Nomadic Empires

2 marks
Where was Genghis Khan from and what was his contribution?
Genghis Khan was born around 1162 near the Onon River in the north of present-day
Mongolia. He was the son of Yesugei, the chieftain of the Kiyat and was named
Temujin. He united the Mongol people into a more effective, disciplined military
force. He spent his life leading and directing campaigns into adjoining areas in North
China, Transoxiana, Afghanistan, and eastern Iran and Russian steppes.

How was the Mongol rule a unifying factor?

Mongol rule was a unifying factor for the people of vast area that they had conquered
because inspite of their own faith in Buddhism, Christianity, Islam etc., they never
allowed their personal beliefs to dictate the public policy. They recruited
administrators and armed contingent from various conquered lands. All this was
unusual for the time when they were ruling.

Briefly mention about the administrative features of Genghis Khan's rule.

During the rule of Genghis Khan's rule civil administrators were recruited from the
conquered lands. But they were posted in areas far of from their home. Such as
Chinese secretaries deployed in Iran and Persians in China. These administrators
retained the confidence of their masters till the time they continued to increase the
revenues for them. These administrators could sometimes command considerable
influence.

What was Qubcur Tax?

It was a tax imposed and willingly paid for by the people for the maintenance of
courier service. Under this tax the Mongol tribes paid one tenth of their heard – either
horses or livestock – as provisions for maintenance of the system through which they
benefited vastly.

What was the effect of Genghis Khan conferring titles?

Genghis Khan conferred the title of ‘blood brothers’ publicly to military persons and
honoured certain humbler persons as bondsmen a title that indicated their close
relationship with Genghis Khan. It did not preserve the rights of old clan chieftains
and the new aristocracy derived its status from its closeness to Genghis Khan.

What were the problems encountered by the army of Genghis Khan?

The army of Genghis Khan was composed of diverse people which complicated the
relatively small undifferentiated army into complex mixed mass of people. So his
army looked like band of different people with different mind but it was Genghis
Khan leadership ability that made them unmatched force.

Why did India escape the attention of Genghis Khan?

India escaped Genghis Khan’s visit though he considered returning back from one of
his expeditions through north India and Assam. But because of heat, natural habitat
and ill omens that were reported to him by his soothsayer which made him change his
mind.

Why was Genghis Khan successful in defeating the Chinese?

Genghis Khan was successful in defeating the Chinese because at this time the
Chinese were a divided society and was being ruled by three dynasties each
controlling an independent area.
What does the Great Wall of China symbolize?
The Great Wall of China symbolizes the disturbance and fear that was brought upon
China by the nomadic raids on the agrarian societies of north China and Central Asia.

How was Genghis Khan’s political system different from Attila’s?

Genghis Khan’s political system was more durable as it survived its founder. It was
stable enough to stand against large and better equipped armies of China, Iran and
Eastern Europe. They also administered the complex agrarian economies and urban
settlement far from their home thought they did not have much experience of it in
their homeland.

Who were Mongols?

The Mongols were a diverse body of people who were linked by similarities of
language to Tartars, Khitan and Manchus to the east and, to Turkic tribes in the west.
Some of the Mongols were pastoralists while some were hunter gatherers. They
nomadised in the steppes of Central Asia.

5 marks
Briefly mention about Yasa.
It is assumed that Yasa was officially declared by Genghis Khan at the Quariltai of
1206. In its earliest formulation the term was written as ‘yasaq’ which meant ‘law’,
‘decree’ or ‘order’. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols started using
the term yasa in a more general sense to mean the ‘legal code of Genghis
Khan’. The yasa was most probably a compilation of the customary traditions of the
Mongol tribes.
The yasa tried to join together the Mongol people around a body of shared beliefs. It
recognized their kinship to Genghis Khan and his descendants and, even as they
absorbed different aspects of a sedentary lifestyle, it gave them the confidence to
retain their ethnic identity and impose their ‘law’ upon their defeated subjects. It was
an extremely empowering ideology inspired by Genghis Khan’s vision and was vital
in the construction of a Mongol universal dominion.

How was Mongol authority established after the various conquests?

After the war, when peace was established by Mongol conquest (Pax Mongolica)
trade connections matured. Travel and trade along the silk route increased under the
authority of Mongols. But now the silk route got extended. It continued north of
Mongolia and to Karakorum. Communication and ease of travel was essential to
maintain the authority of the Mongol regime. So, as a symbol of state authority the
travelers were given a pass (paiza in Persian;gerege in Mongolian) for safe conduct.
Traders paid baj tax for the same purpose, there by acknowledging the Mongol
authority.

Briefly explain about the courier system introduced by Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan had formed a swift courier system that connected the distant areas of
his regime. Fresh mounts and despatch riders were placed in outposts at regularly
spaced distances. The Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd -either horses
or livestock-as provisions for the maintenance of this communication system. This
was called the qubcur tax, a levy that the nomads paid willingly for the multiple
benefits that it brought. The courier system (yam) was further refined after Genghis
Khan's death and its speed and reliability surprised travellers. It enabled the Great
Khans to keep a check on developments at the farthest end of their regime across the
continental landmass.
How did Genghis Khan organize his army?
Genghis Khan worked to remove the old tribal rivalries and identity of groups who
joined his confederacy. He stopped the practice of organizing the army in decimal
units. He divided the tribal grouping and distributed their members into new military
units. No individual could move from his/her allotted group without prior permission.
If they did so they were punished severely. The military units were to serve under his
four sons and specially chosen captains of his army units called noyan. A band of
followers who served Genghis Khan loyally through grave adversity for many years
also became important within the new realm.

How was the Military success of Genghis Khan achieved?

The Military success of Genghis Khan was incredible. He had achieved all the
military success by his ability to innovate and transform various aspects of steppe
combat into effective military strategies. The horse riding and hunting skills of
Mongols and Turks provided fast and fierce attacking. They carried out field
manoeuvres in winter by using frozen river as highway to enemies' cities and camps
and brought their knowledge of moving light in terrain as an effective strategy of war.
He learned the importance of siege engines and naptha bombardment quickly. His
engineers built light portable equipments which he used against his opponents.

Describe the early days of Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan was born in 1162 near river Onon in the north of present day
Mongolia. The early days of Genghis Khan were very difficult. His father was
murdered at an early age. He, along with his brothers and step-brothers, was brought
up by his mother. Next ten years were full of hardships. At one time he was enslaved
and soon after his marriage had to fight to recover his wife who was kidnapped. He
also formed alignments with Boghurchu, a friend; Jamuqa, his brother, and his old
uncle, Ong Khan. From 1180-1190, he used his alliance with Ong Khan against
Jamuqa. After this he gained confidence and moved against many other tribes and
consolidated his position. This increased his influence in the politics of steppes lands.
The assembly of Mongol Chieftains recognized this and he was given the title of
Genghis Khan. He was considered as the most barbaric ruler of his time.

Why was the Mongol community divided?

The Mongols were divided into patrilineal lineage. The richer families owed more
animals and pasture lands along with large followers and were influential in the local
politics. Whenever there were harsh winter conditions or dry spell leading to drought
conditions then there were conflicts among the families over pasture lands and
predatory raids occurred in search of livestock. Groups of families formed alliance in
defence or offence during these times but this unity was for very short duration. The
size of Genghis Khan’s confederation of Mongol and Turkish tribes perhaps matched
in size to that of the confederation in the fifth century by Attila Khan.

Why were there no cities in the regions inhabited by the Mongols?

There were mainly two reasons for this. The time for cultivation and other agricultural
activity was very short and just surviving on the trade of fur of the animals which is
difficult to trap them in summer was not possible. The Mongols themselves were not
interested in taking up farming. Neither the pastoral nor the hunting-gathering
economies could sustain dense population settlements and as a result the region
possessed no cities. This led to their leading a life of nomads and living in tent cities.
They travelled with their herds from their winter to summer pastures lands.
Briefly explain the campaigns of Genghis Khan.
Genghis Khan was born some time around 1162 near the Onon river in the north of
present day Mongolia. His original name was Temujin. He was the son of Yesugei, the
Chieftain of the Kiyat, a group of families related to the Borjigid clan. He united the
Mongol people into a more effective, disciplined military force. The first of his
concerns was to conquer China, divided at this time into three realms. By 1209, the
Hsi Hsia was defeated, the 'Great Wall of China' was breached until 1213 and Peking
sacked in 1215. Long drawn-out battles against the China continued until 1234 but
Genghis Khan was satisfied enough with the progress of his campaigns to return to his
Mongolian homeland in 1216 and leave the military affairs of the region to his
subordinates.

8 marks
Write a short essay on social and military organisation of the Mongols.
Social organisation:
 Genghis khan demonstrated liberal and tolerant attitude to the beliefs of others and
never persecuted people on religious grounds.
 Genghis Khan created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in
Mongolia and exempted teachers, lawyers and artists from taxes, although taxes were
heavy on all other subjects of the empire.
 Military commanders of different communities helped in integrating the distant
dominions. Their backgrounds and training were always helpful in blunting the
harsher edges of nomadic predation on sedentary life.
 The Mongol Khans trusted them as long as they continued to raise revenue for
their masters. These administrators could sometimes command considerable
influence.

Military organisation: The Mongol military organisation was simple, but effective. It
was based on decimal system known in Iranian cultures. The army was built up from
squads of ten men each, called an arbat; ten arbats constituted a company of a
hundred, called a zuut; ten zuuts made a regiment of a thousand
called myanghan and ten myanghans would then constitute a regiment of ten
thousand (tumen), which is the equivalent of a modern division. In battles Mongol
forces used extensive coordination of combined arms forces. Mongols were famous
for their horse archers.
The army's discipline distinguished Mongol soldiers from their peers. The forces
under the command of the Mongol Empire were generally trained, organised and
equipped for mobility and speed. To maximise mobility, Mongol soldiers were
relatively lightly armoured compared to contemporary armies they faced. In addition,
soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably
speeding up army movement.
Throughout the empire, trade routes and an extensive postal system (yam) were
created. Many merchants, messengers and travellers from China, Middle East and
Europe used the system. Skillful use of couriers enabled these armies to maintain
contact with each other and with their higher leaders.
At the same time, any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective
punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied
Mongol orders.

Discuss the achievements of Genghis Khan. What are his legacies to the
Mongols?
Genghis Khan was a great warrior and Mongol leader. He carved out a vast empire by
defeating many important rulers of the time. His achievements could be listed as
follows:
 Military achievements: Defeated powerful Tatars, the Kereyits and Ong Khan
1203. The final defeat of the Naiman people and the powerful Jamuqa in 1206, left
Temujin as the dominant personality in the politics of the steppe lands. Defeated the
Chinese rulers who were divided into three wings. Defeated Qara Khita who
controlled the Tien Shan mountains north-west of China in 1218, Mongol dominions
reached the Amu Darya and the states of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. The sultan of
Khwarazm left his territory as a Mongol envoy was killed in Khwarazm. Genghis
Khan sacked the city of Nishapur.
 Recognition from Quriltai: Quriltai was an assembly of Mongol chieftains.
Genghis succeeded against important rulers like Jamuqa, Tatars, Kereyits and Ong
Khan. The final defeat of Naiman people by him placed him as an important ruler of
the Mongols. Hence, Quriltai recognised him as ‘the Great Khan of the Mongols’.
 Administrative achievements: Tried to remove the old tribal identities of the
people who joined the confederacy. Genghis khan distributed his old people in
different military groups and divided them into decimal units. This resulted in the
vertical grouping and thus, the chances of monopoly of a clan or tribe in a particular
group was minimised. The new contingents were to work under his four sons.
Genghis is said to have composed yasa, the code of law.

His legacies to his successors were –

 Vast and powerful Empire – Genghis Khan left behind a vast and powerful
empire for his successors.
 Political unification – The efforts made by Genghis to destroy the tribal identity
of different clans that joined the confederacy resulted in the unification of the empire.
 Administrative reforms - The military, administrative and postal reforms made
by Genghis Khan led to the unification of the empire that survived after the death of
Genghis khan.

What was the impact of pause in military expeditions of Mongols on trade

activities?
 Mongols are remembered in the history as ferocious warrior tribe. Under Genghis
Khan the tribe rose to prominence and was able to expand its territorial boundary far
and wide on the map of the world. The conquered people had no affinity with their
new nomadic rulers. The Mongol raids destroyed many cities that flourished due to
their trade. Agriculture in different parts of the world also faced similar end as it was
not possible to give proper attention to the maintenance of irrigational canals in the
desert regions. Owing to which desert crept in. The similar situation was faced by the
traders who had to look for alternative routes of travel.
 Mongol empire extended from China to different parts of the Europe. Asian goods
were in great demand in different parts of Europe. In the 13thcentury when these
campaigns settled, the trade between Europe and China revived. It largely owes to the
Mongols campaigns as they brought these territories closer to each other. The trade
connections grew mature. Commerce and travel revived along the silk route. Now, the
silk route was not limited to China but continued to Mongolia and to Karakorum. The
trade through silk route reached its peak during this period.
 Communication and ease of travel was vital to retain the unity of the Mongol
regime and travellers were given a pass (paiza in Persian; gerege in Mongolian) for
safe conduct. Traders paid baj tax for the same purpose, all acknowledging thereby
the authority of the Mongol Khan.
 The changes that were made by the Mongols in their administrative policies also
eased the tensions and developed the feeling of security among the people. Qublai
Khan emerged as the protector of peasants and people. Ghazan Khan warned his
relatives and officials against killing and looting the peasants. He said that the empire
will not prosper and stabilise by these acts.