The earliest city to rise in the region of Mesopotamia is considered by modern-day scholars

to be Uruk, around 4500 BCE, and then that of Ur around 3800 BCE, both of which were then
situated in proximity to the banks of the Euphrates River.

Urbanization spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt and, from there, to Greece and it seems,
early on, that the lesson of the city of Ur, and others, was heeded by later urban centers. In
Egypt, especially, great care was taken with the land to prevent the less desirable
consequences of urbanization from toppling the great cities of Pharaoh so that focus could
remain steady on cultural aspects such as the development of writing, architecture, laws,
administration, sanitation, trade, and craftsmanship (all thought to have originated in
Mesopotamia at Uruk).

Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban areas, the
gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each
society adapts to this change.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are
formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.

Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including urban planning, geography, sociology,

architecture, economics, and public health. The phenomenon has been closely linked to
modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization.[8]

Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes, which provide an
opportunity for sustainability with the "potential to use resources more efficiently, to create more
sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems."[6]

Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of
human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly
replaced by predominantly urban culture.

History
From the development of the earliest cities in Mesopotamia and Egypt until the 18th century, an
equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population who were engaged in subsistence
agriculture in a rural context, and small centres of populations in the towns where economic
activity consisted primarily of trade at markets and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the
primitive and relatively stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period, the ratio of rural to
urban population remained at a fixed equilibrium. However, a significant increase in the
percentage of the global urban population can be traced in the 1st millennium BCE.[12] Another
significant increase can be traced to Mughal India, where 15% of its population lived in urban
centers during the 16th–17th centuries, higher than in Europe at the time.[13][14] In comparison, the
percentage of the European population living in cities was 8–13% in 1800.[15]
With the onset of the British agricultural and industrial revolution in the late 18th century, this
relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over
the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from the countryside and due to
the tremendous demographic expansion that occurred at that time. In England and Wales, the
proportion of the population living in cities with more than 20,000 people jumped from 17% in
1801 to 54% in 1891. Moreover, and adopting a broader definition of urbanization, we can say
that while the urbanized population in England and Wales represented 72% of the total in 1891,
for other countries the figure was 37% in France, 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States.[16]

As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural productivity they
converged on the new industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing
a boom in commerce, trade, and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals
to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South America.
Spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which
facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class.

Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take
hold in the developing world as well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world
population lived in cities.[17] According to the UN, the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when
more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for the first time in human history.[16]
Yale University in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000
AD, the data was used to make a video showing the development of cities on the world during
the time period.[18][19][20]. The origins and spread of urban centers around the world were also
mapped by archaeologists [21].

Consequences

Economic effect
As cities develop, effects can include a dramatic increase and change in costs, often pricing the
local working class out of the market, including such functionaries as employees of the local
municipalities.
Similar problems now affect the developing world, rising inequality resulting from rapid
urbanization trends. The drive for rapid urban growth and often efficiency can lead to less
equitable urban development. Think tanks such as the Overseas Development Institute have
proposed policies that encourage labor-intensive growth as a means of absorbing the influx of
low-skilled and unskilled labor.[31] One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the
growth of slums. In many cases, the rural-urban low skilled or unskilled migrant workers,
attracted by economic opportunities in urban areas, cannot find a job and afford housing in cities
and have to dwell in slums.
but there are positives in the reduction of expenses in commuting and transportation while
improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits
individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity and diversity.[33][34][35][36]
While cities have a greater variety of markets and goods than rural areas, infrastructure
congestion, monopolization, high overhead costs, and the inconvenience of cross-town trips
frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas.
Environmental effects
The existence of urban heat islands has become a growing concern over the years. An urban
heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar
energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In
cities, where there are less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead
absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories,
and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat.[38] As a result,
cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes.[39] Impacts also
include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.[40]

Water quality
The occurrence of eutrophication in bodies of water is another effect large urban populations
have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, the rain filters down the
pollutants such as CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the air onto the ground below. Then,
those chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, causing a decline in water
quality and damaging marine ecosystems.[

Food waste
Rapid growth of communities create new challenges in the developed world and one such
challenge is an increase in food waste [54] also known as urban food waste.[55][56][57] Food waste is
the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or
spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase
production of methane gases and attraction of disease vectors.[

Crime
Historically crime and urbanization have gone hand in hand. The simplest explanation is that
areas with a higher population density are surrounded by greater availability of goods.
Committing crimes in urbanized areas is also more feasible. Modernization has led to more crime
as well. There is a greater awareness of the income gap between the rich and poor due to
modern media. This leads to feelings of deprivation which can lead to crime. In some regions
where urbanization happens in wealthier areas, a rise in property crime and a decrease in violent
crime is seen.[79]

Evolution of Urbanization in India

Intro
Urbanization in India began to accelerate after,[when?] due to the country's adoption of a mixed
economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector. Urbanisation is taking place
at a faster rate in India. Population residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census,
was 11.4%.[1] This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as
per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%.[2][3] In 2017, the numbers increased to 34%, according to
The World Bank.[4] According to a survey by UN State of the World Population report in 2007, by
2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected to reside in urban areas.[5] As per World Bank,
India, along with China, Indonesia, Nigeria, and the United States, will lead the world's urban
population surge by 2050.[2]
Mumbai saw large-scale rural-urban migration in the 20th century.[see main] Mumbai, in 2018,
accommodates 22.1 million people, and is the largest metropolis by population in India, followed
by Delhi with 28 million inhabitants.
It is quite understandable that when people or an entire group of people for that matter move
from one place to another,especially from rural(gaon of India) to urban(especially
Delhi,Mumbai,Chandigarh) areas they look forward to a better standard of living(majorly
farmers).Then,to meet these standards.

History

The transition period[edit]

India faced poverty, unemployment, and economic backwardness since the British rule. The first
Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, focused on the domain of science and
technology.[6] The mixed economy system was adopted, resulting in the growth of the Public
sector in India crippling down the development of Indian economy leading to what is popularly
known as Hindu rate of growth.[7] The South Asian region though predominantly rural (accounted
for 69.9% rural population as of 2010), has recorded much higher annual growth of urban
population. India, the leading country in South Asia has shown an unprecedented increase in
urban population in last few decades and its urban population has increased about 14 fold from
1901 to 2011. This growth is mainly uneven but not skewed and not concentrated to a single city
of the country. India shares most characteristic features of urbanization in the developing
countries where the rate of urbanization is faster than the developed countries. For instance, in
1971 there were only about 150 cities whose population was more than one lakh, now this figure
has reached to 500 and if this trend persists then it is expected that more than 800 million people
will live in Indian cities by 2050. The urban population of India has increased from 25.85 million in
1901 to 377.11 million in 2011.[8]
The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP of India started to decline and the
percentage contribution from secondary sector increased. The period after 1941, witnessed rapid
growth of four metropolitan cities in India, which were Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai.[10]
The nation's economy saw a rise due to industrial revolution and the invention of new
technologies increased the standard of living of people living in urban areas.[11] The growth of
public sector resulted in development of public transport, roads, water supply, electricity, and
hence the infrastructure of urban areas.
Maharashtra was the most urbanized state in India till 1991, stood behind Tamil Nadu in 2001
and third after it in 2011, with Kerala being second,[12] with the urban-total state population ratio.
However, Maharashtra's urban population of 41 million, far exceeds that of Tamil Nadu which is
at 27 million, as per the 2001 census.[13] The spatial distribution of large cities in India is uneven
as out of 100 most populous cities in the country more than 50 are confined to only 5 states
namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Other than state
capitals and major industrial centre, large cities are mainly concentrated in the national capital
region (NCR), western and southern part of India.[8]

Causes of urbanization in India

The main causes of urbanisation in India are:

 Expansion in government services, as a result of the Second World War

 Migration of people during the partition of India[14][15][16]
 The Industrial Revolution[17]
 Eleventh five-year plan that aimed at urbanisation for the economic development of India[18]
 Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities
 Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas[19]
 Growth of private sector after 1990 .[20]
 Growth of employment in cities is attracting people from rural areas as well as smaller cities
to large towns. According to Mckinsey India's urban population will grow from 340 million in
2008 to 590 million in 2030.
 Therefore, it is being driven by economic compulsions where people move out for economic
advancements to areas offering better job opportunities.
 It is also driven by land fragmentations, villages being erased due to roads and highway
constructions, dam constructions and other activities.
 Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood, but it's no more profitable: Indian rural
economy is primarily based on agriculture. Indian agriculture sector accounts for 18 percent
[21]
of India's gross domestic product (GDP) and it is estimated that it provides employment to
50% of the countries workforce, but ground reality differs. Many farmers in different states of
India are leaving farming, primarily because of high input cost and low income from
agriculture. Also on the other hand with usage of fertilizers, chemicals and hybrid seeds, land
fertility is declining. This encourages many farmers to commit suicide. In 2014, the National
Crime Records Bureau of India reported 5,650 farmer suicides. As per the figures
given by central government in 2015, there were 12602 farmer suicides. This includes
8,007 farmers-cultivators and 4,595 agricultural labourers.[22] The farmer's suicide rate in
India has ranged between 1.4 and 1.8 per 100,000 total populations, over a 10-year period
through 2005. Thus people (including farmers) are migrating to cities.

Consequences of urbanization in India[edit]

Crowded housing and polluted waterway in Mumbai

Rapid rise in urban population, in India, is leading to many problems like increasing slums,
decrease in standard of living in urban areas, also causing environmental damage.[23]
The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century caused countries like the United States and the
United Kingdom to become superpowers, but conditions elsewhere are worsening. India's urban
growth rate is 2.07%; seemingly insignificant compared to Rwanda, with 7.6%. India has around
300 million people living in metropolitan areas.[24] This has greatly increased housing issues: with
overcrowded cities, many people are forced to live in unsafe conditions, such as illegal buildings.
Water lines, roads and electricity are lacking in quality, resulting in a decline of living standards. It
is also contributing to the issues presented by pollution.[citation needed]
Urbanization also results in a disparity in the market, owing to the large demands of the growing
population and the primary sector struggling to cope.[25]
Allan Chirare, 15 August 2015 quotes: "Urbanization is just becoming a disaster to the city of
Mumbai in India."
It could be argued that urbanization impacts the migrants themselves on multiple levels.
Networks of friends and family become support systems during the initial transformation phase
and the struggle to find work in a fast-paced environment. Their struggles may take months, or
even years, to adjust to the new surrounds in order to find a stable job. Migrants are responsible
for supporting both themselves in the city and the family left at home.
Some of the positive effects resulting from rural to urban migration occur in the agrarian
communities from which migrants came. Family members left at home, usually the elderly and
young, are eased out of financial pressures as their relatives work to provide higher standards of
living for their dependants. Their quality of life is often additionally improved by the provisions
that the migrant sends back.
On the other hand, rural to urban migration poses a big challenge for the developing cities due to
migrant populations flocking in. How will cities support it in terms of resources, land and space?
Cities offer solutions in terms of high rise buildings (affordable housing), metros (affordable
transport), affordable schooling, established local clinics, water ATMs and many new initiatives.
However, the problems include:
1.National Institution for Transforming India [NITI Ayog], has released report ‘Composite Water
Management Index’ in June 2018 and stated that 21 cities (including Delhi, Mumbai, and
Bangalore) in India would run out of groundwater by 2020.[26]
2.The latest database of Numbeo lists three Indian cities among the top 10 cities of the world for
having worst traffic conditions. These cities include Mumbai, Pune and Kolkata.[27]
2.Population growth and rapid urbanization are combining to create huge challenges for Indian
cities. According to McKinsey,[28] the country's cities are expected to grow from 340 million people
in 2008 to a whopping 590 million in 2030 and this growth will be very rapid. Meeting demand for
urban services in these cities will require US$1.1 trillion in capital investment over the next 20
years. Without the right design and planning, this massive urban growth could exacerbate
existing problems of congestion, pollution, and traffic safety.
4.Delhi is now considered the most polluted city in the world, according to the Brookings Institute,
while at least two-and-a-half million premature deaths are blamed on poor air quality across the
country as a whole.
5.The Economic Survey Report of India 2017-18 estimated that percentage of agricultural
workers of total work force would drop to 25.7 per cent by 2050 from 58.2 per cent in 2001. What
is the cause of this decline? People migrating to cities and adding to the unemployment in cities.
It is interesting to know that because of migration from rural pockets to urban (cities),
unemployment in cities is increasing and in rural pockets it's decreasing. As per Centre for
Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) overall unemployment rate of India as on 18th October 2018
is 6.9% , whereas for urban India its 7.5% and for rural India its 6.6%.

Urban unemployment[edit]
The National Sample Survey Organisation reported the following urban unemployment rates for
the period July 2011–June 2012:[29]

Causes of Rapid Urbanisation in India:

Rapid urbanisation is taking place in different parts of the country
in and around some big cities and towns of the country. The
growing trend of urbanisation as reflected in growing concentration
of major proportion of urban population in some big cities.
The factors which are largely responsible for such rapid
urbanisations are mentioned below:
(i) Natural Increase in Population:
Rapid unbanisation is taking place as a result of high rate of natural
increase in population. Natural increase is taking place when the
birth rate in urban areas exceeds the death rate. The natural growth
rate of urban population is higher than that of rural due to higher
net survival rate arising out of better health and medical facilities.
Improvement in health and medical facilities, drinking water supply
and sanitation facilities have reduced the incidence of water-borne
diseases, communicable diseases etc.

Accordingly, the birth rate in urban areas in 1971 was estimated at

30.1 per thousand as compared to the death rate of 9.7 per thousand
which subsequently reduced to 24.3 and 7.1 per thousand in 1991.
Thus the natural growth rate is stated too high because of large
difference between birth and death rates.

The death rate in urban areas declined considerably due to better

availability of medical and health service, safe drinking water
supply and improved sanitation facilities.

This natural increase in population is largely responsible for

phenomenal growth of population in urban areas i.e. 46 per cent in
1971-81 and 36 per cent in 1980-91 decade as compared to that of 19
per cent and 20 per cent growth rate attained in rural areas of India
during these two decades.

(ii) Migrations:
Rural-urban migration is considered another important factor
responsible for rapid urbanisation in India. The rural to urban
migrations have been resulted due to many factors during the post
independence period. Creation of many activities of manufacturing
and trading as a result of industrial development has resulted
migration of rural people to urban areas for seeking jobs and higher
incomes as well.

After the partition of the country in 1947 rural uprooted people

started to settle down in urban areas. Poor living conditions and
negligible arrangement in respect of education and health have also
attracted large number of rural people to migrate and settle in
urban areas in search of good education, health facilities, better
living conditions and securities of life.

As a result of heavy public investments in industry and mining,

huge industrial development and sustained agricultural
development urbanisation takes place. Thus due to these “pull
factors”, large number of rural people migrate to urban areas.

However there are certain “push factors” where due to worse

economic conditions a number of rural people are pushed out of
villages due to economic compulsions. Thus in the current phase of
urbanisation both the “pull factor” and “push factor” are very
much operational.
(iii) Expansion of Industry and Trade:
In recent years, urbanisation takes place with the growing
expansion of industry and trade in a particular state of region.
Growth of an industry with its ancillaries along with localisation of
industry would always create a favourable situation for the growth
of an urban set up.

Similarly, growth of business and trade along with establishment of

an active market always provides adequate support toward growing
urbanisation in those places related to the development of industry
and trade.

(iv) Boundary Changes of Towns:

With the extension of the boundaries of cities and towns, more and
more rural areas are gradually being included in rural areas.
Although life in these newly extended areas remains rural initially
but the inclusion of these areas into these towns and cities
necessarily increases the number of urban population.

Essay # 5. Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation:

The rapid urbanisation is subjected to both healthy and unhealthy
consequences and aspects.
(i) Healthy Aspects:
Rapid industrialisation results the development and setting up of
many industrial cities. Along with manufacturing units, ancillaries
and service sector started to grow in those urban areas. Secondly,
new and additional employment opportunities are created in the
urban areas in its newly expanding manufacturing and service
sector units.
This would result rural-urban migration and “industrialisation-
urbanisation process” to set in. Thirdly, growth of cities can give
rise to external economies so as to reap the benefit of economies of
scale for various services and activities.
Finally, urbanisation results changes in attitudes and mind set of
the urban people resulting modernisation in behaviour and proper
motivation which indirectly helps the country to attain faster
economic development.

(ii) Unhealthy Aspects:

Although development of the economy are very much associated
with urbanisaition but it has resulted some serious problems.
Firstly, growing urbanisation is largely responsible for increasing
congestion in the urban areas. Too much congestion has resulted
problems like traffic jams, too much concentration of population,
the management of which is gradually becoming very difficult and
costly.

Secondly, too much of population is another unhealthy aspect of

urbanisation which creates urban chaos related to housing,
education, medical facilities, growth of slums, unemployment,
violence, overcrowding etc. All these would result in deterioration in
the quality of human life.

Finally, as a result of urbanisation, large scale migration takes place

from rural to urban areas. Such large scale migration of active
population from rural areas would result loss of productivity in
rural areas, leading to poor conditions in village economy. Thus
urbanisation, beyond a certain point, would result in unhealthy
consequences.

(iii) Urban Policy Measures:

Considering unhealthy consequences of rapid urbanisation, it is
quite important to formulate an urban policy which can provide
urban development with minimum undesirable effects.

The measures which can be largely followed include:

(i) Integrating urbanisation process with the development plans of
the country for developing non-agricultural activities like
manufacturing services and infrastructure leading to attainment of
external economies,

(ii) Making arrangement for selective urban development so as to

minimise the disadvantag es of these large sized towns,

(iii) To develop rural districts, by developing towns in highly rural

districts,

(iv) To develop satellite townships in and around large cities; and

(v) Relieving pressure on large urban centres by developing urban

amenities in adequate quantities so as to make urban living
peaceful.

About 34% of India's population now lives in urban areas, the U.N. World
Urbanization Prospects 2018 report has said. This is an increase of about
three percentage points since the 2011 Census.