Prefix Symbol Submultiple Mass kilogram (kg)

pico p 10–12 Length metre (m)

nano n 10–9 Time second (s)

micro μ 10–6 Electric current ampere (A)

E.g.
E.g.
mili m 10–3 Temperature kelvin (K)
centi c 10–2 E.g. uses Amount of Substance mole (mol)
deci d 10–1 Prefixes SI Units
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)
Prefix Symbol Multiple
has
Base Quantities Base Units
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109 through
tera T 1012 Measurable
Defining Equations
are
Parallelogram Head to Tail Vector Addition

P PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
R R Derived Quantities Derived Units
P & UNIT
P Q
Q Q are velocity m s–1

E.g.
E.g.
Momentum kg m s–1
Parallelogram Head to Tail Vector
Subtraction Pressure kg m–1 s–2
Work kg m2 s–2
R R P
P Vectors Scalars
P
or e.g : Length, Distance, energy, work, speed, time
–Q Q Magnitude only
–Q – hv both
magnitude
& direction Vector Manipulations
y 
Multiplication of vectors
Vector A = Axiˆ + Ayˆj
Dot product Cross product
e.g : Displacement, acceleration, momentum, force 
    A
A • B =| A || B | cos θ | A × B |=| A || B | sin θ Ay

  θ
x
A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz Ax

↔
Magnitude and x and y
direction components

Ax = A cosθ
A,θ → Ay = A sin θ
A = Ax 2 + Ay 2 ← Ax, Ay
 Ay 
θ = tan −1  
 Ax 
 prepared by chongyl
 Acceleration Velocity
Rate of Change Velocity Rate of Change of Displacement
Speed – rate of change in distance v −u dv ds s 2 − s1
a= a= v= v=
t dt to define dt t 2 − t1
Total Distance
Average Speed = SI unit : m s–2
SI unit : m s–1
Total Time Taken

to define to define
SI unit : m s–1
Distance Time Displacement vy=0
x – component vx
SI unit : s SI unit : m
SI unit : m
ux = u cos θ
Equations of Motion uses
uses
uses ax = 0
hMAX
1 vx = ux
s = (u + v)t describes motion ( a=constant ) with describes projectile motion with
sx = uxt
2 KINEMATICS
v = u + at
y – component (FF) R
1
s = ut + at 2 describes uy = u sin θ
motion
2 with ay = − g
v = u + 2as
2 2 vx
vy = uy − gt
Graphs
vy 2 = uy 2 − 2 gsy vy
v
1
sy = uyt − gt 2 v = vx + vy 2 2

Graph for an object Equation of Free Fall

thrown up into the air
Motion under the sole
influence of gravity

v = u − gt
v 2 = u 2 − 2 gs
1
s = ut − gt 2
2

Gradient of Area under

Gradient of
(v-t) graph (v-t) graph
(s-t) graph
gives gives
gives

g = 9.81 m s −2

 prepared by chongyl
 Weight ( W ) Mass in Relate with
Mass Momentum
W = mg  
gravitational field. Linked to motion
p = mv
DYNAMICS
because of

Is a study of

vector quantity ; SI unit : kg m s –2 ; Newton (N)

1 N = 1 kg m s–2  the force which produces a linear
Type of Forces Force ( F ) acceleration of 1 m s–2 in the direction of the force when it
acts on a body of mass 1 kg.

Tension ( T )
Normal Force ( N ) – Force in a cord that pulls T
- Retarding force that resist

on a body Describes by Impulse J = F t

– directed away from a - J = ∆p
motion on a surface.

body and along the cord. = pfinal – pinitial

Relationship between - J = area under the
1st Law action & reaction when graf F– t
If F = 0, In built
Newton’s Laws of
masses are in contact 3rd Law
– Contact force exerted by
a=0 FAB = - FBA Force
a surface onto a body Tendency of mass to Motion
If F≠ 0, resist changes in its
a≠ 0 state of rest or motion

When 2 masses
force (F) & momentum
( known as Inertia )

Relationship between
Implies that if
t Time

collide
Friction ( f )
At present In Future
Impulsive force,

(mv)
Collision mv − mu
F=
u=0 v=0 t
2nd Law When t ,F
Fnet = ma Can be
When t ,F
or
2 types

At present In Future d (mv)

F∝
dt

u = constant v = u =constant
Static friction, fs kinetic friction, fk
Leads to the

( no motion / at rest ) ( in motion ) Elastic Inelastic

fs ≤ μsN fk = μk N -Momentum is conserved -Momentum is conserved
fs(max)=μsN - KE is conserved - KE is NOT conserved

μk < μs
Conservation of Momentum
In an isolated system (net external force
equal to zero), Force, Momentum & Impulse
 
∑ pinitial = ∑ pfinal  prepared by chongyl
 formula Poutput
How well a machine Mechanical Efficiency η= (×100%)
Pinput
transfer input work to
output work

defined by
 Work , W Conservation of Energy
ENERGY, E
F  
W = F •s Σ Einitial = Σ Efinal
θ W = F s cosθ

can be
-- scalar quantity
 -- Unit: kg m2 s-2 ; J
Power, P
s
W
If s = 0 – no work is done Mechanical P= @P=Fv
If F perpendicular to s(θ=90°) – no work is done t
Total work done in a system Wnet = Fnet s Unit SI: Watt ( W ) ;
Work, W = Area under (F– s) graph Other unit : horse power (hp)

can be
1 hp = 746 W

Potential Energy ( U ) Kinetic Energy ( K )

- Energy due to the motion of a body

can be
1 2
K= mv
2

Gravitational Potential Energy, U Elastic Potential Energy, Us

Changes in K
- Energy stored in an object as the result of - Energy stored in elastic materials as result of
its vertical position (height). their stretching @ compressing
Work-Energy Theorem
1 2
Us = kx
U =mgh 2 Wnet = ∆K
1 1
k : spring constant ( Hooke’s Wnet = mvfinal 2 − mvinitial 2
Law : F= kx ) 2 2
x : amount of compression/
stretching x

Work, Energy & Power

F
 prepared by chongyl
 Angular velocity ( ω )
- Rate of change of angular
displacement Linear velocity ( v )
θ 2π
v = rω
Related to
ω = ;ω = ; ω = 2π f
t T
Centripetal Force ( Fc )
Unit SI : rad s –1;
Other units : rps @ rpm Centripetal acceleration ( ac ) mv 2
* 1 rps = 2 π rad s–1
v2 Fc = = mrω 2 = m v ω
ac = = rω 2 r
-- pointing towards the center
r
- Towards the center of the circle

Angular Displacement ( θ )
- Angle undergone by the particle
from a fixed reference point
Unit SI : rad
Kinematics of motion Dynamics of motion
s
θ= Other : revolution
r (1 rev = 2 π )
Consider the Consider the

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

– Motion in circular path with constant
speed but continuously changing direction

Motion in Horizontal Circle Motion in vertical Circle

E.g E.g

Revolving object vertically Ferris Wheel

Revolving object horizontally Motion of car round a curve Conical Pendulum N
Case1: flat curve

fs = Fc mg

T = Fc Case2: frictionless banked road

N

At the top:
T + mg = Fc
( T minimum )
At the top:
mg –N = Fc mg
T sin θ = Fc At the bottom:
T – mg = Fc
At the bottom:
( T maximum )
v = r g tan θ N – mg = Fc

v min = rg v max = rg
 prepared by chongyl
 Angular Displacement ( θ )
Linear Distance
s = rθ
Unit : rad , rev Kinematics Dynamics Torque, τ
1 rev = 2π rad Rotational Motion of Rigid Bodies
- Turning action on a body about a
rotational axis due to a force
Rate of change of θ Rotational – motion about a fixed axis - Torque on rigid body produces α
Rigid Body - an object or a system of particles in which τ = Iα
the distances between particles are fixed & remain
Angular velocity ( ω ) constant.-- has a definite & unchanging shape or size. Rotational Kinetic Energy ( KR )
Linear velocity θ 2 −θ1 dθ 1 2
v = rω ω= ω= KR = Iω
t dt 2
Unit : rad s–1 ; rps ; rpm
Property of body to For rolling without slipping on horizontal plane:
All particles on a resist changes in its -- body have KT & KR
rigid body have rotational state of
Rate of change of ω same ω & α motion

Angular acceleration ( α )
Linear / Tangential
ω 2 − ω1 dω Moment of Inertial ( I )
acceleration
α = α=
at = r α t dt
Unit : rad s–2 I = Σ mr 2 K=
1 1
ICMω 2 + MvCM 2
2 2
-scalar quantity ; unit SI: kg m2 * Conservation of energy & work energy
theorem also apply for rotational motion
-depends on : mass & position of axis of
Constant angular acceleration rotation. Rotational Work W =τ θ
Particle/Hoop/Rin Solid cylinder/Disc
Thin rod
Equations for Rotational Motion
g
1
Rotational Power P =τ ω
ICM = MR 2
2
ω = ω +α t 0 Angular Momentum ( L )
For particle: L = m r v
ω 2 = ω + 2α θ
0
2
1 Unit : kg m2 s–1
ICM = MR 2 ICM = ML2 For Rigid Body : L = I ω
12
1
θ = (ω + ω ) t 0 Solid Sphere Hollow Sphere Conservation of Angular Momentum
2 If no external torque acts on a system, the total
2 2 angular momentum is conserved ( constant ).
1 ICM = MR 2 ICM = MR 2
θ = ω0 t + α t2 5 3
Σ L initial = Σ L final
2

 prepared by chongyl
 Moment / Torque of a Force Equilibrium Rigid bodies in Equilibrium

MUST satisfy

Condition 1 :
The Resultant force must be zero

Σ F = 0  Σ Fx = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0
Static Equilibrium – an object is at rest & all forces
act up the object are balanced. The vector addition of the forces must yield a
CLOSED triangle or polygon.

Torque / moment – measure of the turning

effect of a force at a point.

Free-body Diagram:

- diagram of a body ( or part of it ) which

shows all the forces acting on it.
E.g:  
TL TR
Line of action Condition 2 (for rigid bodies):
Moment The sum of torque on the object about any
arm point must be zero.


τ = rF sin θ = Fd W
∑τ = 0
Steps to solve problem involved static:
Unit : Nm ; vector quantity
Torque tends to rotate system either clockwise 1. Draw a sketch to show the physical situation
or anticlockwise 2. Draw the free body diagram showing all forces acting
3. Resolve all the forces into component x & y & equate the resolved
Sign convention : components to zero
Clockwise : – ve Σ F x = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0
Anticlockwise : + ve 4. Take moment / torque about any point and equate the algebraic
sum of the moments to zero.
Στ=0

 prepared by chongyl
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation Gravitational Field Strength

For a satellite in orbit

Leads to g ( a vector )

Gm1m 2
F= F GM
r2 g= = 2 ( Unit : N kg-1 )
m r
GMm mv 2
= G = 6.67 ×10 −11 Nm 2 kg −2
r2 r g (m s-2)

Satellite velocity : 1
A Universal Law 9.81 g ∝ r g∝
GM r2
v= r(m)
r work done per unit R
Gravitation mass in bringing
Period of revolution of satellite the object from ∞
to that point
2π r r3 M
T= = 2π
v GM work done to bring a mass m
Total Energy of satellite from ∞ to that point Gravitational Potential

E = K +U U GM ( J kg–1 )
V= =−
1 GM 2 GMm m r
E= m( ) + (− ) Gravitational Potential Energy
2 r r GMm
U =−
GMm r
E=−
2r

For an object at a
height above the GMm
earth’s surface U =− = mgh
( r + h)
If h << r and U = 0 at
ground level

 prepared by chongyl
 with time
Variation of x x = A sin ω t

with time
v = ωA cos ω t
with x
v = ±ω A2 − x 2 Variation of v

with x with time

a = −ω 2 x Variation of a a = −ω 2 A sin ω t

1
f =
T Terminology SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION means * To and fro motion about
equilibrium position.
1
T=
f * Acceleration ∝ displacement
absence of external dissipative force Example of SHM system
2π
ω = 2π f = * Acceleration is always directed
T towards equilibrium position.

Total energy of the oscillating system is constant

Spring mass system

Simple Pendulum
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Total Energy
E =U + K
1 1
K= mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 ) U= mω 2 x 2 1
2 2 E= mω 2 A 2
2

where k = m ω2

Energy variation with Energy variation with time

displacement

m
T = 2π
k

l
T = 2π
g
 prepared by chongyl
 Displacement (y) – Amplitude ( A )
distance (x) graph v
Wavelength ( λ )
λ=
f
1 v
Frequency ( f ) f = =
T λ
ω λ
Graphs Terms Such as Wave speed ( v ) v= f λ= =
k T
1 2π
Period ( T ) T= =
f ω
2π
Wave number ( k ) k= (unit : radm −1 )
λ
Displacement (y) 2π
– time (t) graph Angular frequency (ω ) ω= = 2π f (unit : rads −1 )
T
can be can be Phase Angle / difference (Φ )
represent ed described by
x
by
φ = 2π ( )
λ
λ v
t
φ = 2π ( )
T
Progressive / Travelling waves
Standing waves
2 progressive wave of same -- waves that propagated
y = A sin (ω t ± k x)
-- wave profile do not type ( same A & f ) move Equation
continuously outward from a
move/advance towards each others & source of disturbance
-- no energy transferred superpose + : to left
out of region
− : to right

Transverse waves Waves Longitudinal waves

Waves which travel in a Waves which travel in

direction perpendicular a direction parallel to Particles velocity
have
to the direction of the direction of
vibration. vibration. vy = A ω cos (ω t ± k x)
ex: water , light waves Intensity ex: Sound wave
Particles acceleration
λ Power
2 I= ay = − ω 2 A sin( ωt ± kx)
λ Area P
3 dimension – I=
4π l 2
4
spherical waves
Equation Depends on
l : distance from
the point
y = 2 A cos k x sin ω t * A is the amplitude of the progressive wave I ∝ (amplitude) 2
source
that formed stationary wave
1
Amplitude of the stationary wave
at any position: 2 A cos kx I∝
l2
Maximum Amplitude : 2A  prepared by chongyl
 Type of Standing waves Fundamental Mode / 1st Harmonic Overtones ( * 1st Overtone Ξ 2nd Harmonic & … ) General Equation

2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic v T

fn = n ( ) where v =
m 2L µ
Stretched string µ=
L n = 1, 2, 3, 
3rd Harmonic 5th Harmonic
v
Air column fn = n ( )
in closed 4L
end pipe
L n = 1, 3, 5, 
L 2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic
Air column v
fn = n ( )
in Open end 2L
Pipe
AN is not formed n = 1, 2, 3, 
exactly at the
opened end
v
Closed Pipe : fn = n n = 1, 3, 5,  When the forcing frequency equal to the
4( L + c) natural frequency of the air column in
open/closed pipe, resonance occurs and a
v
Opened Pipe : fn = n n = 1, 2, 3, 
loud note(sound) can be heard.
End Correction (c) 2( L + 2c)

2 sound waves of same When there is a

A but slightly difference f relative motion
Beats Sound Waves between sound
Doppler effect
superposed
source & Observer

Periodic variation of
sound loudness the apparent change in frequency of a sound when there is
relative motion between the source & the observer.

v ± vo
Beat frequency : f '= ( ) f
* Phase difference between displacement f(Hz) v ± vs
fb = | f 1 − f 2 | & pressure is (π/2) approach
+ vo : observer approaches source
- vo : observer moves away from source
f + vs : source moves away from Observer
Move away
- vs : source approaches Observer
s(m) vs =0 ( stationary Source )

passes vo =0 ( stationary Observer )

 prepared by chongyl
 Cross sectional area for a wire , A =
πr2 where r is the radius of the wire
Radius of wire, r = d/2 where d is
diameter of wire.

The extension, e is proportional to the force or tension

in a wire, F if the proportional limit is not exceeded.
Force ( F )
Stress, σ =
cross sectional area( A)

SI Unit : Pascal (Pa) @ N m–2

elongation or compression (e)

Stress, ε =
original length (LO )

Stress(σ ) Explanation for graph stress against strain

Young Modulus,Y =
Strain(ε )
YA
Relation between Hooke’s law and Young Modulus k =
lo When the strain is plotted against the stress in the wire, a graph is obtained
which is a straight line OA, followed by a curve ABC rising slowly at first
and then very sharply as Figure (ii) above.
A is the proportionality limit. Along OA and up to L just beyond A, the wire
returned to its original length when the load is removed. L is called the
elastic limit. Along OL the metal is said to undergo changes called elastic
deformation.
1 Beyond the elastic limit L, however the wire has a permanent extension such
Strain energy, U = Fe
2 as OP when the force is removed at B. The extension increases rapidly along
= Area under graph F − e the curve ABC as the force on the wire is further increased and at C the wire
thins and breaks at N.

Substances undergo plastic deformation until they break  Ductile.

Substances that break just after the elastic limit is reached  Brittle

 prepared by chongyl
 Insulated rod Non insulated rod

T2 T2
Q kA∆T
=−
t x T1 T1
x x

Thermal energy is transferred through Direction of heat flow

Higher Temperature Lower Temperature
Conduction
T2 T1
vibration of atoms/molecules

One of the heat transfer

mechanism

HEAT
The energy that is transferred from one region
to another as a result of
a temperature difference Voverflow = ∆Vliquid − ∆Vcontainer
T
causes increase

a change in temperature

causes

material expand
For liquid in
a container

Linear Expansion Area Expansion Volume Expansion

∆A = β Ao∆T ∆V = γ Vo∆T
∆L = αLo∆T
where β = 2α where γ = 3α  prepared by chongyl
p p / Pa

V p / Pa

1
V
(p – V ) Graph (p – 1/V ) Graph V Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law Pressure Law T /K
T /K
(V – T ) Graph (p – T ) Graph
V p
pV = constant = constant = constant
T T
p1V 1 = p 2V 2 V1 V 2 p1 p 2
= =
T1 T 2 T1 T 2

T constant V constant
p constant

N
n= Boltzmann
NA pV = nRT pV = NkT Constant R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1
k = 1.38×10–23 J K–1
n=
m n = No. of moles N = No. of molecules k=
R
NA = 6.02×1023
M NA
describe by
equation
of state
Mean square speed: 1) Identical molecules
Types of speed Basic assumptions
v1 2 + v 2 2 +  + vn 2 IDEALGASES
< v 2 >= 2) Large number of molecules
N
Relationship 3) Random motion with constant speed
between
p,v and <v2> 4) Volume of molecule – negligible
Root mean square speed: 5) No intermolecular force on each other
1 1
pV = Nm < v 2 > or p = ρ < v2 >
vrms = < v > 2
3 3 6) Elastic Collision

7) Time during Collision – negligible

or
Translation KE For n moles of
v1 2 + v 2 2 +  + vn 2 of N molecules ideal gas
vrms =
N Degree of Freedom
U depends on
Monoatomic  f = 3
Internal Energy types of gases
Relate with 3 3 Diatomic f=5
Absolute Temperature K= NkT = nRT U = Total mean KE Polyatomic  f = 6
2 2
f
vrms =
3kT
=
3RT U = NkT
m M 2 Equipartition of Energy
f U ∝T
1 Translation KE
∝T U = nRT each degree of freedom for 1
 vrms ∝ T ; vrms ∝ of molecules 2 molecules contributes U= ½kT
m

 prepared by chongyl
 1st Law of Thermodynamics
+ ve – ve

Q = ∆U + W Q System absorbs heat System loses heat

where Q – Heat added to or removed from the system ∆U U increases ( T ↑ ) U decreases ( T ↓ )

∆U – change of internal energy
W – work done / on the system
W Work done by the system Work done on the system

Thermodynamic Process condition Equations involved

Work done by gas :

Isothermal V2
T constant
Pressure, p

W = nRT ln[ ]
U remain unchanged ∆U = 0 V1
Obey Boyle’s Law
T Q=W
T Volume, V P1V 1 = P 2V 2
Vi Vf

W = area under the curve

pf Isovolumetric
V constant W depends on path taken
Pressure, p

Obey Gay lussac’s law

No work is done  W = 0
pi ∆U = U final – U initial
Q = ∆U P1 P 2 ∆U do not depends on path taken,
=
Volume, V T1 T 2 but depends on initial & final state.
V * ∆U AB = -∆U BA

Isobaric P constant W = P (V 2 − V 1)
Pressure, p

p Q supplied used to (i) change

internal energy (ii) do work Obey Charles’ Law
T Q = ∆U + W V1 V 2
Volume, V =
Vi Vf T1 T 2

Adiabatic
No heat flow in or out
Pressure, p

Q=0
Ti
W = – ∆U
Tf

Volume, V

 prepared by chongyl