CHAPTER 8

T Tests

A number of t tests are available, including:

The One-Sample T Test
The Paired-Samples Test
The Independent-Samples T Test

8.1. One-Sample T Test

The One-Sample T Test procedure:
Tests the difference between a sample mean and a known or
hypothesized value
Allows you to specify the level of confidence for the difference
Produces a table of descriptive statistics for each test variable

8.1.1. A Production-Line Problem

A manufacturer of high-performance automobiles produces disc brakes
that must measure 322 millimeters in diameter. Quality control randomly
draws 16 discs made by each of eight production machines and
measures their diameters.
This example uses the file brakes.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information. Use One Sample T Test to determine whether or not
the mean diameters of the brakes in each sample significantly differ from
322 millimeters.
A nominal variable, Machine Number, identifies the production machine
used to make the disc brake. Because the data from each machine must
be tested as a separate sample, the file must first be split into groups
byMachine Number.

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8.1.1.1. Treating Each Machine as a Separate Sample
To split the file, from the Data Editor menus choose:
Data > Split File...
Figure 101 Split File dialog box

1. Select Compare groups.

2. Select Machine Number.
3. Click OK.

8.1.1.2. Testing Sample Means against a Known Value

To begin the one-sample t test, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > One-Sample T Test...
Figure 102 One-Sample T Test dialog box

1. Select Disc Brake Diameter (mm) as the test variable.

2. Type 322 as the test value.
3. Click Options.

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 Figure 103 One-Sample T Test Options dialog box

4. Type 90 as the confidence interval percentage.

5. Click Continue.
6. Click OK in the One-Sample T Test dialog box.

8.1.1.3. Descriptive Statistics

Figure 104 Descriptive statistics, by Machine Number

The Descriptives table displays the sample size, mean, standard

deviation, and standard error for each of the eight samples. The sample
means disperse around the 322mm standard by what appears to be a
small amount of variation.

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8.1.1.4. Test Results
Figure 105 Test statistics, by Machine Number

The test statistic table shows the results of the one-sample t test.
The t column displays the observed t statistic for each sample,
calculated as the ratio of the mean difference divided by the
standard error of the sample mean.
The df column displays degrees of freedom. In this case, this
equals the number of cases in each group minus 1.
The column labeled Sig. (2-tailed) displays a probability from the t
distribution with 15 degrees of freedom. The value listed is the
probability of obtaining an absolute value greater than or equal to
the observed t statistic, if the difference between the sample mean
and the test value is purely random.
The Mean Difference is obtained by subtracting the test value (322
in this example) from each sample mean.
The 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference provides an estimate
of the boundaries between which the true mean difference lies in
90% of all possible random samples of 16 disc brakes produced by
this machine.

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Since their confidence intervals lie entirely above 0.0, you can safely say
that machines 2, 5 and 7 are producing discs that are significantly wider
than 322mm on the average. Similarly, because its confidence interval
lies entirely below 0.0, machine 4 is producing discs that are not wide
enough.

8.1.2. Summary
The one-sample t test can be used whenever sample means must be
compared to a known test value. As with all t tests, the one-sample t test
assumes that the data be reasonably normally distributed, especially with
respect to skewness. Extreme or outlying values should be carefully
checked; boxplots are very handy for this.

8.2. Paired-Samples T Test

One of the most common experimental designs is the "pre-post" design.
A study of this type often consists of two measurements taken on the
same subject, one before and one after the introduction of a treatment or
a stimulus. The basic idea is simple. If the treatment had no effect, the
average difference between the measurements is equal to 0 and the null
hypothesis holds. On the other hand, if the treatment did have an effect
(intended or unintended!), the average difference is not 0 and the null
hypothesis is rejected.
The Paired-Samples T Test procedure is used to test the hypothesis of
no difference between two variables. The data may consist of two
measurements taken on the same subject or one measurement taken on
a matched pair of subjects.
Additionally, the procedure produces:
Descriptive statistics for each test variable
The Pearson correlation between each pair and its significance

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 A confidence interval for the average difference (95% or a value you
specify)

8.2.1. Does Diet Make a Difference?

A physician is evaluating a new diet for her patients with a family history
of heart disease. To test the effectiveness of this diet, 16 patients are
placed on the diet for 6 months. Their weights and triglyceride levels are
measured before and after the study, and the physician wants to know if
either set of measurements has changed.
This example uses the file dietstudy.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information. Use Paired-Samples T Test to determine whether
there is a statistically significant difference between the pre- and post-
diet weights and triglyceride levels of these patients.

8.2.1.1. Running the Analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > Paired-Samples T Test...
Figure 106 Paired-Samples T Test dialog box

1. Select Triglyceride and Final Triglyceride as the first set of paired

variables.
2. Select Weight and Final Weight as the second pair.
3. Click OK.

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8.2.1.2. Descriptive Statistics
The Descriptives table displays the mean, sample size, standard
deviation, and standard error for both groups.
Across all 16 subjects, triglyceride levels dropped between 14 and 15
points on average after 6 months of the new diet.
The subjects clearly lost weight over the course of the study; on average,
about 8 pounds.
The standard deviations for pre- and post-diet measurements reveal that
subjects were more variable with respect to weight than to triglyceride
levels.

8.2.1.3. Pearson Correlations

At -0.286, the correlation between the baseline and six-month
triglyceride levels is not statistically significant. Levels were lower
overall, but the change was inconsistent across subjects. Several
lowered their levels, but several others either did not change or
increased their levels.
On the other hand, the Pearson correlation between the baseline and
six-month weight measurements is 0.996, almost a perfect correlation.
Unlike the triglyceride levels, all subjects lost weight and did so quite
consistently.

8.2.1.4. Paired Test Table

Figure 107 Paired-samples t table

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 The Mean column in the paired-samples t test table displays the
average difference between triglyceride and weight measurements
before the diet and six months into the diet.
The Std. Deviation column displays the standard deviation of the
average difference score.
The Std. Error Mean column provides an index of the variability one
can expect in repeated random samples of 16 patients similar to the
ones in this study.
The 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference provides an estimate of
the boundaries between which the true mean difference lies in 95% of
all possible random samples of 16 patients similar to the ones
participating in this study.
The t statistic is obtained by dividing the mean difference by its
standard error.
The Sig. (2-tailed) column displays the probability of obtaining
a t statistic whose absolute value is equal to or greater than the
obtained t statistic.
Since the significance value for change in weight is less than 0.05, you
can conclude that the average loss of 8.06 pounds per patient is not due
to chance variation, and can be attributed to the diet. However, the
significance value greater than 0.10 for change in triglyceride level
shows the diet did not significantly reduce their triglyceride levels.

8.2.2. Summary
The paired-samples t test is appropriate whenever two related sample
means are to be compared. The difference scores are assumed to follow
a reasonably normal distribution, especially with respect to skewness.
Before running the t test, you can assess the distribution of difference
scores by examining the histogram of a computed difference variable.

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Test variables with extreme or outlying values should be carefully
checked; boxplots can be used for this.
If you compute the difference between the paired variables, you can
alternatively use the One-Sample T Test procedure.

8.3. Independent-Samples T Test

The Independent-Samples T Test procedure tests the significance of the
difference between two sample means. Also displayed are:
Descriptive statistics for each test variable
A test of variance equality
A confidence interval for the difference between the two variables
(95% or a value you specify)

8.3.1. Determining the Groups in an Independent-Samples T Test

Usually, the groups in a two-sample t test are fixed by design, and the
grouping variable has one value for each group. However, there are
times when assignment to one of two groups can be made on the basis
of an existing scale variable. For example, consider math and verbal test
scores. You would like to perform a t test on verbal scores, using the
students above and below a given cutoff score on the math as the
independent groups. With the Independent-Samples T Test procedure,
all you need to provide is the cut point. The program divides the sample
in two at the cut point and performs the t test. The virtue of this method is
that the cut point can easily be changed without the need to re-create the
grouping variable by hand every time.

8.3.2. Testing Two Independent Sample Means

An analyst at a department store wants to evaluate a recent credit card
promotion. To this end, 500 cardholders were randomly selected. Half

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received an ad promoting a reduced interest rate on purchases made
over the next three months, and half received a standard seasonal ad.
This example uses the file creditpromo.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information. Use Independent-Samples T Test to compare the
spending of the two groups.

8.3.2.1. Running the Analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > Independent-Samples T Test...
Figure 108 Independent-Samples T Test dialog box

1. Select $ spent during promotional period as the test variable.

2. Select Type of mail insert received as the grouping variable.
3. Click Define Groups.
Figure 109 Define Groups dialog box

4. Type 0 as the Group 1 value and 1 as the Group 2 value.

5. Click Continue.
6. Click OK in the Independent-Samples T Test dialog box.

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8.3.2.2. Group Statistics Table
Figure 110 Descriptive statistics

The Descriptives table displays the sample size, mean, standard

deviation, and standard error for both groups. On average, customers
who received the interest-rate promotion charged about $70 more than
the comparison group, and they vary a little more around their average.

8.3.2.3. Independent Samples Test Table

Figure 111 Test for equality of group variances

The procedure produces two tests of the difference between the two
groups. One test assumes that the variances of the two groups are
equal. The Levene statistic tests this assumption. In this example, the
significance value of the statistic is 0.276. Because this value is greater
than 0.10, you can assume that the groups have equal variances and
ignore the second test. Using the pivoting trays, you can change the
default layout of the table so that only the "equal variances" test is
displayed.

8.3.2.3.1. Pivoting the Test Table

1. Double-click the test table to activate it.
2. From the Viewer menus choose:
Pivot > Pivoting Trays

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 Figure 112 Pivot window

3. Move Assumptions from the row to the layer.

4. Close the pivoting trays window.

8.3.2.4. The Pivoted Test Table

Figure 113 t Test statistics, equal variances assumed

With the test table pivoted so that assumptions are in the layer, the Equal
variances assumed panel is displayed.
The t column displays the observed t statistic for each sample,
calculated as the ratio of the difference between sample means
divided by the standard error of the difference.
The df column displays degrees of freedom. For the independent
samples t test, this equals the total number of cases in both
samples minus 2.
The column labeled Sig. (2-tailed) displays a probability from
the t distribution with 498 degrees of freedom. The value listed is

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 the probability of obtaining an absolute value greater than or equal
to the observed t statistic, if the difference between the sample
means is purely random.
The Mean Difference is obtained by subtracting the sample mean
for group 2 (the New Promotiongroup) from the sample mean for
group 1.
The 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference provides an estimate
of the boundaries between which the true mean difference lies in
95% of all possible random samples of 500 cardholders.
Since the significance value of the test is less than 0.05, you can safely
conclude that the average of 71.11 dollars more spent by cardholders
receiving the reduced interest rate is not due to chance alone. The store
will now consider extending the offer to all credit customers.

8.3.3. Using a Cut Point to Define the Samples

Churn propensity scores are applied to accounts at a cellular phone
company. Ranging from 0 to 100, an account scoring 50 or above may
be looking to change providers. A manager with 50 customers above the
threshold randomly samples 200 below it, wanting to compare them on
average minutes used per month.
This example uses the file cellular.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information. Use Independent-Samples T Test to determine
whether these groups have different levels of cell-phone usage.

8.3.3.1. Running the Analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > Independent-Samples T Test...

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 Figure 114 Independent-Samples T Test dialog box

1. Select Avg monthly minutes as the test variable.

2. Select Propensity to leave as the grouping variable.
3. Click Define Groups.
Figure 115 Define Groups dialog box

4. Select Cut point.

5. Type 50 as the cut point value.
6. Click Continue.
7. Click OK in the Independent-Samples T Test dialog box.

8.3.3.2. Group Statistics by Cut Point

Figure 116 Descriptive statistics, cellular-phone example

The Descriptives table shows that customers with propensity scores of

50 or more are using their cell phones about 78 minutes more per month
on the average than customers with scores below 50.

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8.3.3.3. Test Table by Cut Point
Figure 117 Test for equality of group variances

The significance value of the Levene statistic is greater than 0.10, so you
can assume that the groups have equal variances and ignore the second
test. Using the pivoting trays, change the default layout of the table so
that only the "equal variances" test is displayed.

8.3.3.3.1. Pivoting the Test Table

1. Double-click the test table to activate it.
2. From the Viewer menus choose:
Pivot > Pivoting Trays
Figure 118 Pivot window

3. Move Assumptions from the row to the layer.

4. Close the pivoting trays window.

8.3.3.4. Pivoted Test Table by Cut Point

Now just the Equal variances assumed panel is displayed.

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 The t statistic provides strong evidence of a difference in monthly
minutes between accounts more and less likely to change cellular
providers.
The confidence interval suggests that in repeated samplings, the
difference is unlikely to be much lower than 67 minutes. The company
will look into ways to retain these accounts.

8.3.4. Summary
The independent-samples t test is appropriate whenever two means
drawn from independent samples are to be compared. The variable used
to form the groups may already exist; however, a cut point on a
continuous variable can be provided to dynamically create the groups
during the analysis. As with all t tests, the independent-samples t test
assumes that each sample mean comes from a population that is
reasonably normally distributed, especially with respect to skewness.
Test variables with extreme or outlying values should be carefully
checked; boxplots can be used for this.
If your grouping variable has more than two groups, try the One-Way
ANOVA procedure.

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 CHAPTER 9
One-Way analysis of variance
You can use the One-Way ANOVA procedure to test the hypothesis that
the means of two or more groups are not significantly different.
One-Way ANOVA also offers:
Group-level statistics for the dependent variable
A test of variance equality
A plot of group means
Range tests, pairwise multiple comparisons, and contrasts, to
describe the nature of the group differences

9.1. Testing the equality of group variances

An important first step in the analysis of variance is establishing the
validity of assumptions. One assumption of ANOVA is that the variances
of the groups are equivalent. This example illustrates how that test is
performed.
A sales manager wishes to determine the optimal number of product
training days needed for new employees. He has performance scores for
three groups: employees with one, two, or three days of training. The
data are in the filesalesperformance.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information.

9.1.1. An error bar chart

Before running the analysis of variance, you graph the means and
standard errors.
1. To create an error bar chart, from the menus choose:
Graphs > Chart Builder...
2. Select the Gallery tab, and select Bar from the list of chart types.
3. Drag and drop the Simple Error Bar icon onto the canvas area.

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4. Drag and drop Score on training exam onto the y axis.
5. Right-click Sales training group and select Nominal for the
measurement level.
6. Drag and drop Sales training group onto the x axis.
Figure 119 Simple error bar in Chart Builder

7. Click Element Properties.

8. In the Error Bars Represent group, click Standard Error.

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 Figure 120 Chart Builder, Element Properties

9. Click Apply and then click OK in the Chart Builder to create the error
bar chart.
Figure 121 An error bar chart of performance scores by training group

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Average performance clearly increases with added training days, but
variation in performance decreases at the same time. ANOVA assumes
equality of variance across groups; that assumption may not hold for
these data.

9.1.2. Running the analysis

To test the equality of variance assumption, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > One-Way ANOVA...
Figure 122 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

1. Select Score on training exam as the dependent variable.

2. Select Sales training group as the factor variable.
3. Click Options.
Figure 123 Options dialog box

4. Select Homogeneity of variance test.

5. Click Continue.

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6. Click OK in the One-Way ANOVA dialog box.

9.1.3. Descriptive statistics table

Figure 124 One-way ANOVA descriptive statistics table

The standard deviation and standard error statistics confirm that as

training days increase, variation in performance decreases.

9.1.4. Levene test table

Figure 125 Homogeneity of variance table

The Levene statistic rejects the null hypothesis that the group variances
are equal. ANOVA is robust to this violation when the groups are of
equal or near equal size; however, you may choose to transform the data
or perform a nonparametric test that does not require this assumption.

9.2. Performing a One-Way ANOVA

In response to customer requests, an electronics firm is developing a
new DVD player. Using a prototype, the marketing team has collected
focus group data. ANOVA is being used to discover if consumers of
various ages rated the design differently.
This example uses the file dvdplayer.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information.

9.2.1. Running the analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > One-Way ANOVA...

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 Figure 126 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

1. Select Total DVD assessment as the dependent variable.

2. Select Age Group as the factor variable.
3. Click Options.
Figure 127 Options dialog box

The means plot is a useful way to visualize the group differences.

4. Select Means plot.
5. Click Continue.
6. Click OK in the One-Way ANOVA dialog box.

9.2.2. ANOVA table

Figure 128 One-Way ANOVA table

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The significance value of the F test in the ANOVA table is less than
0.001. Thus, you must reject the hypothesis that average assessment
scores are equal across age groups. Now that you know the groups differ
in some way, you need to learn more about the structure of the
differences.

9.2.3. A Plot of Group Means

Figure 129 One-Way ANOVA means plot

The means plot helps you to "see" this structure. Participants between
the ages of 35 and 54 rated the DVD player more highly than their
counterparts. If more detailed analyses are desired, then the team can
use the range tests, pairwise comparisons, or contrast features in One-
Way ANOVA.

9.3. Contrasts between means

In general, F statistics establish that there is or is not a difference
between group means, and means plots suggest where the difference
may lie. As this section shows, you can use the One-Way ANOVA
procedure to specify exactly how the means differ and test those
specifications.

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Looking at the DVD data, market researchers ask:
Are the two groups between the ages of 35 and 54 really different
from each other?
Can participants under 35 and over 54 be considered statistically
equivalent?
This example uses the file dvdplayer.sav. See the topic Sample Files for
more information.

9.3.1. Running the analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > One-Way ANOVA...
Figure 130 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

1. Select Total DVD assessment as the dependent variable.

2. Select Age Group as the factor variable.
3. Click Contrasts.

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 Figure 131 Contrasts dialog box, second contrast

The first contrast compares only groups 3 and 4; the others are
eliminated by giving them weights of 0.
4. Enter the following contrast coefficients: 0, 0, -1, 1, 0, 0. Make sure to
click Add after entering each value.
5. Click Next to move to the second contrast.
Figure 132 Contrasts dialog box, second contrast

The second contrast compares groups 1 and 2 with groups 5 and 6.

Groups 3 and 4 are eliminated.

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6. Enter the following contrast coefficients: .5, .5, 0, 0, -.5, -.5. Make sure
to click Add after entering each value.
7. Click Continue.
8. Click OK in the One-Way ANOVA dialog box.

9.3.2. Contrast coefficients table

Figure 133 One-Way ANOVA contrast-coefficient table

The contrast-coefficient table is a convenient way to check that the

proper weights were given to the groups.
If the mean assessments of the DVD player for the 35-44 and 45-54
age groups are equal, then you would expect the observed difference
in the mean assessment for these groups to be near 0. By specifying -
1 and 1 as the contrast coefficients for these groups, the first contrast
tests whether the observed difference is statistically significant.
Similarly, if the mean assessments of the under-35 age groups and
over-54 age groups are equal, you would expect the sum of the first
two groups to be equal to the sum of the last two groups, and the
difference of these sums to be near 0.

9.3.3. Contrast test table

Figure 134 One-Way ANOVA contrast-test table

Note that the results are displayed in two panels: the first assumes that
the variances of the groups are equal, and the second assumes that they

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are unequal. In this case, the variances of the groups are assumed
equal, so we focus on the first panel.
The significance values for the tests of the first contrast are both
larger than 0.05. This indicates that the 45-54 age group is not
significantly more favorable toward the DVD player than the 35-44
age group.
Likewise, the significance values for the tests of the second contrast
are larger than 0.05. Participants under 35 and over 54 have
statistically equivalent assessment scores.

9.4. All possible comparisons between means

Contrasts are an efficient, powerful method for comparing exactly the
groups that you want to compare, using whatever contrast weights that
you require. However, there are times when you do not have, or do not
need, such specific comparisons. The One-Way ANOVA procedure
allows you to compare every group mean against every other, a method
known as pairwise multiple comparisons.
A sales manager has analyzed training data using One-Way ANOVA.
While significant group differences were found, there are no prior
hypotheses about how the three groups should differ. Therefore, he has
decided to simply compare every group to every other group.
This example uses the file salesperformance.sav. See the topic Sample
Files for more information.

9.4.1. Running the analysis

To begin the analysis, from the menus choose:
Analyze > Compare Means > One-Way ANOVA...

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 Figure 135 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

1. Select Score on training exam as the dependent variable.

2. Select Sales training group as the factor variable.
3. Click Post Hoc.
The Post Hoc tests are divided into two sets:
The first set assumes groups with equal variances.
The second set does not assume that the variances are equal.
Because the Levene test has already established that the
variances across training groups are significantly different, we
select from this list.
4. Select Tamhane's T2.
5. Click Continue.
6. Click OK in the One-Way ANOVA dialog box.

9.4.2. Post hoc test table

The group with one training day performed significantly lower than the
other groups.
Trainees with two and three days do not statistically differ in average
performance. Despite this equality, the manager may still consider the
added benefit of the third training day, given the large decrease in
variability.

9.5. Summary
With the One-Way ANOVA procedure, you are able to:

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 Validate the assumption of variance equality
Obtain the ANOVA table and results
Visually inspect the group means
Perform custom contrasts, tailored to your specific hypotheses
Compare each mean to every other mean, assuming variance
equality or not
Perform two types of robust analysis of variance

9.6. Related procedures

The One-Way ANOVA procedure is used to test the hypothesis that
several sample means are equal.
You can alternately use the Means procedure to obtain a one-way
analysis of variance with a test for linearity procedure.
If you have multiple factors, use the GLM Univariate procedure to
obtain two-way analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, and
more.

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