Chapter 1: Syllabification and Word Stress

Syllabification or Dividing Up Words

Word processing software in computers, pads, and cellphones includes a wrap-around feature
that allows a person to type continuously, knowing that the software will automatically adjust the
words in each line so that no word needs to be divided up over two lines. This is something we all
take for granted today, but it was not so in the past! When typewriters were still widely in use,
coming to the end of a line involved making one of two choices:
 Dividing the long word at the end of a line with a hyphen to avoid going over the right-
hand margin, or
 moving on to the next line and typing the complete word there instead, sometimes
creating an awkward space at the end of the previous line.
Here is an excerpt from a typewritten letter using hyphens at the end of lines:

Clearly, the words /political/ and /reverse/ were a bit long to fit within the right margin in their
respective lines so the writer in the example above made the choice to hyphenate these two
words, spreading them each over two lines. Had the writer put the complete words in the next
lines, there would have been large, empty spaces at the end of each of those lines. Using
hyphens to divide up words into smaller components or syllables is called hyphenation or
syllabification, and in the old days helped to make right margins somewhat neater. Learning the
rules of syllabification used to be part of every young person’s education, not only because it
made the right-hand margins of typewritten and handwritten documents neater, but also because
it was considered an important tool in learning to spell and pronounce words! The rules of
syllabification are rarely taught in schools today, since writing is done on word procesessors with
wrap around capability. Many print and online dictionaries, however, still include keywords using
literary syllabification: for example, /political/ and /reverse/ would be hyphenated as /po-lit-i-cal/
and /re-verse/.

Words with Single Consonants

Syllabification may seem somewhat archaic in terms of writing, but it is still very relevant for vocal
musicians since modern printed vocal scores employ traditional syllabification to divide up words
whose syllables are sung on different notes. The literary syllabification found in printed scores,
however, is not always conducive to the way classical singers syllabify words for singing. The
excerpt below, from Love’s Philosophy by Roger Quilter (1877-1953) on a poem by Percy Blyshe
Shelley, illustrates typical literary syllabification from a 1905 edition:

Syllabification for singing is based on sound with consonants typically moving to the next syllable
whenever possible in phrases that are legato and connected. The literary syllabification shown
above in words like /riv-er/, /riv-ers/, and /for-ev-er/ is not a helpful visual picture in terms of legato

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singing. The chart below highlights some difference between literary syllabification and
syllabification for singing:

Word Literary Syllabification Syllabification for Singing

river, rivers riv-er, riv-ers ri-ver1, ri-vers1
forever for-ev-er fo-r2e-ver1
political po-lit-i-cal po-li-ti-cal
major maj-or ma-jor1
never nev-er ne-ver1
education ed-u-ca-tion e –du-ca-tion
musicality mu-si-cal-i-ty mu-si-ca-li-ty
heaven heav-en hea-ven
brother broth-er br3o-ther1
general gen-er-al ge-ne-r2al
story sto-ry sto-r2y
lover lov-er lo-ver1
memory mem-o-ry me-mo-r2y
fairy fair-y Fai-r2y
bleating bleat-ing blea-ting
nearer near-er nea-r2er1
The letter /r/ will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4: Approximants, along with other letters such as
/w/ and /y/ that have similar characteristics.
1) The letter /r/ has a duel nature in singing: when it comes after a vowel (called POST-VOCALIC), it acts more like a vowel or vowel
coloring in words like /car/, /fort/, /father/, etc. In some schools of thought post-vocalic /r/ coloring is left out in classical singing.
2) When /r/ comes between vowels (called INTERVOCALIC) it is also prevocalic in terms of the second vowel, and is also moved forward
to the next syllable like a consonant as in /fo-re-ver/, /ge-ne-ral/, /sto-ry/. The intervocalic /r/must be said and sung.
2) When /r/ comes before a vowel (called PRE-VOCALIC) it acts more like a consonant as in /frog/, /strike/, etc. The pre-vocalic /r/must be
sounded and sung.

Syllabification for singing will be used throughout this textbook, and as you will come to see, it is
based more on sound. It is this type of syllabification that you will use when writing out or
transcribing, words, phrases, and song texts into IPA for classical singing.

Words with Identical Double Consonants

The excerpt below, ‘I Know That My Redeemer Liveth’ from Messiah by G. F. Handel (1685-
1759), shows the literary syllabification of the word /latter/, which contains an identical double
consonant:

A singer, however, would syllabify the word as /la-tter/, moving the identical double consonants
forward to the next syllable because an identical double consonant in English sounds like one
consonant, unlike identical double consonants in languages like Italian and Hungarian that are
held out longer. Thus, the sound is the factor, not how it is written!
An extrapolation from the soprano part of Fair Phyllis by John Farmer (1570-1601) has several
examples of identical double consonants:

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The syllabification for singing would normally be: /mi-ssing/ and /ki-ssing/, unless some special
effect is desired. The chart below provides some examples of the differences between literary
syllabification and singing syllabification for English words with identical doubled consonants.
Remember, it is about the sound, and identical double consonants sound the same as one, so
both move forward.

Word Written Syllabification Sung Syllabification

bubble bub-ble bu-bble*
dribble drib-ble dri-bble*
riddle rid-dle ri-ddle*
fiddle fid-dle fi-ddle*
waddle wad-dle wa-ddle*
waffle waf-fle wa-ffle*
truffle truf-fle tru-ffle*
giggle gig-gle gi-ggle*
wiggle wig-gle wi-ggle*
winner win-ner wi-nner
apple ap-ple a-pple*
kissing kiss-ing ki-ssing
mission mis-sion mi-ssion
latter lat-ter la-tter
little lit-tle li-ttle*
battle bat-tle ba-ttle*
killeth kil-leth ki-lleth
willing wil-ling wi-lling
dazzle daz-zle da-zzle*
*In words ending with an identical double consonant followed by /le/, the final written /e/ is silent. Remember
silent letters will not be transcribed when you start using IPA. Another inconsistency in written English is on
full display in these words; there is actually a vowel, albeit unclear between the last double consonant and
the /l/ in each of these words!!

Words with Consonant Clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of two or more consonants with no intervening vowels. Consonant
clusters that are moved forward in singing are those that can begin words in English and are
easier to pronounce together. Spelling can be helpful, but in the final analysis, it is the sound of

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these clusters that is the determining factor in terms of moving them forward. The chart below
shows some of the common consonant clusters that can be moved forward, along with keywords
showing syllabification for singing:

Consonant Cluster (s) Keywords

/bl/ black a-blaze, o-bla-tion
/br/ brew He-brew, a-bra-sive, O-brecht
/ch/ cheat tea-cher, bea-ches,
/ch/ charisma a-ching
/cl/, /ccl claim, a-cclaim, neo-cla-ssic
/cr/ cross a-cross, a-cri-mo-ny
/dr/, /ddr/ dress a-ddress, a-drift, ca-the-dral
/dw/ dwell goo-dwill, mi-dway
/fl/, /ffl/ float a-float, brie-fly, a-fflict,
/fr/, /ffr/ frost a-fraid, a-ffri-ca-tive
/gl/ glow a-glow, a-glee
/gr/, /ggr/ great an-gry, a-ggre-ssion
/gw/ Gwen do-gwood, Ho-gwart
/kw/, /ckw/ queen boo-kworm, a-kward, ba-ckward
/ppl/, /pl/ plead dee-ply, a-pplaud
/pr/, /ppr/ press, o-ppress, a-pprove,
/sc/ scatter e-scape, de-scant
/scr/ scrape a-scribe, de-scribe
/sh/ shame a-shamed, a-shes, ca-shing
/shr/ shrine a-shram, mu-shroom
/sk/ skill a-sking, whi-skey
/sl/, /ssl/ slow di-slo-cate, mi-slead, ha-ssle
/sm/, /ssm/ smitten di-smiss, cla-ssmate
/sn/, /ssn/ snake ca-lou-sness, fa-cele-ssness
/sp/ space a-spire, ho-spice
/spl/ splash di-splay, di-splea-sure
/spr/ sprightly di-sprove
/sph/ sphere at-mo-sphere, bla-sphe-mous
/st/ stint fro-sty, ca-sting, roa-sting
/str/ string a-stral, a-stro-lo-gy
/sw/, /ssw/ sweat fore-swear, c ro-sswind,
/th/ these mo-ther, fa-ther
/th/ thin e-ther, Lu-ther
/thr/ throne ba-throbe, bre-thren
/tr/, /ttr/ trap a-ttract, ci-trus
/ts/ hats Pa-tsy, Be-tsy
/tw/ twin be-tween, be-twixt

The brief excerpt from Vagabond by Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) on a text by Robert
Louis Stevenson illustrates the literary syllabification of /frosty/, but the syllabification for singing
or transcribing into IPA would be /fro-sty/.

The rule of thumb for moving consonant clusters forward is:

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 If the consonants can be pronounced together easily in English and if there are word in
English that begin with the consonant cluster, it most likely can be moved forward to the
next syllable in legato situations.
There are some consonant clusters that cannot be moved forward to the next syllable. The brief
chart below contains a few examples of words with consonant clusters that cannot be moved
forward, therefore the literary and sung syllabifications are the same:

Sample Word Literary and Sung Syllabification

subject sub-ject
window win-dow
inside in-side
enslave en-slave
hungry hun-gry
conscript con-script

There are no words in English that begin with the consonant clusters /bj/, /nd/, /ns/, /nsl/ and /ngr/
and /nscr/ and more particularly with the sound of such akward consnant clusters. The clusters
/bj/, /ns/, and /nd/ cannot move forward. Our ears tell us that the clusters /nsl/, /ngr/, and /nscr/
cannot move forward as a whole. Our ears also tell us that the /sl/ in /en-slave/, the /gr/ in /hun-
gry/, and the /scr/ in /con-script/ can move forward since there are words that do begin with the
sound of these consonants.
Syllabification for singing and transcribing into IPA will be covered in more detail in the following
chapters, but it is efficacious at this early stage of your study to get used to the principle of
moving consonants forward to the next syllable whenever possible.

Word Stress
A stressed syllable is indicated by placing the following sign: ˈ before the stressed syllable in
words such as /ˈvi- sion/ or /re- ˈverse/. Unstressed syllables are left unmarked. Vowels in
stressed syllables are usually clear and easier to define and recognize, but vowels in unstressed
syllables have less clarity. The range of this lack of clarity goes from very vague to sounding like
a weakened version of a more recognizable stressed vowel. The generic term for this range of
vagueness within a vowel in an unstressed syllable will be called a SCHWA in this textbook. The
schwas in the following words are underlined: /ˈmi- ssion/, /be- ˈlieve/, /ˈpo- ker/, etc. One way to
determine stressed and unstressed syllables is to say the targeted word in a simple sentence with
a natural sense of delivery. This allows the natural rhythm and ebb and flow of the word to come
forth. If, however, you find that that you are repeating the target word over and over again in
isolation in a mechanical fashion or with great exaggeration, the word’s natural stresses and
rhythm will be obliterated. If this is the case, you should definitely consult an online dictionary that
has sound capability, allowing you can hear the word spoken by a native speaker. The
Cambridge Online Dictionary (https://dictionary.cambridge.org) is a very useful tool that allows
you to choose both British and American English pronunciation. Also listening to someone else
say the word, allows you to concentrate in a more focused manner on the sound and
accentuation. Schwas will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.

Stresses in Two-Syllable Words

In the chart below, the first column contains words with stresses on the first syllable and the
second column lists words whose stresses are on the second syllable. Practice reading the words
and using them in short, naturally delivered sentences, and in the process, you will hear the
clarity of stressed vowels, and the varying degrees of vagueness with unstressed vowels or
schwas:
Accent on First Syllable Accent on Second Syllable
ˈfa- ther re- ˈview
ˈstea- ming a- ˈbuse
ˈvi- sion re- ˈvenge

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 ˈbeau- ty a- ˈdapt
ˈna- tion a- ˈccuse
ˈra- rest ba- ˈguette
ˈve- gan be- ˈgin
ˈmo- ther en- ˈthuse
ˈfi- nest fi- ˈnesse
ˈmu- sic ga- ˈrage
ˈfi- ddle hu- ˈrray
ˈbar- ber a- ˈgree
ˈroun- ded mo- ˈrose
ˈAg- nes Ne- ˈpal
ˈlove- ly cui- ˈsine

The chart below provides an interesting and fun way to practice word stress! The word to the left
of each column is spelled the same, but the shift in stress changes the meaning of the words!
Practice the natural delivery of each word:
Changing the Meaning of Words by Shifting the Stress
Nouns
ˈa- ddress What is your address?
ˈcon- duct He has exemplary conduct.
ˈcon- test She won the contest.
ˈcon- sole The computer console is new.
ˈcon- tent The content was helpful.
ˈcon- verse The converse is true.
ˈcon- vert He is a new convert to the faith.
ˈde- crease There was a decrease in crime.
ˈde- sert Camels do well in the desert.
ˈen-trance The entrance exam was tough.
ˈim port The import business was slow.
ˈin- crease There was an increase in crime.
ˈin- sult That was a terrible insult.
ˈob- ject It was the object of his desire.
ˈper- fect (adjective) It was the perfect crime.
ˈper- mit The driving permit was free.
ˈpre- sent He received a lovely present.
ˈpro- duce Fresh produce is better for you.
ˈpro- ject The final project was easy.
ˈpro- test The protest was peaceful.
ˈre- call There was a recall for that model.
ˈre- cord The record was broken.
ˈre- fuse The refuse had a bad smell.
ˈre- ject Every other car was a reject.
ˈsub- ject The subject was challenging.
ˈsu- spect The suspect was not guilty.
Verbs
a-ˈddress She will address the people.
con-ˈduct He will conduct the choir.
con-ˈtest They won’t contest the results.
con-ˈsole She could not console her.
con-ˈtent He was content to stay at home.
con-ˈverse They like to converse.
con-ˈvert To convert is not an option.
de-ˈcrease He tried to decrease the tension.
de-ˈsert The soldier wanted to desert.
en-ˈtrance He was entranced by her singing.
im-ˈport The business can’t import wine.
in-ˈcrease I want to increase production.
in-ˈsult He tried to insult me.
ob-ˈject The senator tried to object.
per-ˈfect She will perfect her singing.
per- ˈmit It was time to permit change.
pre-ˈsent I present to you the queen.
pro-ˈduce It is hard to produce a play.
pro-ˈject He failed to project the trend.
pro-ˈtest I protest the findings!
re-ˈcall The old man couldn’t recall it.
re-ˈcord He prefers to record it alone.
re-ˈfuse Don’t refuse the gift.
re-ˈject To reject him is unfair.
sub-ˈject They tried to subject him to noise.
su-ˈspect He didn’t suspect the attack.

Two-Syllable Compound Words

A COMPOUND WORD is a word that is created by joining together two smaller words. Many two-
syllable compound words have both a primary (stronger) and a second (weaker) stress,
Secondary stresses are indicated by placing the following sign: ˌ before the less stressed syllable
in words such as: /ˈbob-ˌcat/, /ˈcup-ˌcake/, /ˈsnow-ˌflake/, etc. A few two-syllable compound
words have an accent on only the first syllable as in /ˈname-less/, /ˈclue-less/, etc. Practice saying
these compound words in short, naturally delivered sentences to sense the differences between
primary and secondary stresses. Note that words in the char below are syllabified using literary
syllabification!!
Compound Words with 2 Accents
ˈbob-ˌcat ˈodd-ˌball

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 ˈquick-ˌsand ˈpost-ˌman
ˈdown-ˌtime ˈfoot-ˌpath
ˈelse-ˌwhere1 ˈroad-ˌwork*
ˈgate-ˌway1 ˈsun-ˌshine
ˈhigh-ˌway ˈtom-ˌboy
ˈlaw-ˌsuit ˈsnow-ˌflake
ˈmoon-ˌlight ˈwar-ˌlord
ˈface-less2 ˈclue-less2

1) The word: /ˈelse-ˌwhere/ has 3 silent letters shown here in parenthesis: /ˈels(e)-ˌw(h)er(e)/ with the first
silent /e/ being irrelevant and even distracting in terms of syllabification for singing. The syllabification for
singing would be: /ˈel-ˌs(e)where/ since the consonant cluster of /sw/ is in use in American English. In its pre-
IPA transcription form, the word would look different with the silent letters removed: /ˈel-ˌswer/. Other
changes for syllabification for singing could also include:

Stresses in Three-Syllable Words

In words with three or more syllables there will always be one primary stress, and depending on
the degree of emphasis a possible secondary stress. For now, stay focused on listening for the
primary stress. The charts below illustrate some scenarios for three-syllable words. Column three
shows some possible secondary stresses.
First Syllable Second Syllable Third Syllable Main Accent
Accent Accent Possible Primary and Secondary Accent
ˈvi- de- o ba- ˈna- na ˌre- co- ˈmmend
ˈbeau- ti- ful le- ˈga- to ˌkan- ga- ˈroo
ˈcho- co- late ro- ˈta- tion ˌdis- be-ˈlief
ˈcon- so- nant me- ˈli- sma ˌre- co- ˈnnect
ˈfor- mu- la ad- ˈven- ture ˌdi- scon- ˈtent
ˈha- ppe- ning re- ˈspect- ful ˌen- gi- ˈneer
ˈmi- se- ry di- ˈstaste- ful ˌvo- lun- ˈteer

Three-syllable compound words tend to have a primary and a secondary stress with the primary
accent typically falling on the first syllable:
Three-Syllable Compound Words
ˈsu- per- ˌman ˈGol- di- ˌlocks
ˈbu- tter- ˌfly ˈsu- mmer- ˌtime
ˈgrand- ˌmo ther ˈwa- ter- ˌfall
ˈsun- ˌflo- wer ˈvo- lley- ˌball
ˈba- sket- ˌball ˈra- ttle- ˌsnake
Some four-syllable words are shown below, including some possible secondary stresses:
Four-Syllable Words
ˈcha- rac- te- ˌrize a-ˈna- ly- sis ˌsub-ju-ˈga-tion
ˈdi- ffi- ˌcul- ty re-ˈver- si- ble ˌa- ppli- ˈca- tion
ˈdic- tio- ˌna- ry com- ˈpa- ri- son ˌdi- ag- ˈno- sis

Chapter 1: Review and Study Guides

1. Important Terms introduced in Chapter 1
ACCENTUATION SCHWA
COMPOUND WORD SECONDARY STRESS (ˌ)

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CONSONANT CLUSTER STRESS
LITERARY SYLLABIFICATION SYLLABIFICATION
PRIMARY STRESS (ˈ) SYLLABIFICATION FOR SINGING

2. Review Syllabification for Singing in Legato Situations:

a) Individual consonants followed by a vowel move forward to the next syllable.
b) Identical double consonants followed by a vowel move forward to the next syllable since
identical double consonants in English represent only one sound.
c) Consonant clusters followed by a vowel move forward to the next syllable if they can be
easily pronounced as a unit and can appear at the beginning of English words (/bl/, /dr/, /pr/,
etc.).
d) Some consonant clusters cannot be easily pronounced together and cannot be moved
forward to the next syllable. These clusters must be divided up over two syllables, such /bj/:
/ob-ject/, /pt/: /chap-ter/, etc.
e) Some larger consonant clusters can be divided up with a part of it moving forward, such as
/ngr/: /an-gry/, /lst/: /bol-ster/, etc.

3. Procedure for Hyphenating and Finding Stressed Syllables

1A. Determine the number of syllables in the target word by saying it in a natural manner.
1B. Consider using an online dictionary with sound capabilities to allow you to objectively listen
and determine the number of syllables in a word.
The Cambridge Online Dicitionary (https://dictionary.cambridge.org) or the Merriam Webster Online Dictionary
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/) are useful sources.

2. Draw underlines and add hyphens to represent each syllable of the target words.
/bubble/ would get two underlines: _________ - _________
/elastic/ would get three: _________ - _________ - _________
/dictionary/ would get four: _________ - _________ - _________ - _________

3. Syllabify the words:

/bubble/ bu- bble; /elastic/ e- la- stic; /dictionary/ dic- tio- na- ry

5. Add the stress marks based on your saying the words as well as listening objectively to an
online dictionary with sound capabilities:

/bubble/ ˈbu- bble; /elastic/ e- ˈla- stic; /dictionary/ ˈdic- tio- ˌna- ry