Radar

RADAR
RADAR
Radio Detection And Ranging
Marine Radar was introduced in the Thirties in warships mainly for weaponry
and navigational use. Radar is an instrument in which every component works
in perfect synchronization i.e., each component does its job at the correct
time.
Essentially Radar consists of four main components: -
1. Transmitter – It generates very high powered, high frequency radar

pulses (electromagnetic energy/ radio energy). Commercial marine
radars are pulse radars i.e., the transmission is not continuous. There is
a time gap between two pulses. The pulses generated vary from 20kW
to 60kW. The transmitter is capable of being switched on and off at a
very high rate. The pulses are sent through a channel called wave-guide
to the Scanner for transmission.
2. Antenna System – It is an antenna that revolves 360 degrees, thus

scanning the surrounding area and so it is called as Scanner. It is highly
directional i.e., it can transmit and receive the echo in the same
direction. The pulses are sent in a highly focused, channeled and in a
beam format.
Once the pulse leaves the scanner some of the energy gets attenuated
in the atmosphere. The pulse strikes any target that comes in its way
and is reflected back to the scanner as echoes. Depending on the
nature of the target, some energy is absorbed and scattered. So
ultimately the echo of the pulse, which comes back to the scanner is
very weak compared to the transmitted pulse. Its power is as low as 2 x
10-12W.
3. Receiver – Here the received pulses (echoes) are amplified millions of

times. They are converted into video signals, which is nothing but DC
voltage that is again amplified and fed to the Display unit.
SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

1
RADAR
4. Display Unit – It is a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The video signal fed to it
allows a number of electrons to strike the CRT screen and thus the
target gets painted.
The CRT screen is circular and represents the area around the ship, on
a scale. It gives a bird’s eye view of the positions of targets. So it is also
called as the Plan Position Indicator (PPI). The radius of the PPI is the
range scale
.
The underside of the CRT screen has a phosphorous coating, which glows
when struck by electrons. This glow remains for a few seconds and that is
called as persistence or after-glow of the screen.
A thin stream of electrons is made to strike the center of the screen. This
stream is then made to move radially outwards towards the edge. Thus one
trace is created. For every pulse transmitted one such trace is created on the
PPI. When an echo is received, processed and given to the CRT, more
electrons strike the screen and the tracing spot momentarily becomes fat and
bright. Though the tracing spot is continuously moving during this time, the
blip created by it remains stationary and visible, due to the persistence of the
screen. Thus the presence of a target is detected.
The radar pulse travels at the speed of light, i.e.,

300,000,000 meters per second or
300,000 Kilometers per second or
161,829 Nautical miles per second
‘Micro second’ is used as a unit of time as ‘Second’ is too large a unit as far as
the Radar is concerned.
1 second = 106 micro seconds (u sec)
The speed of radar pulse can be indicated as

300 meters per micro second or
0.3 Km per micro second or
0.161829 Nm per micro second

2
RADAR
1 Nm = 1852 meters
To travel 0.162 Nm (roughly), the pulse takes 1 u sec.
So to travel 1 Nm, the pulse would take 1 u sec =6.17 us
0.162
This can also be derived from the formulae: -
Distance = Speed x Time
How does Radar Determine Range?
For every pulse transmitted, one trace is created on the PPI. The moment the
pulse leaves the scanner, at the same instant the tracing spot leaves the
center of the PPI on its radial path towards the edge. The tracing spot is made
to move at half the speed of the radar pulse, on the range scale in use (i.e.,
150 m/u sec)
If the target were 3 miles off, the pulse would travel 3 miles (6.17 x 3 = 18.5 u
sec) to the target and 3 miles (18.5 u sec) from the target back to the scanner.
The total distance traveled by the pulse is 6 miles (37 u sec). During this time
the tracing spot would have moved only 3 miles on the PPI, as its speed is
half that of the pulse. At this point, the tracing spot momentarily becomes fat
and bright. Thus the target is painted at 3 miles, which is its actual range. This
is how radar determines the range of a target.
Range is measured by using range rings or the variable range marker (VRM).
How does radar determine the bearing?
The scanner is highly unidirectional. It can transmit a pulse and receive its
echo in one direction at a time. The scanner is made to rotate clockwise at a
steady speed (Generally between 12 & 30 RPM). The trace on the PPI is
perfectly synchronized with the scanner, such that when the scanner is
pointing right ahead, the tracing spot moves in the 12 O’clock direction and
when it points at

3
RADAR
the 3 O’clock direction, the tracing spot also moves in the same direction.
Now, the speed of the pulse is so high compared to the slow RPM of the
scanner that by the time the pulse hits the target and comes back to the
scanner as echo, the scanner would have hardly moved from its position. So
the paint of the target would appear in the same direction at which the scanner
was pointing. Thus radar determines the correct bearing of the target.
The bearing of the target is obtained by using the parallel cursor or the
electronic bearing line (EBL). In the latter case, a digital readout will be
available.
If the display is gyro stabilized, the bearing thus obtained is the true bearing;
otherwise the bearing is relative .
Characteristics of the Pulse
The radar pulses are sent in a highly focused, channelised and in a beam
format.
1. Vertical Beam Width (VBW) -- It is defined as the angle formed at the

scanner between the upper edge and lower edge of the beam. The upper and
lower edges of the beam are the lines joining the 50% power points,
considering the center of the beam to be having 100% power.
UPPER
EDGE (50% POWER)
VBW CENTRE (100% POWER)
LOWER
EDGE (50% POWER)
If the VBW were too small, then due to rolling and pitching, the beam would
keep missing the target during each roll and pitch. Due to this, the target
would only paint intermittently and not continuously.

4
RADAR
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the radar should
function without deterioration in performance when the vessel is rolling and
pitching upto+ 100.
If the VBW is more, better minimum range is achieved, as the lower edge of
the beam would touch the sea surface at a closer distance. However, if the
VBW were too large, then the power of the beam would be spread over a
wider angle and it would not be able to travel long distances.
Therefore the VBW should be a compromise between minimum and maximum

range.
In commercial radar sets, VBW is generally between 150 and 300.
2. Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) : It is defined as the angle formed at the

scanner between the leading edge and trailing edge of the beam. The leading
and trailing edges of the beam are the lines joining the 50% power points,
considering the center of the beam to be having 100% power.
For commercial radars, the HBW is generally between 0.60 and 20.
TE (50% POWER)
HBW CENTRE (100% PWR)
LE (50% POWER)
Effect of HBW on the target : Suppose a target has an angular size of one
degree i.e., the right edge and the left edge of the target subtends an angle of
one degree at the scanner. Due to HBW this target will appear larger in
azimuth on the screen. This is because, as the scanner rotates, when the LE
of the beam touches the right edge of the target, it starts painting on the PPI

5
RADAR
and it continues to paint till the TE leaves the left edge of the target. As a
result of this the target will have an extra angular size when it paints on the
PPI. As the trace is synchronized with the center of the HBW, the target has ½
HBW attached to its right and ½ HBW attached to its left. Thus on the screen
the target would subtend an angle equal to its actual size + one HBW (I.e., ½
HBW on either side).
For a point size target (say a buoy), the effect is same. So it paints on the
PPI with an angular size equal to one HBW, as ½ HBW would be attached to
either side of it. This effect of HBW on the target is called as Beam Width
Distortion.
½ ½ ½ ½
Paint size = Actual size + 1 HBW Paint size = 1 HBW
(Target with some angular size) (Point size target)
The advantage of this beam width distortion is that even a point size target like
a buoy is painted equal to the HBW. So it can be detected easily.
But this distortion also brings in a problem with it, called Bearing
Discrimination
Bearing Discrimination

6
RADAR
When there are two targets on the same range but slightly different bearings,
each of these targets will have ½ HBW attached to their right and left
edges when they paint on the PPI. So if the distance between their closer
edges is equal to or less than one HBW, both the echoes will merge and
they will appear as one big target.
The ability of the radar set to clearly distinguish between two targets that are
on the same range and slightly different bearings, as two separate echoes on
the PPI, is called as Bearing Discrimination. It is a limitation of the radar set.
The limiting factor for bearing discrimination is HBW. That means in order
that the two targets paint as two separate echoes on the PPI, the distance
between their closer edges should be more than HBW.
A B
RR
HBW
C
(Scanner) C
HBW (in degrees) can also be given in meters.
Example: The HBW of the Radar set is 20. There are 2 targets, both at 4 miles
range. How far apart should they be in order that they paint as 2 separate
targets?
In the figure, C is the scanner;

A & B are the closer edges of the targets. CA = CB = 4 miles.
Angle ACB = HBW = 20 (i.e., if A & B are to just merge on the PPI).
Therefore B.D = 20. We know that in a circle,

7
RADAR
Length of the arc =Radius X ( 00)

57.3
So, AB=Range x HBW = 4 x 2 miles = 4 x 2 x1852 meters = 258.6 m.

57.3 57.3 57.3
Therefore Bearing Discrimination of the set at 4 miles range is 258,6 meters.

i.e., the two targets should be more than 258.6 meters apart in order paint as
two separate targets.
As per IMO Performance Standards, Bearing Discrimination should not

exceed 2.5 0.
3. PULSE LENGTH
The distance between the leading edge and trailing edge of the pulse is called
Pulse Length. It is also the time taken for the pulse to leave the scanner i.e.,
the interval between the instance the LE leaves the scanner and the instant
the TE does so. Pulse Length is expressed in Microseconds or in Meters, as
the speed of the pulse is a constant (300 m/us).
For example, if PL = 0.2 us, then in meters it will 0.2 x 300 = 60 m.
Effect of PL on the target : When the echo returns from a target, it will have
same length as the pulse. When the LE of the pulse enters the scanner, the
tracing spot on the PPI becomes fat and bright and continues to remain so till
the TE of the pulse comes in. Thereafter the tracing spot reduces back to its
original size and continues on its radial path towards the edge of the screen.
Therefore, the tracing spot becomes a blip for a time interval equal to the PL
(say 0.3 us or 60 m). During this interval the tracing spot would have moved
half the distance of the PL in meters (i.e., 30 m), as its scale speed is half that
of the pulse. Hence, the paint on the PPI would appear to have a radial depth
equal to ½ PL in meters.
The tracing spot is synchronized with the LE of the pulse. So the correct range
of the target is the range of the nearest edge of its paint on the PPI. Therefore,
PL does not affect range accuracy. But due to this effect of PL, a limitation
called Range Discrimination occurs.

8
RADAR
Range Discrimination
When there are two targets on the same bearing but slightly different
ranges, each of these targets will have a radial elongation of ½ PL when the
paint on the PPI and so the paint of the nearer target will expand towards the
other. If the distance between the two targets is less than or equal to ½ PL,
both the target echoes will merge and appear as one big target.
The ability of the radar set to clearly distinguish between two targets that are
on the same bearing and slightly different ranges, as two separate echoes on
the PPI, is called as Range Discrimination. It is a limitation of the radar set.
The limiting factor for range discrimination is PL. That means, in order that the
two targets paint as two separate echoes on the PPI, the distance between
them should be more than ½ PL.
½ PL
C 090 0
(Center)
Actual size of target ½ PL radial depth
Example : If PL of the radar set = 0.2 us, how far apart should two targets on
the same bearing and slightly different ranges be, in order to paint as two
separate targets? I.e., what will be the Range Discrimination?
PL = 0.2 us = 0.2 x 300 = 60 meters.
RD = ½ PL = 30 meters.
i.e., the targets should be more than 30 m apart for them to paint as two
separate targets.
As per IMO Performance Standards, two small similar objects on the same
bearing, separated by 50 m in range, should be separately indicated when

9
RADAR
using a range scale of 2 Nm or less, when the targets lie between 50% and
100% of the range scale in use.
The PL also affects the Minimum range at which a target can be painted on
the PPI.
The radar transmission is not continuous, but in pulses, i.e., Tx – stop – Tx –

stop format. The same channel (wave-guide) is used from the transmitter to
scanner and scanner to receiver. So there are chances that the high-powered
energy from the transmitter might enter the receiver and thus damage it.
Therefore to safeguard the receiver, an electronic gate called TR cell is
situated before the Rx section, which closes and blocks the Rx section while
transmission is in progress. So during transmission, there is no reception.
When transmission is over (i.e., when the trailing edge of the pulse leaves the
scanner), this electronic gate opens and the radar is ready for reception of
target echoes.
Consider a PL = 0.2 us or 60 m. Until the transmission of 0.2 us is over (i.e.,

until the whole 60 m of PL comes out of the scanner), there is going to be no
reception. Now, the moment the LE of the pulse leaves the scanner, at the
same instant the tracing spot leaves the center of the PPI. When the TE
comes out, the pulse would have traveled a distance of 60 m. But during this
time, on the PPI, the tracing spot would have traveled 30 m. Only now, the
receiver is open for any reception. That means, if there is any target within 30
m (i.e., within ½ PL), its echo would come back to the scanner before the
opening of the receiver (i.e., end of transmission), and so it will never be
painted. Therefore, PL is the main factor affecting Minimum range.
Minimum Range = ½ PL in use
On commercial marine radars, there are 3 or 4 values of PL and they

automatically change, as the range scale is changed. The set may be
provided with a PL selector switch, having two positions marked SHORT and
LONG. So the operator has the option of selecting either
short or long pulse. The various values of Short and Long pulses (in micro
seconds) for the different range scales, is given in the operating manual. By
default, always the short pulse is used, as it gives better minimum range and

10
RADAR
better range discrimination. Long pulse is used only when searching for
specific targets such as buoys, light vessels etc., or when making landfall.
4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)OR

PULSE RECURRENCE RATE (PRR)
It is number of pulses transmitted per second. For marine radars generally

PRF is between 500 and 4000. They have 3 or 4 values that change
automatically with the range scale.
The transmission is in the Tx – Gap – Tx – Gap format. Each ‘Tx – Gap’ is
considered as one combination. Considering a PRF = 2000 i.e., in one second
2000 such combinations are sent.
The time gap 1 sec = 1000000 us = 500 us.
2000 2000
(Time gap between transmission).
The time taken for the transmission of the Pulse (say 0.2 us) is negligible
when compared to the time gap between transmission of two pluses.
The ‘Gap’ is the period during which the reception is open. It can be seen that
once a pulse is transmitted, the receiver is open for the next 500 us. That
means the pulse can travel a maximum of 250 us to a target, 250 us from the
target back to the scanner and still get painted on the same trace. Therefore,
the Maximum theoretical range for a
PRF of 2000 is 250 us. In terms of nautical miles, it can be derived from the
formula
Distance = Speed x Time

= 0.162 nm/us x 250 us = 41 Nm.(rounded off)

11
RADAR
The PRF should match with the range scale in use. This PRF of 2000 is OK if
the radar is on 6 miles range scale as the operator is concerned about only
those targets that are within 6 miles range and the maximum theoretical range
is 41 miles. So there is a reserve range of 41 – 6 = 35 miles. That’s
acceptable as long as there is no shortfall.
If a range scale of 48 nm is in use, the PRF of 2000 is unacceptable as the

max range is 41 nm whereas the requirement is 48 nm.ThisPRF is not
suitable for 48 nm range scale as there is a shortfall of almost 8 nm.
Therefore to have a max range of 48 nm or more, the time gap between
transmissions should be more so that the pulse has more time to travel longer
distances. This is acheived by reducing the PRF.
Considering a PRF of 500, the time gap or reception period between
transmission = 1 sec = 1000000us = 2000 us
500 500
The pulse can now travel a maximum of 1000 us one way (162 nm), come
back and still get painted on the PPI on the same trace. This PRF therefore
can be matched with the 48 nm range scale as there is also a reserve range
of 162 – 48 = 114 nm.
From the above, it can be seen that Lower the PRF, better the Maximum
range.
So Maximum range is inversely proportional to PRF.

12
RADAR
5. SCANNER RPM
RPM is Revolutions per minute. The radar scanner rotates 3600. It should
rotate at a constant speed. The RPM of marine radar is generally between 12
and 30.
As per IMO Performance Standards for Marine radars, the scanner should
rotate at a steady RPM of at least 12 in relative wind speeds upto 100 knots.
Considering a Radar with following characteristics

VBW = 210 PL = 0.2 us
0
HBW = 1.5 PRF = 2000
RPM = 20
In 1 min., the scanner rotates 20 times i.e., = 20 x 360 = 72000

In 1 sec., it would rotate 72000 = 1200
60
In the same 1 sec, 2000 pulses are transmitted.
So for a scanner rotation of 1200, 2000 pulses are sent
In 10 of rotation, 2000 = 16.6 pulses are sent.
120
0
And in 1.5 rotation, 16.6 x 1.5 = 25 pulses are sent.
Even a point size target paints equal to HBW. That means 25 pulses would
interrogate a point size target and so its echo on the PPI would be very clear
and accurate with excellent Picture Resolution.
Therefore the Picture Resolution of the radar set depends on its RPM-PRF
relationship.

13
RADAR
6. WAVE LENGTH
Wave Length (in m) = Velocity (in m/sec)

Frequency (in Hz)
A A’ X
WL is inversely proportional to Frequency.
X-axis : Time (in us)

Y-axis : Current (in Amperes) A A’ : Wave Length
Generally in Marine radar, two wavelengths are used.
WL FREQ BAND
3 cm 9100 – 9500 MHz X
10 cm 2900 –3100 MHz S
8 mm 33 GHz K (new type, not many found yet)
When the radar pulse is sent out, it is subjected to two main factors:-
(i) Attenuation - It is the loss of the energy caused to due to absorption

and scattering in the atmosphere. For a 10 cm radar wave, attenuation
in the atmosphere is much less compared to a 3 cm radar wave.
(ii) Diffraction - When a ray of energy (radar waves) passes very close to
the surface of the earth, it bends slightly towards the surface. This effect
is called as Diffraction. When the radar waves are diffracted downwards
they follow the curvature of the earth for some distance. This effect is
more for a 10 cm radar

14
RADAR
(iii) wave compared to 3 cm. Therefore, 10 cm radar wave can travel longer
distances.
From the above, it is evident that 10 cm radar is better than 3 cm radar as far
as long range is concerned.
But when it comes to short range, 3cm radar scores over 10 cm radar due to
the following reasons:-
(i) Detection of small objects nearby is poor in a 10 cm radar compared to

that of 3 cm radar. This is due to the interference caused by the energy
reflected by the sea surface. This reflected energy tends to lift the radar
beam, thereby increasing the minimum range of detection, as the lower
edge of the beam would now touch the sea surface at a further point.
This effect is more in 10 cm waves than for 3 cm waves.
(ii) Example - For a scanner height of 18 m, if a target (ht – 3 m)

at 5 miles can be detected on a 3 cm radar, for the same target
to be detected on a 10 cm radar, its height should three times
more i.e., 9 m.
(iii) In order to have the same HBW as a 3 cm radar set, the horizontal size
of a 10 cm radar scanner would have to be increased threefold. This is
not easily practicable in merchant ships, as space is the prime factor.
Both Min and Max range are important for a radar. But since the priority is for
better Min range, generally 3-cm radar is preferred for the main radar. If
there are two radars on board, then one of them has to be a 3-cm and the
other could be a 10 cm one.
RANGE ACCURACY
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the error in the
range of an object should not exceed 1.5% of the maximum range of the
scale in use, or 70 m, whichever is greater.

15
RADAR
Range accuracy depends upon :-
(i) Correct synchronization between transmission of pulse and the

commencement of the trace.
(ii) Uniformity and rectilinearity of the time base. Uniformity of the time
base means the tracing spot should have a steady speed and exactly
equal to half that of the radar pulse. Rectilinearity of the time base
means that each trace created should be perfect straight line.
(iii) Scale size of the tracing spot - The inaccuracy caused by this would
be half of the scale size of the spot. Suppose the diameter of the
screen is 300 mm and the diameter of the spot is 0.5 mm. When
using a 3 miles range scale,
150 mm (radius of screen) = 3 miles = 3 x 1852 = 5556 m.

So, 0.5 mm (spot size) =0.5 x 5556 = 18.52 m
150
The inaccuracy in this case will be 9.25 m.
The inaccuracy caused by scale size of spot increases with increase
in range scale.
(iv) Height of scanner – When observing small targets very closeby, the
radar measures the range from the scanner to the target whereas the
correct range should be the distance along the surface of the earth.
BEARING ACCURACY
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the error in the
bearing of an object, whose echo appears on the edge of the screen, should
be capable of being measured with an accuracy of +10 or better.

16
RADAR
The factors that govern the Bearing accuracy are :-
(i) Angle of Squint i.e., correct alignment between the heading marker
and the ship’s head.
(ii) Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing
scale.
(iii) Gyro error, if any, when display is gyro stabilized.
(iv) Type of bearing marker used.
(v) Rectilinearity of the trace.
(vi) Beam-width distortion.
(vii) Scale size of the spot.
Factors affecting MINIMUM RANGE
a) PULSE LENGTH – It is the main factor affecting the Minimum range.

Shorter the Pulse Length better the Minimum Range.
b) DE-IONISATION DELAY – An electronic gate called TR cell is situated

before the receiver section, which blocks it during transmission for safety
reasons. When transmission is over, this gate opens and the receiver is
ready for reception. The TR cell consists of a glass tube filled with a
mixture of inert gas and water vapour. It has two electrodes in it with a
gap in between. A HT potential difference is maintained between the
electrodes, but current does not flow due to the gap. When the
transmitted energy enters the TR cell, it ionizes the inert gas, which now
becomes a good conductor of electricity and so the circuit is complete.
Sparks start jumping across the gap between electrodes, which prevents
the transmitted energy from entering the receiver section. When
transmission is over, the ionized gas de-ionizes and the TR cell opens
for reception of echoes. However a small delay occurs for the gas to de-
ionize. This delay between the completion of transmission and
commencement of reception increases the Minimum detection range. A
delay of say .05 us causes the minimum range to increase by 7.5
meters.
c) THE VBW AND HEIGHT OF SCANNER – These two factors govern the
distance off at which the lower edge of the beam would touch the sea

17
RADAR
surface. The VBW is generally fixed but the Height of scanner varies
depending upon the ship’s draft at that time. Lower the height of scanner
above sea level better the Minimum range.
Targets closer than the point at which the lower edge of beam touch the
sea surface, may also paint due to (i) Ht of target and (ii) Side lobe
echoes.
d) HEIGHT OF TARGET – Due to this the top portion of the target might
intercept the radar beam and so get painted.
e) SIDE LOBE ECHOES – The leading and trailing edges of the beam is
taken to be 50% power points. Some energy is also transmitted on
either sides of the main lobe and would have power less than 50% of the
transmitted power. These low energy transmissions are also in the form
of lobes like the main beam. Since they are on either side of the main
lobe, they are called side lobes. Because of their low energy levels, only
very closeby targets respond to side lobes.
f) WAVE LENGTH – As discussed earlier, smaller the wavelength better

the Minimum detection range. Therefore 3cm radars are preferred.
As per IMO Performance Standards, for a scanner height of 15 m, the
Minimum detection range shall not exceed 50 m.
Factors affecting MAXIMUM RANGE
a) HEIGHT OF SCANNER -- Higher the scanner above sea level, greater

the detection range.
b) POWER OF SET – Greater the power of transmission, greater the

Maximum detection range. The generated power of the set
c) is subjected to attenuation in the atmosphere and also within the set.

Greater the length of the wave-guide or the number of
bends in the wave-guide, greater the attenuation within the set

18
RADAR
and so lesser the power and lesser the Maximum Range. If the
power is doubled, the maximum range increases by 25 %.
d) WAVE LENGTH – Larger the wavelength, greater the Maximum range.

10 cm radar is preferred.
e) PRF – Maximum Range is inversely proportional to PRF. Lower the

PRF, greater the Max range.
f) PULSE LENGTH – Longer the Pulse, greater the detection range. Long
pulses have more energy in them and so they have a greater ability to
suffer attenuation in the atmosphere.
g) VBW and HBW – Narrower the beam widths greater the directional
concentration of the transmitted energy and so greater the max range.
h) RECEIVER SENSITIVITY – Every receiver generates noise. Greater the

amplification factor more the level of noise. Receiver sensitivity is its
ability to amplify very weak echoes sufficiently enough without loosing
them in the receiver noise. Better the sensitivity of the receiver, better
the max detection range of a target.
External factors effecting Radar Detection Range
1.) NATURE OF TARGET
a) Height above sea level – Higher objects are detected further away than
lower objects.
A
B
Target B is higher than target A and hence greater detection range.

19
RADAR
b) Horizontal size – Larger the horizontal size, greater the echoing surface
and better the detection range. A faint line on the PPI is easier to spot
then an isolated blip.
c) Composition – Harder substances are better reflectors of radar energy

than softer ones. The radar reflectivity of the following substances in
ascending order :snow, sand, wood, concrete, rock and best of all is
metal.
d) Nature of surface – Smooth surfaces return good echoes when they

are perpendicular to the radar beam. The same smooth surface, if it is
slanting, it becomes a poor radar target. Rough surfaces return echoes
of medium strength from all angles of view.
e) Aspect -- It is the angle from which an object is viewed. In the figure

below, when the aspect is 900 (R) or (G), there is greater echoing
surface on the targets hull and so greater detection range. When the
aspect is 0000 or 1800, detection range is less, as echoing surface is
less.
Aspect 90 0
Aspect 180 0 Aspect 000 0
Aspect 90 0
Poor echoes Good Echoes
Detection Range = 5 Nm Detection Range = 10 Nm

20
RADAR
A land target may be steep on one side and gently sloping on the other
side. When radar views the steep side, there is good detection range.
But as the aspect changes and the sloping side of the land is now
viewed, the detection range is considerably less.
2.) WEATHER EFFECTS
(i) Rain -- Drops of falling water is called rain. In a heavy tropical

downpour, the rainfall area appears as bright solid block on the PPI.
Targets within this area cannot be distinguished. They can
sometimes be mistaken for land echoes due to their large size,
bright appearance, clearly defined edges and regularity in painting.
Detection ranges of targets behind this rain area are severely
reduced. If rain is falling on the observing vessel, detection ranges
in all directions will be adversely affected due to attenuation.
(ii) Hail -- Similar to rain drops, hail stones also give echoes on the
PPI. Large hail stones give stronger echoes than rainfall. The rate of
precipitation with hail is usually lesser than with rain. So attenuation
due to hail is much less than with rain.
(iii) Snow -- In cold climates, commonly the snow falls in single

crystals. So echo from this snow is not troublesome unless there is
heavy snowfall. However, in temperate latitudes, several snow
crystals join together and fall as large flakes. Their echoes show up
on the PPI like rain. The
(iv) attenuation due to snowfall is usually much less than with rain as the
rate of precipitation is less.
(v) Fog -- Echoes from fog particles is negligible, but the attenuation
can be severe. In colder climates, dense fog appreciably decreases
detection ranges of all targets. In warmer climates, unless there is
thick fog with nil visibility, the detection ranges are not affected
much.

21
RADAR
3.) ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION
It is changing of distance of the radar horizon due to changes in

atmospheric conditions. The point where the ray of radar energy just grazes
the earth’s surface as a tangent, is called the Radar Horizon. Because of their
greater wavelength compared to light waves, radar waves refract more (i.e.,
bend more) and so the radar horizon is further away than the visible horizon.
Straight waves
Light waves
G V R Radar waves
GH = Distance of geometric horizon from ship = 1.93 h

VH = Distance of visible horizon from ship = 2.07 h
RH = Distance of Radar horizon from ship = 2.20 h
RT = Distance of target from radar horizon = 2.20 x
HT = Theoretical detection range of target.
Where ‘h’ is height of scanner above sea level in meters

‘x’ is height of target above sea level in meters and distances are expressed in
Nm.
The distance of Radar horizon (2.20 h ) is true under certain assumed

atmospheric conditions, which are the estimated mean values over land,
throughout the year.
Atmospheric Pressure – 1013.2 mb (Decreasing with increase in height, at a
rate of 11.8mb per 100 m.)
Air Temperature - 150C at sea level (Decreasing with increase in height, at

a rate of 0.650C per 100 m.)

22
RADAR
Relative Humidity - 60 % at sea level (assumed to be constant at all height)
Any change in the above conditions will cause a change in the distance of
radar horizon.
There are three forms of anomalous propagation:-
1.) SUB-REFRACTION - If the radar rays bend less than usual they will
touch the earth surface as a tangent, at a point closer than the standard
radar horizon of 2.20 h . Since this decreases the detection range of
surface targets, it is called as Sub-refraction.
R’ A
R
SUB – REFRACTION
In the above figure, R is the Radar Horizon under normal conditions and R’
is the radar horizon due to Sub-refraction. Target A cannot be detected
now.
Sub-refraction occurs when the temperaturefalls at a greater rate than

the standard lapse rate of 0.650C per 100 m or if the relative humidity
increases with height.
Sub-refraction will be found whenever cold breeze blows over relatively warm
sea, as in the following cases :-
 In the lee of an iceberg.
 On the leeward side of very cold land masses.
 Land breezes in coastal regions (they blow during night time)
2.) SUPER-REFRACTION -- If the radar rays bend more than usual they
will touch the earth surface as a tangent, at a point beyond the standard

23
RADAR
radar horizon of 2.20 h . Since this increases the detection range of

surface targets, it is called as Super-refraction.
R A
R’
SUPER – REFRACTION
In the above figure, R is the Radar Horizon under normal conditions and R’
is the radar horizon due to Super-refraction. Target A would now be
detected.
Super-refraction occurs when either the temperaturefalls at a slower rate

than the standard lapse rate of 0.650C per 100 m or if the relative
humidity decreases with height.
Super-refraction will be found whenever warm breeze blows over relatively

cold sea, as in the following cases :-
 In areas of high pressure (in the centers of anti-cyclones)

 Sea breezes in coastal waters are warm compared to sea (day time).
 Daytime winds blowing over Land locked seas such as Mediterranean
Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, etc.
3.) DUCTING - If the rays leaving the scanner are refracted downwards
very sharply, they would strike the sea surface, get reflected upwards,
get refracted downwards again and strike the sea surface at some
further point. This would go on continuously and the rays would

24
RADAR
effectively follow the curvature of the earth, carrying the energy to

greater distances without much loss.
Though coming from greater distances, the echoes returning along the same
path will be strong. As the energy is trapped within a narrow belt or ‘duct’, this
form of severe super-refraction is called Ducting.
Ducting occurs when there is sharp decrease in the relative humidity with
height, accompanied by temperature inversion i.e., temperature rises with
height instead of falling.
DUCTING
VERY FAR-OFF TARGET
Movement of Various Targets across the Radar Screen in Relative motion

North – UP and True Motion with and withoutcurrent
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kts)

Tgt 1 : Land
Tgt2 : Anchored Vessel
Tgt3 : Stopped Vessel
Tgt4 : Moving Vessel
(True course 180 0 /15kts)

25
RADAR
With Current - 0000 / 5 kts
Consider CMG / SMG to be 0250 / 13 kts
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kts)

Tgt1 : Land
( True course 180 0 / 15 Kts)
(WITHOUT CURRENT)
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kt

Tgt 1 : Land

26
RADAR

With Current - 0000 / 5 kts
Consider CMG / SMG to be 0250 / 13 kts
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kt
Tgt1 : Land
Student Exercise :
In each of the 4 above diagrams, specify how the targets 1 to 4 move across
the screen.

27
RADAR
Diagram 1 Diagram 2
N-Up (w/o N-Up (with
Current) Current)
Tgt 1 Tgt 1
Tgt 2 Tgt 2
Tgt 3 Tgt 3
Tgt 4 Tgt 4
Diagram 3 Diagram 4
True Motion True Motion

(w/o Current) (with Current)
Tgt 1 Tgt 1
Tgt 2 Tgt 2
Tgt 3 Tgt 3
Tgt 4 Tgt 4

28
RADAR
Own Ship Co 030 0 / 15 Kts Own Ship Co 030 0 / 15 Kts
For all 3 Figures:

Tgt1 : Fine on Stbd Bow
Tgt2 : On Port Bow
Tgt3 : On Stbd Beam
Tgt4 : Right Astern
Tgt5 : On Port Beam
Own Course 030 0 / 15 Kts
In Head – Up (Rel) Relative Motion
1. Only RelBrg of all tgts available. For True add Own Ship’s Course to
RelBrg. Possibility of making errors. Irrespective of Course steered,
Heading marker always UP.
2. Picture Smudges while Alteration of Course. Picture moves in the opposite

direction by same angle.

29
RADAR
3. If Course Altered, RelBrg of Tgt changes (giving false sense of security)
4. Not to use this display in ordinary circumstances as too many

disadvantages.
5. The only display possible, if GYRO fails.
6. All Targets (including Land) move on the resultant of
Reciprocal of Own Ship’s Course and Speed (OS course always 000 0 )
AND
Target’s own Course and Speed
In Head- UP (True) Relative Motion
1. True Brg of all tgts available.
2. Picture Smudges while alteration of course. Picture moves in the opposite

direction by same angle.
3. If course altered, True brg of all tgts still continuously available.
4. Irrespective of course, heading marker always UP. Compass RING Turns.

Heading marker shows course steered, but geographical orientation
confusing. Example – If course 180 0 , Heading marker still shows UP.
Instant comparison with CHART may be difficult.
5. Ideal while primarily navigating by sight since easy comparison possible.
6. All Targets (including Land) move on the resultant of

Reciprocal of Own Ship’s Course and Speed (OS course always 0000 )
AND

30
RADAR
In North – UP (Gyro Stabilized) Relative Motion
1. Heading marker appears on the Gyro course steered.
2. All tgts appear on their true brg, and on the Screen appear at such location
relative to heading marker. Example – A Tgt on the Port beam, appears at
90 0 on the Port side from the Heading marker.
3. Comparison with Navigational Chart is easy as navigational Chart is also

North - UP.
4. A good display to be used under all conditions of visibility, Traffic situation,

Coastal Navigation when frequent position fixing is required.
5. Can identify other tgt’s geographical location with respect to Own ship.
All the above 3 Modes of Display – i.e. Head-UP (Rel), Head- UP (true) &
North- UP are Relative Motion, wherein the Own Ship always is stationary at
the electronic center. Hence other than a tgt on the same course and speed
as that of the Own Ship, all other tgts (whether moving, stopped, fixed) have a
relative motion. This Relative Motion is a resultant of
Reciprocal of Own Ship’s Course and Speed
AND
The
Trace origin symbolising the current Own ship’s position on the Screen (with
respect to the Land shown in Dark Line) moves on the course steered ie 090
0
and the LOG Speed. The Heading marker extends from the Trace origin
(Electronic spot) on the Gyro course steered and progresses across the
Screen with the movement of the Trace origin. Except under manual override
conditions, the Trace origin should not continue to a point beyond 75% of the
radius of the display.

31
RADAR

32
RADAR
If the Radar automatically resets, the Screen jumps from Screen 1 to Screen
2, whereby trace origin appears to start at the same spot as it did in Screen 1,
but the Picture is that of Screen 2. In the same order, the picture progresses
to Screen 3.
True Motion Sea Stabilised is the display to be used under normal condition
while wanting to navigate in the True Motion Mode. LOG should be capable of
giving the speed over water. If one uses Course made good & speed made
good as the input for normal True Motion, the target information as obtained
by Radar Plotting wold give the
Target’s course made good and speed made good. This could result in
confusion in the implementation of the Rules of the Road. ROR is to be
applied to Ship’s heading (or in other words Course steered and Speed over
water) which can be obtained only if Gyro Course and LOG speed over water
is input. However the threat perception from targets always remains the same
irrespective of whatever is the course and speed input. Remember that at all

33
RADAR
times the bearing and distance of all targets from own ship is correct, due to
the fact that whenever the Radar Scanner is facing the Target, the target
paints at its true bearing and distance from own ship.
Own Ship Course : 000 0 / 15 kts

Tgt Time Brg Range
0900 350 9’
0912 350 6’
0
Set 180 Course made good 0000
Drift 7 Kts Speed made good 7.5 Kts

34
RADAR
Both “OAW” Triangle is showing collision. However the True course of the tgt
varies, in both cases. With Gyro Course & Log speed in water as input the
true course of the tgt is approx 270 0. With CMG & SMG as input the same
tgt’s course is now shown as almost on own ship’s reciprocal course.
The situation is actually only under Rule No 15 “Crossing situation” with the
OS as the stand on vessel and the tgt vessel as the give way vessel. The
above clearly clarifies that only course as steered and speed over water
should be the input in normal circumstances while using True motion.
SPURIOUS ECHOES
Indirect echoes -- Shipboard obstructions such as masts, funnel, cross trees,

etc., may reflect the radar energy on to a target in some other direction. The
echo returns along the same path and paints in the direction of the
obstruction. Such echoes are called Indirect echoes. On the PPI, along with
the indirect echo the direct echo of the target also paints at the correct
bearing. The range of the indirect echo will be almost same as the true echo.
Generally large targets such as land cause the indirect echoes, because even
if the observing ship yaws, the indirect energy leaving it will not miss a land
target. In order to identify this false echo, a slight alteration in course would
help, as the indirect would then miss the target and its paint would disappear
from the PPI.
Shipboard Indirect
Obstruction Echo
o
o
Normal Echo
Target

35
RADAR
Side Lobe echoes – As explained earlier under ‘Minimum range’, when

transmission takes place, some of the energy is radiated as weak beams at
various angles on either side of the main beam. These weak beams are called
Side Lobes. The energy content of these side lobes is extremely small and so
only closeby targets respond to them. As the side lobes sweep over the target,
an echo is painted in the direction in which the main lobe (and also the trace)
is pointing at that time. When the main lobe sweeps over the target a large
echo is produced. The end result is that on either side of the main echo a
series of small echoes are found, all at the same range.
Reduction of gain would eliminate the effect of side lobe echoes. When using
slotted wave-guide type of scanners, the side lobe echoes are considerably
reduced.
Side Lobes
Very Closeby Target

36
RADAR
Multiple echoes – When two ships move close to each other on parallel
courses, sometimes a series of echoes appear on the bearing of the other
ship at equal intervals of range. The closest echo is the correct position of the
target. The other echoes are called Multiple echoes. They are caused by the
transmitted energy being reflected back and forth between the hulls of the two
ships and each time the energy returns to the scanner, it paints. Multiple
echoes occur only on the beam bearing i.e., when the hulls of the two vessels
are parallel to each other.
O ooo
Second Trace Echoes – The pulse takes about 6.17 us to travel 1 Nm. So
the tracing spot would take double the time (12.34 us) to travel 1 Nm on the
range scale in use, as its speed is half. Suppose the PRF is 2000. Then the
time gap between two transmissions is 1/2000 sec or 500 us and the
maximum range that the pulse can travel one way is 250 us or 41 Nm. On a 6
miles range scale, the tracing spot takes about 74 us (12.34 x 6’) to reach the
edge of the screen. At this point the trace is blanked and it comes backs to the
center and waits there (for 500 – 74 = 426 us) till the second pulse is
transmitted. So now any target further away than 6 miles will not paint on the
PPI, as there is no trace. However, due to presence of super-refraction, the
echo from a radar conspicuous target at a range of more than 41 Nm (say 45
Nm) will paint on the PPI. This echo would have arrived at the scanner 556 us
(i.e., 45’ x 6.17 = 278 us one way) after the firsttransmission. But we know that
after 500 us, the second transmission takes place and so the second trace
starts on its radial path and after 56 us the distant target (45 Nm off) echo has

37
RADAR
arrived and gets painted on this second trace. In 56 us the second trace would
have traveled around 5 Nm (rounded off) (D = S x T) on the 6 Nm range scale
and so the target echo paints at 5 Nm. Since the echo of the first pulse gets
painted on the second trace, this echo is called second trace echo.
For the formation of Second trace echoes the following points are
important: -
 PRF of the set

 The presence of Super-refraction
 The presence of a radar conspicuous target at the appropriate range
depending on the PRF in use.
When the range scale is changed, the PRF changes and all the above
calculations are now different. So, either the second trace echo would
disappear or if it still paints, it would be at some other range. Therefore, to
identify a second trace echo, the Range Scale needs to be changed.
RADAR PLOTTING
RELATIVE PLOTTING
Relative plotting is done on a North Up - Relative Motion display. In a RM

display the center of the screen represents the Own Ship’s position and it is
kept stationary on the screen at all times. Own ship’s motion is applied to
all targets in the reverse direction. As a result of this,
 Stationary targets (such as buoys, land and stopped vessels) move on

the screen in the opposite direction of own ship’s true course and speed.

38
RADAR
 All moving targets move across the screen in their Relative Motion Lines
(RML), which is a resultant of their true course & speed and own ship’s
reverse course & speed.
Radar plotting is the art of obtaining all necessary anti-collision and

navigational information from two or more observations of each target on the
radar screen. It involves the construction of a triangle of relative velocities.
Determining the CPA/ TCPA of the target
When a target is detected on the radar screen, the first thing to find is the
threat perception of this target i.e., whether she is coming on a collision
course or going to develop a close quarter situation or is it passing clear. So
immediately its range and bearing are noted at the time of observation. Then
the movement of the target is observed for a certain period of time (say 6 min
or 12 min preferably divisible by 3) and its range and bearing are again noted.
The time interval between the two observations is called Plotting Interval. The
range and bearings observed are as follows :-
Own Ship’s True Course and Speed - 000 0 (T) x 15 kts
Time Bearing Range

39
RADAR
1400 hrs 030 0 (T) 10 Nm
1412 hrs 020 0 (T) 8 Nm
(All bearings are true bearings as N-up display is a gyro-stabilized display)
On the Radar Plotting sheet, now plot these observations with the help of
bearing scale and range scale given on the plotting sheet. The first
observation plotted should be marked as “O” and the second plot marked as
“A” with their time of observation written next to them. Join O & A. The line
OA is the Relative Motion Line of the target i.e., the direction in which the
target moves on the RM screen. This RML is the resultant of the target’s true
course & speed and the reverse of own ship’s true course & speed. So if both
vessels maintain their course and speeds the target will continue to come
down in the direction of line OA. Assuming so, extend the OA line further
beyond the center “C”.

40
RADAR
Now the clearance between own ship and target can be found i.e., the Closest
Point of Approach (CPA) of the target. The CPA is the point at which the
range of the target is the minimum. To get this point, draw a line perpendicular
to the OA from “C” intersecting the OA line. The point of intersection “N” is the
CPA and the distance CN is the CPA distance.

41
RADAR
Along with the CPA, the time at which the Target will be at CPA (i.e., the
TCPA) should also be known.
To travel the distance OA the target took 12 minutes.
So to travel the distance AN, it would take AN x 12 minutes.
OA
For eg., if AN = 6 Nm and OA = 3 Nm,
Then TCPA = 6 x 12 = 24 minutes.
Add this 24 mins to the time of ‘A’.
Therefore the TCPA = 1412 hrs + 24 mins =1436 hrs.
Determining True Course and Speed of the Target
Once the threat perception of the target is known and if there is a close
quarter situation developing, then the next thing to find out is the situation
between the vessels i.e., whether the target is crossing, over-taking or coming
on a reciprocal course, which rule is applicable and who is the Give-way
vessel among the two. For this we should know the TRUE COURSE of the
target.

42
RADAR
Apply own ship’s True Course and Speed to the point “O”. Own ship’s T. Co
is applied in reverse direction to all targets. So from the point ‘O’, draw a line
in the direction opposite to own ship’s T.Co i.e., 000 –180 = 180 0
Now convert the OS’s speed of 15 kts into the plotting interval (12 min)
distance.
In 60 min, distance traveled by OS is 15 Nm
In 12 min, the distance traveled would be 12 x 15 = 3 Nm.
60
Measure this 3 Nm, using the same range scale that was used for plotting the
points O & A. From O, cut an arc on the line drawn in the direction of 180 0.
This point of intersection is marked as point “W”. Now join W & A and the
triangle is complete.
In this triangle, there are three sides OA, WO, and WA. Each of these lines is
a Vector. A vector is a line that is True in direction and True in length.
So when we say Vector OA, it means the direction is from O to A only and not
otherwise. The Length is also from O to A only, not more, not less. All this
information so gathered is for the time, which is the plotting interval.
In the OAW triangle,
Vector OA is Relative Motion Line (RML) of the target.
Vector WO is True Co. & Speed of Own Ship and
Vector WA is True Co. & Speed of the Target

43
RADAR
Measure the direction and distance WA from the center of the bearing scale
and this is the True Co. & Speed of the target.
In this example, WA is 270 0 (T) x 16 kts.
Now to find out the situation between the vessels we need to know
theRelative Bearingand Aspectof the target.
Relative bearing is the Own Ship’s point of view. It is the bearing of the
target in relation to the OS’s True Heading. In other words, it is the angle
between the OS’s heading and the target’s bearing. It is measured between
000 0 and 180 0 on either side of OS.
R. Brg = Difference between OS’s True Course and Targets bearing at ‘A’.
OS’s T Co = 000
Target brg at A = - 020
R. Brg 20 0 (G)
R. Brg cannot exceed 180 0. If it exceeds, then subtract that number from 360.
Therefore R. Brg of the target is 200 (Green). This means that the target is
20 degrees away from the own ship on its STBD side.
‘Green’ means the target is on the STARBOARD side of Own ship.
‘Red’ means the target is on the PORT side of Own ship.

44
RADAR
Aspect is the target’s point of view. It is the bearing of own ship in relation to
the Target’s True Heading. In other words, it is the angle between the target’s
heading and OS’s bearing from the target. It is measured between 000 0 and
180 0 on either side of the target.
Aspect = Difference between Target’s True Course and OS’s bearing from
‘A’.
Target T Co = 270
OS brg from A = - 200
Aspect 70 0 (Red)
This means the own vessel is 70 degrees away from the target on its PORT
side.
Aspect also cannot exceed 1800 . If it exceeds, then subtract that number from
360.
‘Red’ means the Own ship is on the PORT side of Target.
‘Green’ means the own ship is on the STARBOARD side of target.
Determining the Situation between vessels

45
RADAR
As per ROR rule 13 (Over-taking Vessel), a vessel is said to be over-taking

when it is approaching the other vessel from more than 22.5 0 abaft the other
vessel’s beam or when during nighttime it can see only the stern light of the
other vessel.
112.5 0 (R) 090 0 (R)
B
A
112.5 0 (G) 90 0 (G)
In the above figure, Vessel B is said to be over-taking, as the angle from

which it is approaching vessel A is more than 22.5 0 abaft A’s beam (i.e., more

46
RADAR
than 112.5 0 from vessel A’s heading). In other words, since the Relative
Bearing of vessel B is more than 112.5 0, it is an over-taking vessel, provided
her speed is more than vessel A.
Own Ship vs Target Ship
Relbrg> 112.5 0 - Target overtaking OS, if Tgt speed better than OS
RelBrg< 112.5 0 - Target crossing
Target Ship vs Own Ship
Aspect > 112.5 0 - Own Ship overtaking Target ship, if OS speed is better
Aspect < 112.5 0 – Crossing situation
In the above example, the R.Brg of the target was 20 0 (G) and the aspect was
70 0 (R). Since both the R.Brg as well as Aspect is less than 112.5 0, the
situation is Crossing. Therefore ROR Rule 15 applies and as per this rule the
vessel, which has the other on its starboard, is the Give-Way vessel. As per
that own ship is the Give-Way vessel.

47
RADAR
Report of Target
1.) CPA
2.) TCPA
3.) True Course and Speed
4.) Relative Bearing
5.) Aspect
6.) Situation between vessels (i.e., which ROR rule applies?)
7.) Give-Way Vessel?
Action Taken by vessels
The OA line i.e., the RML of the target is the most important line as it gives the
direction of target movement on the radar screen and also immediately
provides you with the threat perception of the target.
The OA line is extended assuming that both vessels maintain their courses
and speeds. Since it is the resultant of the target’s T Co. & speed and OS’s
reverse T Co. & speed, the moment either one of the vessel alters course
or speed, the RML changes.

48
RADAR
To find the new RML and the effect of the action the procedure is as follows:-
1.) Find the Point of alteration i.e., the point at which the target will be at the
time of alteration. This point “P” will on the OA extended line only
because till that time no ship will alter and the old OA line prevails.
The time of “O” is 1400 hrs and “A” is 1412 hrs. Suppose the action is to be
taken at 1415 hrs. So the target’s location after 3 mins is to be plotted be.

49
RADAR

50
RADAR
In 12 mins, the distance OA was covered
In 3 mins, the distance covered will be 3 x OA miles.
12
Measure this distance and from A cut an arc on OA line. This point will be
the point of alteration ‘P’.
2.) Now on the OAW triangle, apply whatever alteration done by own vessel
on the OS’s vector i.e., WO. (If action is taken by target, then apply the
alteration on the vector WA). New Course is now -WO’. And the new
RML is - O’A.
3.) Transfer this new RML (O’A) to point ‘P’ as this RML is effective only
from the point of alteration. Extend this beyond the center ‘C’. You will
find that the CPA has increased. So the objective of avoiding the close
quarter situation is achieved.
WAVEFORMS USED IN MARINE RADAR
DIRECT CURRENT : As soon as the current is switched on, it increases to

maximum value from zero in a very short while. Thereafter the current stays at
that value till it is switched off. When switched off, the current quickly falls off
to zero.
X-axis --- Time (in microseconds)

Y-axis --- Current (in Amperes)

51
RADAR
DC SQUARE WAVE : It is a waveform of an interrupted DC.

Each wave is a pulse and the number of pulses
per second is called PRF or PRR.
PL
SPIKE WAVE : It is also a waveform of interrupted DC.

The Pulse length is very small. The current goes
from zero to maximum in a short while, but falls
back to zero equally fast without remaining on
maximum value.
SAW-TOOTH WAVE : It is also a waveform of interrupted DC.

Current is made to rise slowly from zero
to maximum value and then quickly falls
back to zero.
AC SQUARE WAVE: It is a short burst of high frequency e.m energy.

If a line is drawn from the origin through the peak
of waves and back to the base line (Pulse
envelope), it appears to be a square / rectangle
wave.

52
RADAR
SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MARINE RADAR

SCANNER
WAVE-GUIDE
A-TR CELL TR CELL

RF HM
echoes impulse
RF LO MIXER
PULSES Az
IF echoes Synchro
Currents
MAGNETRON IF AMP
dc signals
TRACE VIDEO
BLANKING AMP
MODULATOR TRIGGER
DELAY LINE TIME BASE

UNIT
DEFLECTION
POWER COILS
SUPPLY CRT
Power Supply: Radars require an AC input, which is usually provided from

the Ship’s Mains/ Emergency switchboard.
Delay Line : It stores the energy received from the power source.
Trigger Unit : This unit is the time-keeper of the Radar. It tells every
component when to start and stop working. It activates the Modulator Unit,
Time Base Unit and the Trace Blanking Unit, by sending them spike
wavesignals. The number of spikes sent per second depends on the PRF of
the radar set.
Modulator : It is a device, which switches the magnetron on and off as

required. For every spike wave received from the trigger unit, the modulator

53
RADAR
releases one powerful DC pulse (square wave of 10,000 to 15,000 Volts)

from the delay line to the Magnetron. The duration of each pulse is the PL and
the number of pulses per second is the PRF.
Magnetron :It is a very efficient, high powered and high frequency

transmitter. It is capable of being switched on and off for very short durations
(equal to PL) by the pulses received from the Modulator, at the desired PRF.
The frequency generated by the Magnetron depends on the Wavelength of
the radar set (3 cm or 10 cm). The output of the magnetron consists of high
frequency pulses of electromagnetic energy (AC square wave), which are
sent to the Scanner through a hollow metal tube called a wave-guide.
Scanner :
 It is a highly uni-directional antenna. It sends the pulses out and also
receives the echoes, one direction at a time.
 Since it rotates at a constant speed and the full 360 0, the entire area
around it gets scanned regularly.
 As per IMO Performance Standards, the Scanner should rotate with an
RPM of at least a steady 12, even with a relative wind speed of 100
knots.
 The size and type of the scanner determines the HBW and VBW of the
set.
 The uni-directional property of the scanner gives it a better aerial gain
compared to an omni-directional antenna.
 In the olden days, scanners used to be of 4 types – Parabolic plate,
Parabolic mesh, Cheese and Double cheese.
 The latest Radars use the Slotted wave guide type of scanner.
 The Slotted wave guide type of scanner is preferred in modern radars
because it offers less wind resistance and has less side lobe effect.
 Higher the height of scanner above sea level, better the maximum
detection range of the radar.
 Lower the scanner RPM, better the Picture Resolution of the set.
TR Cell : It is a transmit/receive switch (an electronic gate), which blocks the

receiver section of the radar during transmission in order to prevent the
transmitted energy from entering the receiver and thus damaging it. As soon
as the transmission is over, the TR cell opens up, allowing the received
echoes to pass into the receiver.

54
RADAR
Local Oscillator : It is a valve of special construction (Klystron). It

generates low power frequency of about 30 to 60 MHz
below the magnetron frequency.
Mixer :It mixes the received echoes with the local oscillations. The output of
the mixer has 3 frequencies - (i) the received frequency, (ii) the LO
frequency and (iii) the difference between the two. This difference is called as
the Intermediate Frequency (IF), which is generally about 30 to 60 MHz.
IF Amplifier : It selects and amplifies only the IF signals, ignoring the other
two frequencies. Due to temperature variations, voltage fluctuations and
ageing of the components, the LO frequency may somewhat drift from its
original frequency. This would cause a change in the IF. The IF amplifier can
accept variations in the IF of about + 5 MHz.
The echoes returning from the target are very weak and of greatly differing
signal strengths. Therefore these echoes are required to be amplified millions
of times to be able to show up on the screen. The IF amplifier may be of
Linear type or Logarithmic type.
Linear amplification : The IF amplifier has several stages. Each stage

amplifies by a certain amount. The output of one stage is given as the input to
the next stage, and so on. Ultimately, the output signals of the final stage
would all be of the same strength. Hence all targets would appear equally
bright on the PPI, regardless of whether it is a navigational buoy or a large
ship.
I.F STAGE STAGE STAGE TO VIDEO

1 2 3
SIGANLS AMPLIFIER
Logarithmic Amplification : After every stage of the IF amplifier, a parallel

lead is taken, all are joined together and then fed to the video amplifier. The
advantage of this system is that a contrast is available between weak and
strong echoes and also between targets, sea clutter and rain echoes.

55
RADAR
I.F STAGE STAGE STAGE

1 2 3
SIGANLS
TO VIDEO AMPLIFIER
The output of the IF amplifier is given to the video amplifier through a

Detector circuit, which converts the IF signals into video signals.
Video Amplifier : It controls the amplification of the signal voltages that are
fed to the electron gun of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
CRT : It provides a visual display of all targets in the vicinity.
Time Base unit : For each spike wave received from the Trigger unit, it
generates a saw-tooth wave and feeds it to the deflection coils in the CRT.
Trace Blanking Unit : Spike wave from the trigger unit activates it and cuts
of the electron stream from hitting the CRT after the Tracing spot has traveled
the full radius of the screen and come back to the centre, till such time the
next pulse is transmitted.
Wave-guide : It is a tube of rectangular cross sectional area, made of non-

corrosive material such as copper. Its area of cross section depends upon the
wavelength of the radar set. The wave-guide carries the high-powered pulses
from the Magnetron to the scanner. It also carries the received echoes from
the scanner to the Mixer, through the TR cell. A small length of wave-guide
also connects the LO and the mixer. The length and number of bends in the
wave-guide, water or dirt in it, all causes severe loss of power within the wave-
guide, thus decreasing the first detection range of all targets.

56
RADAR
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)
A CRT is a funnel shaped, glass vacuum container with an electron gun at its
narrow end and a screen at its broader end. The electron gun gives out
electrons that strike the screen. The screen is coated with a phosphor
compound, which glows when struck by electrons.
Heater :It is a coil of high resistance wire. A current is passed through it in

order to heat up the cathode.
Cathode : It is an oxide coated cylinder, which gives off electrons when

heated due to thermionic emission.
Control Grid : It is a hollow cylinder, which covers the cathode. It is has a

small hole on its axis, through which electrons leave as a stream. It is given a
negative potential with respect to cathode. The negative potential of the CG is
varied by means of the Brilliance control, which controls the flow of electrons.
Lesser the negativity of the CG, greater the number of electrons passing
through it.

57
RADAR
SUPER FINE
AQUADAQ MESH
(FINAL ANODE)
ANODE
PHOSPHOR COATED CONNECTOR
SCREEN
VACUUM
DEFLECTION COIL
FOCUS COIL
ELECTRON STREAM
GLASS ENVELOPE
ACCELERATING ANODE
(First Anode)
CONTROL GRID
OXIDE COATED CATHODE

HEATER
INSULATING BASE
CONNECTING PINS

58
RADAR
First Anode : It is a hollow cylinder, which is given a high positive potential

(about 800 Volts) with respect to cathode. It attracts the electrons from the
cathode and accelerates their movement towards the screen. It is also called
accelerating anode.
Focus coil : It is a coil of wire wound around the narrow part of the CRT.
When a direct current passes through it, a magnetic field is developed around
it, which acts on the electron beam making it to converge to a point as it
reaches the screen.
Deflection Coils : When the saw-tooth wave from the Time base unit is fed
to the Defection coils, a magnetic field is formed around it, which tends to pull
the electron beam towards the edge of the screen, in the direction at which the
scanner is pointing at that time. Thus one trace is created. The trace is
created for every pulse transmitted. Further the deflection coils are made to
rotate around the neck of the CRT (or in modern radars, the deflection coils
develop a rotating magnetic field) thereby creating a rotating trace, which is
perfectly in synchronization with the Scanner rotation.
Screen : The screen is coated with a phosphor compound, which glows

when struck by electrons. If the brilliance is set high, lot of electrons strike the
screen, out of which some might bounce off and tend to hit the screen again.
This is called secondary emission. It reduces the sharpness of the picture.
The underside of the screen is therefore fitted with a superfine mesh of
Aluminium, which is connected to the final anode, in order to prevent
secondary emission. The aluminium mesh collects the bounced electrons
and passes them on to the final anode.
Final Anode : It is coating of a chemical called Aquadaq, on the inner side

of the broad part of the glass envelope, right up to the screen. It has a very
high +ve potential of 18000 Volts with respect to cathode. Apart from
accelerating the flow of electrons towards the screen, the final anode also
shields the electron beam from external magnetic fields. The electrons
collected by the final anode (aluminium mesh) are returned to the cathode, by
means of an electric cable, thereby preventing the build up of negative static
charge at the screen.

59
RADAR
THE ADVANCED BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR
SCANNER
WAVE-GUIDE
Tune TR Cell
A-TR Cell
LO Mixer
Magnetron STC HM
off
IF amp
Range Gain
rings
FTC
Trace
Modulator EBL
blank unit
Video Pic
Amp Rot
VRM
Trigger Brill
Delay line
Focus
Time Base
Unit Focus coil Gyro
stab
Power CRT
Supply Expand

60
RADAR
Centre Def. coil
BASIC CONTROLS OF A RADAR
1. BRILLIANCE : This is also called ‘Brightness’. The Brilliance controls

the strength of electron stream in the CRT, byvarying the negative
voltage of the Control Grid. When the Brilliance control is set at minimum,
the control grid has high negative voltage w.r.t. the cathode and so no
electrons are released from it. As this control is turned clockwise, the
negativity of the control grid reduces, thus allowing the electrons to strike the
screen and the picture is visible. If set too high, the screen would appear very
bright and the targets that paint cannot be distinguished against the bright
background. Therefore, to set the Brilliance control to the optimum level, the
control must be increased till the sweep of the trace is visible and then
decreased till the sweep of the trace just disappears.
2. FOCUS : This control if provided, is used to ensure that the electron

stream converges to a point, as it reaches the CRT screen. This is done by
suitably altering the current passing through the focus coil in the CRT. To
focus correctly, the fixed range rings should be switched on and this control
should be adjusted till the rings appear as thin as possible. In most of the
modern sets, the focus is usually pre-set and no control is provided.
3. GAIN : Once the Brilliance is set, the next control to be adjusted is the
‘Gain’. Gain means amplification. The echoes received by the radar are
very weak. This control is used to amplify the received echoes to an extent
enough to clearly paint the target echo on the PPI. This control works in
the IF or video amplifier stage of the radar receiver. The optimum setting
of Gain control is to increase it clockwise till a speckled background (like
the night sky full of stars) is visible on the screen. The speckled

61
RADAR
background is the receiver noise, which is being amplified in the absence of

targets (prior to the radar being tuned). The setting of Gain would have to
be reduced when using shorter range scales.
4. TUNING : This control is used to manually alter the Local Oscillator

frequency in order to bring the IF signal to the correct value required by
the IF amplifier (30 – 60 MHz). There are two controls for tuning – coarse
and fine. The main tuning control is fitted on the LO itself in the Receiver
unit. Once adjusted, this control does not require any re-adjustments. The
remote or fine tuning control is fitted on the Display unit.
A meter or a magic eye or LEDs are used to give the indication of correct
tuning. The maximum deflection of the pointer in the meter, maximum
overlapping of the magic eye or maximum number of LEDs being lit indicates
perfect tuning. But if none of these are working, then tuning to be carried out
for maximum target echoes or clutter echoes.
5. Anti Sea Clutter or Swept Gain Control or Sensitivity Time Control (STC) :
Echoes from the sea when painted on the PPI is called sea clutter. Sea
clutter paints generally around the centre up to a max range of maximum 3
miles. The clutter is roughly oval in shape, with the greater part towards the
windward side. As the sea gets more and more rough the clutter echoes
increase in density. Even in moderate conditions, the echoes from small
targets such as buoys, boats etc., tend to get drowned or swamped by
clutter, i.e., they become indistinguishable against so many clutter echoes.
The purpose of the STC is to suppress these sea clutters on the PPI. This
control works in the Video Amplifier section, in opposition to the Gain ,
i.e., it reduces the amplification factor. The gain control setting affects
the whole PPI, so reducing the gain would cause all the targets to fade off.
But the setting of anti sea clutter control works only within 3 miles range,
i.e., within 37 microseconds after transmission. The effect of STC is
maximum soon after transmission and tapers off to zero at a range of
maximum 3 miles. Anti-clutter should be so adjusted that the targets within
the clutter area appear just brighter than clutter. The clutter should never
be completely eliminated. This control should be frequently adjusted as
per the prevailing sea conditions.
6. Anti Rain Clutter or Differentiator or Fast Time Constant (FTC) : Rain

clutters are echoes of the rain drops in a rainfall area that paint fairly well

62
RADAR
on the PPI. When there is heavy rainfall, the rain echoes paint strongly and
steadily on the PPI and the rainfall area appears like a bright patch. This is
due to the large amplification factor (Gain) and the Pulse Length. PL
causes all echoes to expand radially outwards on the PPI (by ½ PL in
meters) and so the several million rain echoes overlap each other, thus
forming a bright patch. In fact, tropical rainfall areas may easily be mistaken
for land echoes because of their large size, bright appearance, clearly
distinguishing edges and regularity in painting.
Targets within the rainfall area cannot be distinguished against the clutter.
Reducing the gain would cause all the targets to fade off. So the best way to
suppress these rain clutters is to reduce the PL of the received echoes. This is
effectively done by the anti rain clutter control. This control works in the
Video Amplifier section where a special circuit called Differentiator Circuit is
provided.
Increasing the FTC clockwise reduces the PL of the received echoes,

thereby reducing the overlapping of the rain echoes. So the bright patch
becomes lighter and lighter. This control is to be adjusted till the targets within
the rain patch appear stronger than the clutter. If adjusted too much all targets
in the screen would fade off, as its effect is on the whole screen. When
there is no rain, this control should be brought back to the minimum.
7. Automatic Clutter Control (ACC) : Is based on the fact that the sea and rain
echoes are random echoes whereas target echoes are systematic. When
the ACC is switched on, the echoes received from one pulse are compared
to the echoes received from earlier pulse. If they are inconsistent i.e., if
they do not agree in echo strength and time of arrival, they are not fed to
the CRT. Hence most clutter echoes are rejected, without loss of target
echoes. The ACC control is preferred to manual clutter control because it
provides the correct level of gain for nearby targets, regardless of the
varying clutter density. It also adapts to changes in sea conditions. In case
the manual clutter control is to be used, the ACC should be switched off.
8. Contrast : On digital Radar displays, the contrast control helps to

differentiate the echoes from the background brightness. Contrast cannot
be adjusted without adjusting Gain / Tuning controls and also Gain / Tuning

63
RADAR
controls cannot be adjusted without setting Contrast (a chicken and egg

situation). Hence adjust contrast to say 40% and then adjust Gain / Tuning
controls. Repeat this step 3 times to get the setting right.
THE PROCEDURE TO SWITCH ON THE RADAR SET
1. Make sure that the scanner is clear.

2. The Brilliance, Gain, STC and FTC controls should be set to minimum.
3. Set the main function switch (OFF/STANDBY/TRANSMIT) to ‘Standby’.
As per IMO performance standards, the radar set should come to standby
condition within 4 minutes. This is required for the set to warm up.
4. During this time, set the following :
- Range selector switch to the desired range (Generally 12M is suitable
as a medium range).
- PL selector to desired position. By default it is always in ‘Short Pulse’.
- Presentation mode switch to “North-Up”, “Course-Up” or “Head-UP” as
desired.
5. When the set has warmed up, set the main function switch to
‘TRANSMIT’.
6. Set the ‘Brilliance’ control to the optimum level.
7. Set Contrast
8. Increase the ‘Gain’ control till a speckled background is visible on the
screen.
9. Tune the set as per manufacturer’s instructions.
10. Adjust Contrast again ( Repeat steps 7,8,9 three times)
11. Use the STC and FTC controls as and when required.
12. Adjust other controls as necessary.
Switching off procedure
 Change over to a medium range (12M is suitable).

 Set the Brilliance, Gain, STC and FTC controls to minimum.
 Set the main function switch to ‘OFF’.

64
RADAR
Checking the Efficiency of the set (Performance Monitor)
As per IMO Performance Standards, all radars should have a means of

ascertaining the level of its overall performance,(in comparison to its
performance at the time of installation) even in the absence of targets in the
vicinity.
Prior to getting into the Performance Monitor mode, the operation manual
should be consulted for the setting of Range scale, Brilliance, Gain, STC,
FTC, PL, etc.
Checking Transceiver :
An Echo box (size of a food can with precise dimensions) is placed within the
aerial drive unit (or on deck high above). The Radar pulse (which is matched
with the echo box) reverberates within its cavity, oscillations built up and re-
radiated as an echo, producing a radial response called the performance
monitor signal. In this case the echo on the screen would show up as a
Cartwheel (as echo box rotates with the scanner) and its radius is measured.
If echo box is outside (deck mounted), then a plume is displayed.
If the Echo Box is inside, all components of the Radar are not checked and
hence the transmitter performance is tested separately as follows.
Checking Transmitter Performance:
A neon tube is placed very close to the scanner. As the transmitted energy
strikes the neon tube, it glows due to ionisation. A voltage so developed in this
external circuit is passed on to the CRT as a pulse and is depicted as a plume
or feather (or indicated on a meter) which is compared.
OR
A transponder located on the Aerial drive, reacts to the reception of Radar

pulses by transmitting after a short delay, a coded low level echo in bursts and
show up on the display as ARCS.
This type of transponder activates only if the signal is above a minimum power
level. The power level within the HBW if above the minimum power level set,
corresponds to arc displayed.

65
RADAR
PLUME CARTWHEEL
If, at any time, the efficiency drops below 80%, an investigation of the causes
must be made. The common causes are water or dirt in the waveguide, salt or
dust on the scanner, improper tuning etc. If the causes are not as simple as
that, then the help of a technician should be sought for.
SHADOW AREAS, SHADOW SECTORS & BLIND SECTORS
Shadow Areas : When the transmitted energy strikes a large target, most of
the energy is scattered by it and some energy is reflected back to the scanner.
A very limited amount of energy may go beyond the large target. This
happens due to diffraction. The area directly beyond the large target is called
as Shadow Area. Targets in this area do not show up on the PPI, unless they
are very radar conspicuous.
M A B
The above figure shows the vertical extent of a shadow area. Though target B
is smaller than target A, it will paint on the PPI whereas target A will not paint
as it in the shadow area of target M. But if the height of A is big enough to
intercept the radar rays, it will then paint.

66
RADAR
C D
The above figure shows the horizontal extent of a shadow area. Target D is
smaller and further away than target C. Still, only target D will paint. Since
target C in the shadow area of target N, it will not paint on the PPI.
It is for these reasons that the radar picture of a land differs from the actual
one on the chart, especially if the coastline is high. In such a case, only the
coastline and 1 or 2 miles beyond it would appear on the radar screen. Further
beyond, only radar conspicuous targets (such as a high rise building) would
paint on the PPI, as shown in the following figure.
COAST
SHADOW AREA OF COAST
RADAR CONSPICUOUS OBJECT
Shadow sectors: Shipboard structures such as masts, Samson posts etc.,

obstruct the radar beam partly. Targets directly beyond the obstruction do
appear on the PPI because of diffraction, but theirdetection ranges are
considerably reduced. Such areas are known as shadow sectors. The
presence of shadow sectors can be found out by reducing the gain control till
such time that the clutter echoes are only just visible. The total absence of
clutter echoes in the direction of the obstruction indicates its presence. The

67
RADAR
relative bearings of the extremities of the shadow sector are measured and
displayed. If the gain is increased clutter will appear in the shadow sectors.
Clutter
Blind Sector: Sometimes, the shipboard structures, such as a funnel,

completely obstructs the radar beam. Due to this, no echoes are received
from targets beyond these structures and so they are not detected at all.
Such targets are said to be in the ‘Blind Sector’ of the scanner. This is caused
due to bad siting of the scanner. In modern ships, the scanner is usually
mounted on a special mast, so that it is above or far away from all major
obstructions and hence has no Blind Sectors.
Blind sectors can also be measured as no clutter echoes ever appear within it.
In the following figure, the area between the dotted lines is the Blind Sector.
On either side of it, is the shadow sector.
Clutter
SITING OF COMPONENTS

68
RADAR
SCANNER :
 The height of scanner above sea level should be between 12m and 18m
for best all-round performance.
 A very high scanner would give good maximum detection ranges of all
targets, but since the VBW for a given scanner is fixed, the minimum
detection ranges would be affected. Conversely, a too low scanner
would affect the maximum detection range of targets.
 The scanner should preferably be fitted above the funnel and below the
cross-trees in order to avoid blind sectors caused by them. The cross-
trees would still cause blind sectors, but as the scanner is below them, it
would lie up in space.
 On ships with center-line masts, the scanner should be placed slightly
off-centred to avoid shadow sectors right ahead.
 The scanner should be in a vertical line with the transceiver unit so as to
keep the length of the waveguide and the number of bends in it, to a
minimum, which would result in less attenuation or loss of power within
the waveguide.
 It should be kept well away from aerials of other equipments.
DISPLAY :
 The Display unit should be kept at a safe distance from magnetic
compasses, as stated by the manufacturer.
 It should be so sited that the Master, Pilot or Navigator can view both,
the radar screen, and the visual scene, easily and quickly.
 It should be sufficiently far away from equipments such as the clear-view
screen, electric telegraph, fans, etc., whose sparking would cause
interference.
TRANSCEIVER :
 It should be as directly below the scanner as possible so as to keep the
waveguide as short and straight as possible.
 It should be at a safe distance from magnetic compasses, as specified
by the manufacturer.
 It should be safe from spray, rain, dust, etc., and should have lot of
space around it, so that repairs can be carried out easily.
SPARE PARTS :

69
RADAR
 Certain spare parts, especially the magnetrons, may seriously affect

magnetic compases. So they should be kept in a specially designed box.
 The box should be at least 10 metres away from magnetic compasses, if
the safe compass distance is not marked on it.
Radiation hazards of Radar Pulses

Continuous exposure to powerful electro-magnetic energy (500 kW or more)
can cause some ill-effects to human health. But the pulses transmitted by the
commercial marine radar are very short and relatively weak (20 to 60 kW).
Therefore they present no danger at distances beyond 1 metre from the
scanner. However going near the scanner, while the radar is working should
be discouraged.
If a waveguide is open while radar is being operated for repairs, one should
avoid looking into the open waveguide or even standing in front of it.
This is because the energy inside the waveguide is much more concentrated.
POSITION FIXING BY RADAR
Radar can be very useful in fixing the vessel’s position while coasting. The
radar ranges and bearings of land points around the vessel can be used for
this purpose. The following points should be kept in mind while using radar for
position fixing:
 Radar ranges are more reliable than radar bearings. This is because
the accuracy in radar bearing is affected due to beam width distortion,
especially the bearings of land ends. So it is always better to take radar
ranges of 2-3 land points for position fixing.
 The radar bearings of these land points, if taken, should be used only as a
secondary means, i.e., for confirming the position fixed on the chart.
 Best fixes can be obtained by taking Visual bearings of fixed objects
and their radar ranges.
 From undetermined coasts, ranges of the closest point of land could be
taken. For this the VRM should be increased till it touches any point on that
land for the first time.
In the following figure, the ranges of land points A, B & C are their closest
points, as the VRM is just touching the land for the first time. While
transferring this range on the chart, these points cannot be determined as they
are not sharp edges. But that would not make any difference on their position

70
RADAR
lines (arcs), as far as we take the range from approximately around the points
A, B or C.
D VRM
C
Heading Marker
 Radar ranges of land points that are 90 degrees apart, gives the best
accuracy. In the above figure, points C & D are 90 degrees apart.
 Radar ranges from land points that are 180 degrees apart (points A & C, in
the above figure) should be avoided. This is because sometimes their
position arcs do not intersect at all and even if they intersect, they would
meet at two different points.
Charted track
 If you cannot get land points that are 90 or close to 90 degrees apart, then
ranges from at least 3 different land points should be taken (preferably 60
degrees apart from each other). Their position arcs would intersect each
other and form a ‘Cocked-hat’. Generally the center of the cocked-hat is the
vessel’s position.
 Fastest changing range should be taken last.

71
RADAR
 Slowest changing ranges to be taken first.
C D
A/Co
B
Charted Track
DR position o
of vessel
In the above figure, as the vessel is moving, the rate of change of range from
land D is the fastest as vessel is heading towards it. Land A being abeam of
vessel, its range will change quite slowly. So land A’s range should be taken
first, then land B, C and lastly D.
 It is important to bear in mind that as the vessel is moving, it is always

better to plan as to which land points would you select for the next radar fix
and which range would you measure first.
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF MARINE RADAR
1. Maximum Range : With scanner height = 15 metres

72
RADAR
Target Height of Ship size Maximum

Coast Range
Coast Lines 60 m - 20 Nm
“ 6m - 7 Nm
Ships - 5000 GT 7 Nm
“ - 10 m length 3 Nm
Objects/Buoys - Effective echo 2 Nm
area of 10 m2
2. Minimum Range : For all objects upto range scale of 1 Nm, with scanner
height of 15 m, the minimum range detection range should not exceed 50 m.
3. Display : (Head - up, relative)
SHIP SIZE DIAMETER

500 – 1600 GT 180 mm
1600 – 10,000 GT 240 mm
10,000 GT & Above 340 mm
4. Range Scales :
RANGE SCALES No. Of Range Rings

0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 Nm & above 6
OR
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 Nm & above 4
On 0.75 miles range scale, there are only 2 range rings.
5. Range Accuracy : Should not exceed 1.5% of the maximum range scale
in use or 70 m, whichever is greater.
6. Bearing Accuracy :+ 1 Degrees or Better, for echoes appearing on the

edge of screen.
7. Range Discrimination :Should not exceed 50 m On 2’ range scale
Or less. Between
0
8. BearingDiscrimination :Should not exceed 2.5 50% - 100% of screen
9. Scanner RPM : At least12 (with relative wind speed - 100 kts.)

73
RADAR
10. Roll &Pitch :+ 10 0.
11. Hdgmarker : Required. Max error + 1 0, thickness <0.5 0.
12. Azimuth Stabilization : To be azimuth stabilized with Compass input. If

Compass control inoperative, then to operate satisfactorily in unstabilized
mode.
13. Means to check drop in Performance, relative to a Standard established

at the time of installation. Also means to be provided to correctly 'Tune' in the
absence of targets
14. Anti - Clutter controls to be provided to suppress clutter, with nil effect
when fully turned anti-clockwise. Automatic anti-clutter control if provided,
must be able to be switched off.
15. When switched 'ON' from cold condition, to be operational within 4

minutes. 'STANDBY' condition required and capable of being operational
within 15 seconds.
16. Where True Motion is provided, the trace origin (except under manual
control) not to continue beyond 75% of the radius of the Display.
17. If two Radars are fitted, it should be operational

(i) individually (ii) Together (iii) interswitching may be provided (for
interchange of displays only)
(iv) so installed that failure of one should not cause failure of electric supply to
the other.
18. All controls to be identified by IMO approved symbols.

74

Radar

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RADAR

Radio Detection And Ranging

Essentially Radar consists of four main components: -

1. Transmitter – It generates very high powered, high frequency radar

2. Antenna System – It is an antenna that revolves 360 degrees, thus

3. Receiver – Here the received pulses (echoes) are amplified millions of

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

The radar pulse travels at the speed of light, i.e.,

1 second = 106 micro seconds (u sec)

The speed of radar pulse can be indicated as

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

This can also be derived from the formulae: -

Distance = Speed x Time

How does Radar Determine Range?

How does radar determine the bearing?

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Characteristics of the Pulse

1. Vertical Beam Width (VBW) -- It is defined as the angle formed at the

VBW CENTRE (100% POWER)

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Therefore the VBW should be a compromise between minimum and maximum

2. Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) : It is defined as the angle formed at the

HBW CENTRE (100% PWR)

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Paint size = Actual size + 1 HBW Paint size = 1 HBW

(Target with some angular size) (Point size target)

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

HBW (in degrees) can also be given in meters.

In the figure, C is the scanner;

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Length of the arc =Radius X ( 00)

So, AB=Range x HBW = 4 x 2 miles = 4 x 2 x1852 meters = 258.6 m.

Therefore Bearing Discrimination of the set at 4 miles range is 258,6 meters.

As per IMO Performance Standards, Bearing Discrimination should not

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Actual size of target ½ PL radial depth

PL = 0.2 us = 0.2 x 300 = 60 meters.

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

The radar transmission is not continuous, but in pulses, i.e., Tx – stop – Tx –

Consider a PL = 0.2 us or 60 m. Until the transmission of 0.2 us is over (i.e.,

Minimum Range = ½ PL in use

On commercial marine radars, there are 3 or 4 values of PL and they

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)OR

It is number of pulses transmitted per second. For marine radars generally

(Time gap between transmission).

Distance = Speed x Time

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

If a range scale of 48 nm is in use, the PRF of 2000 is unacceptable as the

So Maximum range is inversely proportional to PRF.

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Considering a Radar with following characteristics

In 1 min., the scanner rotates 20 times i.e., = 20 x 360 = 72000

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

Wave Length (in m) = Velocity (in m/sec)

WL is inversely proportional to Frequency.

X-axis : Time (in us)

Generally in Marine radar, two wavelengths are used.

(i) Attenuation - It is the loss of the energy caused to due to absorption

SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

(i) Detection of small objects nearby is poor in a 10 cm radar compared to

(ii) Example - For a scanner height of 18 m, if a target (ht – 3 m)