UNIT 1

Limit and Fits

2.1 Terms of Sizes

Hole: designates all internal features of a part, including parts which are not
cylindrical as shown in Fig. 2-1(a).

Shaft: designates all external features of a part, including parts which are not
cylindrical as shown in Fig. 2-1(b) and (c).

(a)hole (b)shaft (c)shaft

Figure 2-1 Hole and Shaft

Basic Size/Nominal Size (D, d): The theoretical dimension from which the hole/shaft
limits are derived. It is given during the process of design. As shown in Fig.2-2, the
basic size of shaft is 50, i.e., d  50 . The basic size is the same for both members
of a fit, i.e., D  d . For example， D  d  50

Figure 2-2 A Shaft

Limits of Size: The applicable maximum and minimum sizes.

• Maximum limit of size (Dmax, dmax): the greater of the two limits of size. As
shown in Fig.2-2, the maximum limit of size for the shaft is  49.975 , i.e.,
d max   49.975 .

• Minimum limit of size (Dmin, dmin): the smaller of the two limits of size. As
shown in Fig.2-2, the minimum limit of size for the shaft is  49.950 , i.e.,
d min   49.950 .

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Actual Size (Da, da): A measure size obtained from a finished part as shown in
Fig.2-3. For example, Da   49.972 .

Fig.2-3 Actual Size

Any actual size shall not exceed the maximum limit of size or the minimum limit of
size, i.e., Dmin  Da  Dmax , d min  d a  d max , otherwise, the component is

unqualified.

Maximum Material Condition (MMC) and Maximum Material Size (MMS): the
maximum material condition is a feature where contains the maximum amount of
material within the stated limits of size. Maximum material size (DM, dM) is the limits
of size in this state, i.e., the minimum hole size Dmin and the maximum shaft size dmax
(shown in Fig.2-4). For another example, as shown in Fig.2-2, the maximum material
size for the shaft is  49.975 , i.e., d M  d max   49.975 .

Least Material Condition (LMC) and Least Material Size (LMS): the least
material condition is a feature where contains the least amount of material within the
stated limits of size. Least material size (DL, dL) is the limits of size in this state, i.e.,
the maximum hole size Dmax and the minimum shaft size dmin (shown in Fig.2-4). For
another example, as shown in Fig.2-2, the mniimum material size for the shaft
is  49.950 , i.e., d L  d min   49.950 .

Figure2-4 The Maximum Material Condition and the Least Material Condition

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2.2 Terms of Deviations and Tolerances
Deviation of Size: the algebraic difference between the limits of size and the basic
size.
 The Upper Deviation (ES, es): the algebraic difference between the maximum
size and the basic size.
 The Lower Deviation (EI, ei): the algebraic difference between the minimum
size and the basic size.

Hole : ES  Dmax  D
EI  Dmin  D
(2-1)
Shaft : es  d max  d
ei  d min  d

Tolerance (TD, Td): The total permissible deviation of a size. It is also equal to the
difference between the limits of size. The value of tolerance is always positive.

Hole : TD  Dmax  Dmin  ES  EI

(2-2)
Shaft : Td  d max  d min  es  ei

Example1: A hole 5000.025 is known. Calculate these sizes D, Dmax, Dmin, DL, DM,
ES, EI, and TD.

Solution:
D=  50mm
Dmax=  50.025mm
Dmin=  50mm
DL= Dmax =  50.025mm
DM = Dmin =  50mm
ES=+0.025mm
EI=0
TD= Dmax -Dmin =ES- EI=0.025mm

Size Tolerance Zones: is the tolerance range of the size as shown in Fig.2-5. In the
tolerance zone diagram, an area bounded by the two lines represents the upper and
lower deviation. The tolerance zone consists of “the size of the tolerance zone” and
“the position of the tolerance zone”, the former is determined by the standard
tolerance, and the later is determined by the basic deviation.

Zero Line: In the tolerance zone diagram, the datum line used to determine the
deviation of size is called zero line as shown in Fig.2-5. Generally the zero line is

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used to represent the basic size. It is defined that the value of deviation above the zero
line is positive, while the value of deviation below the zero line is negative.
Fig.2-5 shows a size tolerance zone where the basic size is  50, the upper deviation
is +0.008, the lower deviation is -0.008, the tolerance is 0.016.

Figure 2-5 Size Tolerance Zone

Basic Deviation: It is the upper or lower deviation used to determine the relative
position between the tolerance zone and zero line. Generally, the deviation nearer to
the zero line is treated as the basic deviation.

Example2:
As shown in Fig.2-6, the deviation of hole and shaft is Hole: 5000.025 and Shaft:

5000..025
050 . Give the graphical representation of hole and shaft.

Figure 2-6 An Example of Size Tolerance Zone

2.3 Terms of Fit

Since even the simplest machine involves the fitting together of several parts for the
purpose of design and production, it is necessary to know how the various parts fit
together. A fit between two parts to be assembled can be defined as the difference
between their sizes before assembly. Or in other words, FIT is the general term to
signify the range of tightness or looseness resulting from the application of a specific
combination of allowances and tolerances in the design of the mating parts.

Allowance: It is the dimensional difference between the maximum mating limits of

mating parts, intentionally provided to obtain the desired degree or class of fit. If the
allowance is positive, it will result in the minimum clearance between the mating

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parts, and of the allowance is negative, it will result in the maximum interference.

Clearance (X): in a fit, it is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft,
before assembly. Minimum clearance is a clearance fit and is the difference between
the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft. Maximum clearance
is the difference between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the
shaft.

Interference (Y): in a fit, it is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the
shaft, before assembly. The minimum interference is the arithmetical difference
between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the shaft before
assembly. The maximum interference is the arithmetical difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft before assembly.

Fit:the relationship between the hole tolerance zone and shaft tolerance zone with the
same basic size. Fits are of three general types: clearance, interference, and transition,
depending on the actual limits of the hole or shaft. Fig. 2-7 illustrates the three types
of fits.

Figure 2-7 Three Types of Fits

Clearance Fits (shown in Fig.2-8): the difference between the hole and shaft sizes
before assembly is positive. Clearance fits have limits of size prescribed such that a
clearance always results when the mating parts are assembled. Clearance fits are
intended for the accurate assembly of parts and bearings. The parts can be assembled
by hand because the hole is always larger than the shaft. Some application examples
are shown in Fig.2-9.
X max  Dmax  d min  ES  ei
(2-3)
X min  Dmin  d max  EI  es

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 Figure 2-8 Clearance Fit

(a) (b)
Figure 2-9 Application Examples of Clearance Fit

Transition Fits (shown in Fig.2-10): this fit may provide either clearance or
interference, depending on the actual value of the tolerance of individual parts.
Transition fits are a compromise between the clearance and interference fits. They are
used for applications where accurate location is important, but either a small amount
of clearance or interference is permissible. Some application examples are shown in
Fig.2-11.
Ymax  Dmin  d max  EI  es
(2-4)
X max  Dmax  d min  ES  ei

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 Figure 2-10 Transition Fit

(a) (b)
Figure 2-11 Application Examples of Transition Fit

Interference Fits (shown in Fig.2-12): the arithmetic difference between the hole
and shaft sizes before assembly is negative. Interference fits have a limit of size
prescribed that an interference always results when mating parts are assembled. The
hole is always smaller than the shaft. Interference fits are for the permanent
assemblies of parts which require rigidity and alignment, such as dowel pins and
bearings in casting. Some application examples are shown in Fig.2-13.

Ymin  Dmax  d min  ES  ei

(2-5)
Ymax  Dmin  d max  EI  es

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 Figure 2-12 Interference Fit

(a) (b)
Figure 2-13 Application Examples of Interference Fit

Fit Tolerance: allow change amount of the clearance or interference and can be
calculated as

Clearance fit: Tf = |Xmax - Xmin|

Interference fit: Tf = |Ymin - Ymax|
Transition Fit: Tf = |Xma x - Ymax| (2-6)

Fit Tolerance Zone: is used to represent the fit between hole and shafts as shown in
Fig.2-14.

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 Figure 2-14 Drawing of Fit Tolerance Zone

Example3:
Graphical represent three fits: hole: 50 00.025 and shaft: 50 00..025 0.025
041 , hole  50 0 and

shaft 50 00..059 0.025

043 , and hole 50 0 and shaft 50 00..018
002 , and calculate their limit

clearances or interferences.

Solution:
(1)Xmax=ES-ei=+0.025-(-0.041)=+0.066mm
Xmin=EI-es=0-(-0.025)=+0.025mm
Tf=|Xmax-Xmin|=|+0.066-(+0.025)|=0.041mm
(2)Ymax=EI-es=0-(+0.059)=-0.059mm
Ymin=ES-ei=+0.025-(+0.043)=-0.018mm
Tf=|Ymin-Ymax|=|-0.018-(-0.059)|=0.041mm
(3)Xmax=ES-ei=+0.025-(+0.002)=+0.023mm
Ymax=EI-es=0-(+0.018)=-0.018mm
Tf=|Xmax-Ymax|=|+0.023-(-0.018)|=0.041mm
The drawing of size tolerance zone is given in Fig.2-15.

Figure 2-15 Drawing of Size Tolerance Zone

Example4:
Complete the Table2-1 for sizes of hole and shaft.

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 Table 2-1 Tolerances and Fits of Holes and Shafts
Basic ES EI es ei Xmax(Ymax) Xmin(Ymin) TD Td Tf
size
Φ50 0 -0.016 -0.020 0.025
Φ60 +0.011 0.019 0.030 0.49

Solution:
(1)Ymin=ES-ei
ES= Ymin+ei=-0.020-0.016=-0.036
TD=ES-EI
EI=ES-TD=-0.036-0.025=-0.061
Td=es-ei=0.016
Ymax=EI-es=-0.061-0=-0.061
Tf= TD +Td=0.025+0.016=0.041
(2)
Td=Tf-TD=0.049-0.030=0.019
Td=es-ei, es=Td+ei=0.019+0.011=+0.030
Xmax=ES-ei
ES=Xmax+ei=0.019+0.011=+0.030
EI=ES-TD=+0.030-0.030=0
Ymax=EI-es=0-0.030=-0.030
The final calculation result is given in Table2-2.

Table 2-2 Final Calculation Result

Basic ES EI es ei Xmax(Ymax) Xmin(Ymin) TD Td Tf
size
Φ50 -0.036 -0.061 0 -0.016 -0.061 -0.020 0.025 0.016 0.041
Φ60 +0.030 0 +0.030 +0.011 0.019 -0.030 0.030 0.019 0.049

Gauge Design (Metrology)

To a greater or lesser extent, every gauge is a copy of the part which mates with the part
for which the gauge is designed. For example, a bushing is made which is to mate with
a shaft; in this case, the shaft is the opposed (mating part) part. The bushing is checked
by a plug gauge, which in so far as the form of its surface and its size is concerned, is a
copy of the opposed part (shaft).
If a gauge is designed as an exact copy of the opposed part in so far as the dimension to
be checked is concerned, it is called a ‘Standard Gauge’.
In design of a gauge, simplicity should be the main aim as simple gauges can take
measurements continuously and accurately.

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Taylor’s Principle.

According to Taylor, ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges should be designed to check maximum
and minimum material limits which are checked as below. ‘Go’Limit. This designation
is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds to the maximum
material limit considerations, i.e. upper limit of a shaft and lower limit of a hole. The
form of the ‘Go’ gauge should be such that it can check one feature of the component in
one pass.
Wo Go’ Limit. This designation is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which
corresponds to the minimum material condition, i.e. the lower limit of a shaft and the
upper limit
of a hole.
‘No Go’ gauge should check only one part or feature of the component at a time, so that
specific discrepancies in shape or size can be detected. Thus a separate ‘No Go’ gauge
is required
for each different individual dimension.

Fig. 4.48. Plug gauge.

Fig. 4.49. Snap gauge.

The ‘Go’ plug gauge (Fig. 4.48) is the size of the minimum limit of the hole, while the
‘No Go’
plug gauge corresponds to the maximum limit.
The ‘Go’ snap gauge (Fig. 4.49) on the other hand, is of a size corresponding to the
maximum
limit of the shaft, while the ‘No Go’ snap gauge corresponds to the minimum limit.
Gauging faces of a normal snap or gap gauge must be parallel and square to each other
and the gauging points of contact with the work should be in the same plane. The
difference in size between the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ snap gauges, as well as the difference
in size between the ‘GO’ and ‘No GO’ plug gauges, is approximately equal to the

17
tolerance of the tested holeor shaft in case of Standard Gauges, Rigidity
and robustness of snap gauges are important features so that gauges function
adequately and maintain size. Gauging diameters of components that are slightly larger
than the gap setting can produce high wielding action which may lead to gauge
distortion and wrong interpretation of reading. Therefore, larger gap gauges should,
preferably, be forged in a deep I-section, ensuring maximum rigidity in the plane of
gauge and sufficient rigidity in lateral direction.
Taylor’s principle states that the ‘Go’ gauges should check all the possible elements of
dimensions at a time (roundness, size, location etc.) and the ‘No Go’ gauge should
check only one element of the dimension at a time.
To ‘Go’ plug gauge must be of corresponding section and preferably full length of hole
so that straightness of hole can also be checked. Thus it not only controls diameter in
any given section but also ensures bore alignability. However it cannot check the
degree of ovality. The ‘No Go’ plug gauge is relatively short and its function is
dependent not only on the diameter but also on the circularity of the hole. Thus to some
extent, variation of hole shape can be measured.

Wear Allowance Consideration on Gauge Maker’s Tolerance.

Since the gauge maker can’t make absolutely accurately gauges, permissible deviation
in accuracy must be assigned for gauge manufacture. Furthermore, the measuring
surfaces of’Go’ gauges which constantly rub against the surfaces of parts in inspection,
are consequently subjected to wear and lose their initial initial size. Thus due to wear,
the size of’Go’ plug gauges is reduced, while that of’Go’ snap gauges is increased. It is
of course desirable to prolong the service life of gauges and, therefore, a special
allowance of metal, the wear allowance is added in a direction opposite to the wear. For
this reason new ‘Go’ plug gauges are made with two positive deviations and ‘Go’ snap
gauges with two negative deviations from the nominal size. (The nominal size on which
limits of gauges are based are the limits of the parts to be checked.)
4.13.3.

Important Points for Design.

(1) The form of’Go’ gauges should exactly coincide

with the form of the opposed (mating) parts.
(2) ‘Go’ gauges are complex gauges which enable several related dimensions to be
checked
simultaneously.
(3) In inspection, ‘Go’ gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum
impassability.
(4) ‘No Go’ gauges are gauges for checking a single element of feature.
(5) In inspection, ‘No Go’ gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum
passability.

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Gauge maker’s Tolerance.

Keeping all above main points for gauge design in view

there are three methods of giving tolerances on gauges (snap and plug gauges).

First system.

Workshop and Inspection Gauges (Fig. 4.50). In this method

workshop and inspection gauges are made separately and their tolerance zones are
different. This
was evolved many years ago in the development stage of limit gauges.

Fig. 4.50. Disposition of tolerances on workship and inspection gauges.

According to this system the tolerances on the workshop gauge are arranged to fall
inside
the work tolerance, while the inspection gauge tolerances fall outside the work
tolerance. Further
in workshop gauges, ‘Go’ gauge should eat away 10% of work tolerance and similarly
the tolerance
on No Go’ gauge should be one-tenth of work tolerance, so if work tolerance is 10 units
then only
8 units will be left as the difference between the minimum of’No Go’ and maximum
of’Go’; the
tolerance on ‘Go’ as well as ‘No Go’ gauges individually being 1 unit each.
In Inspection Gauges, gauges are kept beyond work tolerance by 10% of its value.
Disadvantages of Workshop and Inspection Gauges.
(1) Some of the components which are in work tolerance limits may be rejected under
workshop gauges. So they are again checked by inspection gauges and may be accepted
after that.
(2) Some components which are not in work tolerance limits may be accepted when
tested
by inspection gauges.
(3) The workshop and inspection gauges are to be made separately as their tolerance
zones
are different.

Mechanical comparators:

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Comparators are those instruments which can be used to

compare, generally, linear dimensions of similar components

with a slip gauge standard.

Features:

Comparators have no built in standards of their own; they indicate only the
differences in size between the nominal dimension set on the comparator by SLIP
Gauges and the dimension of the component being measured.

They have precisely engineered mechanisms used in the principle of its operation.

They can be built to give a magnification as high as X50000.

They are so designed to allow smallest scale division of 0.00025 mm

In principle, a comparator works on relative measurements, i.e., it gives only

dimension difference in relation to a basic dimension.

So, a comparator is to compare the unknown dimensions of a part with some

standard or a master setting which represents the basic size and the dimensional
variations from the master setting have to be amplified and measured.

The function of a comparator is to detect to a high degree of precision the small

difference, if any, between a suitable length standard ad the measured part.

In construction, a comparator consists of three essential elements:

1. A sensing device, usually, a plunger, which faithfully senses the input signal
represented in this case by a change of length or a surface displacement.
2. A magnifying or amplifying system to increase the signal to suitable
magnitude.
3. A display system (usually a scale and pointer) which utilizes the amplified
signal to provide a suitable readout.

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Desirable Characteristics of a good comparator:

The fundamental requirements to be fulfilled by every comparator are as follows:

1. Robust in design and construction: in order to withstand ordinary usage to

maintain consistent measuring accuracy.

2. Indicating device used shall be such as to show readings at least possible

time, for which the magnification system should be such as to get readings
dead beat.

3. Provision for compensation against temperature effects.

4. Scale must have linear characteristic.

5. Though sensitive, the instrument should be rigid enough to accommodate

mishandling to some extent without permanent harm.

6. Should have maximum versatility, to accommodate to be used for

measuring wide range of dimensions.

Uses of Comparators:

a) In mass production, where components are to be checked at very fast

rate.

b) As laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are set

and calibrated/correlated.

c) For inspecting newly purchased gauges.

d) As working gauges, in some machines, for stage inspection of parts

produced. This prevents rejection and ensured maintenance of tolerances

at various stages of manufacturing.

e) For grading of parts into groups depending on their tolerances, for use in

selective assembly of parts.

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Classification of comparators:

According to the principles used for obtaining suitable degrees of magnification

of the indicating device relative to the change in the dimension being measured,
comparators may be classified as:

1. Mechanical Comparator

2. Mechanical- Optical Comparator

3. Electrical & Electronic Comparator

4. Pneumatic Comparator

5. Fluid displacement Comparator

6. Projection Comparator

7. Multi check comparator

8. Automatic gauging machines

The most obvious choice of a comparator mechanism is Mechanical, because it is

relatively easy to magnify linear movement by gearing, levers or some similar
means.

Major type of mechanical comparator which is popularly used in industries are:

Dial Indicators, SIGMA Comparator, and Johansson’s Mikrokator.

Dial Indicator:

Dial indicator, is one of the widely used mechanical comparator. Figure 1.0 below
shows exploded view of dial indicator.

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 Figure 1 Mahr make dial indicator
The mechanism of dial indicator is illustrated in Figure 2

The dial indicator mechanism is a simple example of the application of gearing to

magnify the linear movement of the probe to the radial movement of the pointer.

There are number of disadvantages inherent in gearing, which prevent its use in
more accurate instruments. The clearances which must exist between meshing
gear teeth and the resulting backlash in the mechanism limit the degree of
magnification that can be used. The spinning of the mechanism also develops
inertia forces which affect the repeatability of the plunger.

A mechanical lever overcomes all these problems, and compound lever (figure 3)
arrangements are the mechanisms most commonly used for mechanical
comparators

Mechanical lever magnification is equal to R/r (refer Figure 3)

An efficient pivot which is free from play and, ideally frictionless is essential to
overcome the above problems.

23
Two types of such crossed strip hinge can be found as shown in figure 4 below.

FIGURE 4

SIGMA Comparator and Johansson’s Mikrokators are the ones which makes use of

above said cross stripped hinges and bell crank strip type hinges.

SIGMA COMPARATOR:

This instrument is shown in figure 5. The plunger is attached to a rectangular bar

which is supported at its upper and lower ends by flexure plates. The vertical

movement of the bar is limited by stops. A knife edge is fixed to the side of the bar

which bears on a sapphire block attached to the moving member of a crossed

strip hinge. A forked arm attached to the moving member of the hinge transmits

rotary motion to the indicator driving drum through a bonze band wrapped round

the drum.

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 FIGURE 5

In this a small movement of the plunger is allowed by the elastic deflection of the
two slit diaphragm supports.

The instrument is damped by a horseshoe magnet fixed to the frame and anon
ferrous (aluminium) disc fixed to the pointer spindle. Rotation of the disc in the
magnetic field of the magnet sets up eddy currents which are proportional to the
rotational velocity and in opposition to the motion.

The range of the instruments available provides magnification of X300 to X5000,

the most sensitive models allowing scale estimations of the order of 0.0001 mm to
be made.

Johansson Mikrokator:

The essential detail of Johansson Mikrokator is as shown in figure 6 below.

25
This instrument makes use of the Abramson movement to provide a virtually
frictionless system. The plunger is supported at its lower end by a flexure plate and
at its upper end by the foot of a flexure spring. The end of the twisted metal band
wraps round the knee of the spring and is firmly attached through its vertical leg.
Vertical movement of the plunger is transformed into rotational movement of the
vertical leg thus stretching the twisted band which partially unwinds and rotates
the attached pointer against the scale.

This system provides a large angle of rotation for a small plunger movement which
is further amplified by the pointer.

Damping is provided by immersing a portion of the twisted band in a spot of oil.

The cantilever spring fulfils two functions:

a) The band can be brought to correct tension by adjustment of the

attachment screws.
b) The magnification may be varied by increasing or reducing the length of
the cantilever.

26