1.

3 - Energy + Equilibria

Ecosystems are dynamic interrelated collections of living and non-living components

organized in self-regulating units. An ecosystem is a unit because it has boundaries and can
be distinguished from its surroundings. The living and nonliving components affect each
other in complex exchanges of energy, nutrients and wastes. It is these dynamic exchanges,
both fast and slow, which provide ecosystems with their distinct identities. The characteristic
exchanges within an ecosystem are called ecosystem functions and in addition to energy
and nutrient exchanges, involve decomposition and production of biomass. The complex
interdependencies which develop within or among ecosystems often create emergent
properties, or characteristics that cannot be predicted from the component parts alone.

Open systems tend to exist in a state of balance or equilibrium. Equilibrium is important for a
system as it avoids sudden changes in a system. However, this does not mean that all
systems are none changing. If change exists it tends to exist between certain parameters.
Equilibrium states in two ways state and steady.

Static Equilibrium is a system in a steady state because the inputs and outputs that affect it
approximately balance over a long period of time.

1st Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, only changes forms.
This is the principle of conservation of energy, Energy in an isolated system can be
transformed but cannot be created or destroyed.
 Ex: solar radiation -> sugars -> chemical energy -> chemical energy again

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
i.e. in an isolated system, the total energy before transformation is equal to the total energy
transformation. Energy can only be changed from one form to another. Energy for the
functioning of an ecosystem comes from the Sun. Solar energy is absorbed by plants where
it is converted to stored chemical energy.

2nd law of Thermodynamics: states that whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss of
energy through the release of heat.

Entropy of a system increases overtime. Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder

in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy
available to do work.
  Living systems are only maintained through constant input of new energy from the
Sun
 Entropy is simply a quantitative measure of what the second law of thermodynamics
describes: the dispersal of energy in a process in our material world

As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a

steady state equilibrium or in one developing over time (for example Succession), and
maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.
 Steady-state: in open systems, continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter,
system as a whole remains in a constant state, no long term changes. There may be
oscillations in the very short term.
 Static: no change over time; when the state of equilibrium is distributed, the system
adapts a new equilibrium; can’t occur in living systems
 Stable: the system returns to the same equilibrium after disturbances
 Unstable: system returns to a new equilibrium after disturbances

Ecosystem feedback is the effect that change in one part of an ecosystem has on another
and how this effect then feeds back to effect the source of the change inducing more or less
of it. These feedback loops form the basic dynamics for regulating the state of the
ecosystem.

Negative-feedback mechanisms control the state of the system by dampening or reducing

the size of the system's elements or attributes. Positive-feedback mechanisms feed or
increase the size of one or more of the system's elements or attributes over time.

Negative (stabilizing): tends to neutralize or counteract any deviation from an equilibrium and
tends to stabilize systems. The systems gets better or goes back to normal.

Resistance to drastic changes and thus stability in natural ecosystems are maintained in part
by negative feedback systems. These are familiar to you through considering the system
that regulates the heat in your home. When the temperature in your house decreases below
some set point, the thermostat that senses temperature is activated to send a "turn on"
message to your furnace. Then, once the temperature rises above another set point, the
thermostat sends a message to the furnace, telling it to shut off. Thus, the temperature in
your house is maintained within bounds. This illustrates a negative feedback system.
Negative feedback systems act to maintain homeostasis within systems; that is, to keep
them in a reasonably constant state.
Positive (destabilizing): results in a further decrease of output and the system is destabilized
and pushed into a new state of equilibrium. The situation gets worse.

Positive feedback stimulates change and it is responsible for the sudden appearance of
rapid changes within ecosystems. When part of the system increases, another part of the
system also changes in a way that makes the first part increase even more. Positive
feedback is a source of instability and change as it can drive the system outside of its
equilibrium. As an example more population leads to more births, and more births lead to an
increasing population creating a compounding effect over time.

Resilience is the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance
High resilience = return to equilibrium
Low resilience = enter a new state/equilibrium
Resilience is usually good but can be bad

A tipping point is a critical threshold when even a small change can have dramatic effects
and cause a disproportionately large response in the overall system. Positive feedback loops
are destabilizing and tend to amplify changes and drive the system towards a tipping point
where a new equilibrium is adopted. Most projected tipping points are linked to climate
change and represent points beyond which irreversible change or damage occurs.
Increases in CO2 levels that would lead to increased global mean temperature, causing
melting of the ice sheets and permafrost. Reaching such a tipping would, for example, cause
long-term damage to societies, the melting of Himalayan mountain glaciers, and a lack of
freshwater in many Asian societies.

Positive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system
towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted. A tipping point is the minimum
amount of change within a system that will destabilize it, causing it to reach a new
equilibrium or stable state.

Systems at threat from tipping points include:

 West African monsoon
 Amazon rainforest
 Boreal Forest.

The resilience of a system will depend on its structure:

 The more diverse/complex an ecosystem, the more resilient it tends to be (more
interactions between species). The greater the species biodiversity of an ecosystem,
 the greater the likelihood there is a species that can replace another if it dies (to
maintain equilibrium).
 The greater the genetic diversity within a species, the greater resilience. A
monoculture of wheat or rice can be wiped out by disease if none of the plants have
genetic resistance.
 Species that can shift geographic ranges are more resilient.
 The climate affects resilience. In the Arctic, regeneration/growth of plants is slow (low
temps slow down photosynthesis/cell respiration). In tropical rainforests, growth rates
are fast (light, temp, water are not limiting factors).
 The faster the rate at which a species can reproduce means recovery is faster. r-
strategists (fast reproductive rate) can recolonize the system better than K-strategists
(slow reproducers).

Humans can remove or mitigate threats to the system (pollution, invasive species) –
resulting in faster recovery. Humans can reduce the size of storages by harvesting wood,
fish and other natural resources. Humans can also reduce diversity by species extinction
which leads to less resilience.

Within limits an ecosystem can recover and re-establish its equilibrium. When the
disturbance is too great the ecosystem reaches a tipping point. The critical point in a
situation, process, or system behold which a significant and often unstoppable effect or
change takes place. Past the tipping point the ecosystem can't re-establish its equilibrium.
Positive feedback pushes the ecosystem to a new equilibrium where there are significant
changes to biodiversity and services it provides.

Q1) Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems.

A1) Two thermodynamic laws govern the flow of energy within ecological systems. The first
law states that energy can be transformed from one form to another (e.g. conversion of solar
energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis), but cannot be created or destroyed. The
second law establishes that energy transformation processes are not 100% efficient. These
laws dictate that a large proportion of the chemical energy, approximately 90%, transferred
between feeding (trophic) levels within a system is converted to heat energy which is of
limited value to the biotic portion of the system. The energy "loss" between feeding levels
results from an inefficient transfer of organic matter (e.g. gaseous, urinary and fecal losses)
and the energy required for internal maintenance of organisms (i.e. maintenance energy).
For example, only a portion of the solar energy converted into chemical energy by
photosynthesis is realized as growth because a portion is utilized in respiration. Similarly,
animals utilize a large portion of the total energy ingested for basal metabolism thereby
diminishing the amount of energy available for growth or transfer to subsequent feeding
levels within the system.

Q2) Discuss the resilience in a variety of systems

A2) Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a disturbance. Resilience is

usually defined as the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance without shifting to an
alternative state and losing function and services. Disturbances can include fires, flooding,
windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as deforestation,
fracking of the ground for oil extraction, pesticide sprayed in soil, and the introduction of
exotic plant or animal species.

Some disturbances can significantly affect an ecosystem and can cause an ecosystem to
reach a threshold beyond which some species can not recover. Human activities that
adversely affect ecosystem resilience such as reduction of biodiversity, exploitation of
natural resources, pollution, land-use, and anthropogenic climate change are increasingly
causing changes in ecosystems, often to less desirable conditions.

Q3) Evaluate the possible consequences of tipping points

A3) The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such
tipping points and maintains stability. A tipping point is the minimum amount of change within
a system that will destabilize it, causing it to reach a new equilibrium or stable state.

An environmental tipping point is a part of the human-environment system that can lever far-
reaching change in the system. A change at the tipping point sets in motion mutually
reinforcing feedback loops that propel the system on a completely new course.

The delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to the
complexity of modelling systems.