CHAPTER 5:

TRUSSES
 Introduction
- A truss is an arrangement of bars or members
connected at joints
- In many cases, such as roof trusses and lattice girders, it
is assumed that, for design purposes, no significant
moments are generated at the connections-the
connections are often assumed to be nominally pinned.
- Truss can be fabricated from various steel sections
available and joined by welding or bolting
- 2 types of truss; planar truss and space truss
- A frame which has all its members in one plane is called a
plane frame, while a three-dimensional frame is called a
space frame
Examples of plane truss system
Examples of space truss system
Member used in truss system
Terminology in truss system
Under the action of the loading system, the frame tends to
take the form in dotted lines, i.e. A and B move outwards
putting member AB in tension, and C moves downwards
putting members AC and BC in compression. AC and
BC are termed struts and AB a tie
General procedure in simple roof truss
design
 Truss function
• Two main function:
1. Carry roof load
2. Provide horizontal stability
 Aspects of truss design for roof
structure
In order to get a good structural performance, the ratio of span
to truss depth should be chosen in the range 10 to 15. To get an
efficient layout of the truss members between the chords, the
following is advisable:
• The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the
chords should be between 35° and 55°
• Point loads should only be applied at nodes
• The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that
the longest members are subject to tension (the shorter ones
being subject to compression).
• Truss can be joint bolted or welded, however,
bolted is preferred on site
• These joints will transmit some moments from
member to member but these moments usually
ignored.
• However, if a load is applied between its end joint,
effect of bending moment and shear force.
• When the truss is subjected to a given load, the
force in each member is either tensile or
compressive.
Purlins are those members in a truss system which carries
the roof sheets and transfer the load to the rafters
- Trusses support purlins
- The roof load transferred to the truss at a joint by a
series of purlin (see figure)
- Truss may either supported by columns or walls.
The distance between trusses is termed as bays.
- Bays are economically spaced between 4.5m to
6m
- For internal bracing member, it should be arranged
that, under vertical load, longer members are in
tension and shorter members are in compression
 Loading
3 basic load:
1) Permanent Actions: cladding, insulation, ceiling, self weight
of trusses and purlins
2) Variable Actions: May be taken from any relevant codes. For
roofs the action may be summarized as follow;
– 0.75 kN/m2 – only access to the roof for maintenance and
repair
– 1.5 kN/m2 – where there is access in addition to that in
above
3) Wind Actions: The guide to estimate these actions are given
by BS 6399: part 2 or CP3:Ch V: Part 2
There are four combinations of loads:
1) Dead load alone
2) Dead load plus imposed load
3) Dead load plus imposed load plus wind load
4) Dead load plus wind load

- Combination 2 – normally used

- Combination 4 - If the force due to the wind is greater than
that due to the dead load and when a lightweight roof
cladding is used
 Analysis of trusses
Primary forces
• The primary forces in all members are calculated by applying
loads at the nodes and assuming the truss is pin-jointed and
statically determinate.
• The axial forces in members may be of tensile or
compressive.

Secondary Stresses
• Consider for heavy trusses (industrial buildings and bridges.
Caused by:
i)Load applied between the nodes of the truss.
ii)Eccentricity at connections
iii)Rigid jointed and deflection of trusses
Load applied between the nodes of the truss.
• This solution often occurs to the rafter of the trusses where
the purlins are not positioned at the nodes.
• Bending moment induced by this situation should be
calculated and combined to those due to the primary axial
loads and included in design.
• bending moment for the top chord where the purlins are not
positioned at nodes may be conservatively taken as wL2/6
(clause 4.10 BS 5950) where w is the total load per unit
length applied perpendicular to the rafter and L is the
length between nodes.
 Design of purlins
• may be design as beams especially for flat roof where the slope
of the roof is less than 10º
• Purlins are those members in truss system which carries the
roof sheets and transfer the load to the rafters. It is normally
placed perpendicular to the rafters and sag rod may be added
to reduce bending moment of purlins
Alternatively, empirical method is applied if the condition in Cl.
4.12.4.2 and 4.12.4.3 in BS 5950 are met.

Clause 4.12.4.3 BS5950.

• Purlins must satisfy:
i)The slope of the roof should be less than 30º from the
horizontal
ii)Loading on purlins should be uniformly distributed
iii)Limitation of section modulus Z about its axis, member
dimension D and B are given in Table 27 BS5950.
Table 27 BS5950
Design condition for purlins
• Minimum steel grade of S275
• Unfactored load should be used
• Uniform loading
• The slope of the roof should not exceed 30o from the
horizontal
• Section modulus Z, and dimension B and D should not be
less than the respective values given in Table 27 BS 5950:
Part 1: 2000.
 Example 5.1: Analysis of Truss

• Given:
– Imposed load on plan, Qk = 0.75 kN/m2
– Dead load on plan, Gk = 3 kN/m2
– Spacing between trusses St = 5m
– Purlin spacing Sp = 2m
• Determine the loading transfer to the node.
a
b
c
d
 Purlin

Apex Apex
a

St
Purlin b
spacing, Sp
Sp
c
Sp Truss

PLAN
Truss
VIEW
spacing, St St
 Example 5.2 : Purlin design
A plane truss as shown below is arranged all purlin on its
node. Design the purlin using single angle section, with the
following data:
- Spacing between trusses, St = 5m
- Weight of roof sheet, insulation and purlin (on slope) =
0.35kN/m²
- Self-weight of truss (on slope) = 0.20kN/m²
- Imposed load (on plan) = 0.75kN/m²
 Example 5.3: Purlin design

Design the purlins using single angle sections for the sloping
truss given. Using the following data:
• Slope = 1:2.5
• Spacing between trusses, St = 5.5 m
• Distance between purlins, Sp = 1.6 m
• Permanent actions = 0.3 kN/m2 (on slope)
• Variable actions = 0.75 kN/m2 (on plan)
 Verification of members in tension

• For a member that is purely in tension, we do not need to

worry about the section classification since it will not buckle
locally
• A tension member fails when it reached the ultimate stress
and the failure load is independent of the length of the
member
• Tension members are generally designed using rolled
section, bars or flats
In reference to Cl. 6.2.3, EN 1993-1-1:2005, the design
value of tension force, at each cross section shall satisfy;

EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.3(1) Equation 6.5 states that the

design tensile force (Nt,Ed) must be less than the design
tensile resistance moment (Nt,Rd)
The tensile resistance is limited by the lesser of:
i) Design Plastic Resistance Npl,Rd

ii) Design Ultimate Resistance Nu,Rd

Nu,Rd is the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-

section, and is concerns with the ultimate fracture of the net
cross-section, which will normally occur at fastener holes.
Partial Factors γM
Characteristic Strengths fy and fu
The UK National Annex says you should get the values
of fy and fu from the product standards. For hot-rolled
sections you can use the table below
Anet for Non staggered fasteners:

Anet = A – Σd0t
The total area to be deducted
should be taken as the greater of:
a) The maximum sum of the
sectional areas of the holes
on any line perpendicular to
the member axis
b)
where:
• t is the thickness of the plate
• p is the spacing of the centres of the same two holes
measured perpendicular to the member axis
• s is the staggered pitch of the two consecutive holes
• n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal or zig-
zag line progressively across the section
• d0 is the diameter of the hole
 Single angle
For angles connected by 1 leg and other unsymmetrically
connected members in tension (i.e. T or channel sections),
the eccentricity in joints and the effects of the spacing and
edge distances of the bolts should be taken into account in
determining the design resistance (Cl. 3.10.3, EN 1993-1-8:
2005)

e2=the eccentricity in joints

p1=the effects of the spacing
e1=edge distances of the bolts
A single angle in tension connected by a single row of bolts
in one leg, may be treated as concentrically loaded over an
effective net section. The design ultimate resistance should
be determined as in EN 1993-1-8 (clause 3.10.3).
For the case of more than one bolt in the direction
perpendicular to the applied load:
 Tension Member Design Steps Summary

1. Determine the design axial load NEd

2. Choose a section
3. Find fy and fu from the product standards
4. Get the gross area A and the net area Anet
5. Substitute the values into the equations to work out Npl,Rd
and Nu,Rd
For angles connected by a single row of bolts, use the
required equation to work out Nu,Rd from EN 1993-1-8
which will depend on the number of bolts.
The design tensile Resistance is the lesser of the values
of Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd
6. Carry out the tension check:
 Example 5.4: Tension member design

Calculate the design tension resistance, Nt,Rd of a plate as

shown for steel grade S275.
 Example 5.5: Tension member design

Consider the chord AB of the steel truss, indicated by the figure, assuming
it is submitted to a design tensile axial force of NEd = 220kN. The cross
section consists of two angles of equal legs, in steel grade S235. Design
chord AB assuming two distinct possibilities for the connection:
• Welded connections
• Bolted connections
 Example 5.6: Tension member design

A single unequal angle 125mm x 75mm x 8m is connected to 12mm thick

gusset plate at ends with 6 no. 16mm diameter rivets of Grade 4.6 to
transfer tension as shown in figure. Determine the tension capacity of an
angle section if:
a) Longer leg is connected to gusset plate
b) Shorter leg is connected to gusset plate
Use fy = 250MPa
 Example 5.7: Tension member design

Design a single angle tie member to carry the design axial

tension of 375kN, with riveted connections. Use fy=250MPa
(Provide rivet preferably in single row)
 Verification of members under
compression
The resistance of a member to compression is evaluated by
taking into account the different modes of instability:
i) Local buckling of the section is controlled using section
classification, and when necessary, effective section
properties (Class 4).
ii) Buckling of the member is controlled by applying a
reduction coefficient in the calculation of resistance.
iii) Acceptable maximum slenderness values (limit the min.
size of the members that can be used in light trusses):
 Member resisting dean and imposed loads – 180
 Member resisting wind load – 250
 Any member normally acting as tie – 350
• For buckling in the plane of the truss beam: the buckling
length is taken equal to 90% of the system length (distance
between nodes), when the truss member is connected at
each end with at least two bolts, or by welding (EN 1993-1-1
§BB.1.1 (4)).
(An exception is made by Annex BB for angle truss members,
for which a different evaluation is given; it is not specified in
this annex if the particular rule also concerns members made
up to two pairs of angles: by way of simplification, it is
recommended that a buckling length of 0.9 times the length
of the axis be retained.)
• For buckling out of plane of the truss beam, the buckling
length is taken equal to the system length.
For a compression member, several buckling
modes must be considered. In most truss
members, only flexural buckling of the
compressed members in the plane of the truss
structure and out of the plane of the truss
structure need be evaluated.

The design value of compression force, at each

cross section shall satisfy Eq. 6.9 Clause 6.2.4
(EN 1993-1-1) and Eq. 6.46 Clause 6.3 (EN 1193-
1-1)
It is quite common, as was stated, to make up members from a
truss structure using two angles, or two channels (UPE).

In order to ensure that such built-up members will behave as

sole members in the flexural buckling mode, the two
components are connected by small battens
• The gap between the angles, and the thickness of the
battens, should be the same as the thickness of the
gusset to which the built-up member is connected.

• The maximum spacing of the connections between

members is limited by EN 1993-1-1 to 15 times the
minimum radius of gyration of the isolated component.
Compression members: Single angle
• Often connected through one leg which introducing
eccentricity with respect to the centroid of cross section.

Design resistance of the cross section:

- For case of a single bolt at each end, BS EN 1993-1-1,
BB.1.2(2) refers to Cl.6.2.9 to take account of the
eccentricity.
- For Class 3 cross section, the value of Nc,Rd is the same
as the plastic resistance, Npl,Rd
- For class 4 cross section, the value of Nc,Rd can be
calculated using the effective areas.
- EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl.6.2.4, the design value of
compression force, NEd at each cross section shall
satisfy;

- EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl.6.3, a compression member

should be verified against buckling;
Design buckling resistance for 2 modes:
- Flexural buckling resistance (taking torsional-flexural
buckling effects into account), Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd
- Torsional buckling resistance, Nb,T,Rd

i) Design flexural buckling resistance, Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd

Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd depend on the non-dimensional
slenderness,  eff , which depends on:
- The system length, L is the distance between
intersection of the centriodal axes of the angle and the
members to which it is connected
- The properties of the cross-section
- For single bolt at each end, refers BS EN1993-1-1, Cl.6.2.9
- For two or more bolts in standard clearance holes in line
along the angle at each end or an equivalent welded
connection, the slenderness (for the properties of the cross
section) can be calculated using:

For Class 3 cross section

For Class 4 cross section

*Ly, Lz and Lv are the system lengths between intersections.

*These expression take into account of the flexural
buckling and torsional- flexural buckling effects.
ii) Design torsional buckling resistance, Nb,T,Rd
Nb,T,Rd depend on the non-dimensional slenderness,  T ,
which depends on the system length, Lcr and the
properties of the cross section
- The slenderness ratio
 Example 5.6: Compression member

Figure below shows the roof plan of a one storey factory

building. The roof I supported using Pratt steel truss in steel
grade S275. The factory is 40 m long x 12 m wide. All the
joints in the truss are pinned.
• Permanent action (including self weight of truss) = 0.4kN/m2
(on slope)
• Variable action = 0.75 kN/m2 (on plan)
For analysis of the truss system : DIY
 Example 5.6: cont’

Member subjected to compression load. Design the web

chord (Fe 430, S275) which subjected to compression load,
NEd = 1630 kN.
Try section 244.5 x 10 CHS, Fe = 430 (S275)
d = 244.5 mm
t = 10 mm
A = 7370 mm2
I = 5073000 mm4
Wel = Wel,y = 415000 mm3
Wpl = Wpl,y = 503000 mm3
L = 4m
 Example 5.7: Diagonal in
compression
The worked example that is the subject of subsequent
Sections is a large span truss supporting the roof of an
industrial building, by means of purlins in the form of trusses.
This example is directly transposed from a real construction
and has been simplified in order to clarify the overview.
The roof is a symmetrical pitched roof; the slope on each side is 3%. Each
main truss has a span of 45,60 m and is simply supported at the tops of the
columns (there is no moment transmission between the truss and the
column). General transverse stability of the building is provided by fixity of
the columns at ground level; longitudinal stability is provided by a system of
roof bracings and braced bays in the walls.
This design example is focused mainly on the trusses’ cross-
sections (shape and orientation) and the in and out-of-plane
buckling lengths.
Buckling Lengths
• When a truss is subjected to gravity loads, the upper chord is
compressed and we have to design it against in and out-of-plane
buckling. The in-plane buckling length is the distance between the
nodes of the truss. The out-of-plane buckling length is the distance
between the purlins. It is very important to mention that the purlins
should be restrained by bracings or very stiff roof sheeting of class
1 or 2 (second picture). If the steel deck is placed on the roof truss
without being supported by purlins and it is class 1 or 2, the top
chord is restrained against buckling.
• The diagonals and the vertical members of a truss should also be
checked against in and out-of-plane buckling. Their in plane
buckling length is 0.9L and their out-of-plane L. L is the length of
these members.
Double angles of 150x150x15L sizes are
subjected to compression load of 624.4kN. The
distance between nodes for the member is 5464m.
 Example 5.8: Diagonal in
compression
Lateral restrain by roof purlins is provided for single-span roof
trusses of 9 m centres . The purlins are positioned at node
points and are assumed to provide lateral restraint to the top
boom at 3-m centres.

Truss geometry, loading and analysis

It is assumed that the roof has no access, apart from
maintanence, giving a characteristic imposed load of 0.6 kN/m2.
The truss will be designed for a vertical uplift of 0.55 kN/m2 from
wind.
Permanent actions
Cladding 0.2 kN/m2
Weight of truss 0.35 kN/m2
Services 0.05 kN/m2
Total 0.6 kN/m2
 CONCLUSION
This chapter includes design for:
1)Purlin
2)Truss – tension member (use Cl 6.2.3 in
EC3-1-1 and Cl 3.10.3 in EC3-1-8
depends on the situation)
3)Truss – compression member (step 1:
cross section classification, step 2:
compression resistance, step 3: buckling
resistance in compression)
 GROUP PROJECT
• Get a plan and design the structure element of the building
• Each student must design:
i) Column
ii) Beam
iii) Connection
iv) Truss element
• Group work will only involve the concept of the building
such as loading, analysis of trusses and etc.
• All calculation must be handwriting. If group members are 5
person, there should be 5 different handwriting.