Fluids

Fluid flow can be either laminar or turbulent.

1. Laminar Flow

Laminar flow is one in which the liquid particles have a definite path and the path of individual
particles do not cross each other. The flow is steady or uniform and the velocity profile is constant.

Occurs when the fluid flows in parallel layers, with no mixing between the layers.

2. Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow is one in which each liquid particles does not have a definite path and the path of
individual particles cross each other. The flow is fast and unsteady. The velocity is not constant.

Occurs when the liquid is moving fast with mixing between layers. The speed of the fluid at a
point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction.
FLOW RATE

Two types of flow rate:

1. Mass flow rate

2. Volume flow rate

Volume Flow Rate – Discharge

- The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing through any section per unit time.
- The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
- The volumetric flow rate, Q, is calculated from

Q = Av
(m /s) = m2 x m/s
3

•Whereby A – the area of the section and v – the velocity of flow.

•SI units: A – m2
; v – m/s
; Q - m3/s

Mass Flow Rate

- The mass flow rate is the mass of fluid flow passing through any section per unit time.
- The mass flow rate, ṁ , is related to Q by
ṁ = ρQ
ṁ = ρAv
•Whereby ρ - the density of the fluid.
•SI units: ρ - kg/m3
; Q – m3/s
; ṁ - kg/s
CONTINUITY EQUATION

mass entering per unit time at end 1 = mass leaving per unit time at end 2

ρ1A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2
When the fluid can be considered incompressible, i.e. the density does not change, ρ 1 = ρ2 = ρ so

A1 v1 = A2 v2

Q 1 = Q2
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

•Bernoulli’s equation states that the total energy contained in a given quantity of fluid is composed of
a. Potential energy, by virtue of its height
b. Pressure energy, by virtue of its pressure
c. Kinetic energy, by virtue of its velocity

•Bernoulli’s equation can be considered as the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing
fluids.

•This states that the sum of all mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points
on that streamline.

•Therefore, this requires the sum of energies remains constant

Pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

P + ½ρv + ρgh = constant
2

ρ is density in kg/m3;
is velocity in m/s;
h is height of fluid column in metre (m);
is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 ;
P is pressure exerted by liquid in Pascal (Pa)
VENTURI METER

 It is a device for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a pipeline.

 It consists of two conical parts with short portion of uniform cross-section in between.

Venturi meter consists of 3 sections:

1. Converging section
2. Throat section
3. Diverging section.

It does not have any circular plate being installed in the throat section. The fluid velocity will be
at maximum at the throat section.

OPERATION OF VENTURI METER

•The principle of Venturi meter is that when a fluid flows through Venturi meter, pressure difference is
created by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow passage.
•The pressure difference is measured by using a differential U-tube manometer.

•The findings of this pressure difference are used to determine the rate of fluid flow or the discharge
through the pipeline.
•As the inlet area of the venturi is large than the throat, the velocity at the throat increases resulting in
decrease of pressure.
•Therefore, a pressure difference is created between the inlet and the throat of the venturi meter.
ORIFICE PLATE
 It is a device used for measuring flow rate, similar principle to Venturi meter in terms of
operation.
 It is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe.
 It provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement for the measurement of flow through a pipe.

 Orifice meter consists of circular plate which has a circular hole in concentric with the
pipe.

 The vena contracta is where the fluid velocity is at maximum.

HOW AN ORIFICE PLATE WORKS?

 When a fluid passes through the orifice plate, its pressure builds up slightly upstream of the
orifice.
 As the fluid forced to converge to pass through the hole, the velocity increases and the fluid
pressure decreases.
 As the fluid flow reaches its maximum convergence, the vena contracta is formed as the velocity
reaches its maximum and the pressure reaches its minimum.
 Beyond that point, the flow expands that decreases the velocity and the pressure increases.
 By measuring the difference in fluid pressure, the flow rate can be obtained from Bernoulli’s
equation.
ROTAMETER

•It is a device that measures flow rate in a closed tube.

•This device is a common type of variable area meter.

•It consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a metering float inside which is free to move
within the tube.

COMPONENTS OF ROTAMETER

•The main components of a Rotameter are:

a. Conical tube – made of variety of materials such as glass, plastic and metal
b. A float – available in a variety of shapes and materials, with varying density that can be used to
change the meter’s range and to resist corrosion from the measured fluid
THE OPERATION OF ROTAMETER

•The fluid flows upward through a clear tube which has an accurate taper on the inside.

•A float is suspended in the flowing fluid at a position proportional to the flow rate.

•The upward forces due to the fluid dynamic drag on the float and buoyancy just balance the weight of
the float.

•When the flow is constant, the float stays in one position that can be related to the volumetric flow
rate.

•The position of the float is measured against a calibrated scale graduated in convenient units of volume
flow rate or weight flow rate.