Republic of the Philippines

DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Mid-La Union Campus
COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES
City of San Fernando 2500, La Union

Subject: SEd 323 – Research in Developmental Biology

Term: First Semester SY 2019-2020
Student: Princess H. Cortez
Ph.D in Science Education
Professor: Dr. Mirasol M. Bangug

Cell Differentiation
Process, Specification/Determination and Significance

Cell differentiation may simply be described as the process through which a young and immature cell evolves in to a
specialized cell, reaching its mature form and function. For such unicellular organisms like bacteria, various life functions
occur within a single cell.

 That is, such processes as the transport of molecules, metabolism and reproduction all take place within a single
cell given that they are single celled. However, multicellular organisms require different types of cells for these
processes to be possible.

• Different types of cells play a specific function given that they have varied structures. For instance, whereas
the nerve cells play a crucial role in the transmission of signals to different parts of the body, blood cells play an
important role carrying oxygen to different parts of the body.

• The differences in structure and functions between the cells mean that they are specialized cells. To be able to
perform different functions, cells have to become specialized. This becomes possible through the process referred
to as cell specialization.

Process and Steps of Cell Differentiation

• A cell capable of differentiating into any type of cell is known as "totipotent". For mammals, totipotent includes
the zygote and products of the first few cell divisions. There are also certain types of cells that can differentiate
into many types of cells. These cells are known as "pluripotent" or stem cells in animals (meristemic cells in higher
plants).

• While this type of cell can divide to produce new differentiated generations, they retain the ability to divide and
maintain the stem cell population making them some of the most important cells.

Examples Of Stem And Progenitor Cells Include:

1. Hematopoietic Stem Cells - These are from the bone marrow and are involved in the production of red and
white blood cells as well as the platelets.

2. Mesenchymal Stem Cells - Also from the bone marrow, these cells are involved in the production of fat cells,

stromal cells as well as a given type of bone cell.

3. Epithelial Stem Cells - These are progenitor cells and are involved in the production of certain skin cells.

4. Muscle Satellite Cells - These are progenitor cells that contribute to differentiated muscle tissue.

• The process of cell differentiation starts with the fertilization of the female egg. As soon as the egg is fertilized,
cell multiplication is initiated resulting in the formation of a sphere of cells known as the blastocyst. It is this
sphere of cells that attach to the uterine wall and continues to differentiate.

• As the blastocyst differentiates, it divides and specializes to form a zygote that attaches to the womb for nutrients.
As it continues to multiply and increase in size, the differentiation process results in the formation of different
organs.
Roles of DNA and RNA in Cell Differentiation:

Dexoyribonucleic Acid, or DNA, controls the way cells function. It also determines what type of specialized cells will be
made. Stem cells are cells that have the ability to become any type of specialized cell in the body. After an egg cell and
sperm cell unite to begin forming a new organism, all of the DNA in each cell of that organism will be virtually identical.

DNA is wound tightly into chromosomes. Different regions of the chromosome code for every different function and cell
type. Not all sections of a chromosome are turned on, or expressed, at the same time. Only the regions that are needed to
perform a specific function are expressed in each cell. These regions are often depicted as bands or stripes on a drawing
of a chromosome.

• These bands are called genes, and whether or not a gene is expressed determines what type of cell will be created.
For example, genes that are expressed (turned on) in a nerve cell are different from the genes that are expressed in
a muscle cell. Both cells have the same DNA, but expressing different genes generates different cell types.

• This process by which information from a gene is used to make the structures of a cell is called gene
expression. Since RNA translates and transcribes the DNA code into proteins (the structures of a cell), it also plays
a role in cell differentiation.

Specification and Determination:

• During the differentiation process, cells gradually become committed towards developing into a given cell type.
Here, the state of commitment may be described as "specification" representing a reversible type of commitment
or "determination" representing irreversible commitment.

• Although the two represent differential gene activity, the properties of cells in this stage is not completely similar
to that of fully differentiated cells. For instance, in the specification state, cells are not stable over a long period of
time.

 There are two mechanisms that bring about altered commitments in the different regions of the early embryo.

These include:

• Cytoplasmic localization

• Induction

1. Cytoplasmic Localization - This occurs during the earliest stage of embryo development. Here, the embryo divides
without growth and undergoes cleavage divisions that produce blastomeres (separate cells). Each of these cells inherit a
given region of the cytoplasm of the original cell that may contain cytoplasmic determinants (reuratory substances).
 • Once the embryo becomes a morula (solid mass of blastomeres) it is composed of two or more differently
committed cell populations. The cytoplasmic determinants may contain mRNA or protein a given state of
activation that influence specific development.

2. Induction - In induction, a substance secreted by one group of cells causes changes in the development of another
group. During early development, induction tends to be instructive in that tissue assumes a given state of commitment in
the presence of the signal.

• In induction, inductive signals also evoke various responses at varying concentrations which results in the
formation of a sequence of groups of cells, each being in a different state of specification.

• During the final phase of cell differentiation, there is formation of several types of differentiated cells from one
population of stem cells of the precursor. Here, terminal differentiation occurs both in embryonic development as
well as in tissues during postnatal life.

• Control of the process largely depends on a system of lateral inhibition. That is, cells differentiating along a given
pathway send out signals which repress similar differentiation by the neighboring cells. A good example of this is
with the developing CNS of vertebrates (central nervous system).

• In this system, neurons cells from the tube of neuropithelium possess a surface receptor known as Notch and a cell
surface molecule known as Delta that can bind to the Notch of adjacent cells and activate them.

• This activation results in a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately result in the suppression of Delta
production as well as the suppression of neuronal differentiation. As a result, the neuropithelium ends up only
generating a few cells with high expression of Delta surrounded by a larger number of cells with low expression
of Delta.

Cell Differentiation Significance:

• As previously mentioned cell differentiation is a process through which a generic cell evolves into a given type of
cell (cell type) and ultimately allowing the zygote to gradually evolve in to a multicellular adult organism.

• Cell differentiation is an important process through which a single cell gradually evolves allowing for development
that not only results in various organs and tissues being formed, but also a fully functional animal.

• While it plays a significant role in embryonic development, the process of cell differentiation is also very important
when it comes to complex organisms throughout their lives. This is because of the fact that it causes changes in
size, shape, metabolic activities as well as signal responsiveness of cells.

• In cell differentiation, gene expression is particular important given that there are vital control systems that only
ensure certain differentiation. Here, the process proves beneficial by controlling certain activities to guarantee both
normal functioning tissues and organs, but also a full functional animal.

• Knowledge of cell differentiation has also influenced stem cell research. Today, scientists and researchers are
working to determine the best way they can use stem cells for the purposes of regenerating and repairing cellular
damage.

• As mentioned earlier, stem cells are important in that they can develop to any cell type. This makes them very
special in that they can differentiate and be used for given treatment purposes. A good example of this is with cells
among the older adults. In older years, many of the cells experience wear and tear. As a result, they lose their
ability to divide or repair themselves.

• Stem cells can continue differentiating into a number of specialized cells to renew and repair the tissue in question.
In theory, it is supposed that there is no limit as to the type of diseases that can be treated using stem cell therapy.
However, research is still ongoing to ensure that this type of treatment is both safe and effective.

Primary Factors Influencing Cell Differentiation:

 Gene Structure - This is the most important factor when it comes to cell differentiation. Each of the viable genes
contains important information that determine the cell type and physical attributes of the animal (host). Any
problem in the genetic material ultimately affects cell differentiation and the development of the host.

• Environmental Factors - Various environmental factors as changes in temperature and supply of oxygen etc can
affect the release and production of hormones given that various proteins are involved in the transmission of
information as well as triggering of hormones. If these molecules are affected, then cell differentiation and
development is also affected.