresult
sif
ZnandSat om positi
onsarerever
sed.Thus,eachZnat om isbondedtofourSat oms,
andv i
cev er
sa.

AmXp-TypeCrystalStr
uctur
es
Ift
hechargesont hecationsandanionsar
enotthesame, acompoundcanexistwi
ththe
chemicalfor
mul aAmXp,wherem and/orp1.Anexampl eisAX2,f
orwhichacommon
cryst
alstr
uctureisfoundinfl
uori
te(
CaF2).Thei
onicradii
rati
orC/rAf
orCaF2isabout
0.8whichgivesacoor di
nati
onnumberof8.
AmBnXp-Ty
peCr ystalStr
uctures
Itisal
sopossibleforceramiccompoundst ohavemor ethanonet ypeofcat
ion;fortwo
typesofcati
ons( r
epresentedbyAandB) ,
thei
rchemicalformul
amaybedesi gnated
asAmBnXp.Barium ti
tanate(BaTiO3)
,havi
ngbothBa2andTi 4cat
ions,fal
l
sint
ot hi
s
classi
fi
cat
ion.Thismat eri
alhasaper ov
skit
ecryst
alstr
ucture.

Cr
y stalStructur
esf rom theCl osePacki ngofAni ons
Ordinar
ily,theclose-packedpl anesar ecomposedoft hel ar
geani ons.Astheseplanesare
st
ackedat opeachot her,smallint
er stit
ial si
tesarecreatedbet weent hem inwhichthecati
ons
mayr eside.Thesei ntersti
ti
alpositionsexi stintwodifferenttypes.
● t et
rahedralposi t
ion-Itister medl i
ket hi
sbecausest rai
ghtlinesdrawnfrom thecent
ers
ofthesur r
oundi ngspher esf orm af our-
sidedtetrahedron.
● oct ahedralposi t
ion-involvessi xi onspher es,
threei neachoft hetwoplanes.Iti
scall
ed
l
iket hi
sbecauseanoct ahedr oni spr oducedbyj oini
ngt hesesixspherecenters.
SILI
CATECERAMI CS
Sili
catesaremat eri
alscomposedpr i
mar i
l
yofsi l
iconandoxy gen,t
hetwomostabundant
el
ement sinEarth’scrust;consequentl
y,t
hebul kofsoils,
rocks,cl
ays,
andsandcome
underthesili
cateclassif
icati
on.
Varioussil
icatestructur
esar i
sef r
om thediff
erentway sinwhichtheSiO4-4uni
tscanbe
combinedintoone- ,t
wo-, andthree-
dimensionalarrangements.

Sil
ica
-Chemical l
y,themostsi mplesi
li
catemat eri
alissil
i
condi oxi
de,orsil
ica(SiO2) .
-Str
ucturall
y ,
iti
sat hr
ee-dimensionalnetworkthatisgeneratedwhent hecor neroxy genatoms
i
neacht etrahedr
onar esharedbyadj acenttet
rahedra.Thus,themateriali
sel ectr
icall
yneutr
al,
andallat omshav estableelect
ronicstruct
ures.
-Therearet hreepri
mar ypolymorphiccryst
alli
neformsofsi l
i
ca: quar
tz,cr
istobalit
eand
tri
dymite.

Sil
icaGlasses
-Si
licacanalsobemadet oexi
stasanoncr yst
all
i
nesol i
dorglasshavi
ngahi ghdegr
eeof
atomi crandomness, whichischaract
eri
sti
coftheli
quid;suchamat er
ialiscal
l
edfused
sil
ica,orvit
reoussil
ica.
-Thecommoni norganicglassesthatareusedforcontai
ners,
windows, andsoon
aresili
caglassestowhi chhav ebeenaddedotheroxidessuchasCaOandNa2O.

TheSil
icates
Fort
hev arioussil
icat
emi ner
als,one, t
wo, orthr
eeofthecor neroxy genatomsofthe
Si
O4-/4t et
rahedraaresharedbyot hertetrahedr
atoform somer athercomplexstr
uct
ures.
● Si mpleSili
cates-Ofthesesi l
icates,t
hemostst ructural
l
ysi mpleonesinvol
vei
solat
ed
tetr
ahedra
● Lay eredSili
cates-Atwo-dimensi onalsheetorl
ay eredstructurecanalsobepr
oducedby
thesharingofthreeoxygeni onsineachoft hetetrahedra.
Car
bon

Twoal l
otr
opicformsofCarbon:
1.Di amond
-i
samet astabl
ecarbonpoly
morphatroom t
emper at
ureandatmospher
icpr
essure.I
ts
cry
stalstr
uctur
ei savari
antoft
hezincbl
endestr
uctureinwhichcar
bonatomsoccupyall
posit
ions
-t
hecrystalst
ruct
ureofdi
amondisappropr
iatel
ycall
edthediamondcubi
ccryst
al
str
ucture

2.Graphi
te
-iti
sastabl
epoly
mor phatambi
enttemperat
ureandpressure
-car
bonatomsarelocat
edatcor
nersofi
nterl
ocki
ngregularhexagonst
hatl
i
einpar
all
el
(basal
)pl
anes.
I
mper
fect
ioni
nCer
ami
cs

● Atomicdefect
sinv
olvi
nghostatomsmayexistinceramiccompounds.Aswit
hmetal
s,
bothvacanci
esandint
erst
it
ial
sarepossi
ble;
however,becausecer
amicmater
ial
s
contai
nionsofatl
easttwokinds,
def
ectsforeachiontypemayoccur.

Defectstr
uctur
eisoftenusedtodesi
gnat
ethetypesandconcent
rat
ionsofat
omicdef
ectsi
n
ceramics.
Elect
roneutr
ali
tyi
sthestatet
hatexi
stswhenther
eareequalnumbersofposi
ti
veandnegat
ive
chargesfrom t
heions.
Fr
enkeldefect-Thedef
ectfor
mswhenanat om orsmall
erion(usuall
ycat
ion)l
eavesitsplace
i
nthelatt
ice,cr
eati
ngavacancy,
andbecomesani nt
erst
it
ialbyl
odginginanearbylocat
ion.

Schottkydefect
-Ini
oni
ccryst
als,
thispoi
ntdef
ectf
ormswhenopposi
tel
ychar
gedi
onsl
eav
e
thei
rlatt
icesit
es,cr
eat
ingv
acancies.

Stoi
chi
ometry
-defi
nedasastat
eforioni
ccompoundswher
eint
her
eist
heexactr
ati
oof
cati
onstoani
onsaspr
edi
ctedbythechemical
for
mula.

● Acer amiccompoundi snonst oi

chiometri
cift
hereisanydev iat
ionfrom t
hisexactr
ati
o.
DIFFUSIONI NIONICMATERI ALS
● Di f
fusi
oninthesemat er
ialsusuall
yoccur sbyav acancymechani sm
Inor dertomai nt
ainchargeneutrali
tyinanioni
cmat eri
al,thefol
lowingmaybesai dabout
vacancies:
(1)Ionv acanci
esoccurinpairs[aswi thSchott
kydefects]
(2)Theyf orminnonstoichi
ometr i
ccompounds
(3)Theyar ecreatedbysubsti
tutionalimpuri
tyionshavi
ngdi ff
erentchargestat
esthanthehost
i
ons

Mechani calProperti
es
BRI TTLEFRACTUREOFCERAMI CS
● Thebr i
tt
lef r
act ureprocessconsi stsof
theformationandpr opagat ionofcr acks
thr
ought hecr osssect ionofmat eri
al i
na
dir
ecti
onper pendi cul
art ot heappl iedl oad.
● Crackgr owt hincr ystallinecer ami cs
maybeei ther
○ t
ransgr anular( i
.e.,t
hrought he
grains);
-crackspropagateal ongspeci fi
ccr ystall
ogr aphic(or
cleavage)planes,planesofhi ghat omi cdensi ty.
○ i
ntergranular( i.
e.,al
onggr ain
boundar ies)
FractographyofCer ami cs
Af r
actogr
aphi
cstudy-
isnor
mall
yapartofsuchananal
ysi
s,whichinv
olv
esexami
ningt
hepat
h
ofcrackpr
opagat
ion,
aswellasmicr
oscopi
cfeat
uresoft
hefractur
esurf
ace.

Example:
Amagni f
yinggl
assand/
oral
ow-
powerst
ereobi
nocul
aropt
ical
micr
oscopei
nconj
unct
ionwi
th
ali
ghtsource.

Ty
pical
crackconf
igur
ati
onsf
orf
ourcommonl
oadi
ngschemes

STRESS–STRAI
NBEHAVI
OR

1.Fl
exur
alSt
rengt
h-Thest
ressatf
ract
ureusi
ngt
hisf
lexur
etest

Becausethetensi
l
est r
engthsofcer
amicsar
eaboutone-
tenthofthei
rcompressi
vestrengths,
andbecausefract
ureoccursonthetensi
l
especi
menface,thefl
exuret
esti
sar easonable
subst
itut
eforthetensi
let
est.

2.El
ast
icBehav
ior

MECHANI
SMSOFPLASTI
CDEFORMATI
ON

Cr
yst
all
i
neCer
ami
cs

Pl
ast
icdef
ormat
ionoccur
s,aswi
thmet
als,
byt
hemot
ionofdi
slocat
ions

Forcryst
all
inecer
amicmat eri
alsforwhichthebondingispr
edominant
lyioni
c,t
her
earevery
fewsli
psy stems(cr
ystal
logr
aphicplanesanddirect
ionswit
hint
hoseplanes)al
ongwhich
disl
ocati
onsmaymov e.

Forcerami
csi
nwhichthebondi
ngi
shi
ghl
ycov
alent
,sl
i
pisal
sodi
ff
icul
t,andt
heyar
ebr
it
tl
efor
thefol
l
owingr
easons:

1. thecoval
entbondsarer
elat
ivel
ystr
ong,
2.therearealsol
imit
ednumbersofsli
psyst
ems,
and
3. disl
ocati
onstr
uctur
esar
ecompl ex
.

Noncr
yst
all
i
neCer
ami
cs

Plasti
cdeformati
ondoesnotoccurbydisl
ocati
onmot
ionfornoncry
stal
l
ineceramicsbecause
thereisnoregul
aratomi
cstr
ucture.Rat
her,t
hesemat
eri
alsdefor
m byviscousfl
ow,thesame
manneri nwhichl
iqui
dsdef
orm.

Vi
scosi
ty-i
sameasur
eofanoncr
yst
all
i
nemat
eri
al’
sresi
stancet
odef
ormat
ion

MI
SCELLANEOUSMECHANI
CALCONSI
DERATI
ONS
I
nfl
uenceofPor
osi
ty

Por
osi
tyi
sdel
eter
ioust
othef
lexur
alst
rengt
hfort
wor
easons:

1.Poresr
educethecr
oss-
secti
onalareaacrosswhi
chaloadisappli
ed,
and
2.Theyal
soactasstr
essconcent
rators—forani
sol
atedspher
ical
pore,anappl
i
edt
ensi
l
e
st
ressi
samplifi
edbyafact
orof2.

Har
dness

● Spheri
cal
indenters(aswithRockwellandBri
nell
tests)ar
enor mall
ynotusedfor
cer
amicmat er
ialsbecausetheyproduceseverecracki
ng.Rather
,hardnessesofthi
s
cl
assofmat er
ialsaremeasuredusingVicker
sandKnoopt echni
questhatuseindenter
s
havi
ngpyramidal shapes

Vi
ckersi
swidel
yusedf
ormeasur
inghar
dnessofcer
ami
cs;
howev
er,
forv
erybr
it
tl
ecer
ami
c
mater
ial
s.

Knoopi
sof
tenpr
efer
redmet
hodofmeasur
inghar
dness

Cr
eep

● Cr eepoccursathighertemperat
uresi
nceramics.High-
temperatur
ecompressi
vecreep
testsar
econduct edoncer amicmater
ial
stoascert
aincreepdeformat
ionasafunct
ion
oftemperatureandstresslevel
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsandPr
ocessi
ngofCer
ami
cs
Whyst
udyAppl
i
cat
ionsandPr
ocessi
ngofCer
ami
cs?

I
tisi mpor t
antf ortheengineertorealizehowt heapplicati
onsandpr ocessingofceramic
mat erial
sar einfl
uencedbyt heirmechani calandther
mal pr
opert
ies,suchashar dness,
brit
tleness,andhi ghmel t
ingtemper atures.
Forexampl e,ceramicpiecesnor mallycannotbef abr
icatedusingconv ent
ionalmetal-
for
ming
techniques.Aswedi scussi nthischapter,theyareof
tenf ormedusingpowdercompact i
on
met hods,andsubsequent lyfi
red(i.
e.,heat-
treat
ed).

Ty
pesandClassi
fi
cat
ionofCer
ami
cs:
1.GLASSES
 The gl asses ar eaf ami l
iargr oup ofcer ami cs;cont ainers,l enses,and f iberglass
represent t y picalappl i
cations.As al ready ment ioned,t hey ar e non- crystal
li
ne si l
i
cat es
cont ainingot heroxi des,not ablyCal ci
um oxi de( CaO) ,Sodium oxi de( Na2O) ,Potassium oxi de
(K2O) ,andAl umi num oxi de(Al2O3) ,whi
chi nfluencet heglasspr operties.
Thet wopr i
measset sofgl assmat erialsare:
a.opt i
cal tr
anspar encyand
b.easeoff abr i
cation.
2.GLASS- CERAMI CS
Thet er m  glass- cerami cs referstoamat erialthatcombi nest wot ypesofmat eri
alst o
form apr oductt hati si nacl assofi t
sownbet weengl assesandpol ycrystallineceramics. Glass-
cerami cs consi stofoneormor egl assphasesandoneormor e 
crystalli
ne phases.
Mosti nor gani cgl assescanbemadet ot r
ansf ormfrom anon- crystallinestat
ei ntoone
thati scr yst allinebyt hepr operhi gh-temper atureheatt reat
ment .Thi sprocessi scalled
crystallizat i
on, andt hepr oducti saf ine-
gr ai
nedpol ycr y
stal
li
nemat erialthati softencal l
eda
glass–cer ami c.
Proper tiesandAppl icationsofGl ass–Cer ami cs
Glass–cer ami cmat er i
alshav ebeendesi gnedt ohav ethefollowingchar act er i
sti
cs:
-relativelyhi ghmechani calstrengt hs
-lowcoef ficient soft hermal expansi on( toav oidthermal shock)
-goodhi gh- temper at urecapabi li
ties;gooddi electri
cpr opert
ies(forel ectronicpackagi ng
applicat ions)
-goodbi ologi cal compat i
bil
ity
-easeoff abr icat i
on

3.CLAYPRODUCTS
Oneoft hemostwi delyusedcer amicraw materi
alsisclay.Whenmixedi nthepr oper
proport
ions,cl
ayandwat erform apl ast
icmasst hatisveryamenabletoshaping.Thef ormed
pieceisdri
edtor emov esomeoft hemoi stur
e,aft
erwhichitisfi
redatanelev
atedt emperature
toimproveitsmechanical str
ength.
- Manycommoncer ami cssuchasbr icksandti
lesarebasedpr i
mari
l
yoncl ay.
- Higherdensityclaypr oductsexhibi
tbettermechanicalpr
operti
esbutatt hesamet i
me
havewor seinsulat
ingpr opert
ies.

Mostcl
ay-
basedpr
oduct
sfal
lwi
thi
ntwobr
oadcl
assi
fi
cat
ions:

1.Struct
uralcl
ayproduct
sincl
udebuil
dingbri
cks,t
il
es,
andsewerpi
pes.
2.Whi t
ewareceramicsincl
udeporcel
ain,pot
tery
,tabl
ewar
e,chi
naandplumbi
ngf
ixt
ures
(sanit
aryware)

4.REFRACTORI ES
Mater
ialthatcanwithstandv er
yhi
ght emper
atures3000°
Cormor ewit
houtdegradi
ngor
sof
teni
ng.Refractor
ymat er
ialsincl
udecertai
nceramicsandsuperall
oys,andar
eusedinheat
i
nsulat
ionoffurnaces,j
etandr ocketengi
nes,andpar
tsofspacev ehi
clessuchastheshutt
le.
 Requirement
sf ort
hiscl
assofmat er
ial
sincl
udehighmelt
ingt
emperat
ure,
theabi
l
ityt
o
r
emai
nunreacti
veandinertwhenexposedtosevereenvir
onment
s(of
tenatel
evat
ed
t
emper
atur
es),andtheabi
lit
ytoprovi
dether
mal i
nsulat
ion.

5.ABRASI
VES

Abrasi
veceramicsareusedtowear
,gri
nd,
orcutawayothermater
ial,whichnecessar
il
y
i
ssof
ter.Thi
sgroupofmat er
ial
smustbehardandtoughandbeablet
owi thstandhigh
t
emperatur
esthatari
sefrom f
ri
cti
onal
for
ces.

Mostcommonabrasi
vemat
eri
alsar
eDi
amond,
Sil
i
concar
bide,
Tungst
encar
bide,
Cor
undum,andSi
l
icasand.

6.CEMENTS

Acementisabinder,asubst
anceusedf
orconst
ruct
iont
hatset
s,har
densandadher
es
t
oot
hermat
eri
alstobi
ndt hem t
ogether
.

Subsequentset
ti
ngorhardeningisaresultofchemicalr
eactionsinv
olv
ingt
hecement
par
ti
clesandoccursattheambienttemperature.Forhydr
auli
ccement s,ofwhi
chPort
land
cementisthemostcommon, thechemi cal
reactioni
soneofhy drat
ion.

7.CARBONS

Twoall
otr
opicfor
msofcarbon,
diamondandgr
aphi
te,
hav
edi
sti
nct
ivel
ydi
ff
erentset
s
ofphy
sical
andchemical
proper
ti
es.

● Diamondisextremelyhard,chemi cal
l
yinert
,hasahighthermalconductivi
ty,
low
el
ectri
cal
conduct i
vi
ty,andistransparentwi
thahighindexofrefract
ion.
● Graphi
tei
ssof tandflaky,
opticall
yopaque,andchemicall
ystableathightemperatur
es
andinnon-oxi
dizi
ngat mospheres.Someofi tspr
operti
esarehighlyi
sotropi
c,toincl
ude
el
ectri
cal
conduct i
vi
ty.
8.ADVANCEDCERAMI CS

Manymoderntechnol
ogiesuseandwil
lcont
inuetouseadv
ancedcerami
csbecauseof
thei
runi
quemechanical
,chemical
,el
ect
ri
cal
,magnetic,
andopti
cal
proper
ti
esandproper
ty
combinat
ions.

● Micr
oelectr
omechanical
sy st
ems( MEMS) —t
hesearesmar tsystemsthatconsi
stof
mini
aturi
zedmechanicaldevi
cesintegr
atedwit
helectr
icalel
ement sonasubstr
ate
(
normallysi
li
con)
.
● Nanocarbons—carbonmat er
ial
sthathavepart
icl
esizeslessthanabout100nm.

Thr
eet
ypesofnanocar
bonst
hatcanexi
star
easf
oll
ows:

1.Full
erenes—high-temper at
uresuperconductor
santi
oxi
dants(personalcareproducts)
,
organicsolarcel
ls.
2.Carbonnanot ubes—el ectr
icf
iel
demi tt
ers,
cancertr
eat
ment s,
phot ov
oltai
cs(solarcel
ls)
,
bettercapacit
ors( t
or epl
acebatter
ies)
.
3.Graphene—t r
ansistors,super
capacitor
s,tr
anspar
entel
ectr
icalconductors,bi
osensors.
Fabr
icat
ionandPr
ocessi
ngofCer
ami
cs

FABRI
CATI
ONANDPROCESSI
NGOFGLASSESANDGLASS–CERAMI
CS

 Gl
assy,
ornoncry
stal
l
ine,materi
alsdonotsoli
dif
yint
hesamesenseasdothosethatare
cr
yst
all
i
ne.Uponcooli
ng,aglassbecomesmor eandmoreviscousi
nacont
inuousmanner
wi
thdecreasi
ngt
emperatur
e; t
hereisnodefi
nit
etemper
atur
eatwhicht
heli
quidtr
ansfor
ms
i
ntoasoli
daswithcr
ystal
li
nemat eri
als.

 Forcry
stal
li
nemat eri
als,t
her
eisadiscontinuousdecr
easeinvol
umeatt hemel
ting
temperat
ure.However,forgl
assymateri
als,vol
umedecreasescont
inuousl
ywit
h
temperat
urereducti
on

Glasst
ransit
iont
emperat
ure-Bel
owt hi
stemperat
ure,
themater
ial
isconsi
der
edt
obeagl
ass;
abovei
t,themateri
ali
sfi
rstasuper
cooledl
iqui
dand,fi
nal
l
y,ali
qui
d.

Onthevi
scosi
tyscale,
severalspecif
icpoi
ntst
hatar
eimpor
tanti
nthef
abr
icat
ionand
pr
ocessi
ngofglassesarelabeled:

1. Themel t
ingpoi ntcor r
espondst ot het emper atureatwhi chthev i
scosityis10Pa. s(100
P);thegl assisf luidenought obeconsi der edal i
quid.
2.Thewor kingpoi ntr epresent st het emper atur eatwhi chthev i
scosit
yis103Pa. s(104P) ;
theglassi seasi lydef ormedatt hi sv iscosi ty.
3.Thesof teningpoi nt,thet emper atur eatwhi cht heviscosit
yis4x106Pa. s( 4x107P),is
themaxi mum t emper atureatwhi chagl asspi ecemaybehandl edwi thoutcausing
signif
icantdi mensi onal al
terat i
ons
4.Theanneal i
ngpoi ntist het emper atureatwhi chthev iscosi
tyis1012Pa. s(1013P);at
thistemper ature, atomi cdi ffusioni ssuf ficientlyrapidthatanyresidualstressesmaybe
remov edwi thinabout15mi n.
5.Thest rainpointcor respondst ot het emper atureatwhi chtheviscosiybecomes3x1013
t
Pa.s
14
(3x10 P) ;
fort emper aturesbel owt hest rainpoint,fract
urewilloccurbef oretheonset
ofplasticdef ormat ion.Thegl asst ransitiont emper aturewillbeabov ethest rai
npoint.
● Thet emper atureatwhi cheachoft hesepoi ntsoccur sdependsongl asscomposi tion.
Forexampl e,thesof teningpoi ntsf orsoda- li
meand96%si li
caglassesar eabout700C
and1550C( 1300Fand2825F) ,respect i
v ely.

Gl
assFor
ming

Glassispr
oducedbyheat
ingt
her
awmat
eri
alst
oanel
evat
edt
emper
atur
eabov
ewhi
chmel
ti
ng
occurs.

Fi
vedi
ff
erentf
ormi
ngmet
hodsar
eusedt
ofabr
icat
egl
asspr
oduct
s:
 1.Pressingisusedint hefabricat
ionofr el
ati
vel
ythick-
wall
edpiecessuchaspl atesand
dishes.
2.Blowing-thepieceisinsertedintoaf i
nishi
ngorblowmol dandforcedtoconf ormt ot
he
mol dcontoursbythepr essurecr eat
edf r
om ablastofai
r.
3.Drawingi susedtoforml onggl asspiecesthathaveaconstantcrosssect
ion, suchas
sheet,rod,t
ubing,andfibers.
4.Sheetf or
ming

5.Fi
berf
ormi
ng

Heat
-Tr
eat
ingGl
asses

Anneal
i
ng

Whenacer ami
cmat eri
ali
scool
edfrom anel
ev atedt
emperatur
e,i
nter
nalst
resses,
called
ther
malstr
esses,maybeintr
oducedasaresultofthedi
ff
erenceincool
ingr
ateandt hermal
contr
act
ionbetweenthesurf
aceandint
eri
orregions

Oncesuchstr
esseshav ebeenintr
oduced,howev er
,eli
minat
ion,
oratleastareduct
ioninthei
r
magnit
ude,i
spossibl
ebyananneal ingheattreat
mentinwhichtheglasswareisheatedtothe
anneal
i
ngpoint,
thenslowlycooledtoroom temperature.

Gl
assTemper
ing

Thestr
engthofaglasspi
ecemaybeenhancedbyi
ntenti
onal
lyi
nduci
ngcompressi
veresi
dual
surf
acestr
esses.Thi
scanbeaccompl
i
shedbyaheattreatmentpr
ocedur
ecal
l
edt her
mal
temper
ing.

Fabr
icat
ionandHeat
-Tr
eat
ingofGl
ass–Cer
ami
cs

Conver
sionoft
heglassint
oagl ass–cerami ci
saccomplishedbyappr
opri
ateheatt
reat
ments.
Aft
ermelti
ngandformingoper
at i
ons,nucleati
onandgrowt hoft
hecry
stal
l
inephasepart
icl
es
ar
ecarri
edoutisot
hermall
yattwodi f
ferenttemperat
ures.

Fabr
icat
ionandPr
ocessi
ngofCl
ayPr
oduct
s

● Claymi neral
sassumet wor olesinthef abri
cati
onofcer amicbodi es: Whenwat eris
addedt oclay,itbecomespl iableandamenabl etoforming.Claymi neralsmeltov era
rangeoft emper atures;thus,duringfiri
ng,adenseandst r
ongpi ecei spr oducedwi thout
compl etemel t
ing.
● Forclaypr oducts,twocommonf abri
cationtechniquesarehy dr
opl asti
cf ormingandsl i
p
casti
ng.
○ Forhy dr oplasti
cf or
mi ng,aplasticandpliablemassi sformedi ntoadesi r
ed
shapebyf orci
ngt hemasst hroughadi eorif
ice.
○ Wi thsli
pcast i
ng, asli
p( suspensionofclayandot hermi neralsi nwater)is
pouredint oapor ousmol d.Aswat erisabsorbedintothemol d, asoli
dlay eris
 deposi
tedont heinsideoft
hemol dwall.
● Afterf
orming,
aclay-basedbodymustbef i
rstdri
edandt
henf
ir
edatanel
evat
ed
temperat
uretoreducepor osit
yandenhancestrengt
h.

POWDERPRESSI
NG

-
thecer
ami
canal
oguet
opowdermet
all
urgy

-i
susedtofabr
icatebot
hcl
ayandnoncl
aycompositi
ons,
incl
udi
ngel
ect
roni
candmagnet
ic
cerami
cs,aswellassomer
efr
actor
ybri
ckproduct
s.

TAPECASTI
NG

-i
nthist
echnique,
thinsheet
sofaflexi
blet
apeareproducedbymeansofacasti
ngprocess.
Thesesheetsareprepar
edfrom sl
i
psinmanyrespectssimil
art
othoseempl
oyedforsli
p
cast
ing
 STRUCTURES
AND
PROPERTI
ESOFCERAMI
CS/
APPLI
CATI
ONS
AND
PROCESSI
NGOFCERAMI
CS

Baut
ist
a,Mar
kEl
drake
Gar
cia,
Ryandr
ei
Roset
e,Chr
ist
ianJher
ome