Reviewer – MGT1101
Chapter 5
Leaders can use power for good or ill
• Recent scandals involving political, business,
and religious figures highlight the need to
consider values and ethics in terms of
leadership
• Scholarly and popular literature have turned
greater attention to the question of ethical
leadership
• Leader’s personal values and ethical code may
be the most important determinants of how
that leader exercises available power sources
Leadership and “Doing the Right Things”
Leaders face dilemmas that require choices between
competing sets of values and priorities
• Leaders should internalize a strong set of ethics,
which are principles of right conduct or a
system of moral values
• Gardner and Burns stressed the centrality and
importance of the moral dimension of
leadership
• Leaders set a moral example that becomes the
model for an entire group or organization
Qualities of leadership that engender trust (t=vice)
• Vision
• Empathy
• Consistency
• Integrity
McGregor's styles of managerial behavior on the basis
of people’s implicit attitudes about human nature
• Theory X asserts that most people need
extrinsic motivation because they are not
naturally motivated to work (pessimists)
• Theory Y asserts that most people are
intrinsically motivated by their work
Extrinsic motivation is a behavior driven by external
factors such as a reward or avoidance of negative
outcomes. Money is the most obvious example of
extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is a behavioral catalyst driven by a
desire for personal satisfaction or fulfillment.
Intrinsic motivation comes from within, while extrinsic
motivation arises from outside.
Constructs representing generalized behaviors or states
of affairs that are considered by the individual to be
important
People in an organization vary in the relative
importance they place on values
• Instrumental values
• Terminal values
• Instrumental values: Modes of behavior, such
as being helpful or being responsible
• Terminal values: Desired end states, such as
family security or social recognition
The different generations that encompass the work
force are the following:
 The veterans (1922-1943) - were born during
the great depression (world war II) and has a
hard time adapting to the technological era
(nearing retirement)
 Baby boomers (1944-1960) - post war babies
that hate technology and want most things
done through paper
 Gen Xers (1961-1981)- does not care about
job security because they are entrepreneurial
by nature and they can produce income from
anything
 Millenials (1981-2005) - are centered on
technology and are recognized as heavy
consumers of social media
Gen Xers have a clearly different view of authority than
previous generations
• Expect managers to earn their promotions and
not be rewarded with leadership responsibilities
because of seniority
Research has found little evidence of a generation gap
in basic values
• Studies show that Boomers, Xers, and
Millennials in the managerial workforce are
more similar than different in their views of
organizational leadership
• Define leading as removing obstacles and giving
followers what they need to work well
Moral reasoning: Process used by leaders to make
decisions about ethical and unethical behaviors
Dual-process theory of moral judgment
• Moral judgments dealing with rights or duties
are made by automatic emotional responses
while those made on a more utilitarian basis are
made more cognitively
Two Systems:
System 1 - Bases on emotions; Automatic
Emotional Responses
System 2 - more practical; done cognitively
Moral Reasoning and Character-Based Leadership
Common but challenging ethical dilemmas involve
choosing between two rights
• Kidder identified the following common ethical
dilemmas:
• Truth versus loyalty: Honestly
answering a question that may
compromise real or implied promise of
confidentiality to others.
• Ex. Your friend is cheating and
you are being asked by the legal
girlfriend about it.
• Individual versus community:
Protecting the confidentiality of
someone’s medical condition when the
condition itself may pose a threat to the
larger community
• Ex. Doctor-Patient
confidentiality
• Short-term versus long-term: Balancing
spending time with family against
making career investments for future
benefits
• Ex. Parents who do not spend
much time with their children
due to work.
• Justice versus mercy: Deciding whether
to excuse a person’s misbehavior
because of extenuating circumstances
or a conviction that he or she has
learned a lesson
• Kidder offers the following principles for
resolving ethical dilemmas:
Ends-based thinking: Doing what’s best for
the greatest number of people
Rule-based thinking: Following the highest
principle or duty
Care-based thinking: Doing what one want
others to do to him or her; the golden rule.
Research has identified biases that affect our moral
decision-making
• Implicit prejudice: Subconscious prejudices that
affect one's decisions without him or her being
aware of them
• In-group favoritism: Doing acts of kindness and
favors for those who are like us
• Overclaiming credit: Overrating the quality of
one's own work and contributions
• Conflicts of interest: Adversely impact ethical
judgments and bias one's perceptions of
situations
Ways in which people with firm moral principles
may behave badly without feeling guilt or remorse
over their behavior
• Moral justification: Justifying otherwise
immoral behavior in terms of a higher purpose
• Ex. War is okay is because it is done to
protect our country.
• Euphemistic labeling: Disguising morally
distasteful behavior with cosmetic words
• Ex. Employers firing employees: “We
have to let you go”
• Advantageous comparison: Avoiding self-
contempt for one’s behavior by comparing it to
even more heinous behavior by others
• Ex. Stealing 5 pesos from your mom is
okay because your older brother stole 5
thousand.
• Displacement of responsibility: Violating
personal moral standards by attributing
responsibility to others
• Diffusion of responsibility: Making a big crime
appear smaller
• Disregard or distortion of consequences:
Minimizing the actual harm caused by one’s
behavior
• Dehumanization: Avoiding the consequences
of one’s behavior by dehumanizing those who
are affected
• Ex. Black vs. White
• Attribution of blame: Justifying one's immoral
behavior by claiming it was caused by
someone else’s actions
Components of moral potency
• Moral ownership - sense of responsibility
• Moral courage - confidence in addressing
ethical situation in positive manner
• Moral efficacy - overcome threats for engaging
in ethical behavior
 Avolio and Associates: Components of
Ethical Leadership
Moral person
• Principled decision-maker who cares about
people and the broader society
Moral manager
• Makes ethics an explicit part of the leadership
agenda by communicating messages of ethics
and values and by modeling ethical behavior
Authentic leadership
• Authentic leaders exhibit consistency among
their values, beliefs, and actions
• Study of authentic leadership has gained
momentum because of the following beliefs:
• Promoting transparency and openness
in relationships builds trust and
commitment
• Fostering more inclusive structures and
practices can help build more positive
ethical climates
Servant leadership views serving others as being the
leader’s role
• Characteristics of servant leaders
• Listening
• Empathy
• Healing
• Awareness
• Persuasion
• Conceptualization
• Foresight
• Stewardship
• Commitment to others’ growth
• Building community
Roles of Ethics and Values in Organizational
Leadership
Organizations have dominant values just as individuals
do
• Values represent the principles by which
employees are to get work done and treat other
employees, customers, and vendors
• Leaders in an organization fail because of a
misalignment between personal and
organizational values
Top leadership’s collective values play a significant role
in determining the dominant values throughout the
organization
• Many of the most difficult decisions made by
leaders are choices between opposing values
Leaders must set a personal example of values-based
leadership and ensure that clear values guide
everyone’s behavior in an organization
Leading by Example: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly,
• Research shows that role models can be
characterized using the following categories of
attitudes and behaviors:
• Interpersonal behaviors: They show
care, concern, and compassion for
others
• Basic fairness: They show fairness to
others
• Ethical actions and self-expectations:
They hold themselves to high ethical
standards and behave consistently in
both their public and private lives
• Articulating ethical standards: They
articulate a consistent ethical vision and
are uncompromising toward it
Upward ethical leadership: Leadership behavior
enacted by individuals who take action to maintain
ethical standards in the face of questionable moral
behaviors by higher-ups
• General quality of an organization’s ethical
climate affects whether or not employees raise
ethical concerns
• ethical climates - ethical standards or
norms are consistently and clearly
communicated, embraced, and
enforced by organizational leaders
• unethical climates - unethical behavior
exists with little corrective action, and
misbehavior may even be condoned
Creating and Sustaining an Ethical Climate
“Fronts” of leadership action required to create an
ethical climate
• Formal ethics policies and procedures
• Core ideology
• Integrity
• Structural reinforcement
 • Process focus
Principle-centered leadership asserts a fundamental
interdependence between the personal, interpersonal,
managerial, and organizational levels of leadership
Interdependence between the levels posited in
principle-centered leadership is similar to the
conceptualizations of authentic leadership
Chapter 4 - Power and Influence
Power: Capacity to produce effects on others or the
potential to influence others
• Function of the leader, the followers, and the
situation
• Attributed to others on the basis and frequency
of influence tactics they use and on their
outcomes
Influence: Change in a target agent’s attitudes, values,
beliefs, or behaviors as the result of influence tactics
• Influence tactics: One person’s actual behaviors
designed to change another person’s attitudes,
beliefs, values, or behaviors
• Influence can be measured by the behaviors or
attitudes manifested by followers as a result of
a leader’s influence tactics
• Amount of power followers have in work
situations can also vary dramatically
• Some followers may exert relatively
more influence than the leader does in
certain situations
• Leaders with high amounts of power can cause
fairly substantial changes in subordinates’
attitudes and behaviors
• Individuals with a relatively large amount of
power may successfully employ a wider variety
of influence tactics
• Followers often can use a wider variety of
influence tactics than the leader
• This is because the formal leader is not always
the person who possesses the most power in a
leadership situation
Sources of Leader Power
• Furniture arrangement
• Shape of the table used for meetings
and seating arrangements
• Prominently displayed symbols
• Appearances of title and authority
• Choice of clothing
• Presence or absence of crisis
Figure 4.1: Sources of Leader Power in
the Leader, Follower, and Situation Framework
Reward Power:
The extent of reward power depends upon the extent
to which one has control over rewards that are valued
by another.
Coercive Power:
The opposite of reward power is the coercive power;
which is the ability to influence punishment.
Expert Power:
Expert power is based on the perception or belief that
the influence has some relevant expertise or special
knowledge that others do not have. It is more of a
personal power rather than organisational power.
Referent Power:
This power is known as charismatic power and is based
upon the attraction exerted by one individual over
another. This power develops out of admiration of
another and a desire to be like that person.
Legitimate power is power you derive from your formal
position or office held in the organization's hierarchy of
authority.
French and Raven’s Bases of Social Power:
Expert Power
Power of knowledge
 Some people are able to influence others with
their relative expertise in particular areas
Followers may have more expert power than leaders
at times
 If different followers have considerably greater
amounts of expert power, the leader may be
unable to influence them using expert power
alone
French and Raven’s Bases of Social Power:
Referent Power
Potential influence one has because of the strength of
the relationship between the leader and the followers
• Desire to maintain referent power may limit a
leader’s actions in certain situations
The stronger the relationship, the more influence
leaders and followers exert over each other
• Followers with relatively more referent power
than their peers are often spokespersons for
their units and have more latitude to deviate
from work-unit norms
• Takes time to develop but can be lost quickly
French and Raven’s Bases of Social Power: Legitimate
Power
Holding a position and being a leader are not
synonymous
• Effective leaders often intuitively realize they
need more than legitimate power to be
successful
• Followers can use their legitimate power, job
descriptions, bureaucratic rules, or union
policies to influence leaders
Involves the potential to influence others through
control over desired resources
• Potential to influence others through reward
power is a joint function of the leader, the
followers, and the situation
Problems associated with rewards
• Overemphasizing performance rewards can
lead to workers feeling resentful and
manipulated
• Extrinsic rewards such as praise or
compensation may not have the same
behavioral effects as intrinsic rewards such as
personal growth and development
• Rewards may produce compliance but not other
desirable outcomes like commitment
French and Raven’s Bases of Social Power: Reward
Power
Leaders can enhance their ability to influence others
based on reward power by:
• Determining what rewards are available and
most valued by subordinates
Followers can exercise reward power over leaders by:
• Modifying their level of effort based on the
leader’s performance
French and Raven’s Bases of Social Power:
Coercive Power
 Reliance on this power has inherent limitations
 Informal coercion can change the attitudes and
behaviors of others
 Followers that use coercive power to influence
a leader’s behavior tend to have a relatively
high amount of referent power among co-
workers
Leader Motives
People vary in their motivation to influence or control
others
• Need for power is expressed in the following
ways:
• Personalized power
• Socialized power
• Thematic Apperception Test, a projective
personality test, can assess the need for power
• Need for power is found to be positively related
to various leadership effectiveness criteria
Personalized power is exercised for personal needs by
selfish, impulsive, uninhibited individuals who lack self-
control
Socialized power is used for the benefit of others or the
organization and involves self-sacrifice
• Leaders who are relatively uninhibited in their
need for power will use power impulsively
• Leaders with a high need for power but low
activity inhibition may be successful in the short
term, but the remainder of the organization
may pay high costs for this success
• Some followers have a high need for power,
which can lead to tension between the leader
and the follower
• Miner describes motivation to manage in terms
of the following composites:
• Maintaining good relationships with
authority figures
• Wanting to compete for recognition
and advancement
• Being active and assertive
• Wanting to exercise influence over
subordinates
• Being visibly different from followers
• Being willing to do routine
administrative tasks
Types of Influence Tactics based on
the Influence Behavior Questionnaire
• Rational persuasion: When logical arguments
or factual evidence is used to influence others.
This power usually comes from someone who is
an expert in their field and is based on using
logic and evidence to influence others.
• Inspirational appeals: When a request or
proposal is designed to arouse enthusiasm or
emotions in targets . focus on values, emotions,
and beliefs to gain support for a request or
course of action
• Consultation: When targets are asked to
participate in planning an activity. Behavior
seeks others participation in making a decision
or planning, strategy
• Ingratiation: When an agent attempts to get a
target in a good mood before making a request
• Personal appeals: When a target is asked to do
a favor out of friendship
• Exchange: When a target is influenced through
the exchange of favors
• Coalition tactics: When agents seek the help of
others to influence the target
• Pressure tactics: When threats or persistent
reminders are used to influence targets
• Legitimizing tactics: When agents make
requests based on their position or authority
Influence Tactics and Power
A strong relationship exists between the relative
power of agents and targets and the types of
influence tactics used
Leaders with high referent power generally do not
use legitimizing or pressure tactics
Leaders with only coercive or legitimate power tend
to use coalition, legitimizing, or pressure tactics
Hard tactics are used when:
• An influencer has the upper hand
• Resistance is anticipated
• The other person’s behavior violates important
norms
Soft tactics are used when:
• One is at a disadvantage
• Resistance is expected
Rational tactics are used when:
• Parties are relatively equal in power
• Resistance is not anticipated
Using influence tactics is a social skill
Other ways to successfully influence superiors
• Thoroughly preparing beforehand
• Involving others for support or coalition tactics
• Persisting through a combination of approaches
People select influence tactics as a function of their
power relationship with another person
A Concluding Thought about Influence Tactics
Leaders should pay attention to the actual influence
tactics they use and why they believe particular
methods are effective
• Influence efforts intended to build others up
more frequently lead to positive outcomes than
influence efforts intended to put others down
Chapter – 3 Skills for Developing Yourself as a
Leader
Preparing for an Interview
Candidates should gather as much information
about their potential company as they can
• Sources of information include Websites,
annual reports, press releases, and marketing
literature
• Can also use Facebook, LinkedIn, Plaxo, and
other social networking sites to set up
informational interviews with people inside the
organization
The First Day: Making a First Impression
The first meeting with the boss happens in the
boss’s office and lasts an hour
• Key topics to address in the meeting
• Identifying the team’s key objectives,
metrics, and important projects
• Understanding the boss’s view of team
strengths and weaknesses
• Working through meeting schedules
and communication styles
• Sharing plans for the day and the next
several weeks
• New hires could end discussions by arranging a
follow-up meeting with their bosses to review
progress and to ask whether weekly or monthly
one-on-one meetings would be helpful
• New leaders should also meet with their entire
teams the first day on the job
First Two Weeks
New leaders should meet people both inside and
outside the team
• Key objectives for these meetings are:
• Learning as much as possible
 • Developing relationships
• Determining future allies
One-on-one meetings with key team members
should provide the leader with answers to critical
questions
• What is the team member working on?
• What are the team member’s objectives?
• Who are the “stars” a level or two down in the
organization?
• What are the people issues on the team?
• What can the team do better?
• What advice do team members have for the
new leader, and what can the new leader do to
help team members?
New leaders should minimize their personal
interactions with direct reports during their first
two months on the job
• Should discuss the following during meetings:
• Their peers’ objectives, challenges,
team structure, etcetera
• Their perspectives on what the new
leader’s team does well and could do
better
• Their perspectives on the new leader’s
team members
• How to best communicate with the
boss
• How issues get raised and decisions
made on their boss’s team
New leaders should make it clear that they want
and appreciate their peers’ help
• Should schedule regular meetings with their
peers to build relationships
New leaders should meet with their stars during the
first two weeks on the job
• Stars can provide ideas for improving team
performance and are likely candidates for direct
report positions should the new leader decide
to change the structure of the team
New leaders should try to meet with individuals
who were once part of the team but have taken
positions in other parts of the organization
• Offer unique insights into the history of the
team and team members
First Two Months: Strategy, Structure, and Staffing
Leader should gather more information, determine
the direction, and finalize the appropriate structure
and staffing for the team for the next six weeks
Tasks to be performed include:
• Gathering benchmarking information from
other organizations
• Meeting with key external customers and
suppliers
• Meeting with the former team leader, if
appropriate
New leaders need to be able to articulate:
• Where the team has been and where it needs
to go over the next one to three years
• What the team needs to accomplish and what
changes will be needed to make this happen
• Their expectations for team members
Once the proposed changes have been agreed to,
new leaders need to have one-on-one meetings
with all team members affected by any strategy,
structure, and staffing decisions
• New leaders should seek feedback from peers
and recruiters
Third Month: Communicate and Drive Change
Things to do include:
• Articulating how the team will win
• Identifying the what, why, and how of any
needed changes
• Defining a clear set of expectations for team
members
Major events for the third month
• Meet with the entire team
• Meet off-site with direct reports if the team is
large
Key objectives of the off-site meeting
• Get agreement on the critical attributes and
values of team members
• Create a team scorecard
• Establish an operating rhythm
• Establish task forces to work on key change
initiatives
Learning From Experience
Leadership practitioners can enhance the learning
value of experiences by:
• Creating opportunities to get feedback
• Taking a 10 percent stretch
• Learning from others
• Keeping a journal of daily leadership events
• Having a developmental plan
Technical Competence
 • Concerns the knowledge and repertoire of
behaviors one can utilize to complete a task
successfully
• Followers with technical competence earn
better performance appraisal ratings, exert
influence in their groups, and are more likely to
be a member of a leader’s in-group
• Related to improved managerial promotion
rates, better training skills, lower rates of group
conflict, reduced levels of role ambiguity, and
higher motivation levels among followers for
leaders
Steps in building technical competence
• Determining how the job contributes to the
overall success of the organization
• Becoming an expert in the job through
education, training, observation, asking
questions, and teaching
• Seeking opportunities to broaden one’s
experiences by performing tasks associated
with the other positions in one’s work group
and visiting other parts of the organization
Advantages of Having a Good Working Relationship
with Superiors
Superiors and followers sharing the same values,
approaches, and attitudes will:
• Experience less conflict
• Provide higher levels of mutual support
• Be more satisfied with superior and follower
relationships
Followers receive better performance appraisal ratings
Building Effective Relationships with Superiors
In order to understand the superior’s world better,
followers should:
• Understand the superior’s personal and
organizational objectives
• Realize that superiors do not have all the
answers and have both strengths and
weaknesses
• Keep the superior informed about various
activities in the work group or new
developments or opportunities in the field
Requires followers to adapt to the superior’s style by:
• Clarifying expectations about their role on the
team, committee, or work group
• Listing major responsibilities and using the list
to guide discussions with superiors about
different ways to accomplish tasks and relative
priorities of the tasks
• Being honest and dependable
Building Effective Relationships with Peers
Research suggests that a key requirement of leadership
effectiveness is the ability to build strong alliances with
others
Ways to establish and maintain good peer relationships
• Recognizing common interests and goals
• Understanding peers’ tasks, problems, and
rewards
• Practicing a theory Y attitude
Development Planning
Systematic process of building knowledge and
experience or changing behavior
Peterson and Hicks believe that there are five
interrelated phases to developmental planning:
• Identifying development needs
• Analyzing data to identify and prioritize
development needs
• Using prioritized development needs to create a
focused and achievable development plan
• Periodically reviewing the plan, reflecting on
learning, and modifying or updating the plan as
appropriate
• Transferring learning to new environments
Conducting a G A P S Analysis
The first phase in the development planning process is
to conduct a G A P S, goals, abilities, perceptions, and
standards analysis, which involves the following steps:
• Identifying career goals
• Identifying strengths and development needs
related to the career goals
• Determining how one’s abilities, skills, and
behaviors are perceived by others by asking
others for feedback or through performance
reviews or 360-feedback instruments
• Determining the standards one's boss or
organization has for one's career objectives
Bridging the Gaps: Building a Development Plan
Following are the steps for developing a high-impact
development plan:
• Working on career and development objectives
• Determining the criteria for success
• Determining action steps
• Deciding whom to involve and reassessing dates
• Stretching assignments
• Using various resources
• Reflecting the knowledge with a partner
Chapter 2 - Leader Development
The Action, Observation, and Reflection Model
Shows that leadership development is enhanced when
the experience involves the following processes:
• Action
• Observation
• Reflection
Spiral of experience
• Most productive way to develop as a leader
• shows that leadership development is enhanced
when the experience involves three different
processes: action, observation, and reflection
Figure 2.1: The Spiral of Experience
The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience:
-Experience is not just a matter of what events happen
to you; it also depends on how you perceive those
events.
-Perception affects all three phases of the action-
observation-reflection model. -People actively shape
and construct their experiences.
Perception and Observation
Observation and perception both deal with attending to
events around a person
Perceptual sets can influence any of one’s senses
• Feelings, needs, prior experiences, and
expectations can all trigger a perceptual set
Stereotypes about gender, race, and the like represent
powerful impediments to learning because they
function as filters that distort one’s observations
Perception and Reflection
Perception influences reflection
• Reflection is how humans interpret their
observations
Perception is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-
making, activity, of which attribution is an important
aspect
• Attributions
Factors that affect the attribution process
• Fundamental attribution error
Attributions: Explanations that one develops for the
characteristics, behaviors, or actions he or she attends
to
Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to
overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and
underestimate the environmental causes when others
fail
• Self-serving bias: Tendency to make external
attributions for one’s own failures and make
internal attributions for one’s own successes
• Actor or observer difference: Refers to the fact
that people who are observing an action are
much more likely than the actor to make the
fundamental attribution error
Perception and Action
Research shows that perceptions and biases affect
supervisors’ actions toward poorly performing
subordinates
Self-fulfilling prophecy is a perceptual variable that can
affect actions
• Self-fulfilling prophecy: Occurs when one's
expectations or predictions play a causal role in
bringing about the events he or she predicts
Reflection and Leadership Development
• Reflection offers leaders insights about framing
problems differently, viewing situations from
multiple perspectives, and understanding
subordinates better
• Leadership development can be enhanced by
raising implicit beliefs to conscious awareness in
order to aid thoughtful reflection
• Intentional reflection may prompt one to see
potential benefits in experience not initially
considered relevant to leadership
• Leaders tend to ignore reflection because they
lack time or they lack awareness of its value
Fundamental Archetypes of Leadership
• Teacher and mentor
• Father and judge
• Warrior and knight
• Revolutionary and crusader
• Visionary and alchemist
Single- and Double-Loop Learning
Single-loop learners seek relatively little feedback that
may significantly confront their fundamental ideas or
actions
Double-loop learning involves being willing to confront
one’s own views and inviting others to do the same
• Mastering double-loop learning is viewed as
learning how to learn
• Learning is enhanced through a practice of
systematic reflection or after event reviews or
A E Rs
Making the Most of One's Leadership Experiences:
Learning to Learn from Experience
• Learning events and developmental experiences
that punctuate one’s life are stressful
• Being able to go against the grain of one’s
personal historical success requires a strong
commitment to learning and a willingness to let
go of the fear of failure and the unknown
• To be successful, learning must continue
throughout life and beyond the completion of
one’s formal education
Leader Development in College
Programs on leadership studies are being offered by
many higher education institutions and colleges
Leadership programs should be multidisciplinary and
should cultivate values represented in the broader field
• Service learning is used to inculcate values such
as social responsibility and the expectation to
become engaged in one’s community
Different leader development methods may be used
beyond service learning
• Some courses or program elements might
involve individualized feedback to students in
the form of:
• Personality, intelligence, values, or
interest test scores
• Leadership behavior ratings
• Case studies and role playing are used as
vehicles for leadership discussions
• Simulations and games are structured activities
designed to mirror the challenges or decisions
commonly faced in the work environment
Leader Development in Organizational Settings
• Organization-based leadership programs
benefit both the individual and the organization
• Research indicates that return on investment
or R O I for investments used in leadership
development are both positive and substantial
• Numerous leadership training programs are
aimed at leaders and supervisors in industry
and public service
Programs for first-level supervisors use lectures, case
studies, and role-playing exercises to improve
supervisory skills
• Focus on:
• Training
• Monitoring
• Giving feedback
• Conducting performance reviews
Mid-level manager programs use individualized
feedback, case studies, presentations, role playing,
simulations, and in-basket exercises to improve:
• Interpersonal skills
• Oral and written communication skills
• Time management
• Planning
• Goal setting
Conger states that a multi-tiered approach is effective
and should focus on personal growth, skill building,
feedback, and conceptual awareness
Some approaches to leadership development
emphasize individualized feedback about each person’s
strengths and weaknesses based on standardized
assessment methods
• Others emphasize that leader development in
the twenty-first century must occur in more
lifelike situations and contexts
Training Programs and Action Learning
Traditional training programs involve personnel taking
leadership classes during work hours
• Such training addresses common leadership
issues, but its artificial nature makes it difficult
to transfer concepts to actual work situations
Action learning involves the use of actual work issues
and challenges as the developmental activity itself
• Works on the philosophy that best learning
involves learning by doing
• Conducted in teams of work colleagues who are
addressing real company challenges
Development Planning
To make enduring behavioral changes, leaders must
provide positive answers to the following five questions:
• Do leaders know which of their
behaviors need to change?
• Is the leader motivated to change these
behaviors?
• Do leaders have plans in place for changing
targeted behaviors?
• Do leaders have opportunities to practice new
skills?
 • Are leaders held accountable for changing
targeted behaviors?
Coaching
Key leadership skill that can help leaders improve the
bench strength of the group and retain high-quality
followers
Process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge,
and opportunities that they need to develop and
become more successful
Types of coaching
• Informal coaching
• Formal coaching
Informal coaching: Takes place whenever a leader helps
followers to change their behaviors
Formal coaching programs: Designed for the specific
needs and goals of individual executives and managers
in leadership positions
Peterson and Hicks: Steps in Informal Coaching
• Forging a partnership
• Inspiring commitment
• Growing skills
• Promoting persistence
• Shaping the environment
Informal Coaching
• Process can be used to diagnose why behavioral
change is not occurring and what can be done
about it
• Increases in difficulty when it occurs either
remotely or across cultures
• Can and does occur anywhere in the
organization and is effective for both high-
performing and low-performing followers
Features of Formal Coaching
One-on-one relationship between manager and coach
lasts from six months to more than a year
• Coach and manager meet regularly to build
skills
• Role plays and videotape are used extensively,
and coaches provide immediate feedback
• Outcomes of coaching programs
• Clarification of managers’ values
• Identification of discrepancies between
managers’ espoused values and their
actual behaviors
• Development of strategies to better
align managers’ behaviors with their
values
Mentoring
Personal relationship in which a more experienced
mentor acts as a guide, role model, and sponsor of a
less experienced protégé
• Mentor: Experienced person willing to take an
individual under his or her wing
• Provides protégés with knowledge,
advice, challenge, counsel, and support
about career opportunities,
organizational strategy and policy, and
office politics
Not the same as coaching because:
• It may not target specific development needs
• Guidance is provided by someone several
leadership levels higher in the organization and
not the immediate supervisor
There are formal and informal mentoring programs
• Informal mentoring occurs when a protégé and
mentor build a long-term relationship based on
friendship, similar interests, and mutual respect
• In a formal mentoring program, the
organization assigns a relatively inexperienced
but high-potential leader to a top executive in
the company
Informal mentoring may be more effective than formal
mentoring as it creates a stronger emotional bond and
can last a lifetime
Building One's Own Leadership Self-Image
 Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes
he or she can be
 People who want to avoid the responsibilities of
leadership should keep an open mind about the
importance and pervasiveness of leadership
 Many people are selling themselves short
CHAPTER 1 - What Do We Mean by Leadership?
Leadership
Complex phenomenon involving a leader, his or her
followers, and the situation
Because of the complexity of leadership, leadership
researchers have defined the concept in many different
ways:
• Process by which an agent induces a
subordinate to behave in a desired manner
• Directing and coordinating the work of group
members
• Interpersonal relation in which others comply
because they want to, not because they have to
Process of influencing an organized group toward
accomplishing its goals Distinctions between Managers and Leaders
Actions that focus resources to create desirable Managers:
opportunities • Administer
Creating conditions for a team to be effective • Maintain
The ability to engage employees, the ability to build • Control
teams, and the ability to achieve results • Have a short-term view
• The first two represent the how and the latter • Ask how and when
the what of leadership • Imitate
A complex form of social problem solving • Accept the status quo
Leaders:
Difference between Successful Managers and Effective • Innovate
Managers • Develop
• Inspire
Successful managers • Have a long-term view
• Those promoted through the ranks • Ask what and why
• Spend more time in organizational socializing • Originate
and politicking • Challenge the status quo
• Spend less time on traditional management
responsibilities such as planning and decision Leadership Myths, 1
making Good leadership is all common sense
Effective managers • The term common sense is ambiguous
• Make real contributions to their organization’s • If leadership were simply common sense, then
performance there would be fewer workplace problems
Leadership Myths, 2
Leadership Is Both a Science and an Art Leaders are born, not made
Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, • Innate factors and formative experiences
Research, and Managerial Applications cites influence behavior and leadership
approximately 8,000 studies on leadership • Natural talents or characteristics may
• Reflects the scope of the science of leadership offer certain advantages or
Leadership remains partly an art as well as a science disadvantages to a leader
• Some managers may be effective leaders • Research shows cognitive abilities and
without ever having taken a course or training personality traits are partially innate
program in leadership • Different environments can nurture or suppress
• Some scholars in the field of leadership may be different leadership qualities
relatively poor leaders themselves Leadership Myths, 3
The only school where leadership is learnt from is the
Leadership Is Both Rational and Emotional school of hard knocks
Leadership includes actions and influences based on: • Formal study and experiential learning
• Reason and logic complement each other
• Inspiration and passion • Formal study of leadership provides students
Since people are both rational and emotional, leaders with a variety of ways of examining a particular
use rational techniques and emotional appeals to leadership situation
influence followers • Studying the different ways researchers
• Leaders should weigh the rational and have defined and examined leadership
emotional consequences of their actions helps students use these definitions and
• Some leaders have been able to inspire others theories to better understand what is
to deeds of great purpose and courage going on in any leadership situation

Aroused feelings can be used either positively or The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership
negatively, constructively or destructively
• Mere presence of a group causes people to act
differently than when they are alone
 • Levels of competence
• Motivation

Workers who share a leader’s goals and values, and

who feel intrinsically rewarded for performing a job well
may be more motivated
Following factors have significant implications:
• Number of followers reporting to a leader
• Followers’ trust and confidence in the leader

States that leadership is the result of a complex set of Importance of the leader and follower relationship has
interactions among the leader, the followers, and the undergone dynamic change for the following reasons:
situation • Increased pressure to function with
• Example: In-groups and out-groups reduced resources
• In-groups: High degree of mutual • Trend toward greater power sharing and
influence and attraction between the decentralized authority in organizations
leader and a few subordinates • Increase in complex problems and rapid
• Subordinates feel a high degree changes in an organization
of loyalty, commitment, and
trust toward the leader Ways in which followers can take on new leadership
• Other subordinates belong to roles and responsibilities in the future
the out-group • Being proactive in their stance toward
organizational problems
Leader as an Individual • Contributing to the leadership process by
Characteristics include: becoming skilled at “influencing upward”
• Unique personal history • Staying flexible and open to opportunities
• Interests Alternative approach to understanding followership
• Character traits • Constructionist approach: Views leadership as
• Motivation combined acts of leading and following by
Effective leaders differ from their followers and from different individuals, whatever their formal
ineffective leaders on elements such as personality titles or positions in an organization may be
traits, cognitive abilities, skills, and values
Leaders are generally calm and are not prone to The Situation
emotional outbursts • Leadership makes sense in the context of how
the leader and followers interact in a given
Leaders appointed by superiors may have less credibility situation
and may get less loyalty • Most ambiguous aspect of the leadership
• Leaders elected or emerging by consensus from framework
ranks of followers are seen as more effective
Leader’s experience or history in a particular Illustrating the Interactional Framework: Women in
organization is usually important to her or his Leadership Roles
effectiveness • Women are taking on leadership roles in
Leader’s legitimacy is affected by the extent of follower greater numbers than ever before
participation in a leader’s selection • Problems that constrain the opportunity for
capable women to rise to the highest leadership
Followers roles still exist
Both practitioners and scholars stress the relatedness of
leadership and followership Findings from studies regarding problems that constrain
Following aspects of followers affect the leadership women from gaining leadership roles
process: • Mentors of women executives had less
• Expectations organizational influence and clout than did the
• Personality traits mentors of their male counterparts
• Maturity levels
 • Compared to men, women’s trust in each other
decreases when work situations become more
professionally risky
• Women’s commitment to the organizations
they worked for was more guarded than that of
their male counterparts
• Strong masculine stereotype of leadership
continues to exist in the workplace
• Women are seen as less well suited to the
requirements of leadership than men

Practice interactive leadership

• Interactive leadership developed by women’s
socialization experiences and career paths
Factors that explain the shift toward more women in
leadership roles
• Women themselves have changed
• Leadership roles have changed
• Organizational practices have changed
• Culture has changed

Glass cliff: Female candidates for an executive position

are more likely to be hired than equally qualified male
candidates when an organization’s performance is
declining
• Challenge for women in addition to the glass
ceiling
• Reflects a greater willingness to put women in
precarious positions

Things to Keep in Mind for Effective Leadership

Leadership must always be assessed in the context of
the leader, the followers, and the situation
Leaders may need to respond to:
• Various followers differently in the same
situation
• Same followers differently in different
situations

Followers may respond to:

• Various leaders differently
• Each other differently with different leaders
The right behavior in one situation is not necessarily the
right behavior in another situation
***END***

***GOOD LUCK AND GOD BLESS***