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Acids:: Classify Common Substances As Acidic Basic or Neutral
Acids:: Classify Common Substances As Acidic Basic or Neutral
Acids:
Sour taste
Litmus changes from blue to red
React with active metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt
React with carbonates to release carbon dioxide gas
Neutralisation reactions with bases:
Dissociates in water to produce hydronium
(hydrogen) ions
Donates protons to the base
Can accept an electron pair from a base
Bases:
Bitter taste
Slippery or Greasy
Litmus changes from red to blue
Neutralisation reactions with acids:
Dissociates in water to produce hydroxide
ions
Accepts protons from the acid
Can donate an electron pair to an acid
Neutral:
Neither acidic nor basic
Same concentration of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions
Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing of soil
acidity/basicity:
Chemical Analysis:
Chemists routinely use indicators in analytical work
Used in titrations to signal point when the acid neutralises the base
Visible signal as most of these solutions are colourless
Soil Testing:
Acidity is usually difficult to measure with indicator due to the darkness
Soil is moistened with water and universal indicator added
White barium sulfate powder places on surface of soil
White powder absorbs soil water so that colour can be seen against white
background
Monitoring Pool Acidity:
Acidity levels need to be carefully controlled to reduce skin and eye
irritation
Regularly tested with indicator with a colour range similar to that of
universal indicator
Identify Factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction:
Equilibrium:
For reversible reactions:
As reaction proceeds rate of forward reaction decreases as
reactants consumed
Rate of reaction in which reactants reformed increases as products
increase
Eventually an equilibrium state will be reached
At this point the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse
Dynamic Equilibrium – Chemical state in which reaction proceeds in
both
directions at equal rates in a closed system
Factors effecting Equilibrium:
Concentration – increasing the concentration of a substance favours the
direction
that will use up more of that substance
Pressure/Volume – increasing the pressure or decreasing the volume
favours the
direction that will decrease the pressure on the system
Temperature – increasing the temperature favours the endothermic
reaction, using
up the heat
– decreasing the temperature favours the exothermic reaction,
releasing more heat
Define Le-Chatelier’s Principle & describe the solubility of Carbon Dioxide in water
under various conditions as equilibrium in terms of Le-Chatelier’s Principle:
Le-Chatelier’s Principle:
If a change is made to an equilibrium system, then the system alters in a way that
counteracts the change
Carbon Dioxide Solubility:
Dissolves in water, reacts with water:
CO2 (g) ↔ CO2 (aq)
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ↔ H2CO3 (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) ↔ H+(aq) + HCO3 -(aq)
Equilibrium shift to the left increases release of CO2 (g)
Equilibrium shift to the right dissolves more CO2 (aq)
Changing Temperatures:
Increasing temperature favours endothermic reaction, releasing
CO2 (g)
Decreasing temperature favours exothermic reaction dissolving
CO2 (g)
Changing Concentrations:
Adding acid (increasing H+) shifts equilibrium to left
Adding base (reacting with & reducing H+) shifts equilibrium to
right
Changing Pressures & Volumes:
Increasing Pressure, decreasing volume, shift towards right
Decreasing Pressure, increasing volume, shift towards left
Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide & describe, using equations,
examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide:
Natural Sources:
Decomposition and combustion of organic matter in bushfires
Emissions from erupting volcanoes, hot springs and geysers
Industrial Sources:
Combustion of fossil fuels in power plants and in motor vehicles:
During combustion of fuel sulfur compounds oxidise releasing SO2
Example: Combustion of Black Coal
Equation: 4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)
Smelting of sulfide ores:
Sulfide minerals produce sulfur dioxide when smelted
Example: Smelting Chalcopyrite
Equation: 2CuFeS2 (s) + 5O2 (g) + 2SiO2 → 2Cu (l) + 2FeSiO3 (l) +
4SO2 (g)
Identify natural and industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen & describe, using
equations, examples of chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen:
Natural Sources:
Lightning:
Provides high temperatures for reaction between nitrogen and
oxygen
Equation: N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g)
Neutral nitrogen monoxide reacts in air:
Produces acidic nitrogen dioxide
Equation: 2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
Bushfires burning protein rich in oxygen and nitrogen
Industrial Sources:
Combustion reactions in furnaces and internal combustion engines:
High temperatures produced by spark plug react nitrogen and
oxygen, releasing nitrous oxides from exhaust
Home heaters and gas stoves
Assess evidence indicating increase in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen:
Atmospheric Acidic Oxides in USA and Europe:
Emissions of acidic oxides went largely unchecked in 19th and 20th
centuries
Significant NOx (NO & NO2) pollution developed due to motor usage and
electricity generation increase
Emission controls improved, population increase resulted in no change
Sydney’s Air:
Pollution not as extreme, low sulfur content in our coal
Sulfur dioxide levels monitored, well below World Health Organisation
goals
The Evidence:
Only over recent years due to need for technology
SO2 and NO2 form ions, mostly water-soluble, circulating in biosphere &
hydrosphere
As a result it is difficult to measure atmospheric concentration of these
oxides over previous centuries
Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under
which they act as acids
Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the
relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and Acidity/Basicity of
oxides:
Metallic Oxides:
Generally basic
Examples: Na2O, MgO, CaO, FeO and CuO
Soluble metallic oxides react with water forming alkaline solutions
Red litmus turns blue in these solutions
Non-Metallic Oxides:
Generally acidic
Exceptions: CO, NO and N2O which are neutral
Examples: CO2, SO2 and NO2
Blue Litmus turns blue when moist and exposed to these gases
Amphoteric Oxides:
Neutralised by either Acids or Bases
Examples are shown below
Identify Acids including Acetic, Citric, Hydrochloric and Sulfuric & Identify examples
of naturally occurring Acids and their chemical composition:
Natural Acids:
Hydrochloric Acid: HCl
Stomachs produce large amounts of hydrochloric acid to assist
digestion
High acidity activates enzymes catalysing the breakdown of
proteins
HCl vapours also emitted from some volcanoes
Acetic Acid: CH3COOH
Vinegar is a 4% solution of acetic acid
Forms when wine naturally ferments due to microbial oxidation
Citric Acid: C6H8O7
2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
Found in all citrus fruits
Formed during cellular respiration in body cells
Ascorbic Acid: C6H8O6
Commonly known as vitamin C
Prevents onset of scurvy
Present n fresh fruits and vegetables
Sulfuric:
Cooking copper and iron sulfate minerals
SO2 emissions from volcanoes
Nitric:
Distilling nitrate salts with sulfuric acid
NO & consequent NO2 from lightning strikes in the air
Explain the use of acids as food additives:
Citric and Tartaric Acid:
Added top jams to give sharp taste
Prevents growth of microbes
Citric acid also a useful antioxidant, prevents microbe growth in canned
foods
Leavening Agents: (fumaric acid, citric acid, phosphoric acid)
React with sodium bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide
Used in many packaged biscuit and cake mixes
Acetic Acid:
Helps to preserve foods such as pickles and chutneys
Sulfur Dioxide:
Prevent dried fruits and white wine from attack by moulds and other
microbes
Ascorbic Acid:
Antioxidant added to food to prevent spoilage by oxidation
Alters pH so that enzymatic reactions do not occur or are slowed down
Phosphoric Acid:
Added to many soft drinks to increase sharp taste of drink
Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its
conjugate acid:
Relationship between them:
When an acid donates a proton, it forms its conjugate base:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
When a base accepts a proton, it forms its conjugate acid:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
Strength:
Strong acids have very weak conjugate bases
Strong bases have very weak conjugate acids
Identify Conjugate Acid/Base Pairs:
Whenever an acid and a base react they form their conjugates:
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
Hydrochloric acid and the chloride ion are a conjugate acid/base pair
Water and the hydronium ion are a conjugate acid/base pair
Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a
natural system:
Overview:
Buffers control the level of acidity or basicity in a solution
If an acid or base is added to the buffer, little or no change in pH
Usually a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base
Blood - HCO3-/CO32:
Acid added to buffer, hydrogen ions removed:
H+ + HCO3- → H2CO3
Base added to buffer, hydroxide ions removed:
OH- + HCO3- → H2O + CO32-
Net effect is that pH of solution containing buffer changes only slightly
Hydrogen carbonate ions important in maintaining human blood at around
pH 7.4
Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their
acidic, basic or neutral nature:
Neutral Salts:
Salt solutions formed from strong acid, strong base or weak acid, weak
base
NaCl – Ions do not undergo hydrolysis
NH4CH3COO (Ammonium Acetate):
NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+
CH3COO- + H2O → CH3COOH + OH-
Acidic Salts:
Salt solutions formed from a strong acid and a weak base
Solutions of NH4+:
NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+
Basic Salts:
Salt solutions formed from a weak acid and a strong base
KCH3COO (Potassium Acetate):
CH3COO- + H2O → CH3COOH + OH-
Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard
solutions:
Standard Solution: Solution of accurately known concentration (in mol
L-1)
Primary Standard – Solution made by dissolving accurately measured
mass of
solute in a solvent
Secondary Standard – Solution whose concentration is determined by
titration
against a primary standard
A chemical suitable for preparation as a standard solution must be:
1. A water soluble solid
2. High purity
3. Accurately known formula
4. Stable in air – does not lose or gain water or react with oxygen or carbon dioxide
Primary Standard Solution Prepared By:
1. Accurately weighing a calculated amount of solid
2. Dissolving in water
3. Transferring all of the dissolved solid to a volumetric flask
4. Adding water to the flask to prepare a fixed volume of solution
Titration Procedure:
1. Ensure all equipment is cleaned and rinsed with the correct liquid:
Pipette and Burette rinsed with liquid they will contain
Flask rinsed with distilled water
2. Use the pipette to measure a volume of one solution
3. Transfer this to the conical flask
4. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator:
Weak Acid/Strong Base – pH > 7 – Phenolphthalein
Strong Acid/Strong Base – pH around 7 – Bromothymol Blue
Strong Acid/Weak Base – pH < 7 – Methyl Orange
5. Rough titration – add the second solution slowly from a burette into the
conical
flask , swirling constantly, until the indicator changes colour
6. Repeat carefully until you have three readings within 0.1 mL of each other
7. Perform Calculations
Definitions:
Titration – procedure used to experimentally find concentration of
solution
Titration is a volumetric analysis (using volumes) technique
Equivalence Point – Point when reaction is complete
Indicator used to show when reaction is completed
End Point – Point when indicator changes colour
Pipette – Titration equipment which measures a fixed volume of solution
to provide fixed number of moles of one reactant
Flask – Titration equipment in which reaction takes place
Burette – Titration equipment which allows measure of exact volume of
reactant needed to reach equivalence point
Titre – Volume of solution delivered from burette
Titrant – Solution of known concentration and composition
Aliquot – Fixed volume of solution delivered by Pipette
Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in
carbon compounds:
Alkanols:
Hydroxy functional group (OH)
Provides characteristic properties such as high melting points and boiling
points
Polar Molecules, more water soluble
Alkanoic Acids:
Carboxylic Acid functional group (COOH)
Can lose a hydrogen ion and behave as a weak acid
Polar Molecules, more water soluble
Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained
alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol structures:
Alkanols:
High melting and boiling
points due to hydrogen bonding
Between the O in one
molecule and the H of an -OH in a
nearby molecule
Alkanoic Acids:
Ability of -COOH group,
involved in two hydrogen bonds
Even higher boiling point than
that of a similar sized alkanol
Two hydrogen bonds occur
between pair of Alkanoic acid molecules
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of
straight-chained alkanoic acids and straight-chained alkanols:
The example on the left is Ethyl
Ethanoate
R is the straight chain of the
alkanol
R’ is the straight chain of the
alkanoic acid
When naming Esters:
Alkanol becomes ‘Alkyl’ part
Alkanoic Acid becomes
Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe,
using equations, examples of esterification:
Definition: Chemical reaction, alkanol chemically bonded to organic acid
with
elimination of water
Acid, containing -COOH functional group, reacts with alkanol, containing
-OH functional group, producing ester and water
R-OH + HOOC-R! R-OOC-R! + H2O
alkanol acid ester water
Reversible reaction, comparable quantities of alkanol, acid, ester and
water, equilibrium
The C=O and C-O bonds make esters polar substances
Lack of hydrogen bonding means, esters have lower boiling points than
acids or alkanols of same molecular weight
Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis
Esterification catalysed by addition of small amount of acid
Esterification is a condensation reaction, water molecule condensed out
Small amount of concentrated acid added, catalyses reaction
Concentrated sulfuric acid added in large amounts, significant effect on
equilibrium
Concentrated sulfuric acid is a dehydrating agent
Significant amount of sulfuric acid present, shifts equilibrium position to
right by absorbing water: alcohol + acid ester + water
Increases yield of ester, but using large amounts of sulfuric acid is
wasteful, uneconomic and complicates the separation of ester from the reaction
mixture
Explain the need for refluxing during esterification:
Definition – Products and remaining reactants returned to chemical
reaction
Esterification requires heat for reaction to reach equilibrium within an
hour, rather than after many days
Boiling chips added to promote even boiling
Reaction mixture heated, volatile components, such as reactant alcohol
and product ester, could escape
Problem overcome by refluxing reaction mixture
Condenser placed on top of reaction vessel, volatile components pass into
condenser
Condenser water or air-cooled, volatile components condense back to
liquid fall back into reaction mixture
Refluxing improves safety of the operation, as the volatile components are
flammable
Outline some examples of the occurrence and uses of esters and identify and describe
the uses of esters as flavours and perfumes:
Occurrence:
Occur naturally in the form of flavouring agents and scents
Odours and flavours of fruits caused by presence of esters
Solid animal fats and plant oils are also esters
Examples of their uses:
Fragrances and flavours:
Octyl Ethanoate – Orange Flavour
Ethyl Butanoate – Pineapple Flavour
Pentyl Ethanoate – Banana Flavour
Pentyl Butanoate – Apricot Flavouring
Methyl Butanoate – Apple Flavouring
Benzyl Ethanoate – Jasmine Fragrance
Isobutyl Methanoate – Raspberry Fragrance
Solvents and medications:
Ethyl Ethanoate – Solvent and Thinner
Butyl Ethanoate – Nail Lacquer
Acetyl Salicylic Acid – Aspirin