Fluid Power with Applications Fourth Edition Anthony Esposito Professor Emeritus Department of Manufacturing Engineering ‘Miami University Oxford, Ohio PRENTICE HALL Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohioitary of Congress Cataloging Postion Dita spout, Aston ud power with ppicalions | Anthny Espo, — th Incas ides. ISBN 0153991908 he {LF power ecology. 1. Tle ‘ise. E86 1997 ean'a6-8e oss2408 cP Cover tasrationsepeinte wih pemision of Festo Corporation. "ator: Stephen Hela Proc Eto: Rex Davin (Cover Design Cordimto: iE Bonar {Cote Designer: Orit Desi Prodection Bayer: Panels D Benet Marketing Manager: Danny Hoyt ‘Tis book was set in Times Roman by BLComp, Is. tnd was prited and bound by Quebecor Printing Book Pres. THe over was ese by Phoeaa Color Crp Seg 6 197,994, 196, 1980 by Prentice al, Ie BEE Sia x See! Viacom Company AE Uer Satie River, New fsey O78 Allis reserved. No part of this ook maybe feqeodsed ay for oF by any means ‘eto prmison ig om Ihe pulser Printed inthe United States of Ameren woeresane ISBN 0-13-399880-8 renie-Hall Iternatonl (UK) Limite, London Prete Hal of Ausra Pr. Lied, Sydney Pree Hal Cand Ine oro Prete Hal Hlspanoumercar, 8A. Meneo Pree Hal of Ina Private Limite, New Delt Prete Hal Japa, Ine, Tobe Simon & Schuster Asa Pre Li, Singapore ‘aoa Premtce Hal do Beas adn Rode JaniPreface ‘The primary purpose of the Fourth Edition of Fluid Power with Applications remains the same as that ofthe previous editions: to provide the student with a sound, basic background in the vast eld of uid power. As such, this book covers ‘those subjects essential to understanding the design, analysis, operation, and maintenance of Mud power systems, Similarly, itis written for engineering (ech- nologists, engineering technicians, and apprentices of industrial training pro- rams. ‘As in the previous editions, although theory is presented where desirable, the emphasis i placed on understanding how and why fluid power systems oper- ate and on practical applications as well In this way, the student learas not only the “why” but also the “how of uid power system operation, Based on input from users ofthe Third Edition and from my colleagues, the following major changes have been incorporated inthis book: 1 Learning objectives have been identified atthe beginning ofeach chapter. In this way the student can determine what important knowledge and problem- solving techniques should be learned upon completing each chapter. 2. The exercises at the end of each chapter have been modified and grouped according to subject categories. This allows the instructor to assign exercises more readily to the student to improve learning and problem-solving techniques. 3. Section 1.8 on environmental issues has been incorporated to reflect the ‘ever-increasing need to conserve natural resources and protect the environment,wi Pretece “Key environmental issues discussed are developing biodegradable fluids, reducing oil leakage, and reducing noise levels 44. A new section, Sec. 2.15, deseribes the proper ways to maintain and dispose of hydraulic fis. This section is consistent with the fat that iis very {important to minimize the generation of waste hydraulic fds and to dispose of them in an eavionmentally sound manner. 5, Section 5.13 has been added describing the use of computers to analyze hnydrautie systems. Itis frequently desirable 1 optimize the operation of hydraulic ‘stems based on a performance-vs-cost analysis. In order to perform the huge amber of calculations to optimize complete hydraulic systems in a reasonable period of time, itis necessary to utlize computers. By using compaters, the value Sf any system parameter can be changed, and the effect on system performance ‘Gan be quickly determined nnd compared to the cost of changing the correspond ing component or id in the actual system. 6, Section 6.8 has been added to identify the principal sources of noise in hydrauiie systems and describe methods for reducing noise levels, Controfing folse levels is critically important in terms of preventing human accidents due to noise masking as well as protecting against permanent loss of hearing. 17. A section (Sec. 7.3) on the mechanics of hydraulic eytinder loadings has been incorporated. This section iscuses the use of various mechanical linkages to increase oF decrease the effective leverage and stroke of hydraulic cylinders. '8, A second chapter on pneumatics has been added to provide further cover- age of this important segment of fluid power. Additional topics covered jnelude jpacumatic circuit design considerations, vacuum systems, economic cost of =~ Tiny losses due to friction and leakage, and power requirements of compressors, 19. Two sections (Sees. 146 and 14.7) on the subject of uid contamination have been added. These sections deal with te effect of entrained gases on hy- “aulie systems and the wear of moving mating parts due to soli-partcle contarmi- tation of the Auid, This new material reflects the fact that more than half of all hydraulic system problems have been traced to the hydraulic Nui 10. Greater emphasis has been placed on the metric system of units through: ‘out the Fourth Edition. For example, inthe end-ol-chapter exercises, the leter £ following the exercise number indicates that English units are used and the leter ‘M indicates metric units. This reflects the U.S. industry’ trend toward increased tsage of the metric system in the manufacture ofall types of products ‘As in the ease ofthe previous editions, lam indebted to the numerous fuid power equipment manufacturing companies for permitting the inclusion of their Photographs and other illustrations in this textbook.Pretace I thank Wes Baldwin, Ball State University; Dr. Tim Brovin, Tri County ‘echnical College, Raymond Fiorucci, Rock Valley College, and Steve Widmer, Purdie University for reviewing the manuscript and providing many helpful sug gestions and comments for improving this Fourth Edition. Thanks to Rex David- son at Prentice Hall for handling the production of this edition, 1 also wish to thank the users of the previous editions for their many con: structive suggestions, which have also been incorporated. Anthony EspositoContents PREFACE INTRODUCTION To FLUID POWER Learning Objectives 1 1.1 What Is Fluid Power? 2 1.2 History of Fluid Power 1.3. Advantages of Fluid Power 6 14 Applications of Fluid Power 10 LS Components of a Fluid Power System 16 1.6 Types of Fluid Power Control Systems 21 17 The Fluid Power Industry 28 1.8 Environmental Issues 33 Exercises 33 PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS seaming Objectives 36 24 Introduction 37, 2.2 Fluids: Liquids and Gases 38 wwcontents 23. Weight, Density, and Specific Gravity 40 24 Pressure, Head, and Force 4 25 The SI Metric System 50 2.6 Pascal's Law 54 2.7 Bulk Modulus 59 28 Viscosity and Viscosity Index 60 29° Oxidation and Corrosion Prevention 69 2.10 Fire-Resistant Fluids 70 2.11 Foam-Resistant Fluids 74 2.12 Lubricating Ability 74 2.13. Neutralization Number 77 2.18 General Types of Fluids 80 2.15. Maintaining and Disposing of Fluids 81 2.16 Illustrative Examples Using the SI Metric System 43 Exercises 4 ENERGY AND POWER IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 90 Learning Objectives 90 3. Introduction 91 3.2 Review of Mechanics 97 3.3. Applications of Pascal’s Law 95 3.4 Conservation of Energy 103 35 The Continuity Equation 105 3.6 Hydraulic Horsepower 107 3.7 Bernoulli's Equation 117 3.8 Torriceli's Theorem 1/7 3.9 The Siphon 119 3.10 Energy, Power, and Flow Rates in the SI Metric System 12 3.11 Ilustrative Example Using the SI Metric System 123 Exercises 125 ‘THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 133 Learning Objectives 133 41 Introduction — 133 42. Conductor Sizing for Flov-Rate Requirements 134contents x 43. Pressure Rating of Conductors 136 44 Steel Pipes 139 45 Steel Tubing 142 46 Plastic Tubing 148 47 Flexible Hoses 148 48 Quick Disconnect Couplings 152 49 Metric Steel Tubing 155 Exercises 157 5 astes oF HvoRAUUE HOM Memes (> 180 Learning Objectives 160 S.A Introduction 161 52 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 161 53. Reynolds Number 163 54 Darcy's Equation 165 5.5. Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow 166 5.6 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow 167 5.7 Losses in Valves and Fittings 171 5.8 Equivalent Length Technique 176 5.9 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis 178 5.10 Flow Measurement 180 5.11 Pressure Measurement 184 5.12 Hydraulic Cireuit Analysis Using the SI Metric System 187 5.13 Computer Analysis of Hydraulic Systems 190 Exercises 196 G THE SOURCE OF HYDRAULIC POWER: PUMPS G 5) 202 Learning Objectives 202 6.1 Introduction 203, 62 Pumping Theory 204 63° Pump Classification 206 64 Gear Pumps 208 65 Vane Pumps 216 6.6 Piston Pumps 222 6.7 Pump Performance 230Contents 68 Pump Noise 237 69 Pump Selection 242 6.10. Pressure Intensifers 243 6.11 Pump Performance Ratings in Metric Units 245 Exercises | 249 FLUID POWER ACTUATORS @ 254 Learning Objectives 254 7.4 Introduction 255 72 Linear Hydraulic Actuators (Hydraulic Cylinders) 255, 713. Mechanics of Hydraulic Cylinder Loadings | 268 714 Limited Rotation Hydraulic Actuator 273 75 Gear Moors 278 7.6 Vane Motors 280 7.7 Piston Motors 280 78 Hydraulic Motor Performance 289 7.9 Hydrostatic Transmissions 292 7.10 Electrohydraulic Stepping Motors 296 71 Low-Speed, High-Torque Motors 301 7.12. Hydraulic Motor Performance Rating in Metric Units 302 Exercises 208 CONTROL COMPONENTS IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS (= 318 Learning Objectives 315 8.1 Introduction 316 82. Directional Contro! Valves 317 83. Pressure Control Valves 330 8.4 Flow Control Valves 40 85 Servo Valves 3 8.6 Cartridge Valves 347 8.7 Hydraulic Fuses 350 8.8 Pressure and Temperature Switches 354 8.9 Shock Absorbers 358 Exercises 363g mromnuicemcirroewananonunres (>) 2 Learning Objectives 365 6 21 ted Ginn she aes 39 314 Syed Comfort Moor 3 35 Shane Mor bang Sys 920 ecto ya So Sen #2 Exercises 405 10) Meamarice: nn premanariON ano comroneNTe 415 tot 102 103 04 0s 106 07 08 Learning Objectives 413 Introduction 414 Properties of Air 416 ‘The Perfect Gas Laws 418 Compressors 423 Fluid Conditioners 437 Control with Orifices 439 Air Control Valves 440 Pneumatic Actuators 449 Exercises 454Pa Contents 11 PNEUMATICS: CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS Learning Objectives 459 11.1 Introduction 460 11.2. Pneumatic Cireuit Design Considerations 460 113 Air Pressure Losses in Pipelines 462 1114 Beonomic Cost of Energy Losses in Pneumatic Systems 464 11.5 Basie Pneumatic Circuits 467 11.6 Pneumatic Vacuum Systems 472 11.7 Accumulator Systems Analysis 476 11:8 Pneumatic Circuit Analysis Using Metric Units 478 Exercises 481 72 rve toaic conrnoe ‘SYSTEMS Learning Objectives 488 12.1 Introduction 488 122 Moving-Past Logic (MPL) Control Systems — 4% 12.3. MPL Control of Fluid Power Civcuits 499 124. Principles of Fluidic Logie Control 502 12.5. Basic Fuidic Devices 50s 1266 Fluidie Sensors 510 12.7. Fluide Control of Fluid Power Systems 513 128 Introduction to Boolean Algebra $19 12.9 Illustrative Examples Using Boolean Algebra $24 Exercises 529 71.3 fuoTRICAL CONTROLS FoR FLUID POWER CIRCUITS Learning Objectives 335 @ 1B reduction 536 7 132 Fletical Components 539 133, Control oa Cylinder Using a Single Limit Swich 42 459 535 134 Reciprocation of a Cylinder Using Pressure or Limit Switches S43 13.5. Dual Cylinder Sequence Circuits 545 136 BoxSorting System $47 13.7 Electrical Control of Regenerative Circuit $47contents 13.8 Counting, Timing, and Reciprocation of Hydraulic Cylinder 50 13.9 Electrohydraulic Servo System 550 13.10 Analysis of Blectrohydraulic Servo Systems 583 1.11 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) 563 Exercises $71 7d] Fluid POWER MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY 577 Leaming Objectives 57 14.1 Introduction 578 14.2. Sealing Devices 580 14.3. The Reservoir System $90 14.4 Filters and Strainers 593 14.5 Beta Ratio of Fikers 599 146 Wear of Moving Parts Due to Solid-Partcle Contamination of the Fluid 602 14.7. Problems Caused by Gases in Hydraulic Fuids 603 148 ‘Temperature Control 6065 14.9 ‘Troubleshooting Fluid Power Circuits 610 14.10 Safety Considerations 615 Exercises 6/6 APPENDIXES 619 Sizes of Steel Pipe (English Units) 620 Sizes of Steel Pipe (Metric Units) 622 Sizes of Steel Tubing (English Units) 624 Sizes of Stee! Tubing (Metric Units) 626 Unit Conversion Factors 627 Nomenclature 629 Fluid Power Symbols 632 ‘Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Exercises 635 roumooe> INDEX 6aa7 Introduction to Fluid Power Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to 1. Explain what Auid power is, 2. Differentiate between the terms hydraulics and pneumatics 3. Understand the difference between Quid poser systems and fluid transport systems, 44, Appreciate the history of the Muid power industry. 5, Discuss the advantages of uid poser 6. Describe key applications of uid power 7. Specify the basic components of fd power systems. 8 9. . Recognize the various types of fluid power-control systems, . Appreciate the size and scope of the Muid power industry. 10 Identity the categories of personnel who are employed in the Aud power industry 1, Describe the environmental issues dealing with developing biodegradable fluids, reducing ol leakage, and reducing nose levels.Introduction ta Fluid Power Chap. 1 1.1. WHAT IS FLUID POWER? Fluid power isthe technology that deals with the generation, contro and trans- mission of power-using pressurized fuids. It an be said that id power is the Iuscle that moves industry. This is because fluid power is used (0 push, pull eulate, of drive virtually al the machines of modern industry. For example, Hui ower sicers and brakes automobiles, launches spaccerat, moves earth, harvests vee mines coal, drives machine tools, controls airplanes. processes food, and ven drill teeth. tn fact its almost impossible to find @ manufactured product {hat hasn't been “uid-powered” in some way at some stage ofits production oF distin, ‘Since « uid can be either liquid or ages, fd power is actualy the general term used for hydraulics and paeumatics. Hydraulic systems use liquids suct as petroleum oils, waler, synthetic oils, and even molten metals. The frst hydraulic Maid to be used was water because itis readily available. However, water has many deficiencies, It freezes readily, is relatively poor lubricant, and tends to Fist metal components. Hydraulic ols are far superior and hence are widely used Inlicu of water: Pneumatic systems use air as the gss medium because ai is very ibundant and can be readily exhausted into the almosphere after completing its assigned task Te should be realized that there are actually two different types of fuid systems; flu transport and fluid power. Truid transport systems have us their sole objective the delivery of a fluid from one location to another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples i {lode pumping stations for pumping water to homes. ctoss-countty gas lines, and Systems where chemical processing takes place as various fluids are brought together. uid power systems are designed specially to perform work. The work is accomplished hy a pressurized faid bearing direelly on an operating cylinder or fluid motor, which, in turn, provides the muscle todo the desired work. Of cours, Control components are aiso needed to ensure that the work is done smoothly, ‘accurately, efficiently, and safely Liguids provide a very rigid medium for transmitting power and thus ean provide huge forees to move loads with utmost accuracy and precision, On the ther hand, pneumatic systems exhibit spongy characteristics due to the com pressibility of air. However, pneumatic systems are less expensive to build and Dperate. In addition, provisions can be made to control the operation of the peumatic actuators that drive the loads Fluid power equipment ranges in size from huge hydraulic presses to minia- tute fluid logic components used to build reliable contro systems How versaile fs fluid power? In terms of brute power, a feather touch by an ‘operator can control hundreds of horsepower and transmit it to any location Gihere a hose or pipe can go, In terms of precision such as applications in thesee. 1.4 What is Fluid Power? 3 machine tool industry, tolerances of one ten-thousandth of an inch can be achieved and repeated over and over again, Fluid power is not merely 8 powertul ‘muscle: itis & controlled, flexible muscle that provides power smoothly, ef ciently, safely, and precisely to accomplish useful work Figure 1 shows pneumatically controlled dextrous hand designed 10 study machine dexterity sind human manipulation in applications such as robotics and tactile sensing. Servo-contrelled pneumatic actuators give the hand human: like grasping and manipulating capability. Key operating characteristics include high speed in performing manipulation tasks, strength to easily grasp hand-sized fbjects that have varying densities, and force grasping control, The hand pos sesses three fingers an an opposing thumb, cach with four degrees of freedom Each joint is positioned by two pneumatic aetuators (located in an actuator ack with the controlling servo valve) driving a highstrength tendon. Performance and configuration constrains concerning the weight, size, geometry, cleanliness, and availability of individual actuators led to the choice of pneumatic actuation,4 Introduetion to Fluid Power Chap. 1 1.2 HISTORY OF FLUID POWER Fluid power is probably as old as civilization itself. Ancient historical accounts [how that water was used for centuries to produce power by means of water- Wheels, and air was used to turn windmills and propel ships. However, these early cae Of Haid power equited the movement of huge quantities of Nuid because of the relatively low pressutes provided by nature lund power technology aetually began in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal's lav: Pressure Is transmitted undiminished in a confined body of uid. ‘Pascal found that when he rammed a cork doven into & juz completely full of wine. the bottom of the jug broke and fell out. Pascal’s taw indicated that the pressures were equal al the top and bottom of the jug. However, the jug has a Peal opening area at the top and a large area atthe bottom. Thus, the bottom Absorbs a greater Force due fois larger area. Tn 1730, Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for a fuid flowing in pipeline, Pascal's las and Bernoull’s law operate af the very heart of AN Auld power applications and are used for analysis purposes. However. it was aacunti the Industrial Revolution of 1830 in Great Britain that these laws would vretually be applied to industry. Up to this point in time, electrical energy had not eon developed to power the machines of industry. Instead, it was fluid power that, by 1870, was being used to drive hydraulic equipment such as crane presses, winches. extruding machines, hydraulic jacks, shearing machines, an Fiveting machines. In these systems, steam engines drove hydranlic water pumps, Which delivered water at moderate pressures through pipes to industrial plants for Powering the various machines, These early hydraulic systems had a number of Jfeficiencies such as sealing problems because the designs had evolved more ss an art than a science. “Then, late in the nineteenth century, electricity emerged as a dominant technology. This resulted ina silt of development effort away from fluid power. FEeetrical power was soon found {© be superior to hydraulics for transmitting power over great distances. There was very litle development in fuid power Technology during the last 10 yrof the nineteenth century. "The modern cra of fluid power is considered to have begun in 1906 when a hydraulic system was developed 10 replace electrical systems for elevating and petolling uns onthe batleship USS. Virginia. For this application, the hydrau Tie system developed used oll instead of water. This change in hydraulic uid and the subsequent solution of scaling problems were significant milestones in the rebirth of uid power In 1926 the United States developed the fst unitized, packaged hydraulic system consisting of @ pump, controls, and actuator. The military requirements Teading up to World War I kept faid power applications and developments goin, fra good pace. The naval industry had used fluid power for cargo handling ‘winches, propeller pitch control, submarine control systems, operation of ship board aizcrat elevators, and drive systems for radar and sonarSee, 12 History of Fluid Power @ ‘The demands of World War I and the expanding economy that followed fed to the present situation where there are virtually a limitless number of ud power ‘applications. Today fluid power is used extensively in practically every branch of industry, Some typical applications are in automobiles, tractors, atplanes, mis- siles, boats, and machine tools, In the automobile alone, fd power is uilized in hydraulic brakes, automotive transmissions, power steering, power brakes, air conditioning, lubrication, water coolant, and gasoline pumping systems Relative to automotive applications, Fig. 12 isa diagram showing the Ben- dix Hydro-Boost Power Brake System. ‘The basic system consists of an open center spool valve and hydraulic eylinder assembled in a single unit (see Fig. 1-3). Operating pressure is supplied by the power steering pump. Hydro-Boost pro- vides a power assis to operate a dual master-cylinder braking system. Normally ‘mounted on the engine compartment fire wal, itis designed to provide specific Basic System Diagram (Cop South Rend Indiana)6 letroduetion to Fluid Power Chap. 1 Coy rake-fee" characteristics throughout a wide range of pedal forces and travel, Me tr sees energy for reverse stops. rom one to tee stOPS +e mending on the magnitude and duration ofthe brake aplication, This eres developed hy Bendix Corporation as an answer fo crowded caine SBmpartments and replaces the larger vacuum Unis 4.3 ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER “There are only three basic methods of transmitting power: electrical, mechani cca power, Most applications actualy use a combination of the thes ar i an the meat elicit overall system, To propery determine wich ie method tous, is mpertan to Kw the salen features of ech ype rnc es uid systems can transmit power more economically Over =TeHt™ ror ea can mechanical types. However, fui systems are restricted (0 Shorter distances than are electrical systems ae uid powers success and widespread use ists versatility and manageability. Fu power fs nt hindered by the geomelry of the acting ss manage AY gana systems. Also, power ean be transmitted in. almost ile cress cause fd systems are ot so mited by the physical lian, se are the electrical systems. For example, the performance of a9 ice anette mite by the sataton Limit of steel On te oer hand. the power tron systems is limited only by the strength capacity of the materia oe ary is gum to depend more and more on automation in order (0 jn crease proutiviy, Tis inches remote and direct control of production oper crease Pacing processes, and materials handing. Flu power isthe muscle dian action becase of advantages in te following four major categoriesSee. 1.3 ‘Advantages of Fluid Power 7 4, Ease and accuracy of control. By the use of simple levers and push b tons the operator ofa fuid power system can readily star, stop, speed up or slow ‘down, and position forces that provide any desired horsepower with tolerances precise as one ten-thousandth ofan inch. Figure I-4 shows a Muid power system that allows an aircraft pilot to raise and lower his landing gear, When the pilot moves a small control valve in one direction, oil under pressure lows to one end of the cylinder to lower the landing gear. To retract the landing gear. the pilot ‘moves the valve lever in the opposite direction, allowing wil to flow inte the other end ofthe eylinder. 2. Multiplication offoree. A fiid power system (without using cumbersome cars, pulleys, and levers) can multiply forces Simply and efficiently from a Frac: tion of an ounce to several hundred tons of output. Figure 15 shows an applica: tion where a rugged, powerful drive is required for handling huge logs. tn this case, a turntable, which is driven by & hydraulic motor, ca carey @20,000-b load ata T0-f radius under rough operating conditions 3. Constant force oF torque. Only fuid powersystems are capable of provid- ing constant force or torque regardless of speed changes. This is accomplished ‘Whether the work output moves a few inches per hour, several hundred inches per ‘minute, a few revolutions per hour, or thousands of revolutions per minute Figure 1-6 depicts an application in oceanography that involves the exploration and development of the ocean’s resources for the benefit of humankind. In this instance, its important forthe operator to apply a desired constant grabbing force through the use ofthe grappling hooks. gue 14. Hysnaic operation of ala ning gear. (Cort ofIntroduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 safety, economy. In general, fluid power systems use fewer ‘compatable mechanical or elecrial systems. Thus, they are ain and operate. This, in turn, maximizes safety, compactness, ‘and reliability. Figure 1-7 shows « power steering contol designed for off-highway ‘Vehicles. The steering unit (shown attached tothe steering wheel column in Fig, igre 14, Fluid power application in aceanograny. ( Fld Poser Associ, Mivaukec. Wisconsin)See. 13 Advantages of Fluid Power ° gare 17. Power seeing cont Sse for ois vehi. Typ {Conner of Eston Corp Fai Power Dison Eden Pravie, Minncota) 1-7) consists of a manually operated directional control valve nd meter in single boy. See Fig. -8 fora cutaway of this steering unit. Because the steering unit is fully uid-linked, mechanical linkages, universal joints, beatings reduction gears, ete, are eliminated. This provides a Simple. compact system. In addition, very ile input torque is required to produce the control needed for the toughest applications. Ths is important where limitations of control space require a small Steering wheel and it becomes necessary to reduce operator fatigue. The compact esign and versatility of the control system allow the unit to control many large and high-powered systems with a high degree of reliability. The steering unit shown in Fig. 1-8 contains a check valve that converts the unt to a hand-operated pump for emergency power-off stering. gure 4. Cuts of tecring unit sd in power ering conta stems (Cowen of [aron Crp. Pd Powes Dison, Eden Pate, Mincnre}© Introduetion to Fluid Power Chep.1 ‘Additional benefits of fail power systems include instantly reversible mo- fon, automatic protection against overloads, and infinitely variable speed control uid power systems also have the highest horsepower per weight ratio of any known power source Tn’ spite of al these highly desirable features of Rid power, itis not a ‘panacea forall power iransmission problems. Hydraulic systems also have some Mrawbacks. Hydraulic oil are messy, and leakage is impossible to eliminate com Sletely, Hydraulic ines can burst, possibly resulting in human injury du vo fying Pisects:if proper design is not implemented. Also, most hydraulic ols can cause Fads itan ol leak occurs in an area of hot equipment. Therefore, each application rant be studied thoroughly to determine the best overall design. It is hoped that {his book will aot only assist the reader in developing the ability to make these types of system selection decisions but also present in a straightforward way te techniques for designing, analyzing, and troubleshooting basic fluid power systems. 1.4 APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER ‘Although a number of eases of fluid power have already been presented in this Chapter, the following additional applications should give the reader a broader view of the widespread use of fuid power in today's world. 1, Fluid power drives high-wire overhead tram. Most overhead trams requite ‘a haulage of tow cable to travel up or down steep inclines. However, the 2 paswenge, 12,000- hydraulically powered and controled Skytram shown in Fig. M$) i unique. tis self-propelled and travels on a stationary cable. Because the tram moves instead ofthe cable, the operator can stop, start, and reverse any one Car completely independently of any other car in the tram system. Integral 0 the Geuign af the Skytram drive pump (riven by a standard eigh-cylinder gaso- fine engine), which supplies pressurized Nui 1 four hydraulic motors. Esch motor drives tw frition drive wheels, Tigh drive wheels on tp ofthe cables support and propel the tram car. On steep inclines, high driving torgue is required for ascent and high raking Corgue for descent, Dual compensation of the four hydraulic motors provides efficient proportioning of available horsepower to meet the variable torque demands 2. Fluid power is applied to harvest com. The world’s dependence om the United States for food has resulted in great demand for agricultural equipment “evelopment, Fluid power is being upplied to solve many of the problems dealing ‘pith the harvesting of food crops, Figure 1-10 shows a hydraulically driven eleva Tor conveyor system, whichis used to send harvested, husked ears of corn to Jyagon trailer. Mounted diretly t the chainalive conveyor. « hydraulic motor Uetiversfull-torque rotary power from start-up to fll rpm.2 Introduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 my of Eton Cor, Fd 3. Hydraulics power brush drives, Figure I-L! shows a fuid power-driven brush drive used for cleaning roads, floors, etc. in various industrial locations. ‘Mounted directly at the hub of the front and side sweep-scrub brushes, compact hydraulic motors place power right where it's needed, They climinate bulky me- chanical linkages for elficent lightweight machine design. The result is continu ‘ous, rugeed industrial cleening action atthe flip ofa simple valve, 4. Fluid power positions and holds parts for welding. In Fig. 1-12, we see an cexampie of a welding operation in which a farm equipmeat manufacturer applied hydraulics for positioning and holding parts while welding is done. It atypical ‘example of how fuid power ean be used in manufacturing and production opera tions fo reduce costs and increase production. Ths particular application required fa sequencing system for fas, positive holding. This was accomplished by placing 2 restrictor (sequence valve) onthe flow of il in the line leading to the second of the two cylinders (rams), as illustrated in Fig. 1-13. The frst cylinder extends to the end ofits stroke. Oil pressure then builds up, overcoming the restrictor set ting, and the second cylinder extends to complete the “hold” cycle. This unique ‘welding application of hydraulics was initiated to increase productivity by making ‘more parts per hour. In addition, the use of hydraulies reduced scrap rates and ‘operator fatigue as well as increasing productivity ftom 5 pieces per shift to more than 20a 400% increase. ‘5. Fluid power performs bridge maintenance. A municipality had used fuid power for years as & means for removing stress from structural members of bridges, making repairs, and replacing beams. As many a four or five bulky, low: pressure hand pumps and jacking ram setups were used to remove stress from beams needing replacement. Labor costs were high, and no accurate methods existed for recording pressures. An excessive downtime problem dictated that aSec. 1.4 Applications of Fld Power ee sned for the jab. A modern Aid power system was designed 100-1on rams on the bridge structure, as illustrated in Fig 1-14, One portable pump was used to actuate al ofthe rams by the use ofa special ‘manifold. This made it easy to remove stress from members needing repair orIntroduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 epee yo" "ecu igure 1-1, Fluid power system for Felevng sear in trl members ‘bade. (Couey of Onaonna Tool Con Owatonna, Mines) replacement, This new fluid power system cut the setup time and labor costs for ‘cach repair job to one-third that required with the hand pump and jacking ram setups previously used 6, Fluid power is the muscle fn industrial it trucks. Figure 1-15 shows an industval hydraulic lit truck having a $0001b capacity. The hydraulic system includes dual-action tilt cylinders and a host eylinde. Tiling ction is smooth and Sire for better load stability and easier load placement. A lowering valve in the holst cylinder controls the speed of descent even if the hydraulic circuit is broken. Hydrostatic power steering is available as an optional feature. +, Fluid pomer drives front-end loaders. Figure 1-16 shows a front-end foader filling a dump truck with soil scooped up by a large hydravlic-powered bucket, Excellent load control is made possible with a specially designed flow ‘control valve, The result is low effort and precise control; this Keeps the operator svorking onthe jab longer anxd more efficiently. Thus, reduced operator fatigue is accompanied by increased production. 8. Fluid power preserves the heartheat of life. Dr. Robert Jarvik made medi- ‘eal history with the design of an artificial, pneumatically actuated heart, which Sustained the life of Dr. Barney Clark for over 100 days. Figure 1-17 shows this airdriven artificial heart that preserves the very heartbeat of life. Other health fppications include artificial Kidneys and valve-assisted bladders, which employ flu power principles of pressure and flow. Miniature, oxygen-tight pumps are implanted in patients to provide continuous medication, These microdelivery‘Soc. 1.4 Applications of Fluid Power 6 ere LAS. Indo nya ek, Conte of Theck Dison, Pian, Pensa) Corp. Iai pumps can either be permanent fr internal use oF disposable for external infusion of medicine 9, Hydraulics power robotic dextrows arm. Figure I-18 shows a hydraulically powered robotic arm that has the strength and dexterity to torque dow bolts with its fingers and yet can gingerly pick up an epashell. This robotic arm is adept at "using human tools such as hammers, elette drills, and tweezers and can even bat ‘baseball. The arm has a hand with «thumb and two fingers, as well as & West, ‘elbow, and shoulder. It has ten degrees of freedom. including a three-degree-of- freedom end effector (hand) designed to handle human tools and other objectsSeo. 15 Components of a Fluid Power System valve PUMP RESERVOR 1° igure 29. yan ystems ‘nth rotry haus stator eo. (Coan of per Vickers. Sperry Mond Corps rw. Micigon gare 121, Two diforensized, complete. hydra power is Coaresy (Conti Hrd, Diss ofConnetel Macines, Ie Sta Mi20 Inttoduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 1. An air tank to store given volume of compressed air 2, A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere 3 An electric motor or ether prime mover to 4 5 ive the compressor wl low rate Actuators. which are similar in operation to hydraulic actuators 1. Valves to control air direction, pressure 6. Piping to cary the pressurized air from one locaton to another Figure 1-22 shows. compact, sef-contained pneumatic power unit complete with tank, compressor, electric motor, and miscellancous components such as valves, piping, and pressure gages. Ti should be noted in pneumatic systems that afler the pressurized air is spent driving actuators, iti then exhausted back into the atmosphere. On the ‘ther hand. in hydraulic systems the spent ol drains back tothe reservoir and is edly reused after being repressurized by the pump as needed by the system.See.18 Types of Fuld Power Control Systems a 1.6 TYPES OF FLUID POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS Fluid power systems are also classified by the type of contol system utilized ‘There are five basic types of fluid power control systems: closed-loop. open-loop, cleetrical, uid logic. and programmable logic. Te following isa brief description ‘of each of these five control systems, 1. Closed-loop control system. A closed-loop system is ane that uses fed: back. This means thatthe state of the output from the system is automaticaly ‘sampled and compared (fed back) tothe input oF command signal by means of device called a feedback transducer, I there isa difference between the command and feedback signals, action is taken to correct the system output until it matches the requirement imposed on the system. Closed-loop systems are frequently called servo systems, and the valves used to direct Nuid to the actuators are typically called serew valves, 2. Open-loop control system. An open-loop system does not use feedback, ‘The output performance of the system therefore depends solely on the character istics of the individual components and how they interact in the circuit. Most hydraulic circuits are ofthe open-loop type. which are generally not so complex oF ‘0 precise us closed-loop systems. This is because any errors such as slippage (oil leakage past seals, the magnitude of which depends on system pressure and temperature) are not compensated for in open-loop systems. For example, the viscosity of a hydraulic Mid decreases (uid becomes thinner as its temperature ses, This increase oil leakage past seals nse pumps, which in turn, causes the speed of an actuator, such asa hydraulic motor, to drop. In closed-loop system, a feedback transducer (for example, a tachometer, which generates signal pro: portional tothe speed at which itis fotated) would sense this speed reduction and feed a proportional signal back tothe command signal. The difference between the two signals is used to control a servo valve, which would then increase the fluid flow rate 10 the hydraulic motor until ils speed is t the required level. '3. Flectrical control system. This type is characterized by the fact that the fluid power system interacts with 2 variety of electrical components for conteol purposes. For example, electrical components such as pressure switches, limit switches, and relays ean be used to operate eletrical solenoids to control the ‘operation of valves that ditect Mud tothe hydraulic actuators, An electrical sole- noid control system permits the design of very versatile Muid power circuit. Automatic machines such as those used in the machine-tool industry rely princi. pully on electrical components to conttol the hydraulic muscles for doing the Fequited work. The aircraft and mobile equipment industries have also found that fluid power and electricity work very well together, especially where remote ‘control is needed. By merely pressing a simple pusb-button switch, an operator can control very complex machine to perform hundreds of machinery operationsIntroduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 to manufacture « complete product. An electrically controled fluid power system ean be either of the open-loop oF closed-loop type, depending on the precision require. 4, Fluid logi control system. This type is characterized by the fc that the fluid power system interacts with Muid logic devices instead of with electrical ‘devices for control purposes. Two such Mud lope systems are called moving-part Joie (MPL) and fluiies, which perform a wide variety of sensory and control functions. Among these control functions are AND/NAND, OR/NOR, and FLIPFLOP, logie capability Fluid logic devices switch fu, usually air. from ‘one outlet ofthe device to another outlet, Hence an output ofa fad logic device is tither ON or OFF as it rapidly switches from one state to the other by the Application of & control signal MPL devices are miniature valve-type devices tht, by the action of internal moving parts, perform switching operations in uid logic systems, These MPL devices are typically available as spool, poppet, and diaphragm valves, which can be actuated by means of mechanical displacement, electric voltae oF fuid pres- ste. Figure 1-23 shows an electronic driven MPI. valve that readily interfaces With electric and electronic circuits. Ths valve converts low-voltage (12 to 24 V) ‘Signals into high-pressure (100 psi) preumatic outputs. There are no siding parts fand the total travel ofthe poppet (the only moving part) is mere 0.007 in. As a result, ow power consumption (0.67 W) and long life are major benefits of this ‘design, Additionally, the very fast response time (S-10 ms) and small size make this MPL valve wel suited fora wide range of applications in biomedical, environ ‘mental fest equipment, textile machines, packaging machinery, computerized in ‘dustrial automation, and portable systems. Figure 1-24 shows how either 8 or 12 of the electronic valves of Fig. [-23 can bbe mounted on a manifold card to provide added convenience in interfacing elec: tronics with pacumatics, The self-contained card includes a manifold mount for single air supply, fully svred circuit board, and instant plugin with» 25 pin RS= 232 connector, This system allows low voltae signals from control puters, or other sources to operate powerful pneumatic valves wit Piping and hookup. ‘Figure 1-25 shows an industria application using MPL controls: « micro- orifice driling machine, whichis eapable of deiling aecurate holes dows to 0.006 in in diameter, The operator inserts the pat to be drilled on the tip of the lower probe, then presses two buttons to initiate the cycle. The bottom probe raises and Inserts the part into the dil ji, This maintains the elamping force and automat cally actuates the drill quil. The machine completes one eyce, the probe retracts and the part is removed ‘The second fll logic system, fluidic, utilizes uid Row phenomena in components and circuits also 10 perform a wide varity of sensory and control functions. Fluidic components (when kept fre of contaminants, which can ob struct critical air passageways) are reliable because they contain no moving partPs Introduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 Fluidics isan offshoot of fuid power technology and is equivalent t0 elec tronics as an offshoot of the technology of electrical power, Just as electronic devices use liny currents as opposed (0 the huge currents flowing in electrical powerlines, fuidic devices use small flow rates at low pressures in contrast to Pigh pressure and large flow rates required to operate a huge hydraulic press. Fluide systems (unlike electrical controls) cannot cause ir hazatds due to sparks ina potentially explosive environment. Because they operate with fis, Audie ‘components also interface readily within uid power systems. 5. Programmable logic contol system. In ths ype. programmable loge com trolles (PLES) are used to control system operation. In recent years, PLCs have increasingly been used in lew of electromechanical relays to control uid power Systems. A PLC is a user-friendly electronic computer designed to perform logic functions such as AND, OR, and NOT for controlling the operation of industria equipment ad processes. A PLC consists of solid-state digital logic elements forsee.16 ‘Types of Flu Power Control Systems 8 igi 125, icone driing WA ihc Creinnt On) ‘making logic decisions and providing corresponding outputs. Unlike general-pur pose computers, a PLC is designed to operate in industrial environments where high ambient temperature and humidity levels may exist. PLCs offer a number of advantages over electromechanical relay control systems. Unlike electromechan ieal relays, PLCs are not hard-wired to perform specific functions. Thus, when system operation requirements change, software program is readily changed instead of having to physically rewire relays, In addition, PLCs are more reliable, faster in operation, smaller in size, and can be readily expanded. Figure 1-26 shoves a PLC-hased synchronous lift system used for precise litting and towering of high-tonnage objects on construction jobs. Unlike complex ind costly electronic lift systems, this hydraulic system has # minimum number of parts and can be run effectively and efficiently by one person. The PLC enables the operator to quickly and easily set the number of HfL points, stoke limit system accuracy, and other operating parameters from a single location, The PLC receives input signals from electronic sensors located at each lift point, and in turn sends ouipt signals fo the solenoid valve that controls Mud low to each hydraulic cylinder to maintain the relative position and accuracy selected by the operator Because the sensors are attached directly to the Toad, they assure more exact ‘measurement of the load movement. The system accommodates loads of any size tnd is accurate to 0.040 in, (1 mm) "The PLC unit of this system (see Fig. 127) contains a LCD display that shows the position of the load al each Ti point and the status of all systemIntroduction to Fuié Power Chap. 1 for can stay on top of every detal throughout the fit. The Pounds and has dimensions of only 16in. by 16in. amis shown it Fi operations so the operat PLC unit which weighs only 37 by Sin, can control up to cigh lifting points, The system di wap. ia which components afeidentiied using letters as follows A: Programmable logic controller B: Solenoid directional contol valve CC: Electronic load displacement sensors D; Sensor eables E: Flow control valves for regulating movement of hydraulic cylinders Figure 1.29 shows a PLC-hased rd eto interface valves mounted on a manifol the manifold card, and a microcomputer, 1 cand. microprocessor on a boa This aystem provides machine control‘Sec. 16 Types of Fluid Power Control Systems 22 Introduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 Figure 129, PLC sem wth lero (ep nse Labonte ne © utilizing pacumatic outputs and actuators through a programmable series of se ‘quentilly executed steps. The system is easy to program through user-friendly Software and allows wide choices of programming devices ineluding personal Computers and hand-held datacentry terminals. Figure 1-30 shows the micropro- ‘emo, a computer on a board, that is arranged for ease of connection and use With the interface valves mounted on the manifold curd These five basic types of uid power control systems are studied in more etait throughout this book. They are introduced here so tha the reader ean better ‘appreciate the total technology of fluid power at this time, 1.7. THE FLUID POWER INDUSTRY The fluid power industry is huge and is truly a global industry, as evidenced by its present annual sales figure for system components of $9.6 billion registered by USS. companies and S27-5 billion worldwide. It is also a fast-growing industry with a 48% increase in terms of U.S. equipment sales during the period 1985~ 1994. This is reflected in the fat that nearly all U.S. manufacturing plans ely on fuid power in the production of goods. Over half of all U.S. industrial products‘The Fuid Power Industry * hhave uid power systems or components as part oftheir basic design, As shown in Fig. 131, the U.S. fuid power industry is larger than many better-known U.S industries such as mining machinery, construction equipment, and machine tools. About 756 of all uid power sales are hydraulic, and 25% are pneumatic Personnel in industry who work in the fd power field can generally be placed into three categories: 1. Fluid power mechanics. Workers in this category are responsible for re pair and maintenance of fuid power equipment. They generally are high school fraduates who have undertaken an apprenticeship taining program. Such a pro fram usually consists of three oF four years of paid, on-the-job training plus corresponding classroom instruction. These people usualy assist engineers in areas stich a design, troubleshooting, testing, maintenance, and installation of fuid power systems, They generally ae graduates of 2-yF technical colleges, which‘See. 1.7 The Fluld Power Industry 22 Introduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 award an associate degree in fad power. The technician can advance into super ‘sory positions in sales, manufacturing, or service management '3. Fluid power engineers. This category consists of peaple who perform advanced design, development, and esting of new, sophisticated fluid power ‘Somponents or systems. The Muid power engineer typically is @ graduate of a 4 Sear college program. Most engineers who work on fluid power systems are Tramulactoring, sales. or mechanical design oriented. They ean advance into man ‘agement postions in design, manufacturing oF sales. “The future ofthe fad power industry looks very promising, especialy when fone considers that the vast majority of all manufactured products have been processed in some way by Aud power systems. As a result, career opportunities Ure very bright, The fantastic growth of the Nuid power industry has opened many thew opportunities in all areas, including supervisors, engineers, technicians, me ‘chanics. sales personnel, servicemen, and operators Figure 1-82 shows @ fluid power engineer designing a Auid power cit using CAD software, a microcomputer, and a potter. In addition, a critical shortage of trained. qualifed instructors presently ‘exists, This shortage exists at tniversitics and colleges as well as at two-year {echnical ofleges and high schools. Iti hoped that this Book wil help in some ‘way in the education of these uid power-inspired people Fer 132 Pi oer ir wing aang ry of Ft(chap. 1 Exercises 2 1.8 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES [New environmental rules and regulations have recently been established concer ing the operation of fui power systems, The Muid power industry is responding by developing efficent, cost-effective ways to meet these new regulations, which deal with three issues: developing biodegradable Mus, reducing ol leakage, and reducing noise levels. 1. Developing biodegradable fluids. This issue deals with preventing envi ronmental damage caused! by potentially harmful material leaking from Maid power systems, Fluids commonly used in hydraulic systems are mineral-based land hence are not biodegradable, Oil companies are developing vegetable-based Mids that are biodegradable and compatible with uid power equipment, Fluid power-equipment manufacturers are testing theit products to ensure suitability With the new biodegradable Mud. 2. Reducing ol leakage. Hydraulic Mid leakage can occur at pipe fitings in hhydraulie systems and at mistlubricators in paeumatic systems. This leakage represents an environmental issue because the federal Environmental Protection ‘Agertey (EPA) has identified il asa hazardous air pollutant. To resolve this issue, the fluid power industry is striving to produce zero-leakage systems. Nev seals and fittings are being designed that can essentially eliminate oil leakage. In ad tion, prelube and nonlube pneumatic components are being developed to eliminate the need for pineline-installedlubricators and thus prevent oil mist leaks 3. Reducing noise levels. Hydraulic power units such as pumps and motors ‘can operate at noise levels exceeding the limits established by OSHA (Oceupa- tional Safely and Health Administration), New standards for indoor systems re= ‘quires that pumps and motors operate al reduced noise levels without reducing power o ellicency. Fluid power manufacturers are offering power units produce lower noise levels. In addition, noise-eduction methods such as modify- fing hydraulic hose designs, adding sound filters, baffles or coatings, and provid ing equipment vibration-absorbing mounts are being developed Meeting stricter environmental requirements represents @ challenge 10 ‘which the Muid power industy is responding, These environmental issues make ‘careers in the id power industry both challenging and exciting. Dedicated peo- ple who are educated i the field of fluid power are nceded to ensure thatthe uid ower industry continues to thrive and produce safe, efficient, reliable, cost- effective products to satisfy societal needs EXERCISES 1A List five lds of application where Mud power can be used more effectively than other power sources 1-2. Why is hydraulic power especialy useful when performing heavy work’?Introduction to Fluid Power Chap. 1 5. Compare the we offi power toa mechanical system by Hsing the advantages ard Aisadamtages of exch ‘4, What ithe basic Taw that is important in applying Aid power, and what isis sienfcance? 115. Comment on the diffrence between using teumatc Mud power and hydraulic Mid power. Define Mid power ‘What hydraulic device erentes farce that ean push or pulls loud What hydraulic device creates a forge that ean rotate w shalt? ‘What two factors are responsible forth hi responsiveness of hyrai devices? ‘Why cantar be used forall uid power apiiations? AL, What isthe prime mover? VIR, Name the six basi compoaents required in hydrate iret 13, Name the six basie components required in pneumatic circuit 4114, Obtain fom the Fai Power Society ot Fluid Power Foundation he requirements 0 fevome a certfed Mull power technician 11s, From publications such as Hydracr and Paeumatis (The Magazine of Fluid Powerand Control Systems), trae the economic growth ofthe Bid power industry since World War Hh 1-46, From publications such as the Hydraulics and Prewmatles, trace the economic [owt of pneumatics in the fi power inusty since World War I 1417, From publications such as Hydrauies aud Pneumatics ree the history of moving pat lose (MPL) apliatons inthe Mud power industry {L18, Take n plant our of a company that manufactures Mui power components wc 8s atoeceylinders, valves, or motors, Wile a repr stating how at Teast one compo emt anufactred. Lit the specications and iciude potential customer sepia 1-19, Why ate some fd power ckcuts controled by elestricty? 120, List five applications of uid power in the automosive indus 4121, What the diference between a closed-loop and an open-ioop fd power system? {4a2, What three types of personnel work in the Mul power Fn industry? 1123, Whats the significance of he phrase “Puid power preserves the heartbeat of Iie"? Cite two examples that support the subject phase 1-24, Discuss the phrase “the expanding size and scope af Mud power” Cite two Tats Dus ahow th size and two tional facts that show the growth ofthe Mid power industry. 125, What are moving pat loc devices? 1126. Name three ways movingpart ogi devices ean be actuate, 1.27, Wht are fue devices? 1138, What must be done to ensure that Mudie devices will operate reliably? 129, Give one reason why automotive hydraulic brakes might exhibit a yponey esting tthen a river pushes on the brake pedalchap. Exercises 3s 1.89, Relative to the automtil, is crise control an openoop or claseloop system? Explin our answer 131, What is the ilfrence between the terms lid power and Mdralies and pre Dierenate between fad transport and ful power systems [Name one source of eeo that is compensated for ina close-oop system. ne ve hydric applications and Rive pncumate applications. 1135. Name the components 08 ne hydraulic application and give thei funetions, 1.36, Name the components on one pneumatic aplication and sve thee functions. 1137. Contact the National Fluid Power Association to determine the requirements for becoming a fad power engineer, 1.34, From publitions such as yrds and Pacumati, race the Nstry of program ‘manle logic contol (PLC) applications in the uid power industry 1.38, What i a peogramauble logic conrller? 140, How does a PLE fer from a general-purpose computer? 1-41, What is he diference between & PLC and an electromechanical relay control? 142, Name three advantages that PLCs provide over electromechanical relay contr systems 1143, Describe the environmental issues dealing with developing biodegradable fis, €- dingo leakage, and reducing noise levels 1a2 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids Learning Objectives Upon completing this chapter, you should be able t 1. Explain the primary functions of a hydraulic uid, 2, Deine the term fluid 3. Distinguish between a liquid and a gas l. Appreciate the properties desired ofa hydraulic Aid Define the terms weight, density, and specie gravity - Understand the terms pressure, head, and force, Differentiate between gage pressures and absolute pressures J. Calculate the force created by a pressure 9. Apply Pascal's law to a hydraulic system. 410, Understand the terms kinematic viscosity and absolute viscosity M1. Convert viscosity from one set of units to another set of units 12, Explain the difference between viscosity and viscosity index. 13, Understand the significance of exidation and corrosion prevention of hy- . Thus, for pislon ates fat of 2 the output force increases by a actor of 2, but the outpat motion decreases hy a factoF of 2. Hence. in hydraulic press we do not get something for nothing. The output foree is greater than the Input force, but the ouput movement is less than the input movement. Combining Equation 2-11 and 2-12 yields the corresponding relationship & 5 si = ay A quati 2:13 can he rewritten as follows FS = FS [Now recall from physies that energy equals the product of foree and the distance moved by the force. Thus Eq. 2-13 states that the energy input to the hydraulic press equals the energy output from the press. This result occurs be cause the foree-amplifcation factors equals the motion-reduction factor. I should bbe noted that in real hydraulic pres, fiction between the piston and cylindrical bore surface will produce frictional energy losses, This causes the output enersy ly tobe less than the input energy. This loss of energy is laken into account ‘when the Bernoulli energy equation is used to solve hydraulic ssstem problems Exar 26 Derive the following conversion equations between the metric and English units systems for mas density and weight density. 0) -se ) so (B) - rl)Properties of Hydraulic Fluids Chap. 2 Solution nits wanted = units given * conversion factors 0) - CRE) oman * CP) oles) ~ 568) Units wanted = units even * conversion factors. Since 1 m= 3.28 then 1ie= 0.305 m, Thus, we have (i) ~7(R) «a +(3) =1s%(8) Exum 27 For the hydraulic press of Figure 2-13, the following data are given Ayn 2in2, Ap 20102 5) tin = 10015 Determine each ofthe following. ar bss The energy input 4. The energy output Solution 1 From Eq, 2-11) we have Be Br = Bim = 10% b. From Eg. 2-12) we haveSec,27 Bulk Modulus 58 Vi, 1 siaBixsaBxt (100 8) (1) = 100 nb 1000 1) «0.1 a) = 10 n-t Bneray input = F 8 4. Energy output = F; 2.7 BULK MODULUS ‘The highly favorable horsepower-to-weight ratio and the stiffness of hydraulic systems make them the frequent choice for most high-power applications. The Stiffness of a hydraulic system is directly related tothe incompressibilty ofthe ol. Bulk modulus isa measure of this incompressbility. The higher the bulk modulus, the Tess compressible or stifer the fluid, Mathematically the bulk modulus is defined by Eq. (2-14), where the minus sign accounts for the fact that 3s the pressure increases, the volume decreases: we a. 8= aa oy bulk modulus (psi, change in pressure (psi, change in volume (in), V = original volume (in) ‘The bulk modulus of an oil changes somewhat with pressure and tempera- ture, but within the operating ranges in most Muid power systems, this factor can be neplested. A typical vale for ol is 250,000 psi Exwuns 28 ‘A104? sample of is compressed in cylinder unt its pressure is increased from 100 to 200 psi I the blk modulus equals 20,00 pi find the change in volume of the oi Soli. Seting Ea, C10 tse x8, bv in sn : ay ~-v( BE) - 19.) - nore “This represents only 0.76% decrease in volume, which shows thatthe lis highly incompressible.‘of Hydraulic Fluids Chap. 2 60 Properte 2.8 VISCOSITY AND VISCOSITY INDEX Viscosity is probably the single most important property of hydraulic Aid. Iisa ‘measure ofthe slugeishness with which a fuid moves, When the viscosity is low the fuid flows easily because i is thin and has a low body. A fluid tha ows with dlifculty has a high viscosity and is thick in appearance with a high body In reality, the ideal viscosity fora given hydraulic system) isa compromise Too high a viscosity results in 1. High resistance to low, which causes slugish operation 2. Increased power consumption due to frictional losses. 3. Increased pressure drop through valves and lines, 4. High temperatures caused by friction, (On the other hand, ifthe viscosity is too low, the results 1 Increased leakage losses past seals. 2, Excessive wear due to breakdown of the oil fm between moving parts, ‘These parts may be internal components ofa pump or even a siding valve spool inside its valve body, as shown in Fig. 2-14, The concept of viscosity can be understood by examining two parallel plates separated by an oil lm of thickness y,as illustrated in Fig, 2-5. The lower plate is stationary, whereas the upper plate moves witha Velocity vas itis being pushed by a force Fas shown, Due to viscosity, the oil adheres to both surfaces. Thus, "sow ran ru of bn ivoratue Lub (SnOwn Mecano row GREATLY BAGCUATED, Ino 4 TMS passages Unde SG from aouacent ‘igure 214, Fi fl bvicatex and sels moving pats, (Courtesy of Sper Vikers Spey Rand Corp Teas, Megan)00.28 Viscosity and Viscosity Index 6 Figure 218, Fld veloc pole between paral lates de 1 viscosity. the velocity of the layer of fui in contact with the lower plate is zero, and the velocity of the layer in contact with the top plate is v. The consequence is a linearly varying velocity profile whose slope is v/y. The absolute viscosity ofthe ‘il can be represented mathematically + _ BIA ___ shear stress in ll Uy” iy ~ Slope of velocity profile ey # Where r = Greek symbol tau = the shear stress inthe fu in units of Force per unit area (Ib); the shear stress (produced by the force F) causes the sliding of adjacent layers of oil, locity of the moving plate (5); il film thickness (0) = Greck symbol mu = the absolute viscosity ofthe oll, force applied to the moving upper plate (Ib), rea of the moving plate surface in contact with the oil bas (Checking units for 1 inthe English system, we have __tbin® _ tbs * = Gia Ifthe moving plate has unit surface area in contact with the ol and the upper plate velocity and oil lm thickness are given unit values, Eq, (2-15) becomes. shear force _ shear force shear area T e-p-heoe We can, therefore, define absolute viscosity asthe force required to move a fat plate of unit area at wnit distance from a fixed plate with unit relative velocity when the space between the plates is filled with a fluid whose viscosity isto be measured. Winches are used for the dimension of length, the units of 1 become Ibs. A viscosity of I bsin.is called a reyn,Properties of Hydraulic Fluids Chep. 2 Viscosity is often expressed in the CGS metric system. In the CGS metric system, the units are 4. dynelem* ~ ai ~ femistiem ~ “vne'siem? where a dyne is the force that will accelerate a I-g mass ata rate of I emis. The ‘conversions between dynes and newtons and between centimeters (em) and me- ters (m) are a follows LN = 10° dynes 1m = 106m A viscosity of 1 dyne-siem* is ealled a poise Both the reyn and the poise are very large units. More convenient units are the microreyn (one-milionth of a reyn) and the centipoise (one-hundredth of a poise). A centipoise is commonly abbreviated cP. Calculations in hydraulic systems often involve the use of kinematic viscos- ity rather than absolute viscosity. Kinematic viscosity (») equals absolute viscos- ity (w) divided by mass density (): pitt 219) p ‘Checking units for v in the English system, we have lbs? tine 2 STugsiit TA ET = (ls A viscosity of 1 ins is called a newt. In the metric system the units for v are dynersiem? ___dynesiem lem! ~ Gyne/em (em here 1 kilogram (kg) equals 1000 grams (), A viscosity of 1 ems is called a stoke. Because the stoke is a large unit, viscosity is often reported in centistokes (5). A centistoke equals one-hundredth of a stoke ‘The conversion formula changing absolute viscosity to microreyns from centipoise isSee.28 Viscosity and Viscosity Index e a (microreyns) = 0.145 x wleP) en “The conversion formula changing kinematic viscosity to newts from centi- stokes is (ets) = 0.00155 » (6S) 218) “The viscosity of aid is usually measured by a Saybolt viscosimeter which is shown schematically in Fig, 2-16. Basically, this device consists of an inner ‘chamber containing the sample of oil to be tested. A separate outer compartment, ‘which completely surrounds the inner chamber, contains a quantity of oil whose Temperature is controled by an electrical thermostat and heater. A standard ori- fice located at the bottom ofthe center oil chamber. When the oil sample is at the desired temperature, the time i takes to fil a 60-em container through the metering orifice is then recorded. The time (t), measured in seconds, isthe viscos ity ofthe oi in official units called Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Since a thick liquid flows slowly, the SUS viscosity will be higher than for a thin liquid. ‘A relationship exists between the viscosity in SUS and the corresponding, metric system units of centistokes (eS) This relationship is provided by the fol lowing empirical equations vS) 22. r= 100 SUS 19) v6) 1 > 100 SUS 220) where the symbol » represents the viscosity in centistokes and 1 is measured in SUS or simply seconds. Kinematic viscosity is defined as absolute viscosity divided by mass density of the oil, Since, in the CGS metric system, mass density equals specific gravity because puio = I glem’), the following equation can be used to find the absolute viscosity tthe kinematic viscosity is known: «ey ves = 46 aan Since the specific gravity of most hydraulic uids equals about 0.9, Eq, 2.219 reduces 10 (r 09) ves) = e2nar is viscosiTy? Vaszsty 2 measure of “tow gras onpcrtures. vw THe teste operating temperate i is seatiy ih Sterne fd Jrgion (rion iti eo Sei) Chane incon it cenarintoneroneaon insti. HowTo DETERMINE viscosiry The nit of rear Ue in seconds required for 60 mote ol to Now trou 8 sand oie Under # tana fling head and as Ben temper {Wes 100F end 210" se conmon tomparatres ft ‘meine Stat hel cel str nth ager on prose “stent hace of te Un SAE st00F at2108 TrpialVscosty 10" 202, 48 ayeot Unerss) —20W 323 Par SAE so” Ss Ge ‘Aomative Ratings 40850 som 80 gure 216, Saybol vsosietr-(Courteny of USK Corn, Ptsureh, Penni)See.28 Viscosity and Viscosity Index 6 xan 29 ‘An oil asa viscosity of 230 SUS st ISO, Find the corresponding visoosty in units ‘of centistokes and centipoise. Solution (eS) = 0201 HGP) = 0.9" 8) = (0.9450) = 45

— T1800 5.000 T= 7int0 ficiency, another significant parameter when dealing with work and Power, is defined as output power divided by input power Pe 68) output power, input power, 1 = Greck letter eta = efficiency2 Applleations of Pascal's Law 95 “The efficiency of any system or component is always less than 100% and is ted to determine power losses, In hydraulic systems, these losses are due to fad leakage past close-Ritting parts and mechanical friction due to uid move ment. rubbing parts and seals, and the operation of mechanical couplings. Efi ‘Gency measures the amount of power that i actually delivered in comparison to the power received. The power difference (P, — P) is loss since itis transformed Jinto heat du to frictional effets. The output power is usually computed trom force, distance, and time data, which deseribe the ypeed at which the load is ‘moved. The input power is normally computed on parameters associated with the prime mover Exits 33 “An elevator raises a3000b load through a distance of fin 105, Ifthe efcency of the entre systems 8%, how much ipet horsepower Is required by the elevator bois motor? Solution FS _ 00 15x30 8) ‘ 2 FS - 2000 EO ND 500 15.000 w= 30M 3 a= Fx 10% | APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL'S LAW In this section we examine two basic applications of Pascal's law: the hydraulic jack and the aie-to-hydruulic booster. Hydraulic Jack "This system uses a pistonype hand pump to power a singe-acting hydraulic cylinder, as illustrated in Fig. 3-2. The operation is as follows. "A hand force is applied at point A of handle ABC, which pivots about point C.The piston rod of the hand pllmp is pinned to the input handle at point B. TheEnergy and Power in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 3 As pure 32, Handonente id isk em hand pump essentially consists ofa cylinder containing a piston, which is free to ‘move up and down. The piston and rod are rigidly connected togcther. When the handle i pulled up, the piston rises and ereates a vacuum inthe space below it As 4 result, atmospheric pressure forces oil 1 leave the ol tank and flow through check valve 1. This is the suetion process. A check valve is a component that allows flow to pass in only one direction, as indicated by the arrow ‘When the hand i then pushed down, ol is eecte from the hand pump and flows through check valve 2 and enters the hottom end ofthe load cylinder, The load cylinder is similar in construction to the pump eylinder and containy a piston And rod. Pressure builds up below the load piston as oil is eected from she pump !and meets resistance in finding a place 1 go, From Pascal's law we know tha the Pressure acting on the load piston equals the pressure generated by the pump below its piston. Thus, each time the input handle is eycled up and down. a specified volume of oli ejected from the pump to raise the load cylinder a aiven distance against its loud resistance. The bleed valve is a hand-operated valve, which, when opened, allows the lad to be lowered by bleeding vl fom the load «vlinder back tothe oil tank, It should be noted that ol enters und exits from exch cylinder at only one end. Such a cylinder is called single acting because itis hydraulically powered in only one direction, Figure 33 is « photograph showing the construction of single-acting air eylinder The purpose of the internal spring § to return the piston to ils fully retracted position. In the hydraulic jack applica, tion of Fig. 3-2 the retraction ofthe oad piston is accomplished by the load itself When the bleed valve is opened,See,22Appleations of Pascal's Law 7 Higwe 43, _Sigle sting ilar (Corny of Sheer Corporation Figure 34 is a photograph of s doubleacting air eylinder, which powered in either direction, The construction and operation details of hydra fd sr eylinders such as these are examined in detail in Chapter 7 ‘ample illustrates further how the hydraulic jack functions in terms of power and force requirements, Engrs 34 ‘An operator makes one complete cycle per second interval using the hand pup of Fig 22, Each complete cycle consists of wo pump stokes Gatake snd power. The pump has a -in-dhameter piston and the load eslinder has a 3.25. diameter piston Tine average hand fore 25th during the power stroke, ow much toad can be lied?” - How many cycles ae required t it the lod 10 in. assuming no oaks ‘age? The pump piston bas a2. stoke. Figure 34, Doubleating sr osinder (ort of Shaffer CorporationEnergy and Power in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 3 What is the output 1 assuming 10% effin’? 4. What isthe output 4P assuming 8% efciency? Solution 1a, let determin the fore aeting on the rod ofthe pump du tothe mechani- cal advange ofthe input handle Fou = 3% Fag = $25) = 10018 Next, caeulate the pump discharge pressute donee __F, 1001 Bistom ares mp pan” TEND a? = 12tpsi Per Pascal's aw this also the same pressure ating on the lad piston. We can now energy (Rb) In other words | fb of energy equals 1.386 J Power Power isthe rate of doing work. Inthe SI system, 1 watt (W) of power isthe rate of 1 of work per second: work power = (em) power (Ww) = “oR 63) poneeiwn = »(%) x 0) oan tothe sam ae pyre apenas T indir hs nse fe taf ate ands meal poe Saou ets Cero af over vale tween he Ei nd stems ca be nae nt ning cats power) = Power (S22) = 1356 « poner (22) power 00) = pover (SM) » 146 x power h) ‘As a result we can conclude that | hp = 746 W. Pump head H, in units of meters can be related to pump power in units of watts by using Eq. 09): P = 7H, Thus we have P = yll,. where His the pump head. Substituting into Fg. (3-32) yields ~o(@) a3)‘Sec. 3.11 Illustrative Example Using the SI Moric System we Equation (33) can be used to solve forthe pump head for use in Bernoulli's equation Flow Rates Flow te equals the product of pipe cross-sectional area and fuid velocity 0 (2) ~ aim x02 con) Volumes (V) can be converted between the English and SI systems as fol lows: vo) 0.0284V (0) V (av) = 0.00879Y (ea "Thus, as an example, 1000 gal = 3.79 m ‘Thus, flow rates ean be converted by using the following equations Q (avis) = O284Q (PIS) 2 (as) = 0.003790 (eas) Q (Js) = 0,00006320 (ene) So, for example, 1000 gpm = 0.0632 mis Also note that I liter =1 L. = 0.001 Hence, 2 (E) = 10009 (22) = 0.06320 em ‘Thus, gpm = 0.0632 Lis or | Lis = 15.8 gpm. 3.11 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE USING THE ‘Si METRIC SYSTEM In this section we show how to solve a hydraulic system problem using the SI metric system units, To provide a comparison with the English system of units. let's use the same hydraulic system analyzed in Example 38 (see Fig. 3-17). The SI metric units solution is presented in the following example.1 Energy and Power in Hycraulc Systems Chop. 3 Exauree S11 For the hydraulic system of Fig. 3-17, the following St metic data (which are ‘esuivalent to the Enlish system of units dita of Exaniple 3-8) are given: 1 The pump isang § hp (3730 W) tothe id 2, Pump flow i 0.001896 ms, 3. The pipe has a 0.0254-m inside ameter, Note that this size ean also be represented in units of centimeters or millimeters as 2,8 em or 25.4 rn, respectively 4, The specific ravity ofthe oils 08. 5, The elevation difeeace betwoen stations 1 and 2s 6.096 m. Find the pressure available tthe inlet othe hydrate motor (station 2). The pressure a tation |i the hydraulic tank is atmosphere (0 Pa or 0 Nin gage). The head loss #7, duct ition belwoen tations Land 259.144 m of oi. Soluion Writing Bernoull’s equation between stations ¥ and 2, we have nol a asfsden- tomas bed Since there sno hydraulic motor between stations | and 2, Hy = 0. AsO, = ‘because the eros section of an ol anki large. As pet Fig. 3-17, Z>— Z) = 20 = {6.086 m, Also, Hi; = 9.144 m and P; ~ Oper the given input dita, Substiuing knowa valves, we have Ztororn, at o-914-2,+8+3 Solving for Paly, we have fh hos ft @,-2)+ 4-2-9, Since 2: ~ Z; = 6.096 m, we have whereChap.3 Exercises co Yea = Str = 9 % 9197 Nim? = 8817 Nie, a0 Hy) = aa gg = Im. Next we solve for v and a2 se = 908) 000196 A) NOOSE mF oh G74 mis? 2” Byo.m0 mish ~ O74 he oat ata Foams on nat=ans m son yi Pm) = my m= cain = sn Ps — 8A hr k= lca = 10 [Now since 1 Pa 000185 psi, we have P= (1.826, 00090.000145) = 265 psi ‘This value checks with the answer Example 38, which was solved sis English system of unis. EXERCISES Quest Mt. ms, Concepts, and Defi "Explia the meaning of Bernoul’s equation and how it fests the fw fig in 1 hydraulic ica 32, Whats the continuity equation, and what are ts implisstions relative to fd ow’? 133, State Toriceli’s theorem in your own words 34. Explain how a siphon operates. 15. Stale the law of conservation of emery M6, Explain bow a venturi is used to produce the Bernoulli effect in an automobile carburetor {37 What meant by the terms eleation head, pressure head, and velocity head? 348, State Newion's thee laws of motion.4 The Distribution System Learning Objectives ‘Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to J. Size conductors to meet flow rate requirements, . Understand the significance of the term pressure rating of conductors. Differentiate between the terms burst pressure and working pressure J. Visualize the tensile stress in the wall of a conductor and understand how tensile stress varies with fuid pressure, pipe diameter, and wall thickness, 5, Determine the required wall thickness of a conductor to prevent bursting under operating fluid pressure. ‘6. Identify the standard commercial sizes of steel pipes and tubing. 7. Describe the various types of fittings used to connect hydraulic components to conductors. 8, Identify the construction features and function of flexible hoses. 9, Discuss the construction featutes and function of quick disconnect cou- pilings. 4.1 INTRODUCTION Ina fluid power system, the uid flows through a distribution system consisting of conductors and fitings, which cary the fud from the reservoir through operating ‘components and back tothe reservoir. Since power is transmitted throughout the system by means of these conducting lines (Conductors and fitings used to con- nec system components), it follows that they must be properly designed in order forthe total system to function propery 13‘Tho Distribution System Chap. 4 ‘Today's fd power systems use primatily four ypes of conductors: Steel pipes - Steel tubing Plastic tubing |. Flexible hoses ‘The choice of which type of conductor to use depends primarily on the system’s operating pressures and flow rates. In addition the selection depends on environmental conditions such asthe type of Rud, operating temperatures, vibra tion, and whether or not there is relative motion between connected components ‘Conducting lines are avaiable for handling working pressures up to 10,08 psi or greater. In general steel tubing provides greater plumbing Rexiblity and ‘neater appearance and requires Fewer fitngs than piping. However, piping is ess expensive than steel tubing. Plastic tubing is finding increased industrial usage because it is not costly and circuits ean be very easily hooked up due to its Aexibilty. Flexible hoses are used primarily to connect components that experi- ence relative motion. They are made from a large number of elastomeric (rubber like) compounds and are capable of handling pressures exceeding 10,000 ps Stainless steel conductors and fittings are used if extremely corrosive env ronments are expected. However, they are very expensive and should be used ‘only if necessary. Copper conductors should not be used in hydraulic systems because the copper promotes the oxidation of petroleum oils, Zinc, magnesium and cadmium conductors should not be used either because they are rapidly corroded by water glycol Mids, Galvanized conductors should also be avoided ‘because the galvanized surface has a tendency to lake off into the hydraulic Huid ‘When using steel pipe or steel tubing, hydraulic fitings should be made of ste except for inlet return, and drain lines where malleable iron may be used. ‘Conductors and fitings must be designed with human safety in mind. They must be strong enough not ony to withstand the steady-state system pressures but also the instantaneous pressure spikes resulting from hydraulic shock, Whenever control valves are closed suddenly. this stops the uid, which possesses large amounts of kinetic energy. This produces shock waves whose pressure levels can bbe two to four times the steady-state system design values, Pressure spikes can also be caused by sudden stopping or starting of heavy loads. These high-pressure pulses are taken into account bythe application of an appropriate factor of safety CONDUCTOR SIZING FOR FLOW-RATE REQUIREMENTS ‘A conductor must have a large enough cross-sectional area to handle the flow-rate requirements without producing excessive Nuid velocity, Whenever we speak of fluid velocity in a conductor such as a pipe, we are referring to the average‘See.42 Conductor Siting for Flow- Rate Requirements 135, Velocity. The concept of average velocity is important since we know that the velocity profile is not constant. Recall from Chapter 3 thatthe velocity is zero at the pipe wall and reaches @ maximum value at the centerline of the pipe. The average velocity is defined as the volumetric ow rate divided by the pipe cross sectional area: a In other words, the average velocity is that velocity which when multiplied by the pipe area equa the volumetric low rate Its also understood that the term digmeterby itself alays means inside diameter and that the pipe area is that area ‘that corresponds to the pipe inside diameter. The maximum recommended veloc- ity for pump suetion lines is 4 1S (1.2 mis) in order to prevent excessively low siletion pressures and resulting pump cavitation. The maximum recommended velocity for pressure lines is 20 fs (6.1 m/s) inorder to prevent turbulent flow and the corresponding excessive head losses and elevated temperatures, Note that these maximum recommended values are average velocities xwsra 4 ‘A pipe handles a ow rate of 30 gpm. Find the minimum insie diameter that will ‘provide un average Mid Velocity not to exceed 201s. Solution Rewrite Eq (326), solving for D: (SR. CE va - oman Buses 42 A pine handles a low rate of 0.002 Find the minimum ise diameter that will provide an everage Mud velocity not to exceed 6. mis. Solution Per Eq. (-3) we solve forthe minimum required pipe flow are “The minimum isd diate can now be found, beste A = FD Solving fr D Bae138 ‘The Distribution System Chap. 4 4.3 PRESSURE RATING OF CONDUCTORS A consluctor must be strong enough to prevent bursting due to excessive tensile Stress (called hoop siress) in the wall of the conductor under operating Muid pressure. The magnitude of this tensile stress, which must be sustained by the ‘conductor material, can be determined by refering to Figure +1. In Fig. 41(a), we see the fui pressure (P) acting normal to the inside surface ofa circular pine having length (L). The pipe has outside diameter D, inside diameter D, and wall thickness . Because the fluid pressure acts normal tothe pipe’s inside surface, Pressure foree is created that attempts to separate one half of the pipe from the other ha, Figure 4-1(5) shows this pressure force Q pushing downward on the bottom half ofthe pipe. To prevent the bottom half ofthe pipe from separating from the ‘upper half, the upper half pulls upward with a total force F. One-half ofthis force (or F/2) acts on the cross-sectional area (HL) of each wall, as shown Since the pressure force and the total tensile force must be equal in magni- tude, we have F oy » igure 4 Fores nthe wal ie de wo Bud presse.Sec. 43 Pressure Rating of Conductors 7 Where 4 is the projected area of the lower half;pipe curved-wall surface onto a horizontal plane. Thus, A equals the area ofa rectangle of width D, and length L, as shown in Figure 4-1(b). Hence, P=PA= Pup) ‘The tensile stress in the pipe material equals the tensile force divided by the wall cross-sectional area withstanding the tensile force. This stress is called a tensile stress because the force (Fis a tensile force (pulls onthe area over which itaets). force pulling on the pine wall area fensile SfeSS = bine wall area over which force acts Substituting variables we have F _PA_ Pub) _ Pb, BL where o = Greek symbol (sigma) = tensile stress [As can be seen from Eq, (4-2), the tensile stress inereases as the Mud pres- sure inereases and also as the pipe inside diameter increases. In addition, as expected, the tensile stress increases as the wall thickness decreases, and the length of the pipe does not have any effect on the tensile stress. “The burst pressure (BP) isthe Mud pressure tht will cause the pipe to burst. ‘This happens when the tensile stress (@) equals the tensile strength (3) ofthe pipe material. The tensile strength of & material equal the tensile stress at which the material ruptures. Notice that sn axial seribe line is shown on the pipe outer wall surface in Fig. 4-1(a). This scribe line shows where the pipe would start to crack and thus rupture if the tensile stress reached the tensile strength of the pipe material, This rupture wil occur when the Auid pressure (P) reaches BP. Thus from Eq, (42) the burst pressure is us pr = 38 as) ‘The working pressure (WP) is the maximum safe operating Rid pressure and js defined as the burst pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety 5). BP week ws18 ‘The Distribution Systerm Chap. & A factor of safety ensures the integrity of the conductor by determining the maximum safe level of working pressure. Industry standards recommend the following factors of safety based on corresponding operating pressures: FS = 8 for pressures from 0 to 1000 psi FS = 6 for pressures from 1000 to 2500 psi Fi 4 for pressures above 2500 pst For systems where severe pressure shocks are expected, a factor of safety of 10s recommended. The proper size conductor fora given application is determined as follows: 1. Calculate the minimum acceptable inside diameter (D) based on flow-rate requirements. 2. Select a standard-size conductor with an inside diameter equal to oF ‘areater than the value calculated based on flow-rate requirements, 13. Determine the wal thickness (0) of the selected standard-size conductor using the following equation Dex as) 4. Based on the conductor material and system operating pressure (P), de termine the tensile strength (S) an factor of safety (FS), ', Caleulate the burst pressure (BP) and working pressure (WP) using Eas. (43) and (44) 6. Ifthe calculated working pressures less thatthe operating fluid pressure, the selected conductor is acceptable. If not, a diferent standard-size conductor With a greater wall thickness must be selected and evaluated. An acceptable ‘conductor is one that meets the flow-rate requirement and has a working pressure ‘equal to oF greater than the system operating fuid pressure “The nomenclature and units for the parameters of Eas. (4-2, (45) are as follows; 3), (44), and! [BP = burst pressure (psi, MPa) D,= conductor inside diameter (in...) D, = conductor outside diameter (in. m)See. 44 Steel Pipes 139 FS factor of safety (dimensionless) P= system operating Mud pressure (psi, MPa) s tensile strength of conductor material (psi, MPa) ‘conductor wall thickness (in., m) WP = working pressure (psi, MPa) 7 = tensile stress (psi, MPa) Exar 43 ‘A steel ting ba 1250. ouside diameter and a .060.n inside diameter tis ‘made of SAE 1010 dea soft cold drawn sts having a tensile strength of 55,000 ps. ‘What would be the safe working pressure for this tube assuming factor of safety ore? Solution First, calealat the wal thickness ofthe tubing STEEL PIPES Pipes and pipe fittings are classified by nominal size and schedule number, as illustrated in Fig. 42. The schedules provided are 40, 80, and 160, which are the ‘ones most commonly used for hydraulic systems, Notice that for each nominal Size the outside diameter does not change. To inerease wall thickness the next larger schedule number is used. Also observe thatthe nominal size s neither the ‘outside nor the inside diameter. Instead the nominal pipe size indicates the thread‘The Distribution System Chap. 4 | 10 aa ame aa Figure 42. Common pie sizes size for the mating connections. The pipe sizes given in Fig. 42 are in units of inches, Figure 43 shows the relative size of the cross sections for schedules 40,80, ‘and 160 pipes. As shown for a given nomial pipe size, the wall thickness increases fs the schedule number increases. Pipes have tapered threads, as opposed to tube and hose fittings, which have straight threads. As shown in Fig. 4-4, the joints are sealed by an interference fit ‘between the male and female threads as the pipes are tightened. This causes one ‘of the major problems in using pipe. When a joint is taken apart, the pipe must be tightened farther to reseal. This frequently requires replacing Some of the pipe ‘with slightly longer sections although tis problem has been overcome somewhat by using Teflon tape to reseal the pipe joints. Hydraulic pipe threads are the dy O09 gare 43, Relative ae the com sections of schedules 40,8, and 14 pie.See. 44 ut Stee! Pig gure 44, Hystanc pine teas ae the ys tapered pe, (Coren of Spory Vickers, Sper Rand Cop, Ty, Michigan) seal type. They differ from standard pipe threads because they engage the roots land crests before the flanks. In this way, spiral clearance is avovded. Pipes can have only male threads, and they eannot be bent around obstacles, “There are, of course, various required types of fitings to make end connections and change direction, as shown in Fig. 45. The large number of pipe ftings required in« hydraulic cicuit presents many opportunites for leakage, especially fs pressure increases, Threaded-type fittings are used in sizes up to 14 i. in diameter. Where larger pipes are required, flanges are welded t0 the pipe, as lustratedin Fig, 46. As shown, flat gaskets or O-rings are used to seal the flanged fittings.wae “The Distribution System Chap. 4 BEES ssa uus iureoun’ Rereeneses, LEER acrons use ur ieee came ppp coon sat ai SLR ears? C= sass ae freee. Figure 48. Figs make the connections bebe pes an conponens (Cones of Spey Vickers, Spe Rand Corp Try, Mihison) 4.5 STEEL TUBING Seamless steel tubing is the most widely used type of conductor for hydraulic systems as it provides significant advantages over pipes. The tubing can be bent into almost any shape, thereby reducing the numberof requited fittings. Tubing is ‘easier to handle and can be reused without any sealing problems, For low-volumeSee. 45, Steel Tubing a HRLADKR BE concions Figure 46. Flanged connections for Ia pies. Courtesy of Sperry Vicker, Spores Rand Cop. Troy, Mihigon) systems, tubing can handle the pressure and flow requirements with les bulk and Weight. However, tubing and its itings are more expensive. A tubing size desig nation always refers to the outside diameter, Available sizes include yy in. incre: ‘ments from bin. outside diameter up to I-in. outside diameter. For sizes beyond Lin., the inerements are in. Figure 4-7 shows some of the more common tube sizes (in units of inches) used in fluid power systems. SAE 1010 dead soft cold-drawn steel is the most widely used material for tubing. This material is easy to work with and has a tensile strength of 55,000 ps‘The Distribution System Chap. 4 igre 47. Common ae sie. If greater strength is required, the tube can be made of AISI 4130 steel, which has tensile strength of 75,000 psi Tubing isnot sealed by threads but by special kind of fitngs, as ilustrated in Fig. 48. Some ofthese fitings are known as compression fitings. They seal By ‘metal-to-metal contact and may be either the flared or fareless type. Other fitings ‘may use O-rings for sealing purposes. The 37° fae iting isthe most widely used fitting for tubing that can be lared. The fittings shown in Fig. 48(a) and (b) seal by squeezing the flared end of the tube against a seal as the compression nut is tightened. A sleeve inside the nut supports the tbe to dampen vibrations. The standard 45° flare fiting is used for very high pressures. It is also made in an inverted design with male threads on the compression aut. When the hydraulic ‘component has straight thread ports, straight thread O-ring fittings can be used, as shown in Fig. 4-8). Ths type is ideal for high pressures since the seal gets tighter as pressure increases. For tubing that can't be flared, or if faring isto be avoided, sleeve, ferrule, for O-ring compression fittings can be used (see Fig. 48), (@), (0). The O-ring fitting permits considerable variations in the length and squareness of the tube cut Figure 49 shows a Swagelok ube fitng, which can contain any pressure up to the bursting strength of the tubing without leakage. This type of fiting can be repeatedly taken apart and reassembled and remain perfectly sealed against leak- age. Assembly and disassembly can be done easily and quickly using standard tools. Inthe illustration, notice that the tubing is supported ahead ofthe ferrules by the fitting body. Two ferrules grasp tightly around the tube with no damage to the tube wall, There is virally no constriction ofthe inner wall, ensuring mini- mum flow restriction. Exhaustive tests have proven that the tubing will yield before a Swagelok tube fitting will leak, The secret of the Swagelok fitting is that all the action inthe fitting moves along the tube axially instead of with a rotary ‘motion. Since no torque is transmitted from the fitting to the tubing, there is no.See.45 Steel Tubing 5 8 ssa nro igure 48. Threaded ting ad coopers aed wih ios. Courtesy of ‘SperyVikers, Spey Ran Corp, Toy, Michigan) inital strain that might weaken the tubing. The double ferrule interaction over. ‘comes variation in tube materials, wall thickness, and hardness. In Fig. 410 we see the 45° flare iting, The fared-type fitting was developed before the compression type and for some time was the only type that could successfully seal against high pressures. ‘Four additional types of tube fittings are depicted in Fig. 4-11: (a) union «elbow, (union tee, () union, and (4) 45° male elbow. With fitings such as these, itis easy to install steel tubing as well s remove it for maintenance purposes.us ‘The Distribution System Chap. & [itt S|" [ratte EE] BE [atthe “SE 18 ‘aaa Joos | 12 vos [oa || 78 vow [ors | ] ce 3 [Be m | ge Tae] oe | sos Jone * | $98 [208 | gee 47. Common be sizes 1 greater strength is required, the tube can be made of AISI 4130 steel, which has 8 tensile strength of 75,000 ps. ‘Tubing isnot sealed by threads but by special kinds of fitings, as ilustrated in Fig. 4.8. Some ofthese fitings are known as compression tings. They seal by metal to-metal contact and may be either the flared or arcess type. Other fitnes may use O-rings for sealing purposes. The 37" flare fitting isthe most widely used Sitting for tubing that can be flared. The ftings shown in Fig. 4-8(a) and (b) seal by squeezing the flared end of the tube against a seal as the compression nut is tightened. A sleeve inside the nut supports the tube to dampen vibrations. The standard 45° lare fitting is used for very high pressures. Iti also made in an inverted design with male threads on the compression nut. When the hydraulic ‘component has sirsight thread ports, straight thread O-ring fittings can be used, as shown in Fig 4.8(c). This type ts ideal for high pressures since the seal gets tighter as pressure increases For tubing that can’t be fared, or if faring i to be avoided, sleeve, ferrule, ‘or O-ring compression fittings can be used [see Fig. 48(0), (e), (0). The O-ring fitting permits considerable variations inthe length and squareness ofthe tube cut. Figure 49 shows a Swagelok tube fitng, which can contain any pressure up to the bursting strength ofthe tubing without leakage. This type of iting can be. repeatedly taken apart and reassembled and remain perfectly sealed against leak age. Assembly and disassembly can he done easily and quickly using stand tools. Inthe illustration, notice thatthe tubing is supported ahead of the ferrul by the fitting body. Two ferrules grasp tightly around the tube with no damage the tube wall, There is virtually no constriction ofthe inner wall, ensuring mis ‘mum flow restriction. Exhaustive tests have proven that the tubing will yi before a Swagelok tube fitting will leak. The secret of the Swagelok fitting is that all the action in the fitting moves along the tube axially instead of with rotary ‘motion. Since no torque is transmitted from the fiting to the tubing, there is noSee.45 Stee! Tubing us 5. sense min Figure 44, Threaded iigs and conestors wed with tbing. (Couey 0 Spey Vickers, Sper Rand Cop. Troy, Mikio) ini strain that might weaken the tubing. The double ferrule interaction over ‘comes variation in tube materials, wall thickness, and hardness. In Fig, 410 we see the 45° fare fitting. The fared-type iting was developed before the compression type and for some time was the only type that could successfully seal against high pressures. ‘Four additional types of tube fittings are depicted in Fig. 4-11: (a) union elbow, (b) union tee, (e) union, and (d) 45° mae elbow. With tings such as these, itis easy to install steel tubing as well as remove it for maintenance purposes.6 ‘The Distribution System Chap. & Figure 49. Swagok ube sing {Coureny of Swageto8 Co, Solon, Obs, Figure $18, The 4S te ttn. (Comes of Gould, Ine Vale ond Figs Beware Selet the proper size tel tube for a ow rate of 30 gpm and an operating pressure of 1000 ps. The maximum recommended velocity is 201s, and the tube materi is SAE 1010 dead soft cold-drawn steel having ates strength of 55,00) psi Solution The minirmum inside diameter based on the fluid velocity limitation of 20 ‘isis the same that fund in Example 61 72 i). From Fg 47 the wo smallest scetae tbe sins based on ows sirens re -in, OD, 0.0890, wall hickness, 092i, 1D OD, 0.65, wal thickness, 0.5700, IDsee. 45 Stee! Tubing “7 Let's check the 0049, wall hikes fe fist since it provides the smaller veloc 2x0.089185.000)_ pp ~ CALMS) 599 pi wr 22 ya pi ‘This working pressure is not adequate, set’ next examine the 0.065, wall thickness te: (20.068). 000) 2695.00, 359 pat BP wr = 22 13050 ‘This result is acceptable, because the working pressure of 1030 ps is greater than the spstem-operating presse of 000 ps, } hi } v0 2 we 11. Vans se! be Stings. 0) Union om) unon (0) nin, ) 4 ae low (Courtes of Goal ne Valo and Futings Dion, Ch ‘igo, ins}ue The Distibution System Chap. & Ce te— {Tbe iting. (Coursey of Goud Ine ake and Pings Dution Chicago, Minos) 4.6 PLASTIC TUBING Plastic tubing has gained rapid acceptance inthe uid power Industry because itis relatively inexpensive. Also, it can be readily bent to fit around obstacles, it is easy to handle, and it can be stored on reels. Another advantage is that it ean be color-coded 10 represent different parts of the circuit because it is available in ‘many colors. Since plastic tubing is flexible, iti less susceptible to vibration ‘damage than stel tubing, itlngs for plastic tubing are almost identical to those designed for stel tubing. In fact many stel tube fittings can be used on plastic tubing, as is the case forthe Swagelokfiting of Fig, 4:9, In another design, a sleeve is placed inside the tubing tive it resistance to crushing atthe area of compression, as illustrated in Fig. 4-12. In this particular design (called the Poly-Flo Flareless Tube Fitting), the sleeve is fabricated onto the fitting soit cannot be accidentally left off. Plastic tubing is used universally in pneumatic systems because air pressures are low, normally less than 100 psi. Of course, plastic tubing is compatible with ‘most hydraulic fuids and hence is used in low-pressure hydraulic applications ‘Materials for plastic tubing include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, poly propylene, and nylon. Each material has special properties that are desirable f specific applications. Manufacturers’ catalogs should be consulted to determir ‘hich material should be used for a particular application 4.7 FLEXIBLE HOSES ‘The fourth major type of hydraulic conductor isthe flexible hose, which is u ‘when hydraulic components such as actuators are subjected to movement. EX: ples of this are found in portable power units, mobile equipment, and hydra cally powered machine tools, Hose is fabricated in layers of elastomer (synthe rubber) and braided fabric or braided wie, which permits operation at hi pressures,Sec. 47 Flexible Hoses 9 a, FoR Wotan ressue, Cavets at USD. ‘inne WyoRMUUe Figure 413. Feil hove icons nays. (Cote af Spor Vcr, Spey Rand Corp. Try, Michigan) As illastrated in Fig. 4-13, the outer layer is normally synthetic rubber and serves fo protect the braid layer. The hose can have as few as three layers (one being braid) or can have multiple layers to handle elevated pressures, When ‘multiple wire layers are used, they may alternate with synthetic rubber layers, or the wire layers may be placed directly over one another Figure 4-14 gives some typical hose sizes and dimensions for single-wire braid and double-wire braid designs. Size specifications fora single-wire braid hose represent the outside diameter in sixteenths of an inch of standard tubing, and the hose will hve about the same inside diameter as the tubing. For example, 1 size 8 single-wire braid hose will hve an inside diameter very close toa or | va | rae | soe! ase | aa | ae] 7180 The Distbution System Chap. & eo aang En SCE a‘Sec.47 Floxble Hoses 181 in, standard tubing. For double-braided hose, the size specification equals the ‘actual inside diameter in siteenths of an inch. For example, a size 8 double-vire braid hose will have a in. inside diameter. The minimum bend radii values provide the smallest values for Various hose sizes to prevent undue strain oF ow Interference Figure 415 illustrates five diferent flexible hose designs whose construc- tions are described as follows C194; Elastomer inner tube, sinle-wire braid reinforcement mer cover. Working pressures vary from 375 to bb. FCI9S: Elastomer inner tube, double-wire brad reinforcement, and elas mer cover. Working pressures vary trom 1125 to S000 psi depending on the ud elasto 750 psi depending on the ‘e. FC300: Elastomer inner tube, polyester inner braid, single-wire braid rein- forcement, and polyester braid cover. Working pressures vary from 350 10 3000 psi depending on the size 4. 1525: Elastomer inner tube, textile braid reinforcement, oil and mildew re- sistant, and textile brad cover, Working pressure is 250 psi forall sizes, ¢. 2791: Elastomer inner tube, partial textile bra, four heavy spiral wie rein- forcements, and elastomer cover. Working pressure is 2500 psi forall sizes. Hose assemblies of virtually any length and with various end fitings are available from manufacturers, See Fi, 4-16 for examples of hoses with the fllow- aaa mal — pene tached end in, el (a Stating (5) 4" elbow Siti (gun Cos tachoon, Michigan182 ‘Tho Distribution System Chap. 4 ~~ Figere 417. Flsibe hose reablesipe end fins. (a) Stich iin. (0) chow Siting, (1 90 elbow fine Courtesy of Aerogup Cor Forkon Michigan) ing permanently attached end fittings: (a) straight fitting, (b) 48° elbow fitting, and (6) 90" elbow fiting ‘The elbow-type fittings allow access to hard-to-get-at connections. They also permit better flexing and improve the appearance ofthe system. Figure 4-17 shows the three corresponding reusable-type end fitings. These types ean be detached from a damaged hose and reused on a replacement hose The renewable fitings idea had its beginning in 1941, With the advent of World War I, itwas necessary to get aircraft with failed hydraulic lines back into opera tion as quickly as possible. Care should be taken in changing fluid in hoses since the hose and fluid materials must be compatible. Flexible hose should be installed so there is no Kinking during operation of the system. There should always be some slack to relieve any sirsin and allow for the absorption of pressure surges. It is poor practice to twist the hose and use long loops inthe plumbing operation. It may be necessary to use clamps to prevent chafing or tangling of the hose with moving parts. Ifthe hose is subject to rubbing, it should be encased in a protective sleeve, Figure 4-18 gives basic information on hose routing and installation procedures, 4.8 QUICK DISCONNECT COUPLINGS ‘One additional type of iting is the quick disconnect coupling used for both plastic tubing and flexible hose. It is used mainly where a conductor must be discon- nected frequently from a component. This type of iting permits assembly and disassembly in a matter of a second oF to. 1. Straight through: This type offers minimum restriction to flow but does not prevent uid loss fom the system when the coupling is disconnected. 2, One-way shutoff: This design locates the shutoff atthe Mid source con- nection but leaves the actuator component unblocked, Leakage from the system is ‘ot excessive in short runs, but system contamination due to the entrance of dirt154 ‘The Distribution System Chap. ¢ Fae 49, Quick dicots cig (resect en) (Corny of inthe open end ofthe fiting can be problem, especially with mobile equipment located atthe work site 3. Two-way shutoff: This design provides postive shutoff of both ends of pressurized lines when disconnected. See Fig. 4-19 fora cutaway of this type of ‘auick disconnect coupling. Figure 4-20 shows an exter view of the same cou pling. Such a coupling puts an end tothe loss of fluids, Ax soon as you release the locking sleeve, valves in both the socket and plug close, shutting of flow. Whes ‘connecting, the plug contacts an O-ring in the socket, creating a positive seal ‘There is no chance of premature flow or waste duc to a partial connection. The Plug must be fully seated in the socket before the valves will open, £20. Quick cnconnest cow‘800.49 Metric Stee! Tubing 155, 4.9 METRIC STEEL TUBING In this section we examine common metric tube sizes and show how to select the proper size tube based on flo rate requirements and strength considerations, ‘Figure 421 shows the common tube sizes used in uid power systems. Note thatthe smallest OD size is 4 mm (0.158 in.) whereas the largest OD size is 42 mm (1.663 in.). These values compare to 0.125 in. and 1,500 in., respectively, from Fig. 4-7 for common English units tube sizes. It should be noted that since Tm = 39.6 in. then 1 mm ~ 0.0396 in, Factors of safety based on corresponding operating pressures become FS = 8 for pressures from 0 to 1000 psi (0 to 7 MPa or 0 1070 bars) FFS = 6 for pressures from 1000 to 2500 psi (7 to 17.5 MPa or 70 to 175 bars) 4 for pressures above 2500 psi (17.5 MPa or 175 bars) ‘The corresponding tensile strengths for SAE 1010 dead soft cold-drawn steel and AISI 4130 steel are SAE 1010 $5,000 psi or 379 MPa AISI 4130 75,000 psi or S17 MPa Tike Wall Tube Tube Wal Tabw Tule Wall. Tube ‘ rr * 10 6% 20 n ® 25 B sou Ss % 30 s 2 4 om Is sm kB ot 8 ome ® 2 6 m 30° & &® tw 2 0 mB 18 » &® som Bots 9 2 is ee a Ea ger 421. Connon metic tate se.156 The Distbution System Chap. 4 Exar 45 Select the proper metric size stel tube for a flow rate of 0.00190 ms and an ‘perating pressure of 70 bats, The maximum recommended velocity is 6.1 ms and the tube material SAE 1010 dead sot col-drawn stel having a tensile strength of| 39 MPa, Solution The minimum ise diameter based on the Mud velocity imitation of 6.1 ts is found using Ea. (3-18 Qa) = A tm) x vs) Solving for A we have: A= OW Since A = (ID)! we have the ial resting equation: . oe “0 ‘Substituting values we have: ww ORT” = 00199 m = 199 am From Fig. 421, th smallest aeeptable OD tube size is 22m OD, |.0-mm val thickness, 20-mm ID From Eg, 43 we obtain the bust pressure 2S _ (2N0.001 my79 MN’) ae 0.020 m = 31.9 MNint “Then we calulate the working pressure using Ea. 44 Bp _ 379 MPa wp ~ BE SESMPB 474 mPa = 474 bars “This pressure i not adequate (es than operating pressure of 70 bars), $0 let's ‘examine the next larger size OD tube having the necessary 1D.chap. 4 Exercises 187 28mm OD, 2.0-mm wall thickness, em ID (290.0021379) _ pp = Q10-900187) 63.2 MPa 90 MPa = 79.0 bars EXERCISES Questions, Concepts, and Definitions 441. What isthe primary purpose of the fd isibution system? £2, What fw velocity is generally recommended forthe discharge side of a pump? ‘43, What isthe recommended flow velocity for the net side of the pump? 444, Why should conductors or fitings not be mae of copper? “£5. What metals cannot be used with waterlyeo Mus? “£6, What effect does hydraulic shock have on system pressure? “£7, What variables determine the wal thickness and safety factor of a conductor fora particle operating pressure? 448, Why should conductors have greater strength than the system working pressure requires? 48, Name the major disadvantages of ste pipes 4410, Name the four primary types of conductors, “#11, What mean bythe term average fd veloiy? “412, Why is maleabe ir sometimes use for steel pipe fitings? ‘£13, Why i see tubing more widely used than steel pipe? 4414, What principal advantage does plastic tubing have over stel ting? 4415, Explain the purpose of a quick disconnect iting. 416, What sth disadvantage of threaded fitings? ‘417, What isthe difference between a fared fiting and a compression iting? 4418, Under what conitions woul flexible hoses be used in hydraulic systems? “£19, Name three factors that should be considered when installing Rexble hoses. 420, What i the basic constrction ofa flexible hose? 4421, Relative o steel pipes, forgiven nominal size, does the wal thickness increase oF decrease asthe achedle number is incteased? 4422, How is pine sie clasited?” 4428, Whats meant by the schedule umber of standard pipe?5 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Learning Objectives ‘Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to 1. Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow 2. Understand the significance of the Reynolds number 3. Determine the Reynolds number at any location ina pipeline. 44. Apply the Hagen-Poisculle equation to evaluate the head loss in a pipeline experiencing laminar flow Explain the meaning ofthe term friction factor 6. Use the Moody diagram to determine fiction factors for laminar and turbu- Tent how, 7. Apply Darey’s equation to evaluate the head loss in a pipeline undergoing laminar or turbulent Now 8. Calculate frictional losses in valves and fittings 9. Describe the operation of gate, globe, and check valves. Explain the meaning of the erm K factor. Discuss the significance ofthe term equivalent length. . Perform an enesgy analysis of a complete hydraulic Describe the operation of flow measurement devices such as the rotameter and turbine flowmeter. 14, Describe the operation of pressure-measuring devices such as the Bourdon ‘gage and Schrader gage 15. Write and utilize computer programs to analyze hydraulic circuitsm0 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pines Chap. § 3. No curves are dravin in the critical zone (2000 < Ny < 00), because itis not possible to predict whether the Now is laminse or turbulent i this region. For Reynolds numbers greater than 4000, each curve platted represents particular value of «iD. For intermediate values of e/D, interpolation is required. 5. Once complete turbulence is reached (region to the right of the dashed line), increasing values of Ng have no effect on the value of f Example 55 illustrates the use of the Moody diagram for finding valves of fiction factor Ffor laminar and turbulent flow. Beau 55 ‘The kinematic viscosity of hydraulic lis $0¢S. Ifthe oi ows in Iin-ameter commercial steel pipe, find the ection factor if 4 The velocity is 101, b. The velocity is 40s Solution Find Np fom Ea. (5-3) THK 0 Ne = 188 = 1548 10 Since the fw is tuminar, we donot need to know the relative roughness value. To find locate 1.548 > 10° on the Np axis ofthe Moody dita (approximate vale = 1.5 % 10). Then project vertically up uni the straight line curve (7 64Nq) is reached. Then project horizontally to the f axis to obs value of 0.012, 0x40) Since the Row is ubulent, we ned the value of e:D. First the relative roughness (a ‘imensionless parameter i found using Fig. 570 get the vale of 2 000015 dD a@ Now locate the value 6,192 = 10° n the Ny axis approximate value = 62 % 10%. ‘Then project vertically up until you are between thee curves of 0.0010 a 0.0020 (here the 0.0018 curve would approximately exis i it were drawn), Then project horizontally t the fais to obtain a value of 0.036. » Ne 6192 = 6.192 0 0018Sec.5.7 Losses in Valves and Fittings m ince approximate values of Nj are used and interpolation of cD values is required, variations in the determined value of f is expected when using the Moody diagram. However, this normally produces variations of less than =0.001, which is generally acceptable for calculating frictional losses in piping systems, ‘This type of analysis is done for a complete system in Sec. 5.9, 5.7 LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS In addition to losses due to friction in pipes, there also are energy losses in valves and fitngs such as tees, elbows, and bends, For many fuid power applications, the majority ofthe energy losses occu in these valves and fitings in which there is ‘change in the cross section of the flow path and a change inthe ditection of ow. ‘Ths, the nature of the flow through valves and fitings is very complex. ‘As a result, experimental techniques are used to determine losses. Tests have shown that head losses in valves and tings are proportional tothe square of the velocity of the Mud Ke a= 68) ‘The constant of proportionality (K) is called the K factor of the valve oF Sitting, Figure 5-9 gives typical K-factor values for several common types of valves and fittings. lustrations of several common valves and fittings are given as follows: 1. Globe valve: See Fig. $10. In this design, the fluid changes direction when flow occurs between the globe and sext. This construction increases resis tance to fluid flow but also permits close regulation of fuid flow. Figure 5-10, shows the globe valve in its full closed position, The stem in a globe valve not ‘only raises the globe (isk) but also helps guide it squarely to its seat VALEORAITTING | KFACTOR {GLOBE VALVE: WDE OPEN 20PeN. GATE VALVE: WIDE OPEN ‘SuoreN W20PEN WeoPeN RETURN AEND [STANDARO TEE. [STANDARD ELBOW ‘0° ELBOW SEH ie gare £8. Kft common ‘ates a tings.See. 57 Loses in Valves and Fittings 173 ger £12. ate valve conventional ting bs) (Cores of Crane Co, New tor New Yok) 2, Gate valve: See Figs. -11 and 5-12, Fluids Now through gate valves in a straight line, and thus there is Ite resistance to flow and the resulting pressure ‘drops are small. A gatelike disk actuated by a stem serew and handwheel) moves up and down at right angles to the path of flow and seats against two seat faces 10 shut off flow. Gate valves are best for services that require infrequent valve ‘operation and where the disk is kept either fully opened or closed. They are not practical for throttling. With the usual type of gate valve, close regulation is impossible. Velocity of low against a partly opened disk may cause vibration and ‘chattering and result in damage to the seating surfaces, 3. 45° elbow: See Fig. $13 4. 90" elbow: See Fig, 5-14 5, Tee: See Fig, 51S 6, Return bend: See Fig. 5-16. 17. Ball check valve: See Fig 5-17. The function ofa check valve isto allow flow to pass through in only one direction. Thus, check valves are used to prevent backflow in hydraulic lines For some ud power valves, K factors are not specified. Instead, an empit- ‘al curve of pressure drop versus flow rate is given by the valve manufacturer for the particular valve. Thus if the flow rate through the valve is known, the pressure drop can be determined by referring to the curve. This is normally done form Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pines Chap. § gare S13. 45 chow Figare 14. 5 cow (Coury of Crane Co (Coen of Cone Co gee £1 gare 18, Cutaway of dictionSec, 57 Losses in Valves and Fittings 75 Airectional control valves and also for flow contol valves for various opening positions. Figure 5-18 shows a cutaway of a directional control valve whose pressure drop versus flow-rate characteristics are provided by curves (see Fig. 5-19) rather than by K-factor values. As expected fom Eq, (S-8), the curves show that the pressure drop increases approximately asthe square of the flow rate a Figure S19. Pressure dap.) Sow curves for detionl onl (Car ten of Continental Hydrate, Deion of Cominntl Machin tn Sasa,6 Basics of Hydvaulle Flow in Pines Chap. § Beaune $6 ‘What s the Head loss across a in, wide-open globe valve when ol 8, = 0.8) flows through iat arate of 30 gpa? Solution Fin the Aid veloiy using Ea, 0-26: 0.409130), WF From Fig. $9, K for wide-open lobe valve equls 10 2, oa “The presure drop (AP) across the valve ean now be found: AP = 0.433H,5, = (035)23.1K0) = 9.00 pst 22 Ws i, = HOF 95.10 of ot Byars $7 ‘What isthe ead loss aetoss a Sosmm wide-open gate valve when ol = 0.00 ml, +7 = 8800 Nit) flows through tw Tate oF 0.03 st Solution The velocity is found Sst, om o(@) 10 ~ Fmy Fo. 0507 (mis From Fig. 59, K 19. Thus per Eq 5-8 we have “The pressure drop across the valve can aow be found: a(S) = (8) x nc = sc. aa 5.8 EQUIVALENT LENGTH TECHNIQUE Darcy’s equation shows that the head loss in a pipe, due to fluid friction, ‘proportional not only to the square ofthe fluid velocity but also to the length of pipe. There is a similarity between Darcy's equation and Ea, (5-8), which stat thatthe head loss in a valve or iting is proportional to the square of the fi velocitySec.58 Equivalent Length Technique wm ‘This suggests that it might be possible to find a Tength of pipe that for the same flow rate would produce the same head loss asa valve or fiting. This length ‘of pipe, which is called the equivalent length of the valve or fitng, can be found by equating the head losses across the valve or fitting and the pipe: Musca ce tins = Huse Substituting the corresponding expressions, we have Since the velocit 69) where Leis the equi ‘that parameters K and fare both dimensionless. Therefore, Land D will have the same dimensions. For example, i D is measured in units of feet then L will be calculated in units of feet nt Iength of valve or fiting whose K factor is K. Note Equation (59) permits the convenience of examining each valve or fiting of| ‘4 uid power system as though it were a pipe of length 1,. This provides a ‘convenient method of analyzing hydraulic eitcuits where fictional energy losses fare to be taken into account, Section 5.9 deals wit this ype of problem. Example 5.8 shows how to find the equivalent length of a hydraulic component. Exe 58 Hydraulic ol (S, = 09, 6 = 100cS) ows through ain diameter commercial steel pipe ata rate of 30 gpm. What is the equivalent length of «i. wide-open globe "alve placed ia the line? Solution We need to find the friction factor f 50 lets first find te velocity v from Fa. 626). 2.40860) “OF Using Eq (53), We find the Reynolds number: Tr4012.241) = TAD ou Since the ow is laminar, we do not need to know the relative roughness to find the fiction factor. ° = nhs Meme Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pines Chap. § Finally, we determine the equivalent length using Eq. (£9) AB, coxa «oF Be ‘Thus a Lin-aiameter pipe of length 12:3 would produce the same fictional energy los a a Lin, wide-open globe valve fora low rte of 30 gpm. 7 an 5.9 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS: We are now ready to perform a complete analysis of a hydraulic circuit, taking into account energy losses due to friction. Let's analyze the hydraulic system of Fig. 520 by doing an example problem, Exe $9 Foc the hydraulic system of Fig. 5.20, the following data are given 1. The pump isang 5 tp tothe Ai 2. Pump ow is 30 gpm. ‘3. The pipe his Lin. inside diameter. 4. The specific gravity of os 0.9. ‘5, The kinematic viscosity of oil i 100 cS. Find the pressure available the inet to the hydric motor station 2). The pressure a the ol op surface level inthe hydraulic tank is atmosphere (0 pig). The head loss Hy, due to ction between stations I and 2 isnot piven Selecee eee Rect onto vrren sate Sod? oor nd Z meanrted Since tere inoue mato betwee sans Land, He =0. Also» = 0 ansryy= Othe tank vencd tthe simpy Ako 2) = 20 perie, Ss “To.mae ot of Berni ution, ls fs ste foo ing Ee 205) (0408130) eS anh 2.2 fsSec.59 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis 173 gore $28. Hydrate stem or Example $9 [Next et’ evaluate the velocity head at station 2: Since the fw is laminar the fFction factor can be found directly from the Reynolds number: ae poh S - ann ‘We an now determine the he lon eo ficton tween ton 1 and 2: abe 0 a patti res (2) Oe 1-114 88M a cti-min n,-0168 Baa «a0162 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. § =. gure $2. Stags pah of ad Sao. pasa amie tilly no collision of particles. For laminar flow, the friction is eaused by the sliding of one layer or particle of fuid aver another in a smooth continuous fashion I the velocity of flow reaches a high enough value, the flow ceases to be Jamninar and becomes turbulent. As shown in Fig, $-3 in turbulent flow the move- ment of « particle becomes random and fluctuates up and down in a direction Perpendicular as well as parallel to the mean flow direction. This mixing action {generates turbulence due tothe colliding fluid particles, This causes considerably more resistance to flow and thus greater energy losses than that produced by laminar lov ‘The difference between laminar and turbulent ow can be seen when using & water faucet. When the faucet is turned only partially open, with just a small amount of flow, the flow pattern observed is a smooth laminar one, However, when the faucet is opened wide, the flow mixes and becomes turbulent, a ils. trated in Fig. 5-4 ESE — ° oes | Rees eae eee180 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. § Using Bg. (25 allows us to solve forthe pump ead: S850(HP) _ G950KS) =O, ~ coxa) ~ 722 “Thus we can solve for the pressure hea! at station 2: Bam 654 = 6660 Finally, we solve forthe pressure at station 2 PQ) = 66.6 () yds) ene = (O9N62-4) = $6.2 (66.6456.2) = 37,465 By? = 260 pi 5.10 FLOW MEASUREMENT Flow-rate measurements are frequently required to evaluate the performance of hhydraulic components as well as to troubleshoot a hydraulic system. They can be used to check the volumetric efficiency of pumps and also to determine leakage paths within a hydraulic circuit Probably the most common type of flowmeter isthe rotameter, which con- sists of a metering float in a calibrated vertical tube, as shown in Fig. 5-21, The ‘opetation of the rotameter is as follows (refer to Fig. 5-22) The metering float is free to move vertically in the tapered glass tube. The fluid flows through the tube from bottom to top. When no fluid is lowing, the ost rests atthe bottom of the tapered tube, and its maximum diameter is usually so selected that it blocks the small end of the tube almost completely. When flow begins in the pipeline, the fuid enters the bottom of the meter and raises the lat ‘This increases the low area between the float and tube until an equilibsium posi- tion is reached. At this position, the weight of the float is balanced by the upward force ofthe Mid onthe oat. The greater the flow rate, the higher the flat rises in the tube. The tube is graduated to allow a direct reading of the flow rate‘Sec. 5.10 Flow Measurement in gue $21 igure £22. Operation of tunel Romer [ues of Fucer & Parter Co (owes of Worminster, Peasy) ache € Porer Sometimes it is desirable to determine whether oF not uid is Nowing in a Pipeline and to observe the flowing Muid visually. Such a device for accomplishing {hiss called a sight flow indicator. It does not measure the rate of flow but instead indicates only whether or not there is ow. The sight flow indicator shown in Fig 5.23 has two windows located on opposite sides ofthe body fitings to give the best possible visibilityBasics of Hyéraulle Flow in Pipes Chap. § Figee £23. Sight Now india. (Cress of Fucher & Pater Co Warminster, Pemysenia) Figure 5.24 shows another type of flowmeter, which incorporates what is called a disk piston. When the fad passes through the measuring chamber, the Sisk piston develops a rotary motion, which is transmitted through gearing to a pointer on a dial “A Schematic drawing of a turbine-type flowmeter is given in Figure 5-25 ‘This design incorporates & turbine rotor mounted in & housing connected in a pipeline whose fluid low rate is to be measured. The fluid causes the turbine to Peate ats spoed that is proportional to the low rate. The rotation of the turbine TEHIN #RETTTON SN THE ICE OF gore $24, Flowmeter wth dik ton, (Couey of Spey Vier. SperSee. 5.10 Flow Measurement 183 gure £25. Tortine tower (Courery of Spey Vickers, Sperry Rand {generates an electrical impulse everytime a turbine blade passes a sensing device An electronic device connected to the sensor converts the pulses to flow-rate information, Figure $.26 shows an ofifice (a disk with a hole through which Nid flows) installed in & pipe. Such a device is an actual flowmeter when the pressure drop (AP) across the orifice is measured, because there is a unique relationship between AP and Q (flow rate) fora given orifice. Specially, the greater the flow rate, the ‘greater the pressure drop. It can be shown that the following equation relates the AP vs. Q relationship for an orifice installed in a pipe to measure liguid flow rat 610) = 38.064 5 ones gee $26. One ousteroy 5.11, PRESSURE MEASUREMENT Basics of Hydraulic ow in Pipes Chap. 5 or, in metic units, P Q= 1AICA V5; (s-10M) where Q = flow rate (gpm. m/s) oe ow covticent (C= 6.80 for sharp-edged orifice, C= 0.60 for square ‘edged orifice). A = area of oritice opening (in, ‘pressure drop across orifice (psi, KP), y of flowing Hu. “The following example shows how an orifice flowmeter can be used to determine flow rate Bwonte £10 ‘The presure drop across the sharp-edged oifce of Fg. $26 +100 pi. The orifice Mfometer andthe Rid has a specific pravity of 9. Find the ow rate in Solution Substutedretly into Eg. (10: = 028.0690.80) (7 « F) BB - 290 oom needed in hydraulic circuits for a number of rea bleshooting, they are used to adjust pressure ‘exerted by hydraulic ressure-measuring devices sons. In addition to testing and trout Settings of pressure control valves and to determine fo ylinders and torques delivered by hydraulic motors. ‘Gre of the most widely used pressure-measuring devices is the Bourdon, gage (eee Fig. 527, which shows an assortment of Bourdon gages, cach Raving sim cont pressure ranges). The Bourdon gage contains a scaled tube formed inthe Shape af an are (eer to Fig, 528). When pressure is applied atthe pot openings sami starts to straighten somewhat. This activates a linkage-gear system, Which moves the pointer to indicate the pressure on the dial. The seale of most Bourdon gages reads zero when the gage is open tothe atmosphere, because the} foes are calibrated t0 read presse above atmospheric pressure oF gage Pres eee some Bourdon gages are capable of reading pressures below atmospheric utSlum (auction) pressures, such as those existing in pump inlet lines. The range}sec. 511 Pressure Measurement 105, ie $27. Ben sg ih er reat n (Ce of an for vacuum gages is from 0 to 30 in, of mercury, which represents a perfect ‘A second common type of pressure-measuring device isthe Schrader gage Asillustrated in Fig. 5-29, pressure is applied to a spring-loaded sleeve and piston gure $28. Operation of Bourdon pas (Cuter of Spery ies, SpryBasics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. 5 gure $29. Operation os Scraer see (Couten of Sperry Vickers pers Rand Cop. Troe, Michigan) [As the pressure moves the sleeve, it aetuates the indicating pointer through me: chanical linkages. Figure 5-30 shows a digital electronic readout device that provides five-digit displays for pressure, flow-rate, and speed measurements accurate to =0.15% of full scale (maximum of 19999). The scale can be factory-calibrated to display its such as psi, Pascal, bars, gpm. Limio, pm, nmin, m/min, and so Figure £30. Dig Hectooie Readb ‘See. 5.12 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis Using the SL:Metric System Ww 5.12 p me iit Si of splay od 0 ‘on, via 10 independent input channels and memory. Data are updated 2 second and provide an over-range condition indication mes per HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING THE ‘SI-METRIC SYSTEM In this section we perform a complete analysis of a hydraulic circuit using the SI metric system of units and taking into account energy losses due to friction, To provide a comparison with the English system of units, let's use the same hydrau- lic system analyzed in Example 5-9 (sce Fig, 5-20). The SI metric units solution is presented in the following example. Bese S11 Forte hydraulic system of Fig $20, the following metic data (which are equivalent to the English system data of Example $9) are piven 1. The pump is adding bp (3730 W) tothe uid. 2, Pomp lw is 0.001896 ms 3, The pipe has 2 0.0284 inside diameter 4. The speci gravity of os 09. §. The kinematic viscosity of oi i 100 6 The elevation diference between stations 1 and 2 is 6.096 m, 7: Pipe lengths are as follows: Lt length ~ 0.308 m, 4 ena 16 length = 488 m, Find the pressure available atthe inlet othe hydraulic motor (tation 2), The pressure at the il op surfice level nthe hydraulic tank i atmosphere (0 Pa gags). “The ead loss H, die ofition between stations Vand 2 i not iven 22, and Solution In the SI metic system, absolute viscosity is given in unis of newton- ‘seconds per meter squared. Thus we have = Nevin? = Pass. Our problem is {0 Convert viscosity in eS to the appropriate units in the SU metre system. This is accomplished as follows: The conversion between dyne-cm? or poise and Ness found fst sean? = oye) < yt « (1) “This yields a useful conversion equation dealing with absolute viscosities: 2 = H-dynesem) _ ye (poise) ni oe re oyBasics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. Since centipoises one-hundredth ofa pose, we can develop a conversion mn between Nisin and centpase: ee a ‘Substituting Eq 6-12) into Ea (5-1) yields the desired result WGP), ne Py ate oy sin’) However, inthis problem, we were given kinematic viscosity value rather ‘than an absolute Viscosity value, Therefore, we need to convert viscosity ineS tothe appropriate units in the SI metic system. Kinematic viscosity in the SL metric ‘system is sven in unis of meters squared per secoad. Thus, we have » = ms. The conversion between ems or stokes and mis fund as follows say = nema) x (LMJ Elem _ ven ron) = ron x (git) = Hamid = Pete sg Since a centistokes one-hundredth of stoke, we ean now develop the desired conversion between ms and centistokes cS) (stokes) = “15S 19 Substituting Eq. (15) into Eg. 5-14) yields ayy w tistokes) ___v(@S)___ eS) (m8) = “To.900-~ T,aH = 100 ~ 7,000,008 oa Now back to the problem at hand: We write Bernoulli's equation between ations I and 2 a % Since there is no hydrauic motor between statins 1 and 2, Hy = 0, Also v|= 0 and P\Fy = O(the ol tank is vented tthe atmosphere). Also 2: ~ Z, = 6086 m per -iven input data, To make use of Bernouli' equation, let's Rist solve foro: va) = 20009) _ 0001896 _ ay eo) = "A ty ~ Grtanacsay = 374 [Next ets evaluate the velocity head at station 2: 8.74 mis? ae = 0714 m 23° 200m ~ 074‘See, 5.12 Hydraulic Clreult Anelysis Using the SLMetre System 189 “The Reynolds number can 0 be found Bim =D (@) _ 6.740.054) "(@5)~ 10,000,000 ~ Ne ‘As expeced (since the Reynolds number i a dimensionless parameter), the value called here fs the same as that found in Example 59, Since the f0w is laminar, the fiction fetor can be found directly from the Reynolds number: Cy 6 5-~ $i ~ oe Fe aft cn ner pee Tel 1) 8 nBe + 0.305 + 122+ (42) as+0305 +122 (M2 |, o9v0.2ss) aoa + 930m 641 +04 = 675m 629) 1 = (0.0676) $2 co 714) = 129m We can now sobstitue into Bernoulli's equation to solve for Paty: m @-a+n tm -B = 6006 + Hy +0 129-0718 = Hy, ~ 19.7 Using Eq, (639 allows us to solve forthe pump hea pump power (W) Nim OD where 7 = Siyene = 09 9197 Nim? = 817 Ni. Hm) ams 1) ~ sare ocoaae ~ 2 ™ ‘Thus, we can now solve forthe pressure head at station 2: a 2m 99-240 4 23, amspus 3 : E mall aus: Sec. 53 Reynolds Number 163 flow, (Reprinied trom latrduction to Mid Mechanics by JE. John and W. L 5.3 REYNOLDS NUMBER 11 is important to know whether the flow pattern inside a pipe is laminar or turbulent. This brings us to the experiments performed by Osborn Reynolds in 1833 to determine the conditions governing the transition from laminar to turbu leat flow. Using the test setup in Fig. 5-5, Reynolds allowed the fui inthe large tank to low through & bell mouthed entrance and along a smooth glass tube. He controlled the Now rate by means of a valve at the end of the tube. A capillary tube, connected 1 a reservoir of dy, allowed the low ofa fine jet of dye into the main flow stream,180 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pines Chap. § Solving for Ps yes Ps (Nin) = 203.4 m) + (Nim?) PAN) = 2034 « $817 = 1,793,000 Pa = 1792 KPa Since Pa = 0.000185 psi, Ps (psi) ~ (1.793,00090.000145) = 20 psi ‘As expected, ths value checks with the answer to Example 59, which was solved in the English system of units, 5.13 COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS Example 59 illustrates the large number of calculations needed to perform & ‘complete analysis of « hydraulic system (See Figure 520 forthe circuit diagram.) In solving hydraulic system problems, specific values are given for parameters such a pipe diameters, pipe lengths, valve or fitingK factors, pump power, pump flow rate, fluid specific gravity, and fui viscosity. The solution to the problem then becomes one of solving for an unknown parameter such as the pressure available at the inet to a hydraulic actuator, as done in Example 5-9. Inaddition it is frequently desirable to optimize the operation of a hydraulic system based on a cost-vs.performance-improvement analysis. For example, should a larger-diameter pipe or valve be used to reduce pressure losses de to friction? Such an increase in pipe or valve size will reduce the operating tempera tures and prolong the life of the fluid by reducing oxidation, Lower temperatures, can also prevent the Muid from becoming too thin and thus losing the desired lubricity. Lower temperatures can also allow seals to better prevent costly leak age problems. In addition, lower pressure losses allow for a reduction in pump discharge pressure, which results in a lower horsepower requirement for the pump. Hence, the electric motor driving the pump will generate lower electric utility costs In order to perform the enormous number of calculations required to opt mize complete hydraulic systems in reasonable period of time, it becomes neces: sary to utilize computers. With computer programs written to analyze various hydraulic systems, the value ofany numberof parameters can be changed and the fect on overall system performance and costs ean be quickly determined, Thus the use of computers permits a cost-benefit analysis of change of any system parameter to be made quickly, taking into account long-term effects, One example {s the determination ofthe effect of temperatute reduction and better filtration of contaminants on the life of the hydraulic fluid (when the lid has deteriorated to the point it can no longer satisfactorily perform is intended function). The benefits See.5.13 Computer Analysis of Hydraulic Systems 191 of increased fui life (including the reduced cost of Mud storage, handing, and Bow rate (apm). oc uid specie gravity so Fluid weight density (bi) BERSIEY lid kinenati viscosity (5) KENVISC Next we write the problem-solving equation using the symbols selected forthe computer progr. 1 Fluid weight density fee ‘Using our selected computer program symbols, this equation becomes DENSITY = 62. x SG 2 Velocity on (%) = 24080 en 1D tina 0.408 < QGPM x96 2. Rol mer raw (8) «amy a Tao x v2 xD NR = RINVISC—5 See. 6.13 Computer Anaysis of Hydraulic Systems 193 4. Friction factor (laminar ow), ‘5. Equivalent lenath 6, Head los. 7. Pump head so HP. Me Degom * 5, 3950 x PUMPHP PUMPHD =" QGPM % SG. 1, Pressure at net to hydraulic motor [Noting that?) = 0,2) = 0, Hy = 0,898 2; = and solving Bernoulli's equation for the pressure atthe inlet to the hydraulic motor, we have [er Bm 94 tt) ~ Me) ~ 25) - =a)Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. § P2 = DENSITY x (PUMPHD ~ HL = 22 - Pressure conversion (from pao ps ws a(t) Paps = The computer program uses the following operational symbols “The multiplication symbol is * “The division symbols The exponential symbol is, The following is» computer printout of his program. IX MConputer Analysis of Fyérauiic syeten in Figare 5-20" are at Inet to myarauiic Motor #111 Be Calculated in Units of Bare INPUT "Enter the Poap Horsepower: ", PUAPEP Knpon wunter the Purp Piowrace (GPE): ", QCPH rerot Pipe Diaeter (inches): ", 0 K7actor of the S15 Bibow: ™, K OE MEnter the O11 Specific Gravity: *, $6 fF NEnter the Kinenatic Viscosity of Osi (C8): ", KINYTSC INPUT "Eater the Actual Pipe Length (feet): %, 1 THPUE "Enter the Elevatioz of Hydrasdic Hotor (feet): ", 22 eae. DENSITY = 2.4 + 56 Yew .ugb* ocrx/D\2 ME 7740 # Y20/ xaaVIsC eae Lnguri =L+xs (p22) /7 AL= Pe uzgury* ¥2A2/(2* (0/32) +6) PoMPHD = 3950 * PURPA / (gGPH* 50) P2.= DENSITY + (PUMPED < HL -22—¥2\2/(2*6)) Pepsr=P2/144 PENT "the Pre est; esr" IND ‘% Inputtng data values with the kinematic viscosity equal 10 100 eS yields an ‘answer of 260 psi forthe pressure a the net othe hydraulic motor, as shown it the following computer printout. This vale agrees with the manus! soltion of Example 59 re at the Inlet to the ayaraclic Hotor ss";‘Sec. 5.13 Computer Analysis of Hydraulic Systems 195 Conpster Analysis of aydraniic systen in Figure 5-20 Pressure at inlet to syaraulie motor Hili Be Caicelated tn Units of Por Punp Horsepover: § Paap Plowrate (Ot Pipe Diaxeter (inch Enter the k Factor of the STD Elbow: 0.8 Enter the O11 Specific Gravity: 0. Enter the Kinenatic Viscosity of O11 (cS): 100 Enter the Actual Pipe Length (feet): 23 Enter the Elevation of Hydraulic Rotor (feet): 20 ‘The Pressure at the Tniet to the #yaraulic Hotor 1s 260.3085 PST by Inpting dt ales with the kinematic vcouty eal 10,7, 100,125,189, and 20S eis he llaming eat Presare at Kinematic ‘Hydraute Viscosity (8) _ Motor (ps) 30 268 7s 268 100 260 as 286 150, 29 200 24s [As expected, the availble pressure atthe inlet of the hydraulic motor de ceases as the viscosity increases, « Inputing data values with the pump power equal t 4.0, 48, 5.0, SS, and 6 hp elds the flowing ess: Pressure at Pump Hydraulic Power hp) Motor (ps) 40) 2 45 2 50 260 3s 29 60 a7 ‘Also as expected, the available pressure atthe inlet of the hydraulc motor increases asthe pump power incremesBasics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. 5 EXERCISES Questions, Concepts, and Definitions ‘5-1. Why is it important to select propery the size of pipes, valves, and fitings in hyde systems £2, What sth physical diterence between lamina and turbulent flow? 53. What are the important conclusions resting fom Reynolds’ experiment? ‘44. Define the term relative roughness 5, What is meant by the K factor af valve o iting? 46, What is meant by the equivalent length a valve or fine? 15.7. Name two types of low-measuring devices, ‘58, Name two types of pressure measuring devices, 8. Why i it desirable to measure Mow rates and pressures in «hydraulic system? 10. To minimize pressure losses, the K factor of 4 valve should be made as sl as possible, Tra or file?” What advantage does a digital readout Mid par cover an analog device $42, What canbe concluded about the pressures onthe upstream and downstream sides ‘of an orice when ois owing throveh i? Name two causes of turbulence in uid Now cter-mensuring device have Problems Note:The letter B following an exer larly the letter 8findisates metre unis, number means tht English units are used. Si Reynolds Number SH14E, The kinematic viscosity of @ hydeaulic oil 6 75 68. I itis owing ia a thin diameter pipe ata velocity of 20s, what f the Reynolds number? Ts the ove laminar o arb 15M. The kinematic viscosity ofa hydraulic 0.000 ms. IEiis Mowing ina 36m ameter pipe at velocity of 6 mis, what isthe Reynolds number? Ts the flow laminar or turbulent? $16, A hydraulic system is operating ata Reynolds mmber of 100 If he temperature increases so tha the il viscosity decreases, woul the Reynolds number Increase, secrease, or remain the same? Frictional Losses in Pipelines [SITE, For the system of Exercise 5-14, the hea! os ue o fiction in units of psi or 21004 length of smooth pipe. The ot has a specific pavty of 0.0, SABE, The kinematic viscosity of a hydraulic oi 6 100 cS. I iy flowing in a Yi, ameter commercial see! pipe, in the fiton factor in cach ease The velocity is 1 fs 1b, The velocity is 48 1s,5 Chap.5 Exercise 197 19M, For the system of Exercise $1, fad the head loss duet frstion in units of bars fora Ohm length of smooth pipe, The al has a specific pravity of 0.9. 520M, The kinematic viscosity of hydraulic is 0.0001 ms ts Mowing na 20-mm- diameter commercial see pipe Hod the fiton factor in each case. in ‘The velocity is? ms 1, The velocity is 10 ms 21, or laminar ow of id in pipe. tonal presse losses are 10 the liquid velocity. 15:22, For fly turblent oof iui in pipe, rctional pressure losses vary the ‘tthe velocity. Losses in Valves and Fittings emt? ‘S238, What isthe head loss across a 1-in-wide open gate valve when oil (5, = 0:9) call as ows through iat a rate of 100 gpa? ‘524M, Whats the head Ios (in nis of bars) aeross a 30smmewvide open gate valve when = ‘i (S, 0.90) flows through at arte of 0.004 m/s? 1525, If the volumetric Now rate through a valve is doubled, by what factor does the a ressre drop increase? ‘5268. diectional control valve with un effective area of ©. in provides a pressure op ot 40 psa 0 gpm, I the Ron has speci gravity of 0.9, what are the How ‘oefcint and K factor fr the valve? 521M, For the dicetional contol valve of Exercise £26, ifthe data were converted t0 8. Simi meric unis, how would the values of the Bow coeficien and K factor calculated Compare to thove determined using English its? Explain your answer. Equivalent Length Method Se ow S286, Ol (5, = 099,» = 75) ows ta ate 30 gpm throvgh a Hn ameter commer: hl steppe. What theequvalnt Teng a in-wide open ate valve placed }330-mm inthe ine? she tow 20M Oi (5, ~ 0.90,» = OD! ms) Hows 8 ae of 0.02 stro 320 lamer commercial tcl ppe, What the equivalent length of 20-mm-wide = ‘open ate vale placed inthe ne? Hydraulic Circuit Analysis S08 Por the hydraulic system of Fg 2, te following dita ae given Sl fe 1. "The pump ang 4p te i 2 Pam fw i25 ep ina tin 2 The pie as 078m inside diameter 44 The speci ravity of ol 090. ‘5, The kinematic viscosity of oli 75 &. Find the presse availble at the inlet tothe hydraulic motor200 Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. § CYLNDER ou EXTERNAL aKa Lon ® he 0 © _ onectionn Ke) Pipe No. Lengifiy Dialin) Pipe No._Lenstift)_ iain) 1 2 ts * 5 2 6 Ls ° sons 3 2 is 0 sons 4 so " os 5 0 19 R w ons 6 5 10 b 2 07s 7 5 1 igure 5:34. System or Esercne 5% ‘537M, For the system of Exercise $6, the following new data are applicable P,= Thar, @ = 0.002 ms Pine: Lita) = 15m and 1D = 38. oils $= 090 and» = 0.0001 mils Solve for Ps in ais of bars, 'S38E, For the fuid power system show in Fig. 5M, determine the extemal load F that, the hydraulic evlinder can sustain while moving in the extending dtection. Take fetonal pressure losses into account. The pump produces « pressure increase of 1000 ps fom the inlet port tothe discharge port and a ow rate of 40 gpm. The following dats are appieble inematie vscosiy’of oil = 1.001 1s weight density of oil = SO bitChap.5 Exercises 201 «vind piston diameter = 8 in ‘vlinder rod diameter ~ 4 Allelbows are 9 with fictor= 0.7. Pipe lengths and inside diameters are piven in Fig 5, ‘S98, For the system of Exerise 5.38, as shown ia Fig. $36, determine the hea-genera- tion rate de to ction presse lanes. [S40E, For the system of Exercve $38, as shown in Fig, $4, determine the extending and retracting speeds ofthe ylides [41M For the system of Exercise $-38, as shown in Fig. 5, change the data to metic tunis and solve forthe externa load F thatthe cylinder can stain while moving in the extending direction, S442M. For the system of Exercise S41, determine the heat generation rate S443M, For the system of Exercise Sl, determine the extending and retracting speeds of the einer. Flow-Rate Measurement SHE, A 2n-iametershar-edged orifice i placed in pipeline to measure Now rate. I the measured pressre op is 50 ps and the Mut specie sravity 60.90 ind the Mow rate im units 0 gp [SASM., A SSsmm-diameter sharpie orifice i placed ina pipeline to measure Now rate Ifthe measured pressure drop is 300 KPa and the Mu specie gravity fs 0. find the low rat in units of ms ‘$46, For a given orice and fui, « graph can be generated showing the AP-vs-Q relationship, For the ices snd id of Exercnes S44 and S45, plot the curves and check the answers obained mathematical, What advantage Goes the graph have over the equation? What the disadvantage ofthe graph? Computer Programming 47M. Write » computer program 1 perform the analysis of the hydraulic system of Figure 5.20, as done manually in Example S11 1, Execute your computer program ocala the avilable pressure a he inlet to the hydraulic motor using the data of Example $1 Execute your program using kinematic viscosity values of $0, 78, 100,125, 180, and 200 eS to determine the effect of viscosity change on the pressute atthe Inydeaule motor inkl «Execute your program using pomp power values 03.0, 3.5, 4.0, and 45 KW 10 determine the eet of the change in pump power on the avaliable pressure S486, Write a computer program to solve Exereise S38, Execute your program using values of 80, 99, 100, 1100, and 1200 ps forthe pressure increase across the Pump. 549M, Write computer program to solve Exercise S41. Execute your program using values of 56,7, 8 und 9 MP abs forthe pressure increase arose the pun,in Basics of Hydraulic Flow in Pines Chap. § Ifthe flow in the tube was laminar, the dye jt flowed smoothly. However, when turbulent flow occurred in the tube, the dye jet would mix with the main uid Reynolds came to «very significant conclusion as a result of his experi ments: The nature of the flow depends on the dimensionless parameter wDpi where v = fuid velocity, D = pipe inside diameter, p = uid mass density, and n= absolute viscosity of the Bu ‘This parameter has been named the Reynolds number Ny and (as Reynolds discovered from his tess) has the following significance: 1. I Ny is less than 2000, the flow is laminae 2. IF-Np is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent 3. Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 4000 cover a critical zone between laminar and turbulent flow. Tis not possible to predict the type of low that will exist within the critical zone. However since turbulent flow results in greater losses, Mud power systems should be designed to operate in the laminar flow region. ‘The Reynolds number can be calculated in several ways depending on Whether the English or metric units are used. Inthe following Reynolds number equations the letter M denotes metric units, _ (US) + DA) +p (slug) ie coy (nis) - Dim) pth! . NT EN im ‘A more convenient set of units gives ‘Ti (fs) D Gn.) = Sy in ma (52) sg = Duels) =D um) «5, o Np = (52M) A final relationship using kinematic viscosity is also desirable: J, = Tw (ls) D Gin.) a (eS) fa sig = Ws) Do) pan) (FIs)Sec.54 Darcy's Equation 165 11 should be noted that if turbulent flow is allowed to exist, the temperature of the fluid increases due to greater energy losses. Therefore, turbulent ow systems suffering from excessive temperatures can be helped by slightly increas ing the pipe size to establish laminar Row iameter pipe ata velocity of 10, what i the Reynolds number? Solution Sustnute directly into Eg. 3: Exams £2 ‘ile = 0.001 mis owing in» SO-mm-diameter pipe at velocity of as, What isthe Reynolds number? Solution Pee Eq. (53M) we ave Mem Sx 0080 5.4 DARCY'S EQUATION Frictions the main eause of energy losses in fluid power systems, The energy loss {duc to friction is transferred into heat, which is given off to the surrounding ar. The results loss of potential energy in the system, and this shows up asa loss in pressure or head, In Chapter 3 we included this head loss in Bernoulli's equation as an A; tem. However, we did not discuss how the magnitude ofthis head loss {erm could be evaluated. The head loss (#/,) in a system actually consists of two components: 1. Losses in pipes 2, Losses in fittings Head losses in pipes can be found by using Darcy's equation 6-4)168, Basics of Hydraulic Faw in Pipes Chap. § where f= friction factor (dimensionless) = length of pipe (ft, m), D = pipe inside diameter (ft, m), y= average fuid velocity (mis), ‘= acceleration of gravity (fus, m3 Darcy's equation can be used to calculate the head loss due to friction in pipes for both laminar and turbulent flow. The difference between the two lies in the evaluation of the friction factor f. The technique is discussed for laminae and turbulent flow in Sees, 5.5 and 5.6, respectively 5.5 FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW Darcy's equation can be used to find head tosses in pipes experiencing laminar flow by noting that for laminar flow the fiction factor equals the constant 64 Aivided by the Reynolds number: S 5) ioe 6 Substituting Eq. (5-8) into Eq. (-4) yields the Hagen-Poiseuile equation which is valid for laminar Now only ‘The following example illustrates the use of the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. Buowe 53 For the system of Example 5, find the hed loss de to fton in uit ofp for a 100A length of pipe. The oll has a specific gravity of 0. Solution From Bq, (5-6) we salve forthe head loss in nits of fet oo:See. 56 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow 167 [Note thatthe unis for Hy ae really sb. Thus we ean conetude that 14 ‘nergy is lost by each pound foi as it flws through the 100 Tenth of pipe. ‘Using Ea. (28), we convert head loss in units of fet of oo presse Ios in nis of ps P= (.33K15890.90) = 60 psi “Thus there i a 6p pressure loses theo ows through the 100 length of| pipe. This pressure loss i de to ction. Bevin 4 Fr the system of Example $2, fi the hea! los ue ofiction for Ob length of Pie, Yai = 800 Nia Solution From Eq, 5-6 we have 4 (30) 1. 35 (aoe) Gsm 326 m of il “The pressure drop is te Olea ecew acne 5.6 FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN TURBULENT FLOW Darcy's equation will be used for calculating energy losses in turbulent fluid flow. However, the friction factor cannot be represented by simple Formula as was the ‘ase for laminar flow. This is due tothe Fandom and fluctuating movement of the Aud particles For turbulent flow, experiments have shown that the fiction factor is a function of not only the Reynolds number but also the relative roughness of the Pipe. The relative roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface roughness © (Greek letter epsilon) divided by the pipe inside diameter D: relative roughness ro D Figure 56 illustrates the physical meaning ofthe pie inside surface rough- ness ¢, which is called the absolute roughness.168 sce of Hysraulic Flow in Pipes Chap. § Pipe roughness values depend on the pipe material as well asthe method of ‘manufacture. Figure 5-7 gives typical values of absolute roughness for various types of pipes It should be noted tha the values given in Fig 5-7 are average values for new clean pipe. After the pipes have been in service for & time, the roughness values ‘may change significantly due to the buildup of deposits on the pipe walls ‘To determine the value ofthe friction factor for use in Darcy's equation, we use the Moody diagram shown in Fig. 5%. This diagram contains curves that were determined by data taken by L. F. Moody. The curves represent values of friction factor asa function of Reynolds number and relative roughness. Thus if we know the Reynolds number and relative roughness, we can quickly determine the fric- tion factor, The following important characteristics should be noted ahout the Moody diagram: 1, is ploted on logarithmic paper because of the large range of values en ‘countered for fand Ny. 2. At the left end of the chart (Reynolds numbers less than 2000) the straight Tine curve gives the relationship for laminar flow: f= 641N. severeo ere. oor ee 2 ty ae oatj nici6 The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Learning Objectives ‘Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to 1 2 B. 202 Distinguish between positive displacement and nonpostive displacement pumps. 2. Describe the pumping action of pumps. 3. Explain the operation of gear, vane, and piston pumps J. Determine the design flow rate delivered by positive displacement pumps. Differentiate between axial and radial piston pumps. 3. Understand the difference between fixed displacement and variable dis placement pumps . Explain the operation of pressure-compensated pumps. 3. Distng sh between bent-axis-type piston pumps and the swash plate de- sign. . Differentiate between internal and external gear pumps. | Bvaluate the performance of pumps by determining the volumetric, mechan- al, and overall efficiencies. Explain the phenomenon called pump cavitation and identify ways to elimi nate its occurrence ‘Compare the various performance factors of geur, vane, and piston pumps. Understand the significance of sound inten y levels in decibels210 ‘Tho Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 ‘The theoretical flow rate (in English units) is determined next x insimin) = Vp Cinirev) % N (rpm) Since 1 gal = 231 in2, we have 2s (enm = $e wo Using metric units, we have (iM Equations (6+) and (6-1M) show that the pump flow vaties directly with speed [see Fig. 6a]. Hence, the theoretical flow is constant at a given speed, as shown by the soli line in Fig. 650) ‘There must be a small clearance (less than 0,001 in.) between the teeth tip ‘and pump housing. As a result, some of the oil at the discharge port can leak directly back toward the suction. This means thatthe actual Now rate Qy is less ‘than the theoretical flow rate Q, which is based on volumetric displacement and ‘pump speed. This internal leakage, which i called pump slippage, i identified by the term volumetric efficiency 7, which is usualy greater than 90% for positive isplacement pumps, operating at design pressure: Qs 2 n= S100 Per gee 6S. Poe sapacement pump Q vert Nao P eran O eres) Plow vers speed curvy) Flow versus posure curve at cons pump sped‘Se0,64 Gear Pumps a The higher the discharge pressure, the lower the volumetric efficiency be- ‘cause internal leakage increases with pressure. This is shown by the dashed line in Fig. 6-5(b). Pump manufacturers usually specify volumetric efficiency at the pump rated pressure. The rated pressure of a positive displacement pump is that pres: sure below which no mechanical damage due to overpressure will occur 10 the pump and the result will be a long reliable service life. Too high & pressure not only produces excessive leakage but also can damage a pump by distorting the ‘easing and overloading the shall bearings This brings to mind once again the need for overpressure protection. Also keep in mind that high pressures occur when & large load or resistance 10 flow is encountered. Exanne 6 ‘Agear pump hasan. outside diameter, a2 inside dlameter the actual pump Now at 180 spy and rated pressure s 28 epm, wha. ric efficiency? Seleion Fah Gincemt vole: Yo~ $10? @7K) =399in? Next, use Eq (1) (fd the theoretical flow rate: oN _ 9331800) 0, = SeN = GSR _ 30.6 gpm “The volumetric eciency i then found: 28 a= Fh x 10 ~ 91.86 Exams 62 | gear pump has a 7S.mm ouside diameter, a O-mm inside diameter, and a 25mm ‘with. Irthe volumeari efficiency is 7 trated presse, wha the correspond ing flow rate? The pump speed is 1000 rpm. Solution The yolume displacement is v= Juan - emma = nome ur wu ‘Since 1 = 0.001 Vo = 0.0614 Fa2 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 Newt, combine Eas. (1M) and (62) find the setul fw rte: = 10 he pelle hie Since 11 01 m?, we have ee sia oot Figure 646 is « photograph showing detailed features of an external gear ‘pump, Also shown isthe hydraulic symbol used to represent fed displacement pumps in hydraulic circuits, This external gear pump uses spur gears (teeth are parallel to the axis of the gear). which are noisy at relatively high speeds. To Feduce noise and provide smoother operation, helical gears (teeth inclined at a ‘small angle to the axis ofthe gear) are sometimes used. However, these helical ear pumps are limited to low-pressure applications (below 200 psi) because they develop excessive end thrust due to the action of the helical gears. Herringbone fear pumps eliminate ths thrust action and thus ean be used to develop much higher pressures (above 750 psi). Herringbone gears consist basically of two rows ‘of helical teeth cut into one gear. One ofthe rows ofeach gear is right-handed and the other is left-handed to cancel out the axial thrust force. Herringbone gear pumps operate as smoothly as helical gear pumps and provide greater flow rates With much less pulsating action. Figure 67 illustrates the configuration and operation of the internal gear pump. This design consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent Shaped seal, and an external housing. As power is applied to either gear, the ‘motion ofthe gears draws uid from the reservoir and forces it around both sides ofthe erescent seal, which ats a a seal between the suction and discharge ports. ‘When the teeth mesh onthe side apposite to the erescent sea, the Mud is forced to enter the discharge port of the pump. Figure 6 provides «cutaway view ofan internal gear pump that contains its ‘own built-in safety relief valve. ‘Also in the general family of gear pumps is the lobe pump, which is ills trated in Fig. 69. This pump operates in a fashion similar to the external gear pump. But unlike the external gear pump, both lobes are driven externally so tht they do not aetuslly contact each other. Thus, they are quieter than other types of ‘bear pumps. Duc tothe smaller numberof mating elements, the lobe pump output will have a somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its volumetric dis: placement is generally greater than that for other types of gear pumps.ae ‘Tho Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 gure 68. Cutaway view of am intern se pip with bin safety ee false (Coury of Vie Puno Dison af endef, Ines Coa Fat ova) "he Gerotor pump, shown in Fig, 6-10, operates very much lke the internal sear pump. The inner gear rotor (Gerotor element is power-driven and draws the outer gear rotor around as they mesh together. This forms inlet and discharge pumping chambers between the rote lobes. The tps ofthe inner and outer rotors make contact to seal the pumping chambers fom each other. The inner gear has ‘one tooth less than the outer gear, and the volumetric displacement is determined by the space formed by the extra tooth in the outer rotor. Figure 6-11 isa photograph of an actual Gerotor pump. As can be seen, this is a simple type of pump since there are only two moving pats OL® ger 68. Open of he abe mT Spery Rand Carp. Troy, Meigen)Sec. 64 Gear Pumps. 25 Figure 610. Operation ofthe Gest pump. (Comers of Spry Vik Sper Rand Corp Too, Michian) The screw pump (see Fig. 6:12) isan axial flow positive displacement unit. ‘Three precision ground screws, meshing within a elose-fiting housing, deliver nonpulsating flow quietly and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed idler rotors act as rotating seals, confining the Guid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler rotors are in rolling contact with the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective housing bores on a hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forees on the rotor set are balanced climinating any need for thrust bearings. Tn Fig, 6-13, we see a cutaway view of an actual serew pump. Its rated at 500 psi and can deliver up to 123 gpm. High-pressure designs are availabe for 3500:psi operation with output flow rates up to 88 gpm. gue tt, Gerorr pump. (Courtesy of Brown Sharpe Mf Co. Ma ‘het, Michigan)26 “The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 ke ee 6.5 VANE PUMPS Figure 6-14 illstrates the operation of a vane pump. The rotor, which contains radial slots i splined to the drive shaft and rotates inside & cam ring. Each slot Contains @ vane designed 10 mate with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring Dari revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases between the rotor and cam ring, The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of presSee.65 Vane Pumps a7 “LRA "| Figare 614. Vane pump operation, (Contes of Spry Wlters, Spry Rand sure. This is the suction process, which causes Mud to low through the inlet port and fil the void. As the rotor rotates through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back into their slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the discharge port Careful observation of Fig, 6-14 will reveal that there is an eeceatricity between the centerline of the rotor and the centerline of the cam ring. IF the cecentricity i zero, there will be ao flow. The following analysis and nomencla- tue is applicable tothe vane pump De = diameter of cam ring (in., m) Dg = diameter of rotor (in, ) = width of rotor (n., m) N= rotor rpm Vo = pump volumetrie displacement (in. m) = eccentricity (in. m) = maximum possible eccentricity (in, m) Vina, = maximum possible volumetric displacement (in, m)208 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 From geometry, we can find the maxi possible eccentricity _De~ De ‘This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum volumetric dis placement Vow = (DE - DDL Rearranging, we have Vou. =F De + DeXDe~ Dab Substituting the expression for emus yields Via = % (De + Dad2eou)L ‘The actual Volumetric displacement occurs when ép Yo Fe + Dylel. 3) ‘Some vane pumps have provisions for mechanically varying the eccentric: ity. Such a design is called a variable displacement pump and is illustrated in Fig, 6-15. A handwheel ora pressure compensator can be used to move the eam ring to ‘change the eccentricity The direction of flow through the pump can be reversed by movement of the cam ring on either side of center. ‘The design we see in Fig. 6-15 is a pressure-compen system pressure ats directly on the eam ring via hydraulic piston on the tight side (not shown). This forces the cam ring against the compensator spring loaded Piston on the left sid of the cam ring. IFthe discharge pressure is large enough, it ‘overcomes the compensator spring force and shifts the cam ring tothe left. This reduces the eccentricity, which is maximum when discharge pressure is zero. As the discharge pressure continues fo increase, zero eccentricity is finally achieved, ‘and the pump flow becomes zero, Such a pump basically has its own protection ‘against excessive pressure buildup, as shown in Fig. 6-16. When the pressure reaches a value called Pagar, the compensator spring force equals the hydraulic piston force. As the pressure continues to increase, the compensator spring is ‘compressed until zero eccentricity is achieved. The maximum pressure achieved is called Paste at Which point the pump is protected because it attempts to28‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 Figure 17. Cutaway photograph of presi compensated ane pump, (Cow {esr of Cominentl Hadras, Dison of Conia Machines. me Svage produce no more low. Asa result there is no horsepower wasted and lid heating is reduced. Figure 6-17 shows the internal configuration of an actual pressure-compen: sated vane pump. This design contains a eam ring that rotates slightly during use, thereby distributing wear over the entire inner circumference ofthe ring. SA ouner ourier ner ‘OPPOsING PRESSURE PORTS oven Cane! SIDE LOADS ON igre G18, Balunc vane pump pincines. (Cotery of Spey Vier Spey Rand Cop. Tay. Michigan)See. 65 Vane Pumps 2 Notice in Figs. 6-14 and -15 that side load is exerted on the beatings ofthe ‘vane pump because of pressure unbalance. This same undesirable sie load exists forthe gear pump of Fig. 6-4. Such pumps are hydraulically unbalanced, ‘A balanced Vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports tems. However, positive displacement pumps must be protected agains overpres- sire ifthe resistance to flow becomes very lange or infinite, This can happen if zr hy gure 63. Typical emia pump208 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 valve is completely closed and there is no physical place for the uid to go. The reason for this is that a positive displacement pump continues to eject Mud (even though it has no place to go), causing an extremely rapid buildup in pressure asthe fluid is compressed. A pressure relief valve is used to protect the pump against overpressure by diverting pump flow back to the hydraulic tank where the fui is stored for system use. Positive displacement pumps can be classifed by the type of motion of internal elements. The motion may be either rotary or reciprocating. Although these pumps come ina wide variety of dlferent designs, there are essentially three basic types: Gear pumps (xed displacement only by geometrical necessity): ‘a, External gear pumps bi. Internal gear pumps e- Lobe pumps 4. Serow pumps 2. Vane pumps: ‘2. Unbalanced vane pumps (fixed or variable displacement) », Balanced vane pumps (xed displacement only) 3. Piston pumps (fixed or variable displacement) a, Axial design bs, Radial design In addition, vane pumps can be ofthe balanced oF unbalanced design. The unbalanced design can have pressure compensation capability, which automati- cally protects the pump against overpressure. In Secs. 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6, We discuss the details of the construction and operation of gear, vane, and piston pumps, respectively, 6.4 GEAR PUMPS: Figure 64 illustrates the operation ofan external gear pump, which develops ow by carrying fuid between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a drive shaft connected to the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes withthe driver gear. Oil chambers are formed between the ‘gear teeth, the pump housing, and the side wear plates, The suction side is where teeth come out of mesh, andi is here where the volume expands, bringing about 2 reduction in pressure fo below atmospheric pressure, Fluid is pushed into this ‘void by atmospheric pressure because the wil supply tank is vented tothe atmo- sphere. The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh, and it is here where theSee.64 Gear Pumps 209 gare 4, Extra peur pump operation. (Cores of Sperry Vickers, Spry volume decreases between mating teeth. Since the pump has a positive internal seal against leakage, the ol is positively ejected into the outlet port. ‘The following analysis permits us to evaluate the theoretical low rate of ‘ear pump using specified nomenclature: ‘outside diameter of gear teeth (in., m) inside diameter of gear teth (in, m) = width of gear teeth (in., m) Aisplacement volume of pump (in./rev, mire) N= epm of pump theoretical pump flow rate From gear geometry, the volumetrie displacement is found:6 The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Learning Objectives ‘Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to 1 2 B. 202 Distinguish between positive displacement and nonpostive displacement pumps. 2. Describe the pumping action of pumps. 3. Explain the operation of gear, vane, and piston pumps J. Determine the design flow rate delivered by positive displacement pumps. Differentiate between axial and radial piston pumps. 3. Understand the difference between fixed displacement and variable dis placement pumps . Explain the operation of pressure-compensated pumps. 3. Distng sh between bent-axis-type piston pumps and the swash plate de- sign. . Differentiate between internal and external gear pumps. | Bvaluate the performance of pumps by determining the volumetric, mechan- al, and overall efficiencies. Explain the phenomenon called pump cavitation and identify ways to elimi nate its occurrence ‘Compare the various performance factors of geur, vane, and piston pumps. Understand the significance of sound inten y levels in decibels‘See. 6.1 Introduction 203 14, Explain the causes of pump noise and identify ways 10 reduce noise levels, 18. Describe the sequence of operations used to select a pump for a given application. 16, Describe the operation ofa pressure intensifier and identity typical applic 6.1 INTRODUCTION ‘A pump, which isthe heart of @ hydraulic system, converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the pump via. prime mover such as an electric motor. Due to mechanical ation, the pump creates partial vacuum at its inlet. This permits atmospheric pressure to force the Auid Through the iat ine and into the pump. The pump then pushes the uid into the hydraulic system. “There are two broad classifications of pumps as identified by the uid power industry. 1, Nonpositive displacement pumps: This type is generally used for low: pressure, high-volume flow applications. Because they are not capable of with- Standing high pressures, they are of litle use inthe fluid power field. Normally their maximum pressure capacity is limited to 250-300 psi. This type of pump is primarily used for transporting lids from one location to another. 2. Positive displacement pumps: Ths types universally used for Muid power systems. As the name implies, 1 postive displacement pump ejects fixed amount ‘of Mud into the hydraulic system per revolution of pump shaft rotation. Such a ump is capable of overcoming the pressure resulting from the mechanical loads fon the system as well as the resistance to flow due to friction. These are two features that are desired of uid power pumps. These pumps have the following advantages over nonpositive displacement pumps: High-pressure capability (up t0 10,000 psi or higher) b. Small, compact size «. High volumettic efficiency ‘Small changes in efficiency throughout the design pressure range €. Great flexibility of performance (can operate over a wide range of pressure requirements and speed ranges) ‘There are three main types of positive displacement pumps: gear, vane, and piston. Many variations exist inthe design of each ofthese main types of pumps. For example, vane and piston pumps ean be of either fixed or variable displace ‘ment, A fixed displacement pump is one in which the amount of fui ejected per204 The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 revolution (displacement) cannot be varied. in a variable displacement pump, the displacement can be varied by changing the physical relationships of various ‘pump elements. This change in pump displacement produces a change in pump flow output even though pump speed remins constant. It should be understood that pumps do not pump pressure, Instead they produce fuid low. The resistance to this low, produced by the hydraulic system, is what determines the pressure. For example, if positive displacement pump has its discharge line open tothe atmosphere, there wil be fow, but there will be no discharge pressure above atmospheric, because there is essentially no resis. {ance to flow. However, ifthe discharge line is blocked, then we have theoreti. cally infinite resistance to flow. Hence, there is no place for the Mud to go. The Pressure will therefore rise until some component breaks unless pressure reliefs Provided. This is the reason a pressure relief valve is needed when & postive displacement pump is used. When the pressure reaches a set value, the relief valve will open to allow flow back to the ol tank. Thus, 4 pressure relict valve ‘determines the maximum pressure level tha the system will experience regardless of the magnitude of the load resistance. A discussion of hydraulic control eompo- rents, such as pressure relief valves, is provided in Chapter 8. Some pumps are made with variable displacement, pressure compensation ‘capability. Such pumps are designed so that as system pressure builds Up, they produce fess flow. Finally at some predetermined maximum pressure level the flow output goes to zero due to zero displacement. This prevents any additional pressure buildup. Pressure relief valves are not needed when pressure-compens sated pumps are use. ‘The hydraulic power developed by pumps is converted back into mechanical ‘energy by hydraulic actuators, which produce the useful work output. The subject ‘of power output components is covered in Chapter 7 It should be noted that pumps are used in hydraulic systems to provide flow of incompressible fis (lguids) such as oil. In a pneumatic system where a compressible uid such as airs used, the unit tat produces id ow is called ‘compressor. Thus, in pneumatic systems, compressors perform functions similar to those performed by pumps in hydraulic systems. Compressors are discussed in Chapter 10. 6.2 PUMPING THEORY All pumps operute on the principle whereby a partial vacuum is created at the Pump inlet due to the internal operation of the pump. This allows atmospheric Pressure fo push the Muid out ofthe oil tank (reservoi) and into the pump intake ‘The pump then mechanically pushes the uid out the discharge line ‘This type of operation can be visualized by referring to the simple piston ‘pump of Fig. 6-1. Notice that this pump contains two ball check Valves, which are described as follows‘See.62 Pumping Theory 205, * Check valve 1 is connected to the pump inlet fine and allows fluid to enter the pump enly at this location, + Check valve 2 is connected to the pump discharge line and allows fil to leave the pump only at this loeation As the piston is pulled to the le, partial vacuum is generated in pump ‘cavity 3, because the close tolerance between the piston and cylinder (or the use ‘of piston ring seals) prevents ar inside cavity 4 from traveling into cavity 3. This flow of air i allowed to occur, would destroy the vacuum. This vacuum olds ‘check valve 2 against its seat lower position) and allows atmospheric pressure to push fluid from the reservoir into the pump via check valve 1. This ilet low ‘9ecurs because the force ofthe uid pushes the bal of check valve I of its seat. ‘When the piston is pushed to the right, the faid movement closes inlet valve 1 and opens outlet valve 2. The quantity of fui, displaced by the piston, is forcibly jected out the discharge line leading tothe hydraulic system, The volume of oil displaced by the piston during the discharge stroke is called the displace- ment volume of the pump. From the operation of the simple piston pump, it can be seen why a pump ‘does not pump pressure. Pumps produce flow. The pressure developed is due to the resistance of the load, which is being driven by the system hydraulic ac- a Pre a Figure 61. Punping ston oa snl piston pan.206 ‘The Soutee of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 6.3 PUMP CLASSIFICATION ‘There are two broad classifications of pumps as identified by the Muid power industry. They are described as follows: 1. Hydrodynamic or nonpositive displacement pumps: Examples ofthis type are the centrifugal (impeller) and axial (propeller) pumps shown in Fig. 62. Al ‘though these pumps provide smooth continuous Row, their ow output i reduced as circuit resistance is increased, La Fact, itis possible to completely block off the futlet to stop all low, even while the pump is running at design speed. ‘These pumps are typically used for low-pressure, high-volume flow applications Since there is a great deal of clearance between the rotating and stationary ‘elements, these pumps are not self-priming. This is because there is too much ‘clearance space to seal against atmospheric pressure, and thus the displacement between the inlet and outlet és not a positive one. Thus the pump flow Fate depends not only on te rotational speed (rpm) at which tis driven but also on the resistance of the external system. ‘As the resistance ofthe external system starts fo increase, some ofthe Mud slips back into the clearance spaces, causing a reduction in the discharge flow rate This slippage is due to the fact that the uid follows the path of least resis- tance, When the resistance of the external system becomes infinitely large (for ‘example, a closed valve blocks the outlet ine), the pump will produce no Now and thus its volumetric elfiiency becomes zero, For example, this dramatic drop in volumetric efficiency with increase in load resistance occurs when using a centrifugal pump. The operation of acenteifu igure 62. Noaosive displacement paps. (Courtesy of Sperm VikeSec.6.3 Pump Classification 207 ‘al pump is simple, The fuid enters atthe center ofthe impeller and is picked up by the rotating impeller. As the fluid rotates with the impeller, the centrifugal foree causes the fluid to move radially outward. This causes the Muid to ow ‘through the outlet discharge port ofthe housing. One ofthe intresting character- istics ofa centrifugal pump is its behavior when there is no demand for Nui. In such a case, no harm occurs to the pump, and thus there is no noed for safety devices to prevent pump damage. The tips of the impeller blades merely slosh through the uid, and the rotational speed maintains a fuid pressure correspond ing to the centriugal force established, The fact that there fs no positive internal seal aginst leakage is the reason thatthe centrifugal pump is not forced to pro- duce ow against no demand. When demand for the fuid occurs (for example, the fpening of a valve), the pressure delivers the fui to the source of the demand This is why centrifugal pumps are so desirable for pumping stations used for delivering water to homes and factories. The demand for water may go to near zero during the evening and reach a peak sometimes during the daytime, The Centrifiagal pump can realy handle these large changes in uid demand, ‘Although hydrodynamic pumps provide smooth continuous flow (when a demand exists), their output ow rate is reduced as resistance to low is increased. This is shown in Fig. 6-3 where pump pressure is plotted versus pump flow. The ‘maximum pressure is called the shutoff head because all external circuit valves are closed and there is no flow. As the external resistance decreases, the ow inereases at the expense of reduced pressure, Because the output flow changes significantly with external circuit resistance, nonpositive displacement pumps are rarely used in hydraulic system, 2. Hydrostatic or positive displacement pumps: This type of pump ejects fixed quantity of fluid per revolution of the pump shaft. AS a result, pump output flow, neglecting the small internal leakage, is constant and not dependent on systém pressure. This makes them particularly well suited for uid power sys> tems. However, positive displacement pumps must be protected agains overpres- sire ifthe resistance to flow becomes very lange or infinite, This can happen if zr hy gure 63. Typical emia pump208 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 valve is completely closed and there is no physical place for the uid to go. The reason for this is that a positive displacement pump continues to eject Mud (even though it has no place to go), causing an extremely rapid buildup in pressure asthe fluid is compressed. A pressure relief valve is used to protect the pump against overpressure by diverting pump flow back to the hydraulic tank where the fui is stored for system use. Positive displacement pumps can be classifed by the type of motion of internal elements. The motion may be either rotary or reciprocating. Although these pumps come ina wide variety of dlferent designs, there are essentially three basic types: Gear pumps (xed displacement only by geometrical necessity): ‘a, External gear pumps bi. Internal gear pumps e- Lobe pumps 4. Serow pumps 2. Vane pumps: ‘2. Unbalanced vane pumps (fixed or variable displacement) », Balanced vane pumps (xed displacement only) 3. Piston pumps (fixed or variable displacement) a, Axial design bs, Radial design In addition, vane pumps can be ofthe balanced oF unbalanced design. The unbalanced design can have pressure compensation capability, which automati- cally protects the pump against overpressure. In Secs. 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6, We discuss the details of the construction and operation of gear, vane, and piston pumps, respectively, 6.4 GEAR PUMPS: Figure 64 illustrates the operation ofan external gear pump, which develops ow by carrying fuid between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a drive shaft connected to the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes withthe driver gear. Oil chambers are formed between the ‘gear teeth, the pump housing, and the side wear plates, The suction side is where teeth come out of mesh, andi is here where the volume expands, bringing about 2 reduction in pressure fo below atmospheric pressure, Fluid is pushed into this ‘void by atmospheric pressure because the wil supply tank is vented tothe atmo- sphere. The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh, and it is here where theSee.64 Gear Pumps 209 gare 4, Extra peur pump operation. (Cores of Sperry Vickers, Spry volume decreases between mating teeth. Since the pump has a positive internal seal against leakage, the ol is positively ejected into the outlet port. ‘The following analysis permits us to evaluate the theoretical low rate of ‘ear pump using specified nomenclature: ‘outside diameter of gear teeth (in., m) inside diameter of gear teth (in, m) = width of gear teeth (in., m) Aisplacement volume of pump (in./rev, mire) N= epm of pump theoretical pump flow rate From gear geometry, the volumetrie displacement is found:210 ‘Tho Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 ‘The theoretical flow rate (in English units) is determined next x insimin) = Vp Cinirev) % N (rpm) Since 1 gal = 231 in2, we have 2s (enm = $e wo Using metric units, we have (iM Equations (6+) and (6-1M) show that the pump flow vaties directly with speed [see Fig. 6a]. Hence, the theoretical flow is constant at a given speed, as shown by the soli line in Fig. 650) ‘There must be a small clearance (less than 0,001 in.) between the teeth tip ‘and pump housing. As a result, some of the oil at the discharge port can leak directly back toward the suction. This means thatthe actual Now rate Qy is less ‘than the theoretical flow rate Q, which is based on volumetric displacement and ‘pump speed. This internal leakage, which i called pump slippage, i identified by the term volumetric efficiency 7, which is usualy greater than 90% for positive isplacement pumps, operating at design pressure: Qs 2 n= S100 Per gee 6S. Poe sapacement pump Q vert Nao P eran O eres) Plow vers speed curvy) Flow versus posure curve at cons pump sped‘Se0,64 Gear Pumps a The higher the discharge pressure, the lower the volumetric efficiency be- ‘cause internal leakage increases with pressure. This is shown by the dashed line in Fig. 6-5(b). Pump manufacturers usually specify volumetric efficiency at the pump rated pressure. The rated pressure of a positive displacement pump is that pres: sure below which no mechanical damage due to overpressure will occur 10 the pump and the result will be a long reliable service life. Too high & pressure not only produces excessive leakage but also can damage a pump by distorting the ‘easing and overloading the shall bearings This brings to mind once again the need for overpressure protection. Also keep in mind that high pressures occur when & large load or resistance 10 flow is encountered. Exanne 6 ‘Agear pump hasan. outside diameter, a2 inside dlameter the actual pump Now at 180 spy and rated pressure s 28 epm, wha. ric efficiency? Seleion Fah Gincemt vole: Yo~ $10? @7K) =399in? Next, use Eq (1) (fd the theoretical flow rate: oN _ 9331800) 0, = SeN = GSR _ 30.6 gpm “The volumetric eciency i then found: 28 a= Fh x 10 ~ 91.86 Exams 62 | gear pump has a 7S.mm ouside diameter, a O-mm inside diameter, and a 25mm ‘with. Irthe volumeari efficiency is 7 trated presse, wha the correspond ing flow rate? The pump speed is 1000 rpm. Solution The yolume displacement is v= Juan - emma = nome ur wu ‘Since 1 = 0.001 Vo = 0.0614 Fa2 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 Newt, combine Eas. (1M) and (62) find the setul fw rte: = 10 he pelle hie Since 11 01 m?, we have ee sia oot Figure 646 is « photograph showing detailed features of an external gear ‘pump, Also shown isthe hydraulic symbol used to represent fed displacement pumps in hydraulic circuits, This external gear pump uses spur gears (teeth are parallel to the axis of the gear). which are noisy at relatively high speeds. To Feduce noise and provide smoother operation, helical gears (teeth inclined at a ‘small angle to the axis ofthe gear) are sometimes used. However, these helical ear pumps are limited to low-pressure applications (below 200 psi) because they develop excessive end thrust due to the action of the helical gears. Herringbone fear pumps eliminate ths thrust action and thus ean be used to develop much higher pressures (above 750 psi). Herringbone gears consist basically of two rows ‘of helical teeth cut into one gear. One ofthe rows ofeach gear is right-handed and the other is left-handed to cancel out the axial thrust force. Herringbone gear pumps operate as smoothly as helical gear pumps and provide greater flow rates With much less pulsating action. Figure 67 illustrates the configuration and operation of the internal gear pump. This design consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent Shaped seal, and an external housing. As power is applied to either gear, the ‘motion ofthe gears draws uid from the reservoir and forces it around both sides ofthe erescent seal, which ats a a seal between the suction and discharge ports. ‘When the teeth mesh onthe side apposite to the erescent sea, the Mud is forced to enter the discharge port of the pump. Figure 6 provides «cutaway view ofan internal gear pump that contains its ‘own built-in safety relief valve. ‘Also in the general family of gear pumps is the lobe pump, which is ills trated in Fig. 69. This pump operates in a fashion similar to the external gear pump. But unlike the external gear pump, both lobes are driven externally so tht they do not aetuslly contact each other. Thus, they are quieter than other types of ‘bear pumps. Duc tothe smaller numberof mating elements, the lobe pump output will have a somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its volumetric dis: placement is generally greater than that for other types of gear pumps.ae ‘Tho Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 gure 68. Cutaway view of am intern se pip with bin safety ee false (Coury of Vie Puno Dison af endef, Ines Coa Fat ova) "he Gerotor pump, shown in Fig, 6-10, operates very much lke the internal sear pump. The inner gear rotor (Gerotor element is power-driven and draws the outer gear rotor around as they mesh together. This forms inlet and discharge pumping chambers between the rote lobes. The tps ofthe inner and outer rotors make contact to seal the pumping chambers fom each other. The inner gear has ‘one tooth less than the outer gear, and the volumetric displacement is determined by the space formed by the extra tooth in the outer rotor. Figure 6-11 isa photograph of an actual Gerotor pump. As can be seen, this is a simple type of pump since there are only two moving pats OL® ger 68. Open of he abe mT Spery Rand Carp. Troy, Meigen)Sec. 64 Gear Pumps. 25 Figure 610. Operation ofthe Gest pump. (Comers of Spry Vik Sper Rand Corp Too, Michian) The screw pump (see Fig. 6:12) isan axial flow positive displacement unit. ‘Three precision ground screws, meshing within a elose-fiting housing, deliver nonpulsating flow quietly and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed idler rotors act as rotating seals, confining the Guid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler rotors are in rolling contact with the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective housing bores on a hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forees on the rotor set are balanced climinating any need for thrust bearings. Tn Fig, 6-13, we see a cutaway view of an actual serew pump. Its rated at 500 psi and can deliver up to 123 gpm. High-pressure designs are availabe for 3500:psi operation with output flow rates up to 88 gpm. gue tt, Gerorr pump. (Courtesy of Brown Sharpe Mf Co. Ma ‘het, Michigan)26 “The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 ke ee 6.5 VANE PUMPS Figure 6-14 illstrates the operation of a vane pump. The rotor, which contains radial slots i splined to the drive shaft and rotates inside & cam ring. Each slot Contains @ vane designed 10 mate with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring Dari revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases between the rotor and cam ring, The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of presSee.65 Vane Pumps a7 “LRA "| Figare 614. Vane pump operation, (Contes of Spry Wlters, Spry Rand sure. This is the suction process, which causes Mud to low through the inlet port and fil the void. As the rotor rotates through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back into their slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the discharge port Careful observation of Fig, 6-14 will reveal that there is an eeceatricity between the centerline of the rotor and the centerline of the cam ring. IF the cecentricity i zero, there will be ao flow. The following analysis and nomencla- tue is applicable tothe vane pump De = diameter of cam ring (in., m) Dg = diameter of rotor (in, ) = width of rotor (n., m) N= rotor rpm Vo = pump volumetrie displacement (in. m) = eccentricity (in. m) = maximum possible eccentricity (in, m) Vina, = maximum possible volumetric displacement (in, m)208 ‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 From geometry, we can find the maxi possible eccentricity _De~ De ‘This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum volumetric dis placement Vow = (DE - DDL Rearranging, we have Vou. =F De + DeXDe~ Dab Substituting the expression for emus yields Via = % (De + Dad2eou)L ‘The actual Volumetric displacement occurs when ép Yo Fe + Dylel. 3) ‘Some vane pumps have provisions for mechanically varying the eccentric: ity. Such a design is called a variable displacement pump and is illustrated in Fig, 6-15. A handwheel ora pressure compensator can be used to move the eam ring to ‘change the eccentricity The direction of flow through the pump can be reversed by movement of the cam ring on either side of center. ‘The design we see in Fig. 6-15 is a pressure-compen system pressure ats directly on the eam ring via hydraulic piston on the tight side (not shown). This forces the cam ring against the compensator spring loaded Piston on the left sid of the cam ring. IFthe discharge pressure is large enough, it ‘overcomes the compensator spring force and shifts the cam ring tothe left. This reduces the eccentricity, which is maximum when discharge pressure is zero. As the discharge pressure continues fo increase, zero eccentricity is finally achieved, ‘and the pump flow becomes zero, Such a pump basically has its own protection ‘against excessive pressure buildup, as shown in Fig. 6-16. When the pressure reaches a value called Pagar, the compensator spring force equals the hydraulic piston force. As the pressure continues to increase, the compensator spring is ‘compressed until zero eccentricity is achieved. The maximum pressure achieved is called Paste at Which point the pump is protected because it attempts to28‘The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps Chap. 6 Figure 17. Cutaway photograph of presi compensated ane pump, (Cow {esr of Cominentl Hadras, Dison of Conia Machines. me Svage produce no more low. Asa result there is no horsepower wasted and lid heating is reduced. Figure 6-17 shows the internal configuration of an actual pressure-compen: sated vane pump. This design contains a eam ring that rotates slightly during use, thereby distributing wear over the entire inner circumference ofthe ring. SA ouner ourier ner ‘OPPOsING PRESSURE PORTS oven Cane! SIDE LOADS ON igre G18, Balunc vane pump pincines. (Cotery of Spey Vier Spey Rand Cop. Tay. Michigan)See. 65 Vane Pumps 2 Notice in Figs. 6-14 and -15 that side load is exerted on the beatings ofthe ‘vane pump because of pressure unbalance. This same undesirable sie load exists forthe gear pump of Fig. 6-4. Such pumps are hydraulically unbalanced, ‘A balanced Vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports hydra fore Ob) << w I = 2291.0) = 72 ap ap 22 Bow gpm)» pes ps) _ N61) me on force. Pressure ~ Gisign area tin) ~ rod area GB) 1000 _ 1000 * 31a Gey * 25s ~ St “Therefore, as expected, more pressure is required to retract than extend the same load due to the effect of the od.Fuld Power Actuators Chap. 7 ‘Therefore as expected (or the same pump flow). the piston retraction velocity i lteter than that for extension se tothe eet ofthe fa up = Piston velocity ds)» hydrate Force) 350 2.73,1000) TIO) = 4.96 np sp ~ iu Now (gpm) > pressure psi Tie ‘Thus, more horsepower is supplied by the cinder during the retraction sroke ‘because the piston velocity is greater during eration andthe load force emained fhe same during both strokes. This, of course, was accomplished by the pester ‘ressre level during the reaction stroke, Recall hat the pump output Aw rate Constat, witha vale of 20 gpm, Cylinder Cushions Double-acting cylinders sometimes contain cylinder cushions atthe ends of the cylinder to slow the piston down near the ends ofthe stroke. This prevents {excessive impact when the piston is stopped by the end caps, as illustrated in Fis 7-7. As shown, deceleration starts when the tapered plunger enters the opening in the cap. Ths restricts the exhaust low from the barrel othe port. During the last small portion of the stroke, the oil must exhaust through an adjustable opening. ‘The cushion design also incorporates a check valve to allow free flow to the piston, during direction reversal The maximum pressure developed by cushions at the ends ofa cylinder must be considered since excessive pressure buildup would rupture the cylinder, Ex. ample 7-2 illustrates how to calculate this pressure, which decelerates the piston atthe ends ofits extension and retraction strokes. Exaurue 72 ‘A pump delivers ila arte of 18.2 gpm into the Bank end ofthe 3in-ameter hydraulic eylinder shown in Pig. 7-8. The piston contains a [sn-diameter cushionSec.72 Linear Hydraulic Actuators (Hydraulic Cylinders), 263 and Cory. ro, Michigan lunge thats 0.7 in long, and therefore the piston deceerates over a distance of (075in tthe end of is extension sroke. The liner drives 15001 lod, which sles on at horizontal surface having acoecen of ition (x) equal 10.12. The pump pressure eli valve sting equals 780 pi. Therefore, the masimim pressure (P)) atthe blank end of the einer equals 750 ps whl the cushion i decelerating the piston Find the maximum pressure (P) developed bythe cushion.Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 | Figure 7. Cynder cushion qb for Example 72 Soluion ‘Step 1: Calculate the steady-state piston velocity (V) prior to deceleration Goose _ (1821888) 1s _ 0.0506 Fe ieee” (ANSP TA] TE ~ 0.08 ‘Step 2: Caleulate the deceleration () ofthe pston during the 0.7S.n, displacement (8) using the constant acceleration (or deceleration equation: Ve = 208 08 Ws Solving for acceleration, we have — 09 ‘Substituting knowa values, we obiain the value of deceleration 03 tis? 20.7570 ‘Sep 3; Use Newton's law of motion: The sum ofall external fores (3 F) acting ona ‘ass (m) equals the product ofthe mass (m) and is acelration oe deceleration (a) Sem me ‘When substituting into Newton's equation, we shall conser forces that tent slow ove the piston as being positive forces, Also the mass meals the mass ofall the ‘moving members (piston, rod, and load). Since the weight ofthe piston and rod Is ‘all compared to the weight ofthe lad, the weight ofthe piston and rod wll be a = ssinieSee.7.2 Linear Hydraulic Actuators (Hydraulic Cylinders), 285 Ignored. Also note that mas (m) equals weight (W divided by the aceleration of gravy "The frictional retarding force (f) between the load (W) and its horizontal ‘support surface equals times W. ‘Substituting into Newton's equation yields Fl eo eae eee _ Wipe + PA) — 2 : ie hee ae He Substiuting known valves produces the desired result: Lass 1932.21 + 750m — 0.1211500) IOS = (eI Special Cylinder Designs In Fig. 7-9 we see w unique, compact, self-contained hydraulic package called the Powr-Pak by its manufacturer. It supplies a force where a minimum size and maximum power are required. To provide for flexibility of operation, a selection ‘of speeds and power is availabe. I consists of a heavy-duty hydraulic eylinder, a iene 79._Powe-Pak yas ower pacha. (Corey of Sher CorFluid Power Acwustors Chap. 7 reversible electric motor, a reversible Gerotor pump, a reservoir, and automatic valving. This package is a complete hydraulic power system that is simple and ‘easy 10 put into operation. You mount it and connect three wires through a reversing switch fo an electrical power source. Because manifold porting is uti lized, the customer does not have todo aay plumbing, The mounting operation is simplified because 1 standard mountings are available. The hydraulic cylinder ‘comes in bore sizes from 2! 10 14 in. Operating pressures up to 2000 psi are ‘objainable. Figure 7-10 shows the Powr-Pak mounted to & press-iype machine Applications that have also been found for this system (due to its versatility, low ‘cost, and reliability) include forming, bending, clamping, rising and lowering, and tilting operations. Figure 7-1 ilusirates& double-rod eylinder in which the rod extends out of the eylinder at both ends, For stich cylinder, the words extend and retract have no meaning. Since the force and speed are the same for either end, this type of cylinder is typically used when the same task is to be performed at either end gure 710, Powrak driving presrs) 287 pure 711. Doubler cine, {Gouna of Almay Con, Mineola, ‘Since each end contains the same size rod, the velocity ofthe piston is the same Tor both strokes, Figure 7-12 illustrates the internal design features ofa telescopic cylinder. ‘This type actually contains multiple eylinders that slide inside each other. They are used where long work strokes are required but the fll retraction length must be minimized. One application for a telescopic cylinder isthe high-lit fork truck, illustrated in Fig. 7 gure 12. Telescopic inde. (Connery of Comment Shear Ine Yoangtonn, Oe)268 Fuld Power Actustors Chap. 7 gure 718, Highs ok ck (Cortes of Eaton Corp Ii ‘ck Divison, Pde, Pens 7.3 MECHANICS OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDER LOADINGS {In many applications the load that a hydraulic cylinder must overcome does not act along the axis ofthe hydraulic cylinder. The following isan analysis on how to determine the hydraulic cylinder force required to drive nonaxial loads using the first-class, second-class, and third-class lever systems of Fig. 7-5, Notice that in first-class, second-class, and third-lass lever systems, the cylinder rod and load rod are pin-connected by a lever that can rotate about a fixed binge pin. A similar analysis can be made of any of the other types of linkage arrangements shown in Fig. 75, First-Class Lever System Figure 7-14 shows a first-class lever system, which is characterized by the lever fixed-hinge pin being located between the cylinder and load rod pins. Note thattheSee. 73 -Mechenies of Hydraulic Cylinder Loadings 208 gare 714. Use ofa iat lever odie ou, length of the level portion from the cylinder rod pin to the fixed hinge is L1, whereas the length of the lever portion from the load rod pinto the fxed hinge isd ‘To determine the cylinder force Fy required to drive a load force Fuss, We equate moments about the fixed hinge, which is the pivot point ofthe lever. The cylinder force attempts to rotate the lever counter clockwise about the pivot, and this creates a counterclockwise moment. Similarly, the load force creates «clock- ‘wise moment about the pivot. At equilibrium, these twa momen are equal in magnitude: Counterclockwise moment = clockwise moment FeLsc0s ) = Ful Lsc0s 8) Ls BF os) It should be noted that the cylinder i clevis-mounted (see Fig. 7-4 forthe clevis-mount design) to allow the rod pinned end to travel along the circular path of the lever as it rotates about its fixed hinge pin, Ifthe centerine of the hydraulic cylinder becomes offset by an angle ¢ from the vertical. as shown in Fig 7-14, the ‘relationship becomes270 Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 FALs608 8 % 608 9) ~ Fil s€08 0) 09) Examination of Eq (7-8) shows that when £, (distance from cylinder rod 0 hinge pin) is greater than L, the eylinder fore is Tess than the foal Torce, OF course, this results in a load stroke that i ess than the eylinder stroke, by the conservation of energy law. When dis 10° or les, the value of cos bis very nearly unity (cos 0" = I and cos 10°» 0.985) and thus Eq. (7-8) can be used instead of Eq. (79), ‘The length ofthe moment arm for either the cylinder force or the load force isthe perpendicular distance from the hinge pin othe line of action ofthe force. ‘Thus, forthe development of Fi. (7-8), the moment arms are Lyc0s @ and L:c0s 0 rather than simply L; and Zs. Similarly. for the development of Eq, (79), the ‘moment arm for the eylinder force is eos 8% cos, rather than simply L608 Which is based on the assumption that @ ~ 0” Second-Class Lever System Figure 7-15 shows a second-class lever system, which is characterized by the load rod pin being located between the fixed hinge pin and ylier od pin ofthe ever, Figae718. Use fu seconds lever system dre Jad‘Sec. 7.3 Mechonis of Hydraulic Cylinder Loadings an ‘The analysisis accomplished by equating moments about the Fixed hinge pin, as follows: F608 Gl + £2)608 8 = Fiudlzc08 6) — Tt Lye Foi = Fat 10) ‘Comparing Eq, (7-9) © Eg. (7-10) shows that a smaller eylinder force is required to drive a given load force fora given lever length ifa second-class lever is used instead ofa first-class lever. Thus, using a second-class lever rather than firstelass lever reduces the required cylinder piston area forgiven application, ‘Of course, using a second-class lever also results in a smaller load stroke for siven cylinder stroke. Third-Class Lever System [As shown in Fig. 7-16, for a third-class lever system the cylinder rod pin les between the load rod pin and fixed hinge pin ofthe lever. gue 7-6. Use of hess ever system 1 dive.Fuld Power Acustors Chap. 7 Equating moments about the fixed hinge pin yields Feo HL 605 6) Fall + 13) 608 0 oy Examination of Eq. (7-I1) reveals that for a class-three lever, the eylinder forceis greater than the load force. The reason for using a class-three lever system would be to produce a load stroke that is greater than the eylinder stroke, at the expense of requiring a larger eylinder diameter. Exoune 73 For the fis, second. and thid-clas ever systems of Figs. 7-14, 7-15, and 716 the following data are given; hoo ao Fas = 1001 Find the eylinder fore required to overcome the load force fr the eee eed lat iewe 2 Tiedt Solution 1 Per Ea 09) we have ee Fa LE Fie = ui 00 = 0001 Using Ea 10) yields fon pee TF tes «Subs ito Eg, 11), we have Litt, do+i9, Fog = FEE Lana = FRAP? 00) = 200 0 ‘Thus, as expected, the second-class lever requires the smallest cylinder force, Whereas the third-elass lever requires the largest cinder force.‘See.7.4 Limited Rotation Hydraulle Aetuator a 7.4 LIMITED ROTATION HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR A limited rotation hydraulic actuator (or rotary actuator) provides rotary output motion over a finite angle. This device produces high instantancous torque in cither direction and requires only small space and simple mountings. Rotary ‘actuators consist of « chamber or chambers containing the working Mid and a movable sueface against whieh the uid acts. The movable surface is connected to an output shaft to produce the output motion. A direct-acting vane-type actuator is shown schematically in Fig. 7-17. Fluid under pressure i directed to one side of the moving vane, causing it to rotate, This type provides about 280° of rtation Vane unit eapacity ranges from 3 to 1 million int. Rotary actuators are available with working pressures up to $000 psi. They ly mounted by foot, flange, and end mounts. Cushioning devices are tvailable in most designs. Figure 7-18 shows an actual rotary actuator similar to (Cory of Resnard ne gare 748. Roary actor (Cow2 Fuld Power Actustors Chap. 7 the design depicted schematically in Fig. 7-17. Since it contains two vanes, the ‘maximum angle of rotation is reduced to about 100". However, the torgue-carry- ing capacity is twice that obtained by a single-vane design. This paricular unit can ‘operate with either air or ol at pressures up to 1000 psi The Following nomenclature and analysis are applicable toa limited rotation hhydraulic actuator containing a single rotating vane Rx = outer radius of rotor (in,, m) Ry = outer radius of vane (in., m) 1 = wideh of vane (in., m) P= hydraulic pressure (psi, Pa) FF = hydraulic force acting on vane lb, N) ‘A= surface area of vane in contact with oil (in, m!) T= torque developed (in-lb, Nm) ‘The force on the vane equals the pressure times the vane surface area F "A = PORy ~ Rade ‘The torque equals the vane force times the mean radius of the vane: = pen, ~ Rou He Upon rearranging we have r= ei RD a) ‘A second equation for torque can be developed by noting the following relationship for volumetric displacement Vp: Vo = n(Rb- RAL 3) ‘Combining Eqs. (7-12) and (7-13) yields PVy om8See. 74 Limited Rotation Hydraulic Actustor 28 Observe from Eq, (7-14) that torque output ean be increased by increasing the pressure oF volumetric displacement or both Bowne 74 A sinle-vane rotary actuator has the following physical data: ‘outer radius of rotor = 0 i, outer rvs of vane = 1.5 in. wid of vane = 1 100 inIb, what pressure must be developed to overcome Use Ea. (7:13) to solve forthe volumewi displacement Vo = wUL.5 ~ 0.841) = 628i “Then use Eq. (7-14) to solve forthe pressure: 628 Vo me Figure 7-19 illustrates a rotary actuator that uses a rack and pinion drive. Pressure applied to the tube chamber on one side moves the rack to the opposite chamber, causing the shaft to rotate, The shaft is double-ended, giving either ‘lockivise or counterclockwise rotation, depending on which end is driving. This type of rack and pinion rotary actuator is available 10 | million in. of torgue and ean provide rotations up 0 360" ‘Stila third type of rotary actuator sillustrated in Fig, 7-20. Looking into the river end, counterclockwise rotation is obtained with pressure applied on the {river end port. Clockwise rotation results when pressure is applied to the ‘ler end port. Using simple valving, the piston and exclusive helix design allows the actuator to be stopped at any point in the rotation cycle, where it will hold . indefinitely. The work oad is thus firmly held and cannot back off under reverse tension, shock, oF vibration—even if a complete power loss occurs. This type of rotary actuator will deliver controlled torque fram near 0 to 15,000 in. Ib with pressures of 5 to 300 pi ‘As shown in Fig. 7-21, applications for rotary actuators include conveyor sorting, valve turning, air Bending operations, Nipover between work stations,28 Fuld Power Actuators Chap. 7 positioning for welding, lifting, rotating, and dumping. The symbol fora rotary Actuator is shown at the lower right-hand side of Fig. 7-21 7.5 GEAR MOTORS Hydraulic motors are actuators that can rotate continuously and as such have the ‘same basie configuration as pumps. However, instead of pushing on the fluid #8 pumps do, motors are pushed upon by the fuid. In this Way, hydraulic motors develop torque and produce continuous rotary motion. Since the casing of & hydraulic motor is pressurized from an outside source, most hydraulic motors have easing drains to protect shaft seals. There are three basic types of hydraulic motors: gear, vane, and piston, Let's frst examine the operation and configura lion of the gear motor. A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting on the sur- faces ofthe gear teeth, as illustrated in Fig. 7-22, The direction of rotation ofthe ‘SOI Is cARMED atoUND 0 AND bOeS NOT wrFECTToxaue 2, SEGMENTS OF TWO MEAN 1a tase wo ith are suasect —TeeTH TEND TO OMvOSE AOTATION Miure 22. Torque development by gear moter. (Courter of Spey Vier Spers Rand Cor. Tro, Michigan)Sec. 78 Gear Motors 29 ‘motor ean be reversed by reversing the direction of low. As isthe case for gear pumps, the volumetric displacement of a gear motor is fixed. The gear motor shown in Fig. 7-22 is not balanced with respect to pressure loads, The high pressure atthe inlet, coupled withthe low pressure atthe outlet, produces a large side load on the shaft and bearings. Gear motors are normaly limited to 2000-psi ‘operating pressures and 2400-rpm operating speeds. They are available with a maximum flow capacity of 150 gpm. ‘The main advantages of a gear motor are its simple design and subsequent low cost. Figure 7-23 shows a cutaway view ofan actual gear motor. Also shown is the hydraulic symbol used in hydraulic cireuits for representing fixed displace- Hydraulic motors can also be of the internal gear design. This type can ‘operate at higher pressures and speeds and also has greater displacements than the external gear motor ‘As in the case of pumps, screw-type hydraulic motors exist using three ‘meshing serews (a power rotor and two idler rotors) Such a motors ilustrated in Fig. 724. The rolling serew set results in extremely quiet operation. Torque is eveloped by differential pressure acting on the thread area of the screw se. Motor torque is proportional to differential pressure across the screw set. This particular motor can operate at pressures up to 3000 psi and ean possess volumet- Fie displacements up to 13.9 in igere 7.23. Exteal gear ator. (Coney of Webster Electric Company te. ‘absary of STARITE Indus, tne, Raine, son)Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 Figure 724, Serew motor. Courtesy of Bava IMO Pun Dison, ent, 7.6 VANE MOTORS ‘Vane motors develop torgue by the hydraulic pressure acting on the exposed surfaces of the vanes, which slide in and out of the rotor connected to the drive shaft (ee Fig. 7-25, view A). As the rotor revolves, the vanes follow the surface of the cam ring because springs (not shown in Fig, 7-25) are used to force the vanes radially outward. No centrifugal force exists until the rotor starts to revolve ‘Therefore, the vanes must have some means other than centrifugal force to hold them against the cam ring. Some designs use springs, whereas other types use pressure-loaded vanes. The sliding action of the vanes forms sealed chambers Which cary the Mud from the inlet tothe outlet ‘Vane motors are universally ofthe balanced design illustrated in view B of Fig. 7-25. Inthis design, pressure buildup at either port is directed to two intercon- nected cavities located 180° apart. The side loads that are ereated are therefore ‘canceled out. Since vane motors are hydraulically balanced, they are fixed dis- Placement units Figure 7-26 shows a design where pivoted rocker arms are attached to the rotor and serve as springs fo force the vanes outward against the elliptical cam Ting. This type of motor is available to operate at pressures up to 2500 psi and at speeds up to 4000 rpm. The maximum flow delivery is 280 gpm. 7.7 PISTON MOTORS Piston motors can be either fixed or variable displacement units. They generate torgue by pressure acting on the ends of pistons reciprocating inside a evlinder block. Figure 7-27 illustrates the in-ine design in which the motor driveshaft andSee.77 Piston Motors 281 2: Habeas \SrrOSING ese gure 7.25. Operation of wane mor (Coates of Spey Vickers, Spry and Cop. Tron, Michigan) cylinder block are centered on the same axis. Pressure acting on the ends of the Pistons generates a force against an angled swash plate. This causes the cylinder block to rotate witha torgue that is proportional to the area ofthe pistons. The torque is also a function of the swash plate angle. The in-line piston motor is designed either asa fixed or variable displacement unit (see Fig. 7-28). As illus: trated in Fig. 729, the swash plate angle determines the volumetric displacement.22 Fuld Power Actuators Chap. 7 Fear 7-26. Vane motors wth singed vanes. Courtesy of Spry Vick sm Spers Ran Cop, Ton. Mehigan) In variable displacement units, the swash plate is mounted in & swinging yoke. The angle of the swash plate can be altered by various means, such as a lever, handwheel, or servo control. If the swash plate angle is increased, the forgue capacity is increased, but the drive shaft speed is decreased, Mechanical stops are usually incorporated so that the torque and sped capacities stay within, prescribed limits,‘Sec. 7.7 Piston Motors 203 "CD att =a, gue 7.27. tntn ison mati patio. (Courtesy of Spey Vices. Spey ‘Rand Corp. Tey. Michio) A bent-axis piston motor isilustrated in Fig, 7-30, This type of motor also develops torgue due to pressure acting on reciprocating pistons. This design, however, has the cylinder block and driveshaft mounted at an angle to exch other 0 thatthe fore is exerted on the driveshaft fae. Speed and torque depend on the angle between the cylinder block and Ariveshaft. The larger the angle, the greater the displacement and torque but the smaller the speed. This angle varies from a minimum of TF to a maximum of 30° Figure 731 shows a fixed displacement, bent-axis motor, whereas Fig. 7-3 illus: trates the variable displacement design in which the displacement is vatied by & hhandwhee!204 Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 vate Fare Nove shar 4 F, Piston motors are the most efficient of the three basic types and are capable of operating atthe highest speeds and pressures. Operating speeds of 1,000 rpm tnd pressures of 5000 psi can be obtained with piston motors, Large piston motors are capable of delivering flows up to 450 gpm. rive wheel hub motors illustrated in Fig, 7-33, This type of motor Imparts torque directly to drive whcels of vehicles such as tractors without anysec. 77 Piston Motors 205 ay Wit si (maxi PLACEMENT) nna osreacenent Hig 729, Moti dicrent vin les BG ab. Sperry Vickers, Soe Rand Cn. Tes. Mihi intermediate re tion gears, Designed to be mounted directly into a standard 1S ‘oF 2in, wheel rim, these simplified posser packages eliminate axles, eeu Hoses, torque converters, conventional hydrostatic transmissions, and reduction gears “These whee! motors are of mullistroke radial piston design, working against ‘cam ting. The special design of the eam permits full rated torque from start-up through maximum rpm. In most applications, the inherent dynamic braking is sulfcien. A secondary. static braking system is available, which provides fail sale “holding where such is required, (Other significant features ofthis wheel motor are instantaneous reversing Uhrough simply changing the direction ofthe oil Nw two-speed ranges, with Full ‘or half displacements high external loading; operations at S000 psi; low noise level: Tree wheeling: and ultrasmooth performance “The theoretical torque capscty of a hydraulic motor can be determined by the following equation, which i identical (o that used! for hydraulic actuators vo) rips int) om Using mati une we hve vo (i) ren Poem = as “Thus, the torque capaci volumetric displacement. is proportional not only tothe pressure but also 10 theFluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 ‘The horsepower (HP) output can also be mathematically expressed Ain. 1b) % N trom) BF 63.000 Vo (22) Pes N pm) - 395,000 PAs) power (W) = T(Nem) x rad vp (2) x para x v( 628 Also, a is the ease for pumps, the following equstion gives the relationship between speed. volumeiric displacement, and Row on 17M) The use of Eqs. (7-15), (7-16), and (7-17) cam be illustrated by an example Exwvme 7S A iydalic motor has aS.n” volumetric displacement. fit bas a pressure rating of 109 ps and receives ol fom a 0-gpm pump, find the motor 2% Spec be, Torave capacity «Horsepower capacity Solution ‘From Eq, (717) we solve for moor speed: = B20 429m‘Sec. 7.8 Hydraulie Motor Performance 29 'b, Torque capacity is found using Ba, (15) Yok 6x0000) 68 6k «, Horsepower ouput is obtained from Ea. (1-16: IN _ (990462) 5.00 ~ “63.000 r 195 intb uP S83 hp HYDRAULIC MOTOR PERFORMANCE “The performance of any hydraulic motor depends on the seal between the inlet ‘and outlet sides. Internal leakage (slippage) between the inlet and outlet reduces ‘ficiency Gear motors typically have an overall efficiency of 70% to 756 as compared to 78% to 83% for Vane motors and 88% to 95% for piston motors. Some systems require that & hydraulic motor start under load, Such systems should include a stall-torque factor when making design calculations. For exam. ple, only about 80% of the maximum torgue can be expected if the motor is Tequited to start either under load or operate at speeds below S00 rpm. Hydraulic motor performance is evaluated on the same thee efficiency pa- rameters as used for hydraulic pumps, They are defined for motors a follows: 1. Volumetric efficiency (n,) __ theoretical flow rate motor should consume ‘actual flow rate consumed by motor x gy 100 = $x 100 18) Observe that volumetric efisiency for a motor isthe inverse of that for a pump, because a pump does not produce as much flow as it theoretically should, ‘whereas a motor uses more flow than it theoretically should due to slippage. Determination of volumetric efficiency requires the calculation ofthe theo- retical low rate, which is defined for a motor by Or (epm) 19) on (2) (7-19M)Fluid Power Actustors Chap. 7 2. Mechanical efticiency (na: = —_sctual torque delivered by motor "Torque moior should theoretically deliver hy et) x 10= F100 720 Equations (7-21) and (722) allow for the ealeuation of Ty and 7, respectively sayy = Yoin.d) * P sip ” TrGin-tpy = Ve Gn)

pump volumetric efficiency = (10.8N0.82) ~ 8.86 eo ‘motor theoretical flow rate = pump acta flow rate > motor volumetric efficieney ~ (686,092) = 8.15 gpm roto theoretical fw rate 251 ‘motor displacement = ec te 1900 oy ae livre to motor = SEM preture x acu fw rat 0 motor ee Tie = 1088) _ 5 app [HP delivered by motor = 5.17 «02 * 0:90 = 4.28 HP detivered by motor x 63,000 ‘motor speed 4.28 x 63,000 torque delivered by motor = 76 in 7.10 ELECTROHYDRAULIC STEPPING MOTORS An electrohydraulic stepper (or stepping) motor (EHSM) is a device that uses 3 small electrical stepper motor to control the huge power available from a hydrau-See. 7.10 Electrohydraule Stepping Motors 27 igure 737. Schematic drawing of eletrohyraic stepper motor (EHSMD. (Couey of Motion Poducs, Mien, Mineo} lie motor. The electrohydraulic stepper motor consists of three components: elec- trical stepper motor, hydraulic servo valve, and hydraulic motor (see Fig. 7-37). ‘These three independent components, when integrated in a particular fashion, provide forthe hydraulic motor to accurately follow the electrical stepper but with ‘torque output that is several hundred times greater than the capabilites ofthe ‘lecrical stepper. “The electric stepper motor rotates a precise, fixed amount per each electrical pulse received. This motor is directly coupled to the rotary linear translator of the servo valve, The output torque ofthe electric motor must be capable of overcom- ewe 738, Chractrsis of electorate epper motor (EHSM). (Courtesy of Mo-Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 ing the flow forces in the servo valve. The flow forces in the servo valve are directly proportional tothe ate of flow through the valve. Figure 7-88(a) gives the axial force on the valve spoo! for various fv. The torque required to operate the rotary linear translator against this axial force is dependent onthe flow gain in the ‘servo valve. Figure 738(b) gives the torque required forthe operation ofthe servo valve at various flow rates. Ths is the torque demanded of the electric stepper and as can be seen from the curve, a very small electric stepper can produce {enormous output horsepower to be available atthe hydraulic motor shaft, The electric motor is run submerged in ol. This is achieved by diverting the casing {rain flow ofthe hydraulic motor and servo valve through the housing surrounding the electric stepper. This technique has the advantage of protecting the electric stepper from overheating due tothe ability of the oil to act asa very efficient heat sink ‘The mechanical input servo valve performs the following two functions 1. The hydraulic motor comes to rest only when there is no positional error between the electric stepper and the hydraulic motor. Hence, the servo valve makes the hydraulic motor reproduce exactly the position of the electric stepper A closed-loop circuit exists between the electric stepper and the hydraulic motor, through the servo valve. The hydraulic motor exactly reproduces the position of the electrical stepper, ignoring any minor mechanical imperfections 2. The amount of oil flow through the servo valve is such that it tends to cancel out the lag between the electric motor and the hydraulic motor. Thus, the speed and direction of rotation of the hydraulic motor would slays ty 10 repro duce the motion ofthe electric motor. The flow through the servo valve is directly proportional othe lag between the electric and hydraulic motors, Thus, as the lag between the electric stepper and the hydraulic motor increases, this causes addi- tional low to pass through the servo valve, which, in turn, speeds up the hydraulic motor, The hydraulic motor is faithfully trying to reproduce the position of the clectric stepper, and the servo valve provides the feedback through mechanical linkage. “The hydraulic motor is the most important component of the EHSM pack- ‘age. The performance characteristics of the hydraulic motor determine the perfor- ‘mance that can be achieved from the whole package. The hydraulic motor has very desirable characteristics for operation under these conditions. Among these are high starting torque, excellent reliability, low-speed operating capability, and high overall efficiency. The motor is a fixed clearance, axial rolling vane motor and has a balanced rotor design, as shown in Fig. 7-39. Figure 7-40(a) shows an actual electrohydraulic stepper motor and Figure 7-40(b) shows an electronic control system called a preset indexer. This electronic control system performs the counting function, acceleration-deceleration contr, and the general control interface between the motor, machine, and operator. The‘See. 7.10 Electrohydraulle Stepping Motors 209 eR ow see at ae Sasi gee 729. Workine principe of alc mote (Coren of Main Products, Minne ‘output shaft speed of the hydraulic motor is directly proportional to the input pulse rate to the electric stepper motor. This rate is controlled by the preset indexer. The position ofthe output shafts directly related to the number of input pulses received by the electric stepper motor. Electrohydraulic stepper motors are typically used for precision control of position and speed. They are available with displacements from 0.4 to 7 in’. Horsepower capabilities run from 3.5 035 hp. Typical applications include textile drives, paper mills, roll feeds, automatic storage systems, machine tools, con- veyor drives, hoists, and elevators. In Figure 7-41 we see a cutaway view of an electrohydraulc stepping motor, “This particular motor produces a rotation of 1.8"/pulse and can accept pulses at & te of 2500 pulsesis.Sec. 7.11 Low-Speod, High-Torque Motors ao gue P41. Cats of an lest date tepping oto. (Courtesy of Bi Sabon Co, Walpole, Massachusetts) 7.11 LOW-SPEED, HIGH-TORQUE MOTORS In many applications, there isa need for low speed accompanied by bigh-torque ‘output. There are special hydraulic motors available specifically designed to meet these conditions, Figure 7-42 shows a cutaway view of such @ motor, whieh contains five cylinders. Its designed to operate at speeds as low as 3 rpm with no need for cumbersome, power-wasting speed reducers. This type of motor ean generate up to 192,000 in-tb of torque in continuous operation and ean be re- versed and stalled without damage ‘The secret to the operation of this type of motor (called Staff by its manu- facture) i illustrated in Fig. 7-43, along with specifications for this motor, which is applicable tothe B series ofS, 7, or 10 cylinders, With its machined tolerances 0 closely held, and because itis completely balanced in film of oil, a Stal motor has an overall efficiency as high as 98%. Typical applications for this type ‘of motor inelude machine tools, vibratory rollers, swing drive of lg loaders, and underground coal mining machinery In Fig. 7-44 we see a photograph showing a cutaway view of a second type of low-speed, high-torque hydraulic motor, which is capable of delivering torques up to 1,108,000 inIb. This motor is of radial piston design and offers high power ina narrow profile. The hub remains stationary as pairs of opposing pistons turn the rotating casing. Each pair of pistons is connected to rollers, which ride specially designed cam ring. A'rotary valve distributes oil to pars of pistons in sequence, and they, in turn, produce a smooth, nonpulsating rotation, with torque being constant throughout the full 360°, at all speeds and all operating pressures (see Fig. 7.45),2 Fluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 Figure 742. Lowpce, hahsorave Direction of rotation is determined by feeding ol to one or the other of two alternative ports. By iting a special valve 10 the motor, two speed ranges are possible using the same rate of inlet flow. The speed is doubled, whereas the ‘output torque is halved in the higher range ‘A key feature of the motors is ther ability to develop full operational torque \when starting and operating at very low speeds, Full torque at fractional rpm can be attained, Special roller bearings prevent side loading of the piston; hydraulic and ‘dynamic balance reduces the thrust on the heavy-duty main bearings. This design Permits much higher external leading than other concepts. Freewheeling, in which the housing rotates freely, may be accomplished by retracting the pistons, thus eliminating pressured ol circulation through the rotary valve 7.12 HYDRAULIC MOTOR PERFORMANCE RATING IN METRIC UNITS ‘As in the case for pumps, performance data for hydraulic motors are measured and specified in metric units as well as English units. Figure 7-46 shows actual Performance and dimensional data for Vickers M2 series high performance motors designed for use in mobile equipment. The performance of these motors has been proven via rugged earth-moving, agricultural, mining, material-handling applica- tions. and with hydrostatic transmissionsi EESEEESES| & ‘te the one of re model urbe, HYDRAULICALLY BALANCED VALVE ne stay ale hat lage ine (high oreure) and de hee flow prewar) st wo dec oto and rr the nde Tooter he ta he egal pee tna. Ths heepe the vale centred with no fons) oF thcaney to BALANCED PISTON ASSEMBLY ‘ute movers have gente sng tera tre eo ethan aoa ‘See Ot m metre down tcc [Scoates ov toners yr foree dou toe fare ator Wiare 7-8, Operations features of ow see, hishoraue mt, Couriers of Brown & Sipe tf Cox Manchester, Mehigen)308 Fuid Power Actuators Chap. 7‘Sec. 7.12 Hydraulle Motor Performance Rating in Matic Units 305 M2 Series High Performance Motors aE RET a gure 7-6, Performance and dimensional Enlah mere at for Vickers M2 sees high formance mot, (Courtesy of Vickers ne Toy, Michisen) Examples 7-8, 79, and 7-10 show how to analyze the performance of hy Araulie motors and hydrostatic transmissions using metre units uous 78 A hydraulic motor has an 82cm (@.02-L) volumetric displacement. If has 8 ‘Pressure rating of 70 bars and it receives ol from a 0.0006-ms (0 G-Lis or 36.0- ‘Limin) pump, Had the motor ‘4 From Eq. (ITM) we solve forthe motor speed. w= B- sAtQO somle« 099mFluid Power Actuators Chap. 7 ', Torgue capacity i found using Eq, (-15Mb pn Yok (0.000082 70 10°Nim) 628 oa ‘Power outputs obtained a8 follows ower = TN = (9.4 N-m\7.32 « 2 rads) = 4200 W = 420 kW Exar 79 A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 164 cm? and operates with a pressure of 3 ‘ars and sped of 2000 pm. I the actual ow rate consumed by the motors 0,008 1s and the actual torque delivered by the motor is 170 No, Rad am bn 4. The actual kW delivered by the motor Solution ‘4, First calculate the theoretical lw rate r= VoN ~ (0.000164 mtirev) (72% revis} = o.0nse7 mis 0.0847 =&y 3100 = eo Be 100 = 8 ty gia Tod ne, we alo uate haere Ya. 0001850010) _ ergy, T= Yok = COO * 10) gem nen Hx wo = 22x wo = nam © ‘nate, (91.2183.0) = 00 ~ To a 4 pome= T= 0 oo 2 = 35,000 W = 35.6 kWSec. 7.12 Hydraulic Motor Performance Rating in Metric Units 307 Exawnte 7.10 A hydrostatic transmission, operating at 70 bars pressure, has the following charac- Pump Motor Vo = 82 em Vi mw = 80% ™ a = 89% m= 9% N= 500 rpm N= 400 mm Find the 1. Displacement ofthe motor ', Motor output tongue Solution Pump theoretical fow rate = displacement of pump pump speed A + omy (St) «on ump actual flow rate ~ pump theoretical fow rate > pump volumetric efficiency = (0.00683)082) = 0.000560 m/s Imotor theoretical low rate ~ pump actus flow rate motor volumete efficiency = (,000540,0.92) = 0.000515 ms ‘motor theoretical flow rate motor speed = OHSS «ent a = 713 em? [Motor displacement . power delivered to motor = system pressure actal ow rte to motor = (0 x 10}0.000560) ~ 3920 W ower delivered by motor ~ 3920\0.92)0.) = 3246 W tone dene by motor = BE Slee by tor 26 spe - SNMFld Power Actustors Chap. 7 EXERCISES Questions, Concepts, and Definitions TL, What is the difference between a single-actng and a double-acting hydraulic cylin der! 172. Name four diferent types of hydraulic eyinder mountings. 23. What is «cylinder cushion? What i its purpose? 7-4. What is « doube-rod esinder? When would it normaly he used? 75, What sa telescoping rod evinder? When would it normaly be used? 746, What is ited rotation hydraulic actuator? How does it ifr from a hydrate 712, What are the main advantages of gear motors? 74, Why are vane motors fixd-diplacement units? 79. Name one way in which van motors ifr from vane pumps, 70, Cana piston pump be use as piston motor? ZA, For a hydaulc motor define volumetric, mechanical, and oval eciency 7H12, Why does a hydraulic motor use more Now than it theoretically should? 7A, What isa hydrostatic transmission? Name four vantages i rypialy possesses 7-44, What sa clctroy dra stepping motor, and how does it work? ‘T1S, Explain why, theoretically, the torque output from a xed-displacement hydraulic imotor operating at constant peessre is the same regardless of changes in speed 7116, Why does the rod ofa double-actng cylinder retract at greater velocity than it ‘extends forthe same inp Now rate? 747, How ae sngle-acting ylinders retracted? ‘TAB, The torque output fom a Hxed-tsplacement hydraulic motor operating st constant pressure isthe same regardless of changes in speed. True or fake? Explain your 79, What determines the speed of a hydraulic actuator? 1720, What determines the pump size requised ina hydraulic system? ‘FAL, Define the displacement aad torque ratings of hydraulic motor. 7722, Explain how the vanes are held in contact with the cam rng in high-performance 723, How is torque developed in an in-tine-type piston motor? ‘724, Ifa hydraulic motors pressue-compensted, what isthe effect of an increas in the ‘working iad? 7.28, What type of hydraulic motor is generally most fiat’? 726. Keowing the displacement and speed o hydraulic motor, how do you calculate the pm lowing through i? ‘P21, Diferenate between fest, second andthiedclas ever systoms used with hydau lc eylinders to drive loads. 1728, Relative to mechanical lever systems, fine the term moment 128, Relative to mechanical lever systems, define the term moment arm.(chop.7 Exercises 309 1730, When using lever systems with hydraulic elders, why must the einer be elevis- mounted” 731, Using the mechanics of ender loadings with Jever systems as an example, explain the diference between a torque and a moment. Problems [Note The letierF folowing an exercise number means that English units reused, Simi lary, the leter Mindieates mere unis. Hydraulic Cylinder Speed, Force, ind Power “TRE. A pump supplies ol at 25 gpm toa Ibin-iameterdoubleactiag hydraulic ein der the load i 1201p (extending and retracting and the rd diameter sn find the a, Hydraulic pressure during the extending stoke by, Piston velocity during the extending stroke «Cylinder horsepower during the extending stoke 4. Hydraulic pressure during the retracting stoke Piston velocity during the retracting stroke Cylinder horsepower during the retracting stroke 7M, {A pump supplies oi t 0.0016 ms to 8 O-mmiameter double-sctng hydraulic eslinde. I the loads S000 N (extending and retracting) andthe rd diameter i 20 ‘i, find the ‘4. Hydraulic pressure during the extending stoke 1, Piston velocity during he extending stoke «Cylinder KW power during the extending stroke 4. Hiyraulic pressure daring the retracting stoke Piston velocity during the retracting stroke 1. Cylinder KW power daring the retracting stoke Determine the value of constants Cand C; in the following equations for deter- avining the speed of a hydra cylinder. m my (my _ 8b (i) Sue #G) = reas ‘738, A hydraulic cylinder has rol dlameter equal to oneal the piston diameter. Determine the diference in load-arry capacity between extension and retraction ithe pressure is constant 17.36, For the cylinder in Exercise 7-35, what woul happenifthe pressure were applies to both sides ofthe eylindsr atthe same time? Hydraulic Cylinder Cushions ‘TATE. A pump delivers oll at rate of 20 gpm to the Hank end of @ 2in.-iameter hydraulic elinderas shown in Fig. 7-8 The piston contains a.n-dameter cus10 Fluid Power Actustors Chap. 7 fo planer tht 1 in, fong. The cylinder drives a 10001 oad, which slides on fat horizontal surace having coeTcient of fiction ual to 015. The pump pressure rele valve setting equals 00 ps. Find the maximum pressure developed by te cushion. > 748M. Change the data of Exercise 737 t9 metric wits and solve forthe maximum pressure developed by the cushion, ‘Mechanics of Cylinder Loadings 73901, Change the data of Example 7-3 to metre unis ove forthe cylinder force requied 0 overcome the load force forthe st ‘second an thr-lss lever systems bi. Repeat para with # = 10 Repeat part with ¢ = 8° and 20% 740M. For the system of Fig. 7-47, determine the hydraulic eslinder force required (0 Ave 1000 load 4 TAHIR, For the crane system of Fig. 7-48, determine the hydraulic evlinder force required ‘oli the 200: lod, THE, For the toggle mechanism of Fig. 749, determine the output load force for a Inydeulceytinde free of 1000 Ih Limited Rotation Hydraulic Actuators THEE, A rotary actuator hs the following physical data ‘outer radius of rotor ~ 0.4 in, ‘outer radius of vane ~ 1.25 in width of vane= 075i, he torgue lois 290 inh, what pressure must be developed to overcome the ood? gure TN. Sytem fr erie 7,chop.7— Exercs sn ie 788. Sytem for xeric 74 Orne THAN. A rotary aetwator as the following physical data cute radius of rotor = 19 mm ‘outer radius of vane = 32 mm width f vane 20 mm Ifthe torgue load is 85 N-m, what pressure must he developed to avercome the loud? Hydraulic Motor Speed, Torque, and Power ASE. A hydraulic motor has ain? volumetric displacement it has a presse rating ‘9200 ps and eceves ol from 18 gpm pimp. fin the motora2 Fig Power Actuators Chap. 7 Speed by, Torque capacity ‘: Horsepower capacity °TA6M, A hydraulic motor has 00cm? volumetric displacement I it has & pressure rating of 140 bars and receives from 4 0.001-ms pump, ad the motor Speed 1 Toraue capacity «KW power eancity TATE, The pressure cating of the components ia a hydraulic system 1000 psi. The system contains a hydaulie motor to turn a IOin-radus drum at 30 pam to if "000sb weight W. as shown in Fig. 7-0. Determine the Row rae in units of xm tnd the horsepower ofthe moter. nu Mire 758. Syten in Exensse 247 4 THEM, The system of Exercise 747, as shown in Fig. 70, has the following data sing presse = 1 10° KPa eum aus = 0.3 m motor speed 30 pan weit of load = 4000 N Determine the Now rate in units of m/s andthe power of the motor in kW, ‘TBE, A hydraulic system contains a pump that discharges ot 200 psi and 10 gen to "hydraulic motor. as shown ia Fig, 71, Te pressure the motrin 1800 ps ‘du ta pressure drop i the fine If leaves the motor 200 ps, determine the power delivered by the motor. * 150M. Change the data of Exercise 749 to metric units and solve forthe power delivered by the moto(Chop.7 Exercises an 2000 swoops! 200"! eae 781 System in Exercise 148, ‘PSIB. IF he pipeline beeen the pump and motor in Exercise 7-49 is horizontal and of ‘constant diameter, what the cause othe 200s pressure drop? {FS2M. Change the dats of Exercise 7-51 to metic units and determine the cause of the pressure drop inthe pipeline fom he pup cute to the motor inlet “TSE, Wht theoretical traue cou a 4.HP hydraulic motor deliver at raed speed of 1750 rp? ‘TSAE, In Excrise 753, the pressure remsins constant at 200 pi 1 What effect would doubling the speed have onthe torque? 1b, What effect would halving the speed have on the true? Hydraulic Motor Efficiencies ‘7SSE, hydraulic motor has a dsplacement of 8 in and operates with a pressure of 1500, Pai and a speed of 2000 rpm. I the actsl low rate consumed by the motor is 75 [pm and the acta torque delivered By the motor i 10 in ind be 4. The horsepower delivered hy the motor {7S6M hydraulic motor has displacement of 130 es and operates with a pressure of 10S ryan speed of 200 re. Ifthe actual low rate consumed bythe motors (1.005 m/s and the actual torque delivered by the moter i 200 N-m ind be 4. KW power delivered by the motor “STE. Ahydeaulc moor has volumetric efiiency of 95 and operates a speed of 1750 ‘pm and a pressure of 100 psi. Ith actual ow ate consumed by the motor i 75 pm and the actual torque delivered by the motor i 190 incl, nd the overall ficiency ofthe motor. “ASK, A pear motor has an overall ficiency of 8496 at a pressure drop of 4000 ps across its ports and wien the ratio of low rate to speeds 0.075 gpmtpm. Determine the tore and displacement ofthe motorFluid Power Actustors Chap. 7 a4 Hydrostatic Transmissions 71598. A hydrostatic transmission operating at 1500 psi pressure hs the following charac Pump Movor Vo= sin? od my = 89% ay = 985 ie = 90% a = 9% N= 100mm N= 400 mm ind the Displacement ofthe motor », Motor outpat torave * 1-60ML 4 hydrostatic transmission operating at 108 bas pressure has the following charac Pano Motor Vo= Wem y=? my = 85% ny = 986 a = 90% ty = 2 N= 1000 rpm = 600 19m Find the Displacement ofthe motor , Motor ouput torque Computer Programming 746LE. Write a computer program to solve the problem of Exercise 7-59, Execute your rogram using vais of 100, IS00, amd 200 pi for the operating presse 7-02M. Write computer program to solve the problem of Exercise 7-60. Execute your rogram using vales of 50,105, and 200 har forthe operating pressure‘Sec. 83 Pressure Control Valves 333 Figure B27. Prose vers Aw curve or imple rei valve {does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return back 10 the tank via the relie valve, The pressure relief valve provides protection against any over- loads experienced by the actuators in the hydraulic system. Of course, a rliet valve is not needed ia pressure-compensated vane pump is used. Obviously one important function of a pressure relief valve is to limit the force or torque pro- duced by hydraulic eylinders and motors, ‘A compound pressure relief valve (See Fig. 830 for external and cutaway views of un actual design) is one that operates in two stages. As shown in Fig, 18.30, the pilot stage is located in the upper valve body and contains a pressure- limiting poppet that i held against a seat by an adjustable spring. The lower body contains the port connections. Diversion ofthe full pump low is accomplished by the balanced piston in the lower body. "The operation is as follows (Fefer to Fig. 831): In normal operation, the balanced piston isin hydraulic balance, Pressure atthe inlet port acts under the piston and also on its top because an orifice is dled through the large land. For roe womans Tt}, gure #28. Syst ie #29, Symbolic epresenttion of prt yeControl Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. & pressures less than the valve setting, the piston is held on its seat bya light spring ‘As soon as pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its seat. This limits the pressure in the upper chamber. The restricted flow through the orifice and into the upper chamber results in an inerease in pressure in the lower chamber. This eases an unbalince in hydraulic forces Which tends to raise the piston off its seat. When the prossue diference between the upper and lower chambers reaches approximately 20 ps, the large piston lifts off its seat to permit flow directly to the tank. Ifthe low increases through the valve, the piston lifts farther off its seat, However, this compresses only the light spring, and hence very litle override occurs. Compound reli? valves may be remotely operated by using the outlet port from the chamber above the piston. For example, this chamber can be vented to tank via a solenoid directional control valve. When this valve vents the pressure relief valve to the tank, the 20-psi pressure in the bottom chamber overcomes the ight spring and unloads the pump to the tank, Figure 8-32 is a photograph of a compound pressure relief valve that has this remote operation capability. This particular model has its own built-in solenoids ‘actuated two-way vent valve, which is located between the cap and body of the ‘main valve. Manual override of the solenoid return spring is a standard features, ‘The pressure relief valve is vented when the solenoid is de-energized ar devented when energized, This relief valve has a maximum flow capacity of 5 gpm and can be adjusted to limit system pressures up to S000 psi. Clockwi tightening of the hex locknut prevents accidental setting changes by use oft knurled knob,36 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. @ [A second type of pressure control valve isthe pressure-reducing valve, This type of valve (which is normally open) is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is actuated by downstream pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches the valve setting, Figure ®-3 illastates the operation of a pressure-reducing valve that uses a spring-loaded spool 10 control the downstream pressure. If downstream pressure is below the valve Setting, fuid will ow freely from the inlet to the outlet. Notice that theres an internal passageway from the outlet, which transmits outlet pressure tothe spool tend opposite the spring. When the outlet (downstream) pressure increases 10 the valve setting, the spool moves to the right to partially block the outlet port, as shown in view B. Just enough flow is passed t0 the outlet to muitain its preset pressure level. IFthe valve closes completely, leakage past the spool could cause ‘downstream pressure to build up above the valve setting, This is prevented from ‘curring because a continuous bleed to the tank is permitted vie & separate drain line to the tank. Figure 8-38 also provides the graphical symbol for a pressure- reducing valve. Observe that the symbol shows thatthe spring cavity has a drain to the tank, ‘An additonal pressure control device is the unloading valve. This valve is ‘used to permit a pump to build up to an adjustable pressure setting and then allow itto discharge to the tank at essentially ero pressure as long as pilot pressure is ‘maintained on the valve from a remote source, Hence, the pump has essentially i = crn Sperry Rand Corp Tro, Michigan)See. 83 Pressure Contro! Valves 37 Figure 834. Schematic of unloning vale, (Courtesy of Abex Crp, Deston Dalston, Cotomba, Ohio) no load and is therefore developing a minimum amount of horsepower. This is the ‘ase in spite of the fact that the pump is delivering full pump flow because the pressure is practically zero. This is not the same with a pressure relie valve because the pump is delivering full pump flow at the pressure relief valve setting and thus is operating at maximum horsepower conditions. Figure 8-34 shows a Schematic of an unloading valve used to unload the pump connected to port A When the pressure at port X is maintained at the value that satisfies the valve setting. The high-low poppet is controled by the spring-loaded ball and the pres- ‘sure applied to port X. Flow entering at port A is blocked by the poppet at low pressures. The pressure signal from A passes through the orifice in the main Poppet to the topside area and on to the ball, There is no flow through these Sections of the valve until the pressure rises 10 the maximum permitted by the gure 838. Photog of unloading ‘ale: (Counesy of aber Corp. Dent on Ditton, Columbus, Ob)Contro! Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 ‘adjustably set spring-loaded hall. When that occurs, the poppet lifts and flow goes from port A to port B, which is typically connected fo the tank, The pressure signal to port X (sustained by another part of the system) ats against the solid ‘control piston and forces the ball farther off the seat. This causes the topside pressure on the main poppet to goto a very low value and allows low from A to B with a very low pressure drop as long as signal pressure at X is maintained. The bul seats, and the main poppet closes with a snap action when the pressure at X falls to approximately 9% of the maximum pressure seting of the spring-loaded ball. Also included in Fig. 834 is the graphical symbol of an unloading va Figure 835 shows a photograph of the actual unloading valve. xwure 8 {A pressure rei valve has a pressure setting of 100 ps. Compute the horsepower logs across this valve i i etuns ll the low buck othe tank fom 820s pump, Solution Baur 82 ‘An unloading valve is used to unload the pup of Example 81. If the pump ds ‘charge presere (during unloading) equals 25 pa, now much hydric horsepower ‘being wasted? Solution = FQ _ 2520 | eerie Still another pressure control device is the sequence valve, which is de- signed to cause a hydraulic system to operate in a pressure sequence. After the ‘components connected to port A (see Fig. 8-36) have reached the adjusted pres- sure ofthe sequence valve, it passes Mid through port B 0 doaditional work ina different portion of the system, The high-low poppet of the sequence valve is controlled by the spring-loaded cone. Flow entering at port A is blocked by’ the Poppet at low pressures. The pressure signal at A passes through orifices t0 the Topside of the poppet and tothe cone. There is no flow through these sections until the pressure rises at A to the maximum permitted by the adjustably set spring- loaded cone. When the pressure at A reaches that value, the main poppet lifts,See. 83 Pressure Control Valves 339 Fae 836 Sch use (Cat of Ae Cop Doe passing flow to port B. It maintains the adjusted pressure at port A until the pressure at B rises 10 the same value. A small pilot flow (about | gpm) goes through the control piston and past the pilot cone to the external drain at this time. When the pressure at B rises to the pressure at A, the control piston seats and prevents further pilot flow loss. The main poppet opens fully and allows the pressure al A and B to rise 0 higher values together. Flow may go either way at this time. The spring cavity of the control cone drains externally from port Y. generally to the tank. This sequence valve may be remotely controlled from vent port X. Figure 8-36 also inludes the graphical symbol fora sequence valve. The pilot Tine can come from anywhere in the cieuit and not just from directly up- Stream, as shown, A final pressure control valve to be presented here is the counterbalance valve, The purpose of @ counterbalance valve is to maintain control of a vertical cylinder to prevent it rom descending due to gravity. As shown in Fig. 8:37, the primary port of this valve is connected to the bottom of the cylinder, and the secondary port is connected toa directional control valve (DCV). The pressure selting of the counterbalance Valve is somewhat higher than is necessary to pre- vent the cylinder load from falling. As shown in Fig. -37(a), when pump flow is directed (via the DCV) to the top of the eylinde, the cylinder piston is pushed ‘downward. This causes pressure at the primary port to inerease to raise the spool ‘This opens a flow path for discharge through the secondary port to the DCV and ‘back to the tank. When raising the cylinder [see Fig. §-37(0)], an integral check valve opens to allow free flow for retracting the eyliner, Figure 837(c) gives the _raphical symbol for a counterbalance valve0 Control Components in Hydraulic Systoms Chap. 8 Figure 837. Appiction of counterbalance ve. Courtesy of Ser Vike, Sperry Rand Co Dos, Michigan 8.4 FLOW CONTROL VALVES Flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of hydraulic cylinders and ‘motors controlling the flow rate to these actuators. They may be as simple as a fixed orifice or an adjustable needle valve. Needle valves are designed to give fine control of fow in small-liameter piping. As illustrated in Fig. 8-38, their name is WHEN Rowe 88 WAY Figere 40. Noncompensate ow cat vave (Courter of Spey Vicker, Spey Rand Cop Tes. Mision) be adjusted by an external knob setting. The orifice area setting determines the flow rate to be controlled. The hydrostat is held normally open By alight spring However, it starts to close as inlet pressure increases and overcomes the light spring force. This closes the opening through the hydrostat and thereby blocks off ano aoces Figare B41, Operation f presre-compenatd How cont valve. (Sec.85 Servo Valves 243 all ow in excess of the throttle setting. As a result, the only oil that will pass Uhrough the valve is that amount which 20 psi can force through the throttle. Flow ‘exceeding this amount can be used by other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via the pressure relief valve, Also included in Fig. 8-41 is the graphical symbol fora pressure-compensated flow control valve In Fig. 842 we have a see-through mode! of an actual pressure-compensated flow control valve, which has a pressure rating of 3000 psi, Pressure compensation ‘will maintain preset flow within I to 5% depending on the basic flow rate as long as there is 150-psi pressure differential between the inlet and outlet ports, The dial calibrated for exsy and repeatable flow settings. Adjustments over the complete valve capacity of 12 gpm are obtained within a 270" arc. A dial key lock prevents tampering with valve settings. sharp-edged orifice design means thatthe valve is immune to temperature or fui viscosity changes. 8.5 SERVO VALVES A servo valve is directional control valve that has infinitely variable positioning capability. Thus, it ean control not only the direction of uid flow but also the lumount. Servo valves are coupled with feedback-sensing devices, which allow for the very accurate control of postion, velocity, and acceleration of an actuator. 8-43 shows the mechanical-type servo valve, which is essentially 2 iter used for positioning control. In this design, a small input foree shifts the spool ofthe servo valve tothe right by a specified amount. The oil flows through port Pj, retracting the hydraulic eylinder to the right. The action of the igre 80, Pesure-sompensted de corel ve: Cowrteyof Con ‘ena Hydraulics, Dison of ContControl Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 ue | ae ee igure 848. Mechanica servo vale Feedback link shifts the sling sleeve to the right uni it blocks off the low to the hydraulic cylinder. Thus, a given input motion produces a specific and controlled amount of output motion. Such a system where the output is fed back to modify the input is called a closed-loop system. One of the most common applications of this type of mechanical-hydraulic servo valve is the hydraulic power steering system of automobiles and other transportation vehicles. In recent years, the electrohydraulic servo valve has arrived on the indus- {rial scene. Typical elecrohydraulic servo valves use an cleciical torque motor, a ‘double-nozzle pilot stage, and a sliding spool second stage. Figure 8-44 gives a cutaway view of an actual electrohydraulic servo valve. This servo valve is an electrically controlled, proportional metering valve suitable fora variety of mobile ‘vehicles and industrial control applications such as earth-moving vehicles, articu- lated arm devices, cargo-handling cranes, lift trucks, logging equipment, farm ‘machinery, stel mill controls, uility construction, fire trucks, and servicing vehi- cles, ‘The construction and operational features of an electrohydraulic servo valve ‘can be seen by referring tothe schematic drawing of Fig, 8-45, The torque motor includes coils, pole pieces, magnets, and an armature. The armature is supported for limited movement by a feaure tube. The flexure tube also provides a ud seal between the hydraulic and electromagnetic portions of the valve. The flapper attaches fo the center of the armature and extends down, inside the Nexure tube, ‘A nozzle is located on each side of the flapper so that flapper motion varies the nozzle openings. Pressurized hydraulic uid is supplied to each nozzle through an inlet orifice located in the end ofthe spool. This pilot stage flow is tered by a 40- jum screen thal is wrapped around the shank of the spool. Differential pressure between the ends of the spool is varied by flapper motion between the nozzle. "The four-way valve spool direets flow from supply to either control port C1 r C2 in an amount proportional to spoo! displacement. The spool contains low ‘metering slots in the control lands that are uncovered by spool motion. Spool ‘movement deflects a feedback wire that applies a torque to the armature/apper.346 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 ‘Spool detent springs are provided to center the spool whenever hydraulic driving pressures are absent. Electrical current in the torque motor coils causes either Clockwise or counterclockwise torque on the armatte. This torque displaces the flapper between the two nozzles. The differential nozze flow moves the spool {0 either the right or let. The spoo! continues to move until the feedback torque ‘counteracts the electromagnetic torque. AC this point the armaturellapper is re ‘turned to center, so the spoo! stops snd remains displaced until the electrical input changes fo a new level. Therelore, valve spool position is proportional to the electrical signal. The actual flow from the valve tothe load will epend on the load pressure Rated flow is achieved with either a plus or minus 100% electrical signal, The ‘amount of rated flow now depenils on the valve pressure drop. ‘The overall operation of an electrohydraulic system is as follows: The elec- lwohydraulic servo valve operates from an electrical signal 19 its torque motor, hich positions the spool of a directional control valve, The signal to the torque ‘motor comes from an electrical device sch asa potentiometer (see Fig, 846). The signal from the potentiometers electrically amplified to drive the torque motor of the servo valve. The hydraulic flow output ofthe servo valve povwers an actuator, ‘hich in turn drives the load. The velocity or positon of the load is fed back in ‘electrical form to the input of the servo valve via a feedback device such as & tachometer generator or potentiometer. Because the loop is closed by this action, this type of system is commonly referred fo as a closed-loop system. This feed ‘back signal is compared to the command input signal, and the difference between the two signals is sent 10 the torque motor as an error signal. This produces a correction in the velocity or position of the load until it matches up with the Aesired value. At this point the error signal to the torque motor becomes zer0, and no additional changes are made tothe load until the original command input signal is changed as desired. Electrohydraulic servo systems (closed-loop systems) can provide very precise control of the position, velocity, or acceleration ofa load. (rottSrieren tn rosrtncc sania ) igor 6. lock diagram of an troy serv system eloseon)‘Sec,868 — Canrdge Valves 7 8.6 CARTRIDGE VALVES Market pressures and worldwide competition make the need for more efficent ‘and economical hydraulic systems greater than ever. Integrated hydraulic circuits offer a proven way to achieve these improvements. Integrated hydraulic circuits are compact hydraulic systems formed by integrating various cartridge valves and ‘ther components into a single, machined, ported manifold block A cartridge valve is designed to be assembled into a cavity of a ported manifold block (alone or along with other cartridge valves and hydraulic compo- nents) in order to perform the valve's intended function. (See Fig. 87 for cut- Away views of several threaded cartridge valves.) The cartridge valve is assem bled into the manifold block either by screw threads (threaded design) or by a bolted cover (slip-in design). Figure 8-48 shows a manifold block containing a numberof cartridge valves and other hydraulic components. The world map was iched on the outside surfaces of the manifold block to reflect one's entering the world” of integrated hydraulic ciruits “The use of cartridge valves in ported manifold blocks provides a number of| advantages over diserete, conventional, ported valves mounted at various loea- tions in pipelines of hydraulic systems. The advantages include the following: 1, Reduced numberof ftings to connect hydraulic lines between Various com- ponents ina system, gure 847. Cutaway views of heated earage walter: Courters of Parker Horiin Cop. Eira, Oho)8 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 2, Reduced oil leakages and contamination due to fewer fitings. 3. Lower system installation time and costs 4, Reduced service time since faulty cartridge valves can be easily changed without disconnecting fitines. S. Smaller space requirements of overall system, ae Gt Piure¥-9. Soleo pert distin conracarige vles. (Courtesy af Paster Honnn Cop, Ei, Ohio)350 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. @ ey sei tow co ae ane Pater Manin Corp, Eis Oh valve, solenoid directional control valve, and flow control (proport shown in Figs. 8-53 through 8-56, respectively. Integrated hydraulics technology can provide easier instalation and servic- ing greater relia wed leakage, expanded design flexibility, and lighter, neater hydraulic packages for a variety of hydraulic applications, Figure 837 shows several manifold blocks superimposed on a symbolic hydraulic cicuit dia. ram to represent a complete integrated hydraulic system: 8.7 HYDRAULIC FUSES Figure 8-58(a) shows a schematic drawing of a hydraulic fuse, which is analogous to an electric fuse. It prevents hydraulic pressure from execeding an allowalsle value in order to protect circuit components from damage, When the hydraulic Pressure exceeds design value, the thin metal disk ruptures to relieve the pres Sure as il is drained back tothe ofl tank. After rupture, a new metal disk must be inserted before operation can be started again. Hytdraulic fuses are used mainly with pressure-compensated pumps for failsafe overload protection in ease the compensator control on the pump fails to operate, Figure 8-58) shows the sym bolic representation of a partial circuit consisting of a pressure-compensated ump and a hydraulic fuse. A hydraulic fuse is analogous to an electrical fuse because they both are one-shot devices. On the other hand, a pressure relief valve is analogous to an electrical circuit breaker because they both are resettable dovices,Sec. 87 Hydraulic Fuses 31 No Flow Conation “Trroted Flow Conon «+ Sytem posure ower ht + Sytem pes hs reached le vesting wae song + Poppa ested, hl paiion by “+ Pressure nas moves Poppe away spre rc. from Seat lowing Bow to pass rough wave. + Vii toting tow to marian ‘eta poser tt Fae tan, Cae ee ee ave (Corey of Parker Hai Core + Powis eked at ret,Contro! Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 No Flow Condon Ful Flow Conation + Poppetis hls on Sat by + Pressure on ine vate cates ree ‘png and poco aces ‘nas! Poppet + Powe locked. + Rovores ow tough valve i Bcked by Poppet | + Pressure cos reatarthan sping toc ing Poppet + Fw passes trough vive gare 484, Currie check vale (Courtesy of Parker Hann Corp Ei One)Sec. 87 Hydraulic Fuses 38a ARMATURE ARMATURE sPooL sP00L e ¥ 2 . Ful Flow Between Ports Cana 8 Full ow Between Ports Rand © «+ Arms, Pager and Spl re hed down» Ama, Png an Spoo ae held upward ‘bys ce. Dy alecromagnte reo Salen + Punger Spring extended bt under oson + Spring ie compressed + Powis blocked at Por A + Raw ie blocked a Pon C + ui owe tough va eer dest). + had tows tough vane [eer dreston). + Hoon p00 centri pat of ow pth, + Moto spoo centr pao ow path, gare 855, Carvige sleidc onl valve. (Cowes of Parker Honan (Cop Ei, OM)354 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 6 ARNATURE ARMATURE ro. =| e001 "No Flow Conation Regulated Flow Condition + Spot ane Amin ae he ane + spol an Armature ar pata own sion by spn oes bp locromagneti laces ot Solano + Flow sbockadin ear sect + Pusal ow paess rom it o Out * Inreasing 2 eecraasing pron of cut 1b Scena changes contoed tow + Hoow Spo! camer pat of ow path, gure #6. Corrie flow contro valv, (Contes of Parker Manni Corp, ea One) 8.8 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE SWITCHES A pressure switch i an instrument that automatically senses a change in pressure land opens or closes an electrical switching clement when a predetermined pres- sure point is reached. A pressure-sensing element is the portion of the pressure switch that moves due fo a change in pressure. There are f ‘elements, which produce the following four different models: 1, Diaphragm (see Fig. 8.59): This model ean operate fom vacuum pressures ‘up {0.150 psi. It has a weld-sealed diaphragm direet-acting ona snapraction switch,356 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. & gure 839. Diaphragm prenare sith, (Courtesy of Barksdale Co iol Las Angles, Calor) 2, Bourdon tbe (sce Fig. 8-60): This model can operate with pressures varying from $0 to 18,000 ps. It has a weld-sealed Bourdon tube acting on a snap action switch 3. Sealed piston (see Fig. 8-61): Tis model can operate with pressures from 1S to 12,000 psi, It has an O-ring sealed piston direc-acting on a snap-action swith, 4. Dia-seal piston (see Fig. 8-62): Tis model can operate with 0.S- to 1600-psi pressures It has a dia-seal piston directaeting ona snap-action switch. This, Sesign combines diaphragm accuracy with piston long lie and high:proot pressure tolerance gure 0. Hourdon be presse Figure 41. See pstn ree swich itch. (Cotes af Markdale Cots, (Cour of Bardo Comra a on Ansel, Califor) ‘anelen, California)7 gure #62. Din Sea! Paton presure Sch. Courtesy of Barksdale Contras os Angeles, California) ‘The electrical switching clement in a pressure switch opens or closes an lectical circuit in response to the actuating force it receives from the pressure- ‘sensing element, The designs shown use single-pole, double-throw snap-action ‘switches for maximum relibil ‘There are two types of switching clements: normally open (N.O.) and nor mally closed (N.C.). A normally open switch is one in which no current can flow through the switching element until the switch is actuated. In a normally open switch, plunger pin is held down by a snap-action leaf spring, and force must be applied to the plunger pinto close the circuit. Ina normally closed switch, current flows through the switching element until the switch is actuated. In a normally closed switch, a plunger pin is held down by a snap-action leaf spring and force ‘must be applied fo the plunger pin to open the circuit gure #48, Tempertre st (Courter of Baraaate Cont. Los Angee, California)Conteol Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. & Pressure switches have three electrical terminals identified: C (common), N.C. (normally closed), and N.0. (normally open). When wiring ina switch, only {wo terminals are used. The common terminal is always used, plus a second ferminal, either N.C. of N.O. depending on whether the switch isto operate as ‘normally open or normally closed switch, A temperature switch is an instrument that automatically senses a change in temperature and opens or closes an electrical switching element when a predeter ‘mined temperature point is reached. Figure 8-63 shows a temperature switch that has rated accuracy of °F maximum. This pasticular temperature switch incor. Porates a compensating device to cancel out the adverse elfects af ambient uct ations. At the top end is an adjustment screw to change the actuation pot. The threads near the bottom end are used to mount locally on the hydraulic system where the temperature is to be measured. AS in the ease of presse switches temperature switches can be wired either normally open of normally closed Applications of pressure and temperature switches are presented in Chapter 13, 8.9 SHOCK ABSORBERS A shock absorber s a device that brings a moving load toa gentle rest through the tse of metered hydraulic fuid. Figure 8-64 shows a shock absorber tha provide a uniform gentle deceleration of any moving lo From 25 to 25.080 bot ‘where the velocity and weight combination equals 3300 in-lb. Heavy-duty units are available with load capacities of over 11 millon ins. and strokes upto 20 The construction and operation of the shock absorber of Fig. 864 is des seribed as follows: ‘These shock absorbers are fled completely with oil, Therefore, they may be ‘mounted in any position or at any angle, The springteturn units are entirely set Migure 844, Shsk sbsorber. (Cor teh of E.GD. Ine, Glew, Mai)360 Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. @ STOPPING FORCE ‘CONVENTIONAL sNUBBER ‘aenpot? compression SPAN HANNA siOCK ABSORBER Figure B46. Sock suorbers crest norm topping fre (Courtesy of ‘contained, extremely compact types that require no external hoses, valves. or fittings. In this spring-eturned type a built-in cellular accumulator accommodates oil displaced by the piston rod as the rod moves inward. See Fig. 65 Tor & ‘cutaway view. Since the shock absorber is always filled with oil, there are no air pockets to eause spongy or erratic act ‘These shock absorbers are multipe-orfce hydraulic devices. The orifices may be fixed in size as they are in the standard and heavy-duty types or of adjustable size as they are in the adjustable types, When a moving load strikes the ‘bumper ofthe shock absorber, it sets the rod and piston in motion. The moving piston pushes ol through a series of holes from an inner high-pressure chamber to fan outer low-pressure chamber. The resistance to the oil ow caused by the holes (restrictions) creates a pressure that acts against the piston to oppose the moving load. Holes are spaced gure $67. Crane aplication of back aberbers. (Courter of E.GD. tne (lei, fii)See. 89 Shock Absorbers 261 ire H(t) Schematic of aslomative sock babe. Courtesy of Te ten Tne New York, New York) geometrically according to a proven formula that produces constant pressure on the side ofthe piston opposite the load (constant resisting force) from the begin- ning to nearly the end of the stroke. The piston progressively shuts off these orifices as the piston and rod move inward. Therefore, the total orifice area continually decreases and the load decelerates uniformly. At the end of the stroke the load comes to a gentle rest and pressure drops to zero gage pressure. This results in uniform deceleration and gentle stopping, with no bounce back. In bringing a moving load toa stop, the shock absorber converts work and kinetic energy into heat, which is dissipated to the surroundings or through a heat ex- changer. Figure 8-66 illustrates various methods of decelerating the same weight from the same velocity over the same distance. The area under each curve represents the energy absorbed. The snubber or dashpot produces a high peak force at the ‘beginning of the stroke; then the resistance is sharply reduced during the remain-Controt Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. @ dr ofthe stopping distance. The snubber, being a single-orifice device, produces ‘2 nonuniform deceleration, and the initial peak force can produce damaging stresses onthe moving lad und structural frame. Compression springs have low inital stopping force and build up toa peak atthe end of the stroke, The springs store the energy during compression oaly to return it later, causing bounce back ‘The rising force deflection curve requires a longer stroke to stay below a given ‘maximum deceleration force. Liguid springs rely onthe slight compressibility of the hydraulic fluid to stop load. The reaction of liquid springs similar to that of ‘a mechanical spring, ‘One application for shock absorbers is eneray dissipation of moving cranes, as illustrated in Fig 867. Shock absorbers prevent bounce back af the bridge or trolley and thus provide protection forthe operator, crane, and building structure Perhaps the most common application of shock absorbers is forthe suspen- sion systems of automobiles. Figure 8-68 isa schematic showing design details of such a shock absorber, whereas Fig, 869 provides a cutaway view of an actual design. As shown, he coi spring compression and the replenishing valve provide for smooth valve action and positive compression contol Fgwe 8. (en) Catovay view of atonative (Comnen of TerChop.8 Exercises 363 EXERCISES Questions, Concepts, and Definitions ‘84. What isthe purpose of a dtetionl contol valve? 182 What ia check valve, and what does it accomplish? 183, How does a pilot check vale differ from a simple check valve? ‘84 What i four-way directional contel valve? ‘85. What isa four-way, spring-cenered, thre positon valve? '86, Name thee ways in which directional contol valves may be actuate. {87. What fs. solenoid, and how does it work? |B8. What ste ference between an pen center and closed-enter typeof airectional sonirol valve? 129, What isu shutle valve? Name one application, 8:10, What sth purpose of a pressure relief valve? AL, What isa pressure-reducng valve, What sits purpose? 12, What docs an unloading valve accomplish? 8:13. What isa sequence valve? What sits purpose? $14. Name one aplication of counterbalance vale. 18, What isthe purpose of flow conta valve? 8:16, What isa pressurecompensated flow conro valve? 1817, Wht is servo valve? How docs work? 8:18. What the dierence between a mechanica-hydrulic and an electrohydraic servo valve? #19, Explain what is meant by « closed-loop system by drawing a block diagram, 820, What is hydraulic fuse? What electrical device is it analogous to? 821, What sa pressure switch? Name four pes. 822, What is temperature switch? 1823. Whats the dtference between a normally closed and normally open electri switch? 1824, What isthe purpose of a shock absorber? Name two applications £825, Explain how the pilot-operated check shown in Fg. 84 works. 826. Name one application for apiltoperated check valve ‘£27. Explain how the four-way directional contro valve of Fig. #-S operates. 828, Name two advantages of the shear-seal rotary directional cntrel valve as compared to the spoo ype 129, How doa simple pressure reli valve and a compound rei valve ile in ope 1830, How does an unloading valve difer from a sequence valve in mechanical eonstruc- {831, Explain the operational features ofthe pressure-compensted lw conrl valve of Fig 84 ‘32, Describe how the Bourdon tbe pressure switch of Fig. 8.60 operates.Control Components in Hydraulic Systems Chap. 8 £33, Discuss the constuction and operating features ofthe shock absorber of Fig. 8-64 {£34 How many positions docs 4 spring-offet valve have? 1835, How many positions does a spring-cenered valve have? 136, What are rotary valves, and how do they operate? 837, How ae solenoids most often used in valves? 1.38, Name 1wo ways of epuatng Now toa hydralic stator. 839. What is cracking pressure? 840, Where ar the ports ofa rll valve connected?” A841, Name the three basi functions of valves, 442, What isthe ference in function between a prssureelef valve and a hydraulic fuse? 848. Relative wo directional com and por, 44, What sa cartridge valve? ‘848, What is the diference between slpin and srewtype earrdge valves? ‘846, Name five benef of using carrie valves, ‘847. Name five different valve functions tht can be provided using cartridge valves 8.48, Roatve tothe use of carrdge valves, what are integrated hyravliccitcuts? ol valves, distinguish between the terms postion, way, Problems [Note:The letter following an exercise number means that English units are used. Simi= larly the letter M indeates metre nis Power Losses in Valves {B49E, A pressure relief valve has a pressure setting of 200 ps. Compute the horsepower loss across this valve fit returns all the ow back tthe tank from &2S-4pm pump, ‘BSOE. An unloading valve is used to unload the pump of Exercise #49. If the pump ‘ischarge pressre during unloading equals 0 Ps, how much hydraulic More. power fs being wasted ‘SEM, A pressure reli valve has a pressure setting of 140 ars, Compute the KW power Toss across this valve ii returns al the Aow ick t the tank from & 0.0016 ms pump. 852M. An unloading valve is used t0 unload the pump of Exercise 8-51. If the pump —ie}H] < Pigae 924. Alrover dl cetSec.8.18 Ai-Over-il intensifier System 389 into a surge tank via a directional control valve (upper flow path configuration). ‘Thus, the surge tank is pressurized by compressed ait. This pushes oil out the bottom of the surge tank and to the hydraulic evlinder through a check valve and ‘orifice hooked in parallel. This extends the eylinder to lia load. When the ‘irectional control valve is shifted into its lower flow path mode, the cylinder Fetracts at a controlled rate. This happens because the variable orifice provides x controlled return flow of oil as air leaves the surge tank and exhausts into the ‘imosphete via the directional control valve. The load can be stopped at any intermediate position by the spring-centered position of the directional contol valve. This system eliminates the need for a costly hydraulic pump and tank uni. 9.18 AIR-OVER-OIL INTENSIFIER SYSTEM In Fig. 9.25 we sce an airovercil circuit, which drives a eylinder over a large distance at low pressure and then over a small distance at high pressure. Shop ait ‘can be used to extend and retract the cylinder during the low-pressure portion of wo] + ar | =F T__]Hydraulle Circuit Design and Analysis Chap. 9 the eyele. The system operates as follows: Valve 1 extends and retracts the cylinder using shop air at approximately 80 psi. Valve 2 applies ar pressure to the top ead of the hydraulic intensifier. This produces high hydraulic pressure atthe bottom end ofthe intensifier. Actuation of valve I directs air to the approach tank ‘This forces ol at 80 psi through the bottom of the intensifier tothe blank end ofthe eylinder. When the cylinder experiences its load (such as the punching operation ina punch press), valve 2is actuated, which sends shop air 0 the top end of the intensifier. The high-pressure oil cannot return to the approach tank because this Portis blocked off by the downward motion of the intensifier piston. Thus, the cylinder receives high-pressure oil atthe blank end to overcome the load. When Valve 2is released, the shop air is blocked, and the top end of the intensifir is vented to the atmosphere, This terminates the high-pressure potion ofthe cycle. When valve 1 is released, the air in the approach tank is vented, and shop ai is directed to the return tank. This delivers oll at shop pressure to the rod end of the

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5822)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1093)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (852)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (610)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1717)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1105)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (898)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (349)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1025)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1867)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (822)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1948)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (403)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4771)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (809)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4208)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1903)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2522)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3973)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (880)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (105)