The Earth's

Atmosphere

Atmosphere
The original atmosphere may have been similar to the composition of the solar nebula and close to
the present composition of the Gas Giant planets, though this depends on the details of how the
planets condensed from the solar nebula. That atmosphere was lost to space, and replaced by
compounds outgassed from the crust or (in some more recent theories) much of the atmosphere may
have come instead from the impacts of comets and other planetesimals rich in volatile materials.

The oxygen so characteristic of our atmosphere was almost all produced by plants
(cyanobacteria or, more colloquially, blue-green algae). Thus, the present composition of
the atmosphere is 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1% other gases.

Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere of the Earth may be divided into several distinct layers, as the following figure
indicates.
 Layers of the Earth's atmosphere

The Troposphere
The troposphere is where all weather takes place; it is the region of rising and falling packets of air.
The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level (0.1 atmospheres). There
is a thin buffer zone between the troposphere and the next layer called the tropopause.

The Stratosphere and Ozone Layer

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where air flow is mostly horizontal. The thin ozone layer in
the upper stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a particularly reactive form of oxygen. This
layer is primarily responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The formation of
this layer is a delicate matter, since only when oxygen is produced in the atmosphere can an ozone
layer form and prevent an intense flux of ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface, where it is
quite hazardous to the evolution of life. There is considerable recent concern that manmade
flourocarbon compounds may be depleting the ozone layer, with dire future consequences for life on
the Earth.

The Mesosphere and Ionosphere

Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere and above that is the ionosphere (or thermosphere), where
many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost electrons so they have a net electrical charge). The
ionosphere is very thin, but it is where aurora take place,( An aurora (plural: aurorae or auroras; from
the Latin word aurora, "dawn") is a natural light display in the sky particularly in the high latitude (Arctic
and Antarctic) regions, caused by the collision of energetic charged particles with atoms in the high
altitude atmosphere ) and is also responsible for absorbing the most energetic photons from the Sun,
and for reflecting radio waves, thereby making long-distance radio communication possible.

The structure of the ionosphere is strongly influenced by the charged particle wind from
the Sun (solar wind), which is in turn governed by the level of Solar activity. One measure
of the structure of the ionosphere is the free electron density, which is an indicator of the
degree of ionization. Here are electron density contour maps of the ionosphere for months
in 1957 to the present. Compare these simulations of the variation by month of the
ionosphere for the year 1990 (a period of high solar activity with many sunspots) and 1996
(a period of low solar activity with few sunspots):

Electron Density

The adjacent animations simulate the variation by month of the ionosphere for two
different years:

1. The year 1990 (upper image), which was a period of high solar activity with many
(150) sunspots.
2. The year 1996 (lower image), which was a period of low solar activity with few (10)
sunspots.

The plots show electron density contours, which are an indication of the amount of
ionization in the atmosphere. Yellows and reds indicate larger ionization and blues and
greens indicate smaller ionization. Notice the substantial differences in these two
animations, with much stronger atmospheric ionization in the upper image (the active
Sun of 1990) than the lower image (the quiet Sun of 1996).

The adjacent images are based on these electron density contour maps of the
ionosphere for months in the year 1957 to the present. Additional animations may be
found in this NOAA directory.

Notice the substantial differences in these two animations, corresponding to the strong
influence of solar activity on the structure of the Earth's ionosphere.

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Troposphere:
The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 80%
of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of its water vapor and aerosols.[1] The average depth of
the troposphere is approximately 17 km (11 mi) in the middle latitudes. It is deeper in the
tropics, up to 20 km (12 mi), and shallower near the polar regions, at 7 km (4.3 mi) in
summer, and indistinct in winter. The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with
the Earth's surface influences air flow, is the planetary boundary layer. This layer is
typically a few hundred meters to 2 km (1.2 mi) deep depending on the landform and time
of day. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, called the tropopause, is a
temperature inversion.[2] Pressure and temperature structure.

Pressure and temperature structure

Composition:
The chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception
of water vapor. The source of water vapor is at the surface through the processes of evaporation
and transpiration. Furthermore the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and
saturation vapor pressure decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor
that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. Thus the proportion of water
vapor is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height.

Pressure

The pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with higher altitude. This
is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium, so that the pressure is equal
to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with height, therefore can be
equated to the density with this hydrostatic equation:[3]
where:

 gn is the standard gravity

 d is the density
 z is the altitude
 p is the pressure
 R is the gas constant
 T is the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature
 m is the molar mass

Since temperature in principle also depends on altitude, one needs a second equation to
determine the pressure as a function of height, as discussed in the next section.*

Temperature
Main article: Lapse rate

The temperature of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases. The rate at which
the temperature decreases, , is called the environmental lapse rate (ELR). The ELR is
nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided
by the height. The reason for this temperature difference is the absorption of the sun's energy
occurs at the ground which heats the lower levels of the atmosphere, and the radiation of heat
occurs at the top of the atmosphere cooling the earth, this process maintaining the overall heat
balance of the earth.

As parcels of air in the atmosphere rise and fall, they also undergo changes in temperature for
reasons described below. The rate of change of the temperature in the parcel may be less than or
more than the ELR. When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher
altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing work; but generally it
does not gain heat in exchange from its environment, because its thermal conductivity is low
(such a process is called adiabatic). Since the parcel does work and gains no heat, it loses energy,
and so its temperature decreases. (The reverse, of course, will be true for a sinking parcel of air.)
[2]

Since the heat exchanged is related to the entropy change by , the equation
governing the temperature as a function of height for a thoroughly mixed atmosphere is

where S is the entropy. The rate at which temperature decreases with height under such
conditions is called the adiabatic lapse rate.

For dry air, which is approximately an ideal gas, we can proceed further. The adiabatic equation
for an ideal gas is [4]
where is the heat capacity ratio ( =7/5, for air). Combining with the equation for the pressure,
one arrives at the dry adiabatic lapse rate,[5]

If the air contains water vapor, then cooling of the air can cause the water to condense, and the
behavior is no longer that of an ideal gas. If the air is at the saturated vapor pressure, then the rate
at which temperature drops with height is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. More
generally, the actual rate at which the temperature drops with altitude is called the environmental
lapse rate. In the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a drop of about 6.5 °C for
every 1 km (1,000 meters) in increased height.[2]

The environmental lapse rate (the actual rate at which temperature drops with height, )
is not usually equal to the adiabatic lapse rate (or correspondingly, ). If the upper
air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate ( ), then when a parcel of air
rises and expands, it will arrive at the new height at a lower temperature than its surroundings. In
this case, the air parcel is denser than its surroundings, so it sinks back to its original height, and
the air is stable against being lifted. If, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than predicted by
the adiabatic lapse rate, then when the air parcel rises to its new height it will have a higher
temperature and a lower density than its surroundings, and will continue to accelerate
upward.[2][3]

Temperatures decrease at middle latitudes from an average of 15°C at sea level to about -55°C at
the top of the tropopause. At the poles, the troposphere is thinner and the temperature only
decreases to -45°C, while at the equator the temperature at the top of the troposphere can reach -
75°C.[citation needed]

Tropopause
Main article: Tropopause

The tropopause is the boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere
identifies the location of the tropopause. In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude.
In the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases
with altitude. The region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive (in the
troposphere) to negative (in the stratosphere), is defined as the tropopause.[2] Thus, the
tropopause is an inversion layer, and there is little mixing between the two layers of the
atmospher
Atmospheric flow
The flow of the atmosphere generally moves in a west to east direction. This however can often
become interrupted, creating a more north to south or south to north flow. These scenarios are
often described in meteorology as zonal or meridional. These terms, however, tend to be used in
reference to localised areas of atmosphere (at a synoptic scale)). A fuller explanation of the flow
of atmosphere around the Earth as a whole can be found in the three-cell model.

Zonal Flow

A zonal flow regime is the meteorological term meaning that the general flow pattern is west to
east along the Earth's latitude lines, with weak shortwaves embedded in the flow.[6] The use of
the word "zone" refers to the flow being along the Earth's latitudinal "zones". This pattern can
buckle and thus become a meridional flow.

Meridional flow

Meridional Flow pattern of October 23, 2003. Note the amplified troughs and ridges in this 500 hPa
height pattern.
When the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal (or meridional)
direction, and thus the term "meridional flow" arises. Meridional flow patterns feature strong,
amplified troughs and ridges, with more north-south flow in the general pattern than west-to-east
flow.[7]

Three-cell model
Main article: Atmospheric circulation

The three cells model attempts to describe the actual flow of the Earth's atmosphere as a whole.
It divides the Earth into the tropical (Hadley cell), mid latitude (Ferrel cell), and polar (polar cell)
regions, dealing with energy flow and global circulation. Its fundamental principle is that of
balance - the energy that the Earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses
back into space, but this however is not a balance precisely maintained in each latitude due to the
varying strength of the sun in each "cell" resulting from the tilt of the Earth's axis in relation to
its orbit. It demonstrates that a pattern emerges to mirror that of the ocean - the tropics do not
continue to get warmer because the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cold air
equatorward, the purpose of which appears to be that of heat and moisture distribution around the
planet.

Synoptic scale observations and concepts

Forcing

Forcing is a term used by meteorologists to describe the situation where a change or an event in
one part of the atmosphere causes a strengthening change in another part of the atmosphere. It is
usually used to describe connections between upper, middle or lower levels (such as upper-level
divergence causing lower level convergence in cyclone formation), but can sometimes also be
used to describe such connections over distance rather than height alone. In some respects, tele-
connections could be considered a type of forcing.

Divergence and Convergence

An area of convergence is one in which the total mass of air is increasing with time, resulting in
an increase in pressure at locations below the convergence level (recall that atmospheric pressure
is just the total weight of air above a given point). Divergence is the opposite of convergence - an
area where the total mass of air is decreasing with time, resulting in falling pressure in regions
below the area of divergence. Where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will
be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass (this is called the principle of mass
conservation), and there is a resulting upward motion (positive vertical velocity). Another way to
state this is to say that regions of upper air divergence are conducive to lower level convergence,
cyclone formation, and positive vertical velocity. Therefore, identifying regions of upper air
divergence is an important step in forecasting the formation of a surface low pressure area.
The Stratosphere

The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. The stratosphere is the second layer, as one
moves upward from Earth's surface, of the atmosphere. The stratosphere is above the troposphere
and below the mesosphere.

The top of the stratosphere occurs at 50 km (31 miles) altitude. The boundary between the
stratosphere and the mesosphere above is called the stratopause. The altitude of the bottom of the
stratosphere varies with latitude and with the seasons, occurring between about 8 and 16 km (5
and 10 miles, or 26,000 to 53,000 feet). The bottom of the stratosphere is around 16 km (10
miles or 53,000 feet) above Earth's surface near the equator, around 10 km (6 miles) at mid-
latitudes, and around 8 km (5 miles) near the poles. It is slightly lower in winter at mid- and
high-latitudes, and slightly higher in the summer. The boundary between the stratosphere and the
troposphere below is called the tropopause.

Ozone, an unusual type of oxygen molecule that is relatively abundant in the stratosphere, heats
this layer as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Temperatures
rise as one moves upward through the stratosphere. This is exactly the opposite of the behavior
in the troposphere in which we live, where temperatures drop with increasing altitude. Because
of this temperature stratification, there is little convection and mixing in the stratosphere, so the
layers of air there are quite stable. Commercial jet aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid
the turbulence which is common in the troposphere below.

The stratosphere is very dry; air there contains little water vapor. Because of this, few clouds are
found in this layer; almost all clouds occur in the lower, more humid troposphere. Polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are the exception. PSCs appear in the lower stratosphere near the
poles in winter. They are found at altitudes of 15 to 25 km (9.3 to 15.5 miles) and form only
when temperatures at those heights dip below -78° C. They appear to help cause the formation of
the infamous holes in the ozone layer by "encouraging" certain chemical reactions that destroy
ozone. PSCs are also called nacreous clouds.

Air is roughly a thousand times thinner at the top of the stratosphere than it is at sea level.
Because of this, jet aircraft and weather balloons reach their maximum operational altitudes
within the stratosphere.

Due to the lack of vertical convection in the stratosphere, materials that get into the stratosphere
can stay there for long times. Such is the case for the ozone-destroying chemicals called CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons). Large volcanic eruptions and major meteorite impacts can fling aerosol
particles up into the stratosphere where they may linger for months or years, sometimes altering
Earth's global climate. Rocket launches inject exhaust gases into the stratosphere, producing
uncertain consequences.

Various types of waves and tides in the atmosphere influence the stratosphere. Some of these
waves and tides carry energy from the troposphere upward into the stratosphere; others convey
energy from the stratosphere up into the mesosphere. The waves and tides influence the flows of
air in the stratosphere and can also cause regional heating of this layer of the atmosphere.

A rare type of electrical discharge, somewhat akin to lightning, occurs in the stratosphere. These
"blue jets" appear above thunderstorms, and extend from the bottom of the stratosphere up to
altitudes of 40 or 50 km (25 to 31 miles).