B⃗ =μ H⃗ (flux density)(T)

dφ
e ind=−N
dt
Φ=∬ μ H⃗ ⋅d ⃗s (total flux)(Wb) N
dλ
e ind =− , λ=∑ φ i
dt i =1
Ampere’s
l = flux linkage
∮ H⃗ d ⃗l =Σi
⃗F =q⃗v × ⃗B ;
i
H=
2 πr (magnetic field)(A/m) F=qvB sin θ

μi F = i(l x B)
B=μH=
2 πr F = ilB sin θ
solenoid
eind = (v x B) · l

∮ H⃗ d ⃗l =Ni Switch
R
B
X X X
H=NI/L
+
Vb e_ l
B=mH=mNI/L
X X X
Toroidal

MMF = Ni = H.lc = H.(2pr) no-load

H = Ni/(2pr) Vb = eind + iR

B = mH F = ma = ilB

i =Vb/R
= mNi/lc
i ¯= (Vb – eind)/R
= mNi/(2pr)
F = 0, eind = Vb, i = 0
f = BA
vss = Vb/Bl
= mNiA/(2pr)
motor
F=Ni (MMF)
Fnet= Fmotion - Fload Fnet¯
f = F/R or f = FP
a = Fnet¯ /m a¯ v¯
R = lc / mA (core reluctance)
v¯Bl = eind ¯
P = 1/R (core permeance)
(Vb – eind¯)/R = i
Faraday’s
ilB = Find
Electric power, eindi  mechanical power, P
PF=cos θ=
Findv S
Generator

Fnet = Fapp + Fmotion

Fnet/m = a v

vBl = eind

eind > Vb

(eind– Vb)/R = i

ilB = Find

Mechanical power, Findv  electric

power, eindi

AC circuit

v(t )=√2V cosωt

i(t )=√ 2 I cos(ωt −θ)

Z = R + jX W

= |Z| cos q + j|Z| sin q W

P = VI cos q (W)

P = I 2Z cos q

Q = VI sin q (var)

Q = I 2Z sin q

S = VI (VA)

S = I 2Z

S = VI* = (VÐa) (IÐ-b) = VI Ð(a-b)

= VI cos(a-b) + VI sin(a-b)

=VI cos q + VI sin q

= P + jQ

Ideal transformer
 i P (t ) N S aIP IS
= RP /a2 jXP /a2 RS jXS
iS (t ) N P
+ +
vP ( t ) NP
= =a VP /a RC /a2 jXM /a2 VS
vS ( t ) NS

Pin = VP IP cos θP
_ _

Pout = VSIS cos θS

IP Reqp jXeqp IS /a
θP = θS = θ \ Pin = Pout + +
VP RC jXM aVS
Qin = VP IP sin θ = VS IS sin θ = Qout
_ _
Sin = VP IP = VS IS = Sout
Reqp = Rp + s a2R
Real transformer Xeqp = Xp + a2Xs

VL VP
Z L= Z ' L=
IL IP
Oc test
Seen from primary I OC
|Y E|=
VP = aVS IP = IS /a V OC

Z ' L=a2 Z L P OC
θ=cos−1
V OC I OC
Seen from secondary
I OC
VP/a= VS aIP = IS Y E= ∠−θ
V OC
Z ' L=Z L / a2
Y E=GC − jB M
IP IS 1 1
RP jXP RS jXS = −j
+ + RC XM

VP RC jXM NP NS VS Sc test

V SC
_ _ |Z SE|=
I SC
IP RP jXP a2RS ja2XS IS /a P SC
+ + θ=cos−1
V SC I SC
VP RC jXM aVS V SC
Z SE= ∠θ °
_ _ I SC
 Z SE=R eq + jX eq Autotransformer
IH
¿( R P + a2 R S )+ j ( X P +a2 X S )
+
Per unit ISE
VSE
NSE
Actual value IL
Quantity per unit=
Base value of quantity +
VH
S base∧V base −−¿ Selected
VL VC NC
S base
I base =
V base IC
V base (V base )2 _ _
Z base = = IH
I base Sbase
I
Y base= base
V base
ISE NSE VSE
IL
Voltage regulation
VH
V S,nl - V S,fl
VR = ×100 % IC NC VC VL
V S,fl

VS,nl = Vp /a.
V C NC
VS,fl = Vp /a – IS (Reqs + jXeqs) =
V SE N SE
P out N C I C =N SE I SE
η= ×100 %
Pout + Ploss
VL = VC
Pout =V S I S cosθ
VH = VC + VSE
Copper losses, PCu =I2Req IL = IC + ISE
Core losses, Pcore =V2/RC IH = ISE
V S I S cosθ N SE
η= ×100 % V H =V C + VC
PCu+ Pcore+V S I S cos θ NC

VL NC
=
V H N C + N SE

IL N C + N SE
=
IH NC

Sin = VLI & Sout = VHIH

Þ Sin = Sout

SW = VCIC = VSEISE

= VL(IL – IH)

NC
S W =V L I L−V L I L
N C +N SE
( N C +N SE )−N C
¿VL IL
N C +N SE
N SE
¿ S IO
N C + N SE

S IO N SE + N C
=
SW N SE

3phase

P=√ 3 V LL I L cosθ

Q=√ 3 V LL I L sin θ

S= √3 V LL I L

Y-Y

VfP = VLP /Ö3

V LP √ 3 V φP
∴ = =a
V LS √3 V φS
Y-D

VLP = Vf P

VLS = Vf S
VLP = Ö3 Vf P
V LP V φP
V φP ∴ = =a
=a V LS V φS
V φS

V LP √ 3 V φP
∴ = = √3 a S base
V LS V φS S 1 φ, base =
3
D-Y
S1 φ,base
I φ,base=
V φ , base
S
I φ,base= base
3V φ ,base

(V φ ,base )2
Z base =
S 1φ , base
VLP = Vf P
3(V φ, base )2
Z base =
VLS = Ö3 Vf S S base

V LP V φP a V LL=√ 3V φ I L=I φ
∴ = = Y 
V LS √ 3 V φS √ 3

D V LL=V φ I L =√ 3I φ
D-D

P=3V φ I φ cosθ=√3V LL I L cosθ

DC MACHINE eind = 2vBl = 2rwBl

Induced voltage Ap = prl , f = BAp

eab = (v ´ B) · l
2
e ind= A p Bω
etot = eab + ebc + ecd + eda = 2vBl π
90°,etot = 0 Induced torque

180°,etot = - 2vBl Fab = i (l ´ B)

tab = rF sin q Zr ωBl Zr ωφ l
EA= =
a aA p
tind = tab + tbc + tcd + tda

= 2rilB ZvBl
EA=
2
a v = rw f = BAp
τ ind = φi
π 2π rl 2 π rlB
A p= φ=BA p =
Commutation P P

wt = 0°,E = 4e wt = 90°,E = 4e Zr ωφ l
∴E A=
aA p
wt = 45°,E = 2e

No of conductor Z=2CNC = ( 2ZPπa )( 2 πPrlB ) ω

C = number of coils on a rotor
ZP
NC = number of turns per coil = φω
2πa
Lap Winding = Rotor winding consisting
of coils where the two ends coming out at E A =K φω
adjacent commutator segments.
ZP
Commutator pitch, yc= ± m K=
2 πa
Current path, a = mP P= no of pole , 2π
m=plex ω= n
60
wave winding a = 2m
E A =K ' φn
simplex wave winding
ZP
2(C±1) K '=
yc = 60 a
P
Induced torque
(+) sign is for progressive winding and (-)
sign is for retrogressive 2
τ ind = φi
frog-leg winding, a = 2Pmlap π
induced voltage τ cond =rI cond lB (for single conductor
2 under pole)
e ind= φω
π IA
I cond=
e ind=vBl a (split among a current path)
(for single conductor under
pole)
 rI lB Mechanical losses
τ cond = A
a (split among a current Stray load losses
path)
Separately excited motor(motor whose
ZrlBI A field circuit receives power from a
τ ind = separate constant-voltage supply)
a ( total induced torque)
VF
Zrl Pφ IF=
R F +R adj
= ( )( ) I
a 2 π rl A
V T =E A +I A R
ZP
¿ φI
2 πa A I L=I A
¿ KφI A IF
RA
IA IL
+ +
Radj
efficiency
VF VT
P P −P RF EA
η= out ×100 %= in loss ×100 %
Pin Pin LF

copper loss - -

P A =I 2A R A PA = armature loss Shunt motor(motor whose field circuit gets

its power directly across the armature
PF =I 2F R F PF = field loss terminals)

VT
IA = armature current IF=
RF
IF = field current
V T =E A +I A R A
RA = armature winding resistance

RF = field winding resistance

I L=I A + I F
IA IL
Brush loss RA
+
IF
Radj
PBD =V BD I A
EA VT
RF
PBD = brush drop loss
LF

VBD = brush voltage drop -

Electrical or copper loss

Brush losses

Core losses
Terminal characteristic = KcIA2 .

VT = EA + IARA (EA = Kfw) Terminal characteristic

V T =K φω+I A R A VT 1 R +R
ω= − A S
√ Kc √τ ind Kc
τ ind τ ind
V T =K φω+ R I A=
Kφ A Kφ Compounded DC Motor = A DC motor
with both a shunt and series field circuits
VT RA
ω= − τ IA RA RS LS IL
+
Kφ ( Kφ)2 ind
IF Radj

Non linear analysis EA

RF

E A [=K φω ] y-axis
LF

VF long shunt
[ ]
IF ¿
RF
x-axis
IA RA RS LS IL
+
IF Radj
Fnet = NFIF - FAR
EA VT
RF
F AR EA n
I F ∗¿ I F − =
NF E A0 n0
LF

where EA0 and n0 are reference values from

the magnetization curve. Shiort shunt
Series DC motor = A DC motor whose VT = EA + IA (RA + RS)
field windings consist of a relatively few
turns, connected in series with the Fnet =F F±F SE −F AR
armature circuit. flux is directly
proportional to the armature current, IA
I L=I A + I F
IA RA LS IS IL
RS
+
N SE F AR
I ¿F =I F ± IA−
NF NF
IEA=I S =I L
A
VT
VT
IF=
V T =E A +I A (R A +R S ) -
RF

Induced torque Separately Excited DC Generator

IA
τind = KfIA f =cIA. + +
RA
RF
VF EA VT

LF

- -
 nm = mechanical shaft or rotor speed of
the motor

n slip
V T =E A−I A R A s= (×100 %)
n sync
I L=I A
n sync−n m
= (×100 %)
VF nsync
IF=
RF
nm=(1−s)n sync
Nonlinear Analysis

ω m=(1−s)ω sync
F AR
I ¿F =I F −
NF fr = sfe

n fr=rotor frequency
EA= ×EA 0
n0 fe=stator magnetic field frequency
Shunt DC Generator P
f r= (n −n )
120 sync m
V T =E A−I A R A
I1 R1 jX1 I2 aeff IR jXR
I L=I A +I F IM + +

VT locked-rotor=largest
V RC jXrelative
E1 motionER
IF= P
M RR

RF occurs when the rotor is stationary

_ _
IA RA IL ER = sER0
+
IF XR = wrLR
RF
EA
VT = 2pfrLR
LF IR jXR = jsXR0
-

Speed of magnetic field rotation

ER = sER0
120 f e RR
n sync=
P
nslip = nsync - nm (fr = sfe,)
nslip = slip speed of the machine XR = sXR0
nsync = speed of the magnetic fields
 ER0
I R=
R R /s+ jX R 0

Refer to primary side to find per unit value

IS
V P =aV S I P=
a
2 Vφ
Z ' S =a Z S I1=
Z eq
Turn ratio, aeff
R2
E1 =E ' R=a eff E R 0 [
Z eq =R1 + jX 1 + R C|| jX M|| ( s
+ jX 2 )]
IR Current I2 can be obtained using Thevenin
I2= theorem
aeff
jX M
RR R2 V TH =V φ
Z 2 =a 2eff ( s
+ jX R 0 ) =
s
+ jX 2 R 1 + jX 1 + jX M
jX M ( R 1 + jX 1 )
Z TH =
stator copper losses, PSCL = 3I12R1 R 1 + jX 1 + jX M

core losses, Pcore =3E12GC= 3I12RC

GC = core conductance
I2 RTH jXTH jX2
X
+

air-gap power R2/s

V E1

PAG = Pin – PSCL - Pcore

_
= 3I22(R2/s) X

copper losses in the rotor circuit V TH

I2=
PRCL = 3IR2RR √(R TH + R 2 / s ) 2 + ( X TH + X 2 )2

= sPAG induced torque,

conversion power, P conv (1−s) P AG

τ ind = =
ωm (1−s)ω sync
Pconv = PAG – PRCL
P AG
= PAG – sPAG =
ω sync
= (1– s)PAG
maximum induced torque occurs when the
1−s air-gap power is maximum
I1 R1
=3
jX
1
I 2
2 R2I ( )
2 s jX 2 R2

(SCL) IM + (RCL)

RC (Pconv) (1  s )
jXM E1 R2
V (Core s
loss)
_
Maximum PAG is obtained when power B net (t )=Baa ' +B bb ' +B cc '
consumed by R2/s is at its maximum.
3 3
¿ 0+ −√ B M ∠ 12 0 °+ √ B M ∠ 24 0 °
( ) ( )
R2 2 2
=Z source= √ R2TH +( X TH + X 2 )2
s ¿ 1. 5 B M ∠−90° T
slip at pullout torque wt = 90
R2 iaa ' (t )=I M sin 90 ° A
s max =
√ R2TH +( X TH + X 2 )2 ibb ' (t )=I M sin(−30 °) A
icc ' (t )=I M sin(−150 °) A
pullout torque
B aa' (t )=B M ∠0 °
P
τ max = AG ,max B bb' (t )=−0 . 5B M ∠120°
ω sync B cc ' (t )=0 . 5B M ∠24 0 °
R
( )
¿ 3 I 22 2
s max
B net (t )=Baa ' +B bb ' +B cc '
¿ B M ∠0 °+(−0 .5 B M )∠120 °+0 . 5 B M ∠ 24 0 °
¿ 1. 5 B M ∠0 ° T

although the direction of the magnetic

AC machine
i aa ' (t )=I M sin ωt A
i bb ' (t )=I M sin(ωt−120 ° )
i cc ' (t )=I M sin(ωt−240° )
field is changing, the magnitude remains
constant
B = BM cos a
A B = BM cos (wmt - a)
A e = (v x B) · l

H aa ' (t )=H M sin ωt ∠0 ° A⋅turns / m eind = 2vBMl cos wmt

H bb ' (t )=H M sin(ωt−120 °)∠120 ° A⋅turns / m
(v = rw and we = wm = w)
H cc ' (t )=H M sin(ωt−240 °)∠24 0 ° A⋅turns / m
= 2rlBM w cos wt (f = 2rlBM)
B aa ' (t )=B M sin ωt ∠0 ° T
B bb ' (t )=B M sin( ωt−120 °)∠12 0 ° T = fw cos wt
B cc ' (t )=B M sin( ωt−240 °)∠24 0 ° T
= NCfw cos wt
wt = 0 e aa ' (t )=N C φωsin ωt V
B aa ' (t )=0 T e bb ' (t )=N C φωsin(ωt−120 °) V
B bb ' (t )=B M sin(−120 °)∠120 ° T e cc ' (t )=N C φω sin(ωt−240 ° ) V
B cc ' (t )=B M sin(−240 °)∠24 0 ° T
Emax = NCfw = 2pNCf
 E A =E RMS=√ 2πN C φf

Y-connected Ö3EA

D–connected EA

BS(a) = BS sin a

F = i(l x B) = ilBS sin a

tind = 2rilBS sin a

PSCL = 3IA2RA

PRCL = 3IF2RF

Pconv = tindwm

V nl −V fl
VR= ×100 %
V fl

n nl −nfl
SR= ×100 %
nfl

Synchronous Generator

nm P
f e=
120

fe = electrical frequency, in Hz

nm = mechanical speed of magnetic field,

in rpm

P = number of poles

E A =√2 πN C φf
EA = Kfw EA

jXSIA
Vf = EA – jXSIA - RAIA IA

IARA
IF IA
V
+ jXS +
RA
RF

EA V
VF
(DC) LF RA is ignored,
EA
- - c


EA sin 
jXSIA = XSIA cos 
EA
I A= 
√ R 2A + X 2S  V
a b
IA
When Vf = 0 V

EA
Z S =√ R 2A + X 2S =
IA Pconv = tindwm

assume that XS >> RA = 3EAIA cos g

E A V φ , OC g = is the angle between EA and IA.

X S≈ =
IA IA
Pout = Ö3VTIL cos q (line quantities)
Unity power factor
Pout = 3VfIf cos q (phase quantities)
EA

Qout = Ö3VTIL sin q (line quantities)

jXSIA
Qout = 3VfIf sin q (phase quantities)
lagging
IA V IARA

EA

RA is ignored,
jXSIA E A sin δ
I A cos θ=
XS
V
IA
IARA 3 V φ E A sin δ
Pout =
XS
leading
d = torque angle.
The effect of increase in generator loads E’A
at constant power factor upon its phase
voltage. (Lagging power factor
E’A I’A jXSI’A
EA
EA IA
jXSIA

jXSI’A
jXSIA V V’

  ' V’ V
IA
keep Vf and VT constant, vary EA
I’A
EA = Kfw and w is to remain constant,

Control EA by adjusting flux.

A single generator supplying a load.

If lagging loads, (+Q or inductive reactive

Generator Load
power loads) are added to a generator, Vf
and VT decrease significantly.

If unity-power-factor loads, (no reactive

power) are added to a generator, there is a A generator being paralleled with a
slight decrease in Vf and VT. running power system

If leading loads, (-Q or capacitive reactive

Generator Load
power loads) are added to a generator, Vf
and VT increase significantly.

S1

Generator

The effect of increase in generator loads

at constant power factor upon its phase
voltage. (a) Unity .
E’A
EA

 '
IA I’A V’ V

b) leading power factor