DESIGN OF BLAST RESISTANT STRUCTURES

A REPORT OF MINI PROJECT

Submitted by

Ateet Rai (171CV207)

Chetan Chavan (171CV209)

Prashanth V (171CV229)

Under the Guidance of,

Dr. Katta Venkataramana

Department of Civil Engineering, NITK Surathkal

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

Civil Engineering
At

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
Mangalore – 575025

November 2019
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA,
SURATHKAL
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “Design of blast resistant structures”
submitted to National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, is a bonafide record of work
done by Ateet Rai (171CV207), Chetan Chavan (171CV209), Prashanth V (171CV229) under
my supervision from 17th JULY 2019 to 11th of NOVEMBER 2019

…………………………..
Dr. Katta Venkataramana
Project Supervisor,
Faculty Advisor
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
 Acknowledgment

It’s not about just doing things it is about doing things the right way. We have tried to get a
glimpse of the working of “Design of blast resistant structures” and go higher on the
learning curve. This report is the result of work whereby, we have been accompanied and
supported by many people. It is a pleasant aspect that I have now the opportunity to express our
gratitude for all of them.

With immense pleasure, we express our sincere gratitude to our guides and mentors Dr. Katta

Venkataramana for their flawless guidance, invaluable suggestions and continuous

encouragement at all stages of our work mini project.

We are thankful to the lab technicians of Department of Civil Engineering for their co-operation
during the project.

Finally, we like to thank our parents, friends and the people who directly and indirectly helped us
for the successful completion of project.
 Abstract
The increase within the range of terrorist attacks particularly within the previous
few years has shown that the impact of blast masses on buildings could be a serious
matter that ought to be taken into thought within the style method. though these
styles of attacks area unit exceptional cases, semisynthetic disasters; blast masses
area unit indeed dynamic masses that require to be rigorously calculated similar to
earthquake and wind masses. The chance of attack is extremely little, security
measures shouldn't interfere with daily operations of the building. The goal is to
include some cheap measures within the coming up with & style stage to reinforce
safety of the persons within the building and facilitate rescue efforts within the event
of explosions or blast. With relevance explosive attacks, the main focus is on an
injury limiting or injury mitigating approach. relying upon the importance and
threat perceptions, blast resistant style ought to be finished structures like Embassy
offices, stock market, Multiplexes, area launching centers, organic compound
Industries, Nuclear Plants, Power stations etc.
In this paper try is created to spotlight the ways in which and suggests that to reduce
the injury through security measures, layout & facility coming up with, field coming
up with and use of correct materials.
 Contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................... 1

2. Types of weapons .............................................................................. 2

Vehicle weapon...................................................................................................................... 2
Hand driven weapon ............................................................................................................. 2
Types of explosives ................................................................................................................ 2

3. Damage Mechanism ......................................................................... 4

Direct air blast effect ............................................................................................................. 4
Progressive Collapse ............................................................................................................. 4
Blast response of structures .................................................................................................. 5

4. Design Principles of the Structures............................................... 10

Planning and layout ............................................................................................................ 10
Architectural aspect ............................................................................................................ 10
Glazing and Cladding ......................................................................................................... 10
Strengthening of material of construction ......................................................................... 12
Use of 3D Fibers .................................................................................................................. 12
Comparison between the straight steel fibres and the 3D fibres (an experiment) ............... 13
Results of experiment ........................................................................................................... 14
Conclusion from experiment ................................................................................................ 15
Use of hard and massive systems ......................................................................................... 15
Using Ultra High-Performance Concrete and Reactive powder concrete ........................... 16
Composition of Reactive Powder Concrete ......................................................................... 17
Blast resistant characteristics of ultra-high strength concrete and reactive powder ............ 18

5. Structural aspect of blast resistant design ................................... 19

Structural layout .................................................................................................................. 19
Structural aspect.................................................................................................................. 19
Hardening of the structure ................................................................................................. 20
Preventive measures. ........................................................................................................... 21

6. Components of the Structure ........................................................ 23

Roof System ......................................................................................................................... 23
Floor System ........................................................................................................................ 23
 Interior Wall ........................................................................................................................ 23
Windows and doors ............................................................................................................. 23

Case Study ........................................................................................... 26

Conclusion ........................................................................................... 28

References............................................................................................ 29
 1. Introduction

The objective of this study is to shed lightweight on blast resistant building style theories, the
improvement of building security against the consequences of explosives in each discipline and
structural style method and also the style techniques that ought to be meted out. Firstly, explosives
and explosion sorts are explained in short. additionally, the final aspects of explosion method are
bestowed to clarify the consequences of explosives on buildings. to possess a much better
understanding of explosives and characteristics of explosions can alter U.S.A. to create blast
resistant building style way more with efficiency. Essential techniques for increasing the
capability of a building to supply protection against explosive effects is mentioned each with
associate degree discipline and structural approach. harm to the assets, loss of life and social panic
are factors that got to be decreased if the threat of terrorist action cannot be stopped. coming up
with the structures to be absolutely blast resistant isn't a sensible and economical choice, but
current engineering associate degreed subject, fine arts, basic arts knowledge will enhance the
new and existing buildings to mitigate the consequences of an explosion.

1
 2. Types of weapons

Vehicle weapon
Vehicle bombs are able to deliver a sufficiently large quantity of explosives to cause potentially
devastating structural damage. Security design intended to limit or mitigate damage from a
vehicle bomb assumes that the bomb is detonated at a so-called critical location. The critical
location is a function of the site, the building layout, and the security measures in place. For a
vehicle bomb, the critical location is taken to be at the closest point that a vehicle can approach,
assuming that all security measures are in place.

Hand driven weapon

Another explosive attack threat is the small bomb that is hand delivered. Small weapons can cause
the greatest damage when brought into vulnerable, unsecured areas of the building interior,
such as the building lobby, mail room, and retail spaces. Recent events around the world make it
clear that there is an increased likelihood that bombs will be delivered by persons who are
willing to sacrifice their own lives.

Types of explosives
Description of explosives: High explosives are solid in form and are commonly termed
condensed explosives. TNT (trinitrotoluene) is the most widely known example. There are 3
kinds of explosions:

1. Unconfined explosions
2. Confined explosions
3. Explosions caused by explosives attached to the structure.

2
 Figure 2.1: Vehicle weapon

Figure 2.2: Hand Driven weapon

3
 3. Damage Mechanism

Direct air blast effect

Direct air-blast effects are damage caused by the high-intensity pressures of the air blast close to
the explosion.

Progressive Collapse
Progressive collapse refers to the spread of an initial local failure from element to element,
eventually resulting in a disproportionate extent of collapse relative to the zone of initial damage.

Figure 3.1: Progressive collapse

4
 Blast response of structures

Blast events bring about two concerns in building behavior. The first concern is the initial blast.
At the time the blast occurs, the loading of the blast and the pressure waves created can cause
extreme situations that were not considered in the design. The second concern is the building
behavior once the blast impulse subsides. After the initial impulse has passed, the dynamic
behavior of the building can also cause high levels of stress and strain as the building continues
to shake back and forth. In determining how to create blast resistant structures, the building
behavior during a blast must be taken into account. Duration of an explosion is typically between
0.1-0.001 seconds. This short amount of time is often much less than the natural period of the
building. During an explosion the blast wave initially creates an area of high pressure, followed
by a vacuum wave of negative pressure. However, the negative pressure can be ignored when
analyzing the blast effect as it has little effect on the maximum response of the structure. When
analyzing the response of the structure, it is crucial to know the properties of the building and the
predicted blast duration. The phase duration of the blast will be known as Tb and the natural
period of the building as Tn. If Tb is much longer than Tn, the building will produce a mostly
static response to the blast loading. In a static response, there is a force, a reaction and a
deformation. The blast essentially acts like a force that is slowly (with respect to the structure’s
natural vibration) applied along the structure. This means that the maximum building
displacement will have occurred before the blast phase is over. When this is the case, the response
of the building is dictated by the stiffness, elastic modulus and magnitude of the extreme load. A
building that has been designed with a large value of stiffness will experience less static
deformation. When Tb happens to be much shorter than Tn the loading is treated as an impulse
load. This causes the maximum displacement to occur after the blast has subsided and the
deformation will be determined through dynamic response calculation. If Tb happens to be almost
identical to Tn, large deformations, similar to those caused from earthquake loading, must be
taken into consideration. By analyzing these maximum dynamic responses, buildings can be
designed to sustain the maximum strains that result. During the blast the nonstructural elements
are also subjected to damage. As the initial pressure wave makes contact with the building facade,
windows usually shatter and the building’s walls and columns deflect under the immediate
pressure. When the blast intensity is too great, the walls and facade may suffer permanent
displacements as the strain causes plastic deformation, or even structural collapse. If the facade
does not remain intact during the blast, the pressure waves may cause upwards and downwards
pressure on the floor slabs and columns. These pressures may produce loading reversals that the

5
slabs and columns have not been designed for. Figure 3.2 shows a visual representation of the
uplift pressure and reverse loading. Floor slabs are typically designed with a downward gravity
loading in mind. This design approach calls for placing rebar to resist flexural bending. When the
moments change direction, the flexural reinforcement is no longer resisting the bending. This
reverse loading may cause shear cracking in the slabs. Perez reported that this case of reverse
loading was the cause for the structural collapse of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in
Oklahoma City.5 Figure 3.3 shows a computer simulated image of the Oklahoma City explosion.
As the pressure wave extends outwards, the glass windows become deadly as the fragmented
shards are projected both inwards and outwards. While the building may not collapse, a high
number of casualties may still result from nonstructural elements. Approximately two thirds of
non-fatal casualties in the Oklahoma City bombing were due to glass shards.6 Once the duration
of the pressure wave has passed, the building is still in danger of further damage. The blast
impulse has transferred its momentum to the building. The building responds by vibrating back
and forth freely, or oscillating, at its natural frequency. The building’s natural frequency, or the
time required to complete one oscillation, is a structural property that depends on the mass and
stiffness of a structure. Knowing the structural properties is essential in the calculation of
response. These dynamic or movement calculations can be complicated and are usually left to the
aid of finite element software. To model this behavior, engineers approximate the building by
assuming it behaves as a single degree of freedom mass-spring structure. Designing for dynamic
response makes blast response similar to earthquake design loads. A structure is typically
designed to resist lateral wind loads. Wind loads may be designed for 200 lb/ft2 but the pressure
wave of a blast event can produce loading of 7000 lb/ft2, a magnitude 35 times greater. Some
engineers may think that the blast load is a static force load that is applied to the building wall.
This incorrect assumption ignores the dynamic response of the building and may lead to an over-
designed lateral bracing system.8 Designing for blasts is thus often left to engineering firms that
specialize in these extreme loads. Progressive collapse, or the failure of one member, leads to the
progressive failure of subsequent members, and is a common failure mechanism for buildings
subjected to blasts. To prevent progressive collapse of the structure, a static design approach may
be used to provide additional integrity. One method involves additional reinforcement in the
flooring and roofs to allow those elements to span over lost structural elements and encounter
reverse loading.9 Another method determines the capacity of the structure when selected elements
are assumed to have failed during the blast. This method determines whether or not the remaining
structure has the strength to withstand the new loads and the new loading path.

6
Figure 3.2: Uplift pressure d

7
8
Figure 3.3: Blast Expansion

9
 4. Design Principles of the Structures

Planning and layout

Much can be done at the planning stage of a new building to reduce potential threats and the
associated risks of injury and damage. The risk of a terrorist attack, necessity of blast protection
for structural and non-structural members, adequate placing of shelter areas within a building
should be considered for instance. In relation to an external threat, the priority should be to
create as much stand-off distance between an external bomb and the building as possible. On
congested city centers there may be little or no scope for repositioning the building, but what
small stand-off thereis should be secured where possible. This can be achieved by strategic location
of obstructions such as bollards, trees and street furniture. Figure 4.1 shows a possible external
layout for blast safe planning. Provide a continuous line of defense around the site as far from the
building as practical. Place vehicular access points away from oncoming streets. Limit the number
of vehicular entrances through the secured perimeter line Use a series of landscape features to
create an obstacle course between the building and the perimeter. This approach is most effective if
used in areas where there is ample setback. Design planters for the design-level impact to displace
the planter a distance less than the setback. Use anti-ram barriers along curbs, particularly on
sides of the building that have a small setback and in areas where high-velocity impact is
possible. Use operable anti-ram barriers at vehicular access points. Select barriers rated to
provide the desired level of protection against the design impact.

Architectural aspect
Desirable structural forms Arches Domes Single story buildings, undesirable structural forms
Complex shapes Projecting roofs or floors U-shaped building multistory buildings

Glazing and Cladding

Glass from broken and shattered windows could be responsible for a large number of injuries
caused by an explosion in a City Centre. The choice of a safer glazing material is critical and it
has been found out that laminated glass is the most
effective in this context. On the other hand, applying transparent polyester anti-shatter film to the
inner surface of the glazing is as well an effective method. For the cladding, several aspects of
design should be considered to minimize the vulnerability of people within the building and

10
damage to the building itself. The amount of glazing in the facade should be minimized. This will
limit the amount of internal damage from the glazing and the amount of blast that can enter. It
should also be ensured that the cladding is fixed to the structure securely with easily accessible
fixings. This will allow rapid inspection after an explosion so that any failure or movement can
be detected.

Figure 4.1: Layout

11
 Strengthening of material of construction

Use of 3D Fibers

Researchers at Northumbria University have found a way to make concrete 78% more
protective against bomb blasts, potentially saving both military and civilian lives.

Dr Alan Richardson, Chairman of the UK Concrete Society and Associate Professor at the
university, says that 3D fibers will significantly lower injuries from an explosion by reducing
the amount of flying shrapnel that can cause fatal injuries. The majority of injuries caused from
bomb attacks are a result of fragmented building components energized by the blast wave;
therefore, it is vital to reduce fragmentation of concrete. Fiber reinforcement will reduce
fragmentation of concrete by increasing energy absorption

12
 Comparison between the straight steel fibres and the 3D fibres
(an experiment)

A three-point beam test was conducted on two batches of beams reinforced with straight steel and
3D fibres respectively, so that flexural strength, pull out value, post crack toughness could be
calculated and compared.

Materials

Fibre Reinforcement
The materials used as reinforcement for testing were as follows; (2D fibres) 50mm length,
0.889mm diameter high tensile steel straight fibres with offset ends, with a tensile strength of
1100Mpa, and (3D fibres) 230mm perimeter, 1.218mm diameter lap welded closed loop
chromium alloy steel 3D fibres, with a tensile strength of 650Mpa. A fibre dosage of 25kg per m³
was used for both types of fibre reinforcement

Concrete
The concrete used for the manufacture of test beams and cubes was a C35 characteristic design
strength at 28 days of curing time, with a 60mm slump. The cubes and beams were cured in a
water filled tank at 20°C with a Ph value of 10.2 to prevent leaching of the samples. The
dimensions of the cast specimens were 150mm cubes and 500mm x 100mm x 100mm beams.
Cubes were fixed into the Lloyds testing machine. The fibers clamped, and the cubes anchored,
as shown in Fig5. The machine was then operated to pull the fibers from the cube, with the point
of fiber pull out/or fiber failure being recorded, as well as the maximum load.

Fig5. Arrangement of Lloyds testing machine displaying pull out testing.

13
Concrete beams of dimensions 100mm x 100mm x 500mm were loaded into the test apparatus
in the arrangement shown in figure below. Testing was conducted in accordance with BS EN
12390-5:2000, with the distance between the two supporting rollers set at 300mm and the
Lloyds testing machine applied a rate of strain at 2.2mm/min. In order to determine flexural
strength of the beams, the load was applied to the beam until the occurrence of the first crack,
which was recorded. Loading continued to be applied to the point of total failure (peak load),
which was also be recorded. The process was repeated for all three-straight steel fiber
reinforced beams and all three-3D steel fibre reinforced concrete beams.

Results of experiment

Compressive strength

Cube Compressive Mean value Standard

strength deviation
1 42.2

Compressive 2 39.7 41 N/mm2 1.25

strength
3 41.1

14
 Flexural strength

Beam Flexural strength Mean value Standard

deviation
Straight 1 4.49

Flexural strength Straight 2 3.69 3.73 .70

3.08
Straight 3
3D 1 3.92

3D 2 4.11 4.50 .85

3D 3 5.48

Conclusion from experiment

3D-fibre reinforced samples proved to have a higher flexural strength, pull out value and post
crack toughness than straight steel samples

Use of hard and massive systems

Hard and massive systems work by being large and dense enough to withstand damage caused by
a blast. These systems are used by military engineers, and include the likes of HESCO, Alaska,
and Jersey barrier. However, these hard and massive systems are not a practical answer to
commercial buildings Keeping columns and beams strong even when they are stressed and bent.
This can be achieved by a property called ductility, and higher ductility could reduce the chances
of progressive collapse. Something else that engineers must consider is redundancy: That is, how
to design and build multiple reinforcements for beams and columns so the loss of, say, an exterior
column in an explosion doesn’t lead to the total collapse of a structure.

15
 Using Ultra High-Performance Concrete and Reactive powder
concrete

Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) in comparison to Normal Strength

Concrete (NSC) do not just offer excellent compressive strengths but also characterized by high
ductility and higher toughness which has prompted the researchers to explore the applicability
of UHPC in protective structures. Its mixture design is characterised by high cement content
and a very low water/cement ratio [5]. Eliminating coarse aggregates and optimising the particle
size gradation of its ingredients results in a high particle packing density and minimises non-
homogeneity. UHPC being a relatively new kind of concrete has been vigorously studied in
recent days for possible applications.

Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) is an ultra-high-strength and high ductility cementitious

composite with advanced mechanical and physical properties. It consists of a special concrete
where the microstructure is optimized by precise gradation of all particles in the mix to yield
maximum density. It uses extensively the pozzolanic properties of highly refined silica fume and
optimization of the Portland cement chemistry to produce the highest strength hydrates the
concept of reactive powder concrete was first developed by P. Richard and M. Cheyrezy and RPC
was first produced in the early 1990s by researchers at Bouygues’ laboratory in France. A field
application of RPC was done on the Pedestrian/Bikeway Bridge in the city of Sherbrooke,
Quebec, Canada3. RPC was nominated for the 1999 Nova Awards from the Construction
Innovation Forum. RPC has been used successfully for isolation and containment of nuclear
wastes in Europe due to its excellent impermeability.

16
 Composition of Reactive Powder Concrete

RPC is composed of very fine powders (cement, sand, quartz powder and silica fume), steel
fibres (optional) and super plasticizer. The super plasticizer, used at its optimal dosage,
decreases the water to cement ratio (w/c) while improving the workability of the concrete. A
very dense matrix is achieved by optimizing the granular packing of the dry fine powders. This
compactness gives RPC ultra-high strength and durability. Reactive Powder Concretes have
compressive strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 800 MPa.
The blast-resistant capacities of UHSC and RPC (reaction powder concrete) were experimentally
evaluated to determine the possibility of using UHSC and RPC in concrete structures susceptible
to terrorist attacks or accidental impacts. Slump flow, compressive strength, split tensile strength,
elastic modulus, and flexure strength tests were carried out. In addition, ANFO blast tests were
performed on reinforced UHSC and RPC panels. Incidental and reflected pressures, as well as
maximum and residual displacements and the strains of rebar and concrete were measured. Blast
damage and failure modes of the reinforced panel specimens were recorded. Results showed that
UHSC and RPC have better blast explosion resistance than normal strength concrete.
Average compressive strength and elastic modulus test results

17
 Blast resistant characteristics of ultra-high strength concrete and
reactive powder

1. The Compressive strength, split tensile strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio
values of UHSC and RPC are3.0–7.9 fold higher than the corresponding NSC values. The
Poisson’s ratio of UHSC is 1.2-fold greater than that of RPC because of the short steel
fibres used in RPC. RPC has a higher split tensile strength than UHSC because of the
crack-controlling effect of the short steel fibres.

2. The blast-resistant capacities of UHSC and RPC were verified by blast tests using a 15.88
kg ANFO charge with a 1.5 m standoff distance, applying a blast load. Deflection, strain,
and accelerometer measurements from the blast tests revealed that UHSC and RPC panel
specimens have higher blast-resistant capacities than NSC specimens.

3. Rebar and short steel fibers used in the UHSC and RPC specimens, respectively, negate
the brittle material characteristics of UHSC and RPC members, provide sufficient
ductility, and confer outstanding energy absorption and crack controlling capacities to
these materials.

18
 5. Structural aspect of blast resistant design

Structural layout
In frame structures, column spacing should be limited. Large column spacing decreases
likelihood that the structure will be able to redistribute load in event of column failure. The
exterior bay is the most vulnerable to damage, particularly for buildings that are close to public
streets. It is also less capable of redistributing loads in the event of member loss, since two-
way load distribution is not possible. It is desirable to have a shallow bay adjacent to the
building exterior to limit the extent of damage. Use of transfer girders is strongly discouraged.
Loss of a transfer girder or one of its supports can destabilize a significant area of the building.
Transfer girders are often found at the vulnerability to air-blast effects. It is highly desirable to
add redundant transfer systems where transfer girders are required. In bearing-wall systems that
rely primarily on interior cross-walls, interior longitudinal walls should be periodically spaced to
enhance stability and to control the lateral progression of damage. In bearing-wall systems that
rely on exterior walls, perpendicular walls or substantial pilasters should be provided at a regular
spacing to control the amount of wall that is likely to be affected.

Structural aspect
Exterior Frame There are two primary considerations for the exterior frame. The first is to
design the exterior columns to resist the direct effects of the specified threats . The second is to
ensure that the exterior frame has sufficient structural integrity to accept localized failure
without initiating progressive collapse. For a package weapon, column breach is a major
consideration. Some suggestions for mitigating this concern are listed below. Do not use exposed
columns that are fully or partially accessible from the building exterior. Arcade columns should
be avoided. Use an architectural covering that is at least six inches from the structural member.
This will make it considerably more difficult to place a weapon directly against the structure.
Because explosive pressures decay so rapidly, every inch of distance will help to protect the
column.

19
 Hardening of the structure
The next principle in structural blast design is to harden the structure in the case that a blast does
take place. The main way to harden a structure is to design the structure with a lot of ductility
integrated thought-out the system. Explosions generate an enormous amount of energy and the
role of the structures ductility I to absorb this energy. As a result, steel and reinforced concrete
are the best materials to use in a blast resistant structure. Other structural concerns include how
the floors are attached to the rest of the structural frame. Floors need to be securely tied to the
frame and be able to withstand stresses in the direction opposite the normal gravity loads.
Explosion cause a strong uplift reassure that can dislodge floors from their supports if they are not
tied securely. Floors many times work as a diaphragm that carries lateral load in a structure, as
a result, if the floor is removed from the rest of the structural system progressive collapse can
ensue. Glazing is a major concern when hardening a building. Because normal glass is a brittle
material it has almost no chance of remaining intact during an explosion. Secondary injuries
and damages due to shards of glass flying at high speeds though the air can be very severe and
are usually very frequent. There are several techniques for increasing the blast resistance of
glazing these techniques in combination with dynamic design of the structural frame can greatly
increase the performance of glazing in an explosion.
These techniques include:

1.Using blast resistant glass.

2. Applying polyester anti shatter film to the inside surface of the glass.
3. Installing bomb blast net curtains inside of the glass (to prevent the shards from entering the
interior of the building).
4. Installing blast resistant glazing inside the existing exterior glazing.

In order to further protect the occupants of a building it is important to design the building so
that it is at least three bays wide. This provides space so that in the case of an explosion people
can move away from the exterior of a building. Also, the center area of the structure should be
designed as a concrete core. This concrete core can be designed as a hardened area that can be
used as protected space for the building occupants. In addition to all of these design techniques
Eytan has developed a method of hardening a structure in layers. Hardening structure inner
layers is effective because it ensures that the failure of one hardening layer will not lead to the
catastrophic failure of the structure due to redundancy of the protective systems. The first
hardening layer is the layer furthers away from the structure. The role of this layer is to prevent
terrorists forced entry into building (like a vehicle crashing into the building), and to protect the
20
rest of the structure from a large explosion outside of the building. The second layer is the
envelope of the external structural system. The role of this layer is to prevent terrorists forced
entry further into the building. It should shield the rest of the building from the building from
flying debris and shrapnel from a bomb. In addition, it should protect main structural elements
from close range explosions. And, of course it should further protect the structure from the
pressure wave created by a bomb outside of the building. The third layer is the layer that protects
the internal structural system. This layer needs to protect the building from all of the things that
the second layer is designed to protect. In addition, this layer must be able to protect the structure
from explosions donated inside of the structure.

Preventive measures.

The first step in making a building blast resistant is to try to prevent a terrorist attack from
occurring in the first place. This can be accomplished by making terrorists attack from occurring
in the first place. This can be accomplished by making a terrorist’s job as difficult as possible.
There isles of a chance of a terrorist targeting a building if he feels that the chance of success
is small (Mays and Smith, 1995). Preventing access into the building is the first way to deter a
terrorist. Heavy security as well as physical barriers can make entering a building difficult.
Also, if space allows, spreading out a complex makes an effective terrorist attack more difficult
to execute. A bomb in one location will have less overall effect on a building if all of the building,
assets are spread out (Mays and smith, 1995). This strategy is only effective for building that is
not set in the middle of the city and can afford to expand outwards. In addition, sites that could
be possible terrorist targets such as intelligence or defense building should be kept anonymous if
possible (Mays and Smith. 1995). The next thing to consider is how to disguise the critical parts
of a building. If the energy from a bomb is wasted on an unimportant part of the building the
consequences of an attack can be much less severe (Mays and Smith, 1995). It is important to
prevent the placement of explosives near sensitive structural members. Ways of accomplishing
this include hiding columns and other important structural members, especially near the ground
floors of a building where the structural members are the most critical (Eytan, 2003). By using
tinted glass, you can hide the exact structural system from outside viewers as well. One of the
most important principles with blast design is to keep a large standoff distance between the
building and the potential blast. The strength of a blast decreases in relation to the cube of the
standoff distance from the explosion, this indicates that as l you get farther away from the blast

21
the intensity of the peak pressure dies off substantially. Smith and Hetherington illustrate this by
saying that keeping vehicle bombs away from your structure is probably the sing, most cost-
effective device you can employ.

Figure 5.1: Connections

22
 6. Components of the Structure

Roof System
The primary loading on the roof is the downward air-blast pressure. The preferred system is
cast-in-place reinforced concrete with beams in two directions. If this system is used, beams
should have continuous top and bottom reinforcement with tension lap splices. Stirrups to
develop the bending capacity of the beams closely spaced along the entire span are
recommended.

Floor System
The floor system design should consider three possible scenarios: air- Blast loading
Redistributing load in the event of loss of a column or wall support below the ability to arrest
debris falling from the floor or roof above.

Interior Wall
Interior walls surrounding unsecured spaces are designed to contain the explosive effects within
the unsecured areas. Ideally, unsecured areas are located adjacent to the building exterior so that
the explosive pressure may be vented outward as well. Interior walls can also be effective in
resisting progressive collapse if they are designed properly with sufficient load-bearing capacity
and are tied into the floor systems below and above.

Windows and doors

Balanced or capacity design philosophy means that the glass is designed to be no stronger than the
weakest part of the overall window system, failing at pressure levels that do not exceed those of
the frame, anchorage, and supporting wall system. There are two general recommendations for
doors. Doors should open outward so that they bear against the jamb during the positive-
pressure phase of the air-blast loading. Door jambs can be filled with concrete to improve their
resistance.

23
Figure 6.1: Roof

Figure 6.2: Floor

24
 Figure 6.3: Interior wall

Figure 6.4: Window frame

Figure 6.5: Windows

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 Case Study

Over the course of its history, Israel has adapted military blast design to blast design to be used as a part of
civilian structures. Israel’s methods for integrating blast protection into its society can be used as an
example for the rest of the world as it is increasingly subjected to more security threats. When the state
was founded in 1948, Israel had already constructed underground shelters across the country .
Underground shelters were the first forms of civilian blast protection because one of the most effective
methods of providing protection for a structure is to bury it (Smith and Hetherington). Underground bomb
shelters do have some benefits; they are generally larger than what could be provided for inside of a building
so they are more comfortable for long periods of time. In addition , when the shelters were not in use they
could be used for recreational purposes (Einstein). Many shelters were turned into libraries and meeting places
for youth groups . These underground shelters became a part of Israeli culture. In the 1970s civilians in Israel
were being threatened along its border with Lebanon. Katusha rockets were being launched over the
Lebanese border into the Israeli cities on the other side, and Israel needed to provide its citizens with
protection from the attacks. Throughout northern Israel rooms designed to protect a buildings inhabitant from
an explosion were included in most homes as well as schools and public buildings (Sandler). This was the
beginning of the transition from underground shelters, separate from the buildings. To shelters integrated
into daily structures. The biggest change in Israel’s policy toward protecting its citizens came in 1991 with
the Gulf war. Saddam Hussein threatened Israel with Scud missiles and this not only increased the treat
due to explosions, but also introduced the strong possibility of bio-chemical threats. People were now
required to have protected spaces within every home, office, and public space. The windows had to be able
to be sealed around the edges, and doors would have a wet towel placed at the bottom. The room also had
to be blast proof so that in an attack cracked walls and windows would not allow poisonous gas to seep
in. New building requirements to have these protected spaces in all civilian structures, and how to design these
spaces were developed and known as Haga requirements (Einstein). These regulations were fully integrated into
the Israeli building code and continue to be maintained in order to protect Israeli civilians. While the
regulations being put into the building code was instigated by a need to provide protection against chemical
warfare , the importance of regulating the integration of protected spaces into buildings remains and extend
into blast protection. Protecting a building from explosions is now an integral part of a buildings design
out security risks while preserving the essence of the design (Einstein). Israeli society cannot have all of its
buildings feel like concrete fortified structures even if they rely are examples of Israeli blast designed
structures, versus the current blast designed structures in the United States. Since September 11, 2001 and the
destruction of the World Trade Centre due to terrorism, it has become apparent that the U.S. must also
change its approach to protecting its citizens from explosions. Israel has successfully integrated blast
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protection into its society and buildings as a result of years of terror and threats. By making blast protection
a permanent part of the building code professionals has been forced to come up with new ways of designing
building s that protect their inhabitants but still maintain people’s quality of life (Einstein). Because of the
increased and continuing threat to the United States it is clear that structural engineers here too will have
to make blast design an integral part of all structures. The more this mentality is put into practice the sooner
blast design will be able to coexist with current structural design consideration such as architecture,
sustainability, usability, and economics.

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 Conclusion

The aim in blast resistant building design is to prevent the overall collapse of the building and fatal damages.
Despite the fact that, the magnitude of the explosion and the loads caused by it cannot be anticipated
perfectly, the most possible scenarios will let to find the necessary engineering and architectural solutions
for it. In the design process it is vital to determine the potential danger and the extent of this danger. Most
importantly human safety should be provided. Moreover, to achieve functional continuity after an
explosion, architectural and structural factors should be taken into account in the design process, and an
optimum building plan should be put together. This study is motivated from making buildings in a blast
resistant way, pioneering to put the necessary regulations into practice for preventing human and structural loss
due to the blast and other human- sourced hazards and creating a common sense about the explosions that they
are possible threats in daily life. In this context, architectural and structural design of buildings should be
specially considered. During the architectural design, the behavior under extreme compression loading of
the structural form, structural elements e.g. walls, flooring and secondary structural elements like cladding
and glazing should be considered carefully. In conventional design, all structural elements are designed to
resist the structural loads. But it should be remembered that, blast loads are unpredictable, instantaneous
and extreme. Therefore, it is obvious that a building will receive less damage with a selected safety level and
a blast resistant architectural design. On the other hand, these kinds of buildings will less attract the terrorist
attacks. Structural design after an environmental and architectural blast resistant design, as well stands for a
great importance to prevent the overall collapse of a building. With correct selection of the structural
system, well designed beam-column connections, structural elements designed adequately, moment frames that
transfer sufficient load and high-quality material; it’s possible to build a blast resistant building. Every
single member should be designed to bear the possible blast loading. For the existing structures, retrofitting
of the structural elements might be essential. Although these precautions will increase the cost of
construction, to protect special buildings with terrorist attack risk like embassies, federal buildings or trade
centers is unquestionable.

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 References

[1] Koccaz Z. (2004) Blast Resistant Building Design, MSc Thesis, Istanbul Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey.

[2] Yandzio E., Gough M. (1999). Protection of Buildings Against Explosions, SCI
Publication, Berkshire, U.K.

[3] Hill J.A., Courtney M.A. (1995). The structural Engineers Response to Explosion
Damage. The Institution of Structural Engineers Report, SETO Ltd, London.

[4] Mays G.C., Smith P.D. (1995). Blast Effects on Buildings, Thomas Telford Publications,
Heron Quay, London.

[5] http://eng-resources.uncc.edu

[6] https://preserve.lehigh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=cas-lehighreview-
vol-22

[7] Hill J.A., Courtney M.A. (1995). The structural Engineer’s Response to Explosion
Damage. The Institution of Structural Engineer’s Report, SETO Ltd, London.

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