NERVOUS SYSTEM PART 1

OUTLINE:
I. NERVOUS TISSUE
II. SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
III. BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
 Functions of the Nervous System
• Receiving sensory input
• Integrating information
• Controlling muscles and glands
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Establishing and maintaining mental activity
 Divisions of the Nervous System
1. CNS
– Brain
– Spinal cord
2. PNS
– Nerves
– Ganglia
• The sensory division, or afferent (toward)
division, of the PNS conducts action potentials
from sensory receptors to the CNS.
• The motor division, or efferent (away)
division, of the PNS conducts action potentials
from the CNS to effector organs, such as
muscles and glands.
• The motor division can be further subdivided
based on the type of effector being
innervated.
– The somatic nervous system
– The autonomic nervous system
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
• The ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ENS) is a
unique subdivision of the peripheral nervous
system located in the digestive system.
 Cells of the Nervous System
1. Neurons or nerve cells
– receive stimuli, conduct
action potentials, and
transmit signals to other
neurons or effector
organs.
• cell body
• dendrites
• axons
 Types of Neurons
a. Function b. Structural
– Sensory – Multipolar
– Motor Neuron – Bipolar
– Pseudounipolar
Myelin sheaths
• are specialized layers
that wrap around the
axons of some neurons.
• Axons with these myelin
sheaths are called
myelinated axons
• Excellent insulator that
prevents almost all ion
movement across the
cell membrane.
• Nodes of Ranvier
2. Glial cells or neuroglia
– are the primarily supportive cells of the CNS and PNS,
meaning these cells do not conduct action potentials.
– .Most neuroglia retain the ability to divide, whereas
neurons do not.
– There are five types of glial cells.
• Astrocytes
• Ependymal
• Microglia
• Oligodendrocytes
• Schwann cells
 Organization of Nervous Tissue
• Gray matter
– consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little myelin.
• CNS: surface of the brain is called the cortex, and clusters of gray
matter located deeper within the brain are called nuclei.
• PNS: cluster of neuron cell bodies is called a ganglion
• White matter
– White matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with
their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color.
– CNS: forms nerve tracts, or conduction pathways
– PNS: bundles of axons plus other connective tissues =
nerves
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
• Excitable cells communicate with each other
via action potentials or graded potentials.
• Action potentials (AP) allow communication
over short and long distances whereas graded
potentials (GP) allow communication over
short distances only.
– Production of an AP or a GP depends upon the
existence of a resting membrane potential and the
existence of certain ion channels.
 Ion Channels in Neurons
• Leakage channels alternate between open and
closed
– K+ channels are more numerous than Na+
channels
• Ligand-gated channels respond to chemical
stimuli (ligand binds to receptor)
• Mechanically-gated channels respond to
mechanical vibration or pressure stimuli.
• Voltage-gated channels respond to direct
changes in membrane potential.
 Action Potentials
• An action potential is a sequence of rapidly occurring
events that decrease and eventually reverse the
membrane potential (depolarization) and eventually
restore it to the resting state (repolarization).
• At the end of repolarization, the charge on the cell
membrane briefly becomes more negative than the
resting membrane potential; this condition is called
hyperpolarization.
• Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion.
– That is, if threshold is reached, an action potential
occurs; if the threshold is not reached, no action
potential occurs.
– Action potentials in a cell are all of the same
magnitude—in other words, the amount of charge
reversal is always the same.
– Stronger stimuli produce a greater frequency of action
potentials but do not increase the size of each action
potential.
• Action potentials are conducted slowly in
unmyelinated axons and more rapidly in
myelinated axons.
– In unmyelinated axons, an action potential in one part
of a cell membrane stimulates local currents in
adjacent parts of the cell membrane.
– local currents in the adjacent membrane produce an
action potential.
– the action potential is conducted along the entire
axon cell membrane.
– This type of action potential conduction is called
continuous conduction
• In myelinated axons, an action potential at
one node of Ranvier causes a local current to
flow through the surrounding extracellular
fluid and through the cytoplasm of the axon to
the next node, stimulating an action potential
at that node of Ranvier.
– This type of action potential conduction is called
saltatory conduction.
 Synapse
• A junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with
another neuron or with cells of an effector organ, such
as a muscle or gland.
• The end of the axon forms a presynaptic terminal.
• The membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the
postsynaptic membrane, and the space separating the
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes is the
synaptic cleft.
• Chemical substances called neurotransmitters are
stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic terminal.
– Ionotropic receptors
– Metabotropic receptors
 Reflexes
• an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to
the periphery and transmitted to the CNS
• Reflex Arc:
– Neuronal pathway by which a reflex occur
– the basic functional unit of the nervous system
• 5 ive basic components:
– (1) a sensory receptor;
– (2) a sensory neuron;
– (3) interneurons,
• Between, and communicating with two other neurons;
– (4) a motor neuron;
– (5) an effector organ (muscles or glands).
 Neuronal Pathways
• The two simplest pathways are converging and
diverging pathways.
1. Converging pathway, two or more neurons synapse
with (converge on) the same neuron.
– This allows information transmitted in more than one
neuronal pathway to converge into a single pathway.
2. Diverging pathway, the axon from one neuron divides
(diverges) and synapses with more than one other
neuron.
– This allows information transmitted in one neuronal
pathway to diverge into two or more pathways.
• If several presynaptic end bulbs release their
neurotransmitter at about the same time, the
combined effect may generate a nerve
impulse due to summation
– Summation may be spatial or temporal
• Although the nervous system exhibits
plasticity, neurons have a limited ability to
regenerate themselves.
– Plasticity – the capability to change based on
experience
– Regenerate – the capability to replicate or repair
• In the CNS, there is little or no repair due to:
– Inhibitory influences from neuroglia, particularly
oligodendrocytes
– Absence of growth-stimulating cues that were
present during fetal development
– Rapid formation of scar tissue
• In the PNS repair is possible if the cell body is
intact, Schwann cells are functional, and scar
tissue formation does not occur too rapidly
• Steps involved in the repair process are:
– Chromatolysis
– Wallerian degeneration
– Formation of a regeneration tube
 Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord extends from the foramen
magnum at the base of the skull to the
second lumbar vertebra.
• The inferior end of the spinal cord and the
spinal nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s
tail and are collectively called the cauda
equina.
 Functions of the Spinal Cord
1. Process reflexes
2. Integrate EPSPs and IPSPs
3. Conduct sensory impulses to the brain and
motor impulses to effectors
 Protection of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is
protected by:
• Bone (vertebrae)
• Connective tissue
(meninges)
• Fluid
(cerebrospinal
fluid)
 Spinal Reflex
A reflex is a fast, predictable,
automatic response to changes in
the environment.

• Reflexes help maintain

homeostasis
• The spinal cord serves as the
integrating center for spinal
reflexes
• Integration takes place in the
gray matter of the spinal cord
• Reflexes are often used for diagnosing disorders of
the nervous system and locating injured tissue.
– If a reflex is absent or abnormal, the damage may be
somewhere along a particular conduction pathway.
 Types of Reflexes
1. Stretch
– Controls muscle length by causing muscle contraction.
2. Tendon
– Controls muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation
3. Flexor
– Moves a limb to avoid injury
4. Crossed-Extensor
– Maintains balance
 Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves connect
the CNS to sensory
receptors, muscles, and
glands and are part of
the peripheral nervous
system.
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves
• Anterior and posterior
roots attach a spinal
nerve to a segment of
the spinal cord.
Cervical Plexus
Brachial Plexus
Lumbar Plexus
Sacral Plexus
Dermatomes
• A dermatome is the area of
skin supplied with sensory
innervation by a pair of
spinal nerves.
• Each of the spinal nerves
except C1 has a specific
cutaneous sensory
distribution.
 Brain
• The major
regions of the
brain are the
brainstem, the
cerebellum, the
diencephalon,
and the
cerebrum.
The brain is protected by:
• Cranial bones
• Cranial meninges
• Pia, arachnoid, and dura mater
– Cranial dura mater is composed of 2 layers
• Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood Supply of the Brain
• Blood flows to the
brain via the
vertebral and
carotid arteries
and flows back to
the heart via the
jugular veins.
 Blood –Brain Barrier (BBB)
• The BBB protects brain cells from harmful
substances and pathogens by serving as a
selective barrier to prevent passage of many
substances from the blood into the brain
– The BBB can prevent the entry of therapeutic
drugs
– Injury to the brain may cause a breakdown of the
BBB, permitting the passage of normally restricted
substances into the brain tissue
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• CSF is a liquid that protects the brain and spinal cord
against chemical and physical injuries and it carries
oxygen, glucose, and other important substances
from the blood to nervous tissue cells
Ventricles and the Choroid Plexus
• The ventricles of the brain contain CSF
• The choroid plexuses make CSF
CSF Flow
 Regions of the Brain
• The Brain Stem
– Medulla oblongata
– Pons
– Midbrain
 Medulla Oblongata
• The medulla oblongata is continuous with the
superior aspect of the spinal cord and contains
portions of both motor and sensory tracts.
• Cranial nerves
– Vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal
• Structural regions
– Pyramids
– Inferior olivary nuclei
• Functional regions
– Heart rate, respiratory rate, vasoconstriction,
swallowing, coughing, vomiting, sneezing,
hiccupping
 Pons
• The pons is located superior to the medulla
oblongata and it links parts of the brain with one
another by way of tracts
• Cranial nerves
– Trigeminal, abducens, facial, and vestibular branch
of vestibulocochlear
• Functional regions
– Relays nerve impulses related to voluntary
skeletal muscle movements from cerebrum to
cerebellum
– Pneumotaxic and apneustic areas (control of
respiration)
 Midbrain
• The midbrain is located superior to the medulla
oblongata and extends from the pons to the
diencephalon.
• Cranial nerves
– Oculomotor and trochlear
• Structural regions
– Cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, substantia
nigra, red nuclei, and medial lemniscus
• Functional regions
– Conveys motor impulses from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum and spinal cord, sends sensory impulses
from the spinal cord to the thalamus, and regulates
auditory and visual reflexes
 Reticular Formation
• The reticular formation helps regulate muscle tone, alerts the
cortex to incoming sensory signals, and is responsible for
maintaining consciousness and awakening from sleep
 Cerebellum
• The cerebellum occupies the inferior and posterior
aspects of the cranial cavity and consists of two
hemispheres and a central vermis.
 Diencephalon
The diencephalon is composed of the:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
• The thalamus is located superior to the midbrain and
contains nuclei that serve as relay stations for all
sensory impulses (except smell) to the cerebral
cortex
• The hypothalamus is found inferior to the thalamus,
has four major regions, controls many body
activities, and is one of the major regulators of
homeostasis
• The epithalamus lies
superior and posterior to
the thalamus and
contains the pineal gland
which secretes melatonin
and habenular nuclei
which are involved in
olfaction.
 The Cerebrum
• The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter
which contains billions of neurons.
– Gyri, fissures, and sulci can be identified on the cortex

• Deep to the cortex is white matter composed of

tracts of neurons that connect parts of the brain
to each other and the spinal cord.
– A bundle of white matter tracts called the corpus
callosum connects the right and left hemispheres of
the cerebrum
 Basal Nuclei of the Cerebrum
• The basal nuclei are paired masses of gray matter in
each cerebral hemisphere
 The Limbic System
• The limbic system is found in the cerebral
hemispheres and diencephalon.
 Functional Organization of the
Cerebral Cortex
• Sensory areas
• Motor areas
• Association areas
Lateralization
Cranial Nerves
 Aging and the Nervous System
Aging can result in:
• Loss of neurons
• Diminished capacity for sending nerve impulses
to and from the brain
• Diminished ability to process information
• Decreased conduction velocity
• Slowing of voluntary motor movements
• Increased reflex time
• Degenerative changes in vision, hearing, sight,
taste, smell, touch, and balance
 Pathophysiology
• Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
• Alzheimer’s disease