General Characteristics of Class Mammalia:

1. These animals are warm blooded, hairy and have mammary or milk producing glands,
(mammary glands). They are the only animals which nourish their young ones with milk. There
are about 4,000 species of mammals found in the world.
2. They are homoiothermous (warm blooded).
3. Oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous glands) are present in the skin.
4. Teeth are of different types (heterodont) and are embedded in the sockets of jaws (the codont).
These are developed twice during the life-time of the animal (diphyodont), milk and permanent
teeth.
5. Except a few, mammals possess seven cervical (neck) vertebrae.
6. The skull is dicondylic i.e., with two occipital condyles.
7. Respiration is by lungs.
8. They possess a muscular diaphragm dividing trunk into thorax and abdomen.
9. The coelom is divided into four cavities; a pericardial cavity lodging the heart, two pleural
cavities each containing the lung and an adominal cavity having the rest of viscera.
10. The heart is four chambered. Sinus venosus is absent. The red blood corpuscles are without
nucleus. Renal portal system is absent.
11. The brain has large cerebrum and cerebellum. Optic lobes are divided into four lobes called
corpora quadrigemina. Corpus callosum connects the two cerebral hemispheres internally.
12. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present.
13. Each ear consists of three parts: external, middle and internal. Pinna is a part of external ear.
Middle ear has 3 bony ear ossicles (malleus— hammer shaped, incus-anvil shaped and stapes-
stirrup shaped). Internal ear has organ of Corti, the actual hearing organ.
14. Except egg laying mammals they are viviparous. There are present four embryonic membranes:
chorion, amnion, allantois and yolk sac. Except egg laying mammals a well developed placenta is
present.
15. Mammals occur in all sorts of habitats. They are dominant animals and are capable to learn
because of their better developed brain.

Examples:

Oviparous – Omithorhynchus (Duck Billed Platypus), Tachyglossus = Echidna (Spiny Anteater).

Viviparous — Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Large bat), Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey),
Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Elephas (Elephant), Felis (Cat) Delphinus (Common dolphin), Equus
(Horse), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera tigns (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).

Classifications of Class Mammalia:

Living mammals are divided into two sub-classes.

1. Sub-class I. Prototheria:

Prototherians are considered to be the most primitive mam-mals which are only restricted in
Australia and its neighbouring islands (Tasmania New Guinea). Besides egg-laying habit, they
have several reptilian characters including a cloaca. They lay eggs containing ample amount of
yolk. Subclass prototheria includes one order Monotremata e.g., Omithorhynchus, Tachyglossus-
(Echidna).

2. Sub-Class II. Theria:

They produce young ones. Subclass theria is divided into two infraclasses; Metatheria and
Eutheria.

I. Infra-Class Metatheria:

Now they are found mainly in Australia, New Guinea and S. America. Females have a marsupium
or brood-pouch for rearing young ones. Infraclass metatheria includes one Order Marsupialia.
Mammals of this order are called marsupials or pouched mammals, e.g., Macropus, Didelphis
(Opossum) and Phascolarctos (Koala).

II. Infra-class Eutheria:

They are provided with true placenta, hence called placen-ta! mammals. The embryos are retained
in the uterus (womb) till an advanced stage.

Some of the principal orders of placental mammals are briefly described here.
(1) Insectivora (L. insectum- insect, vorare- to eat).

Testes are abdominal. The water shrew is the tiniest mammal which is as large as a human thumb
e.g., shrews, moles and hedgehogs.

(2) Dermoptera (Gr. derm- skin, pteron- wing):

A hairy skin fold called patagium extends like a parachute from neck to tail for gliding, e.g., flying
lemours. Actually, flying lemurs are neither true lemurs nor do they fly.

(3) Chiroptera (Gk. Cheiros- hand pteron- wing):

They are flying mammals. The forelimbs are modified into wings, e g bats and flying foxes. The
vampire bats feed on the blood of mammals including man

(4) Edentata (L edentatus- toothless):

They are toothless. This order includes the armadillos and sloths of South America.

(5) Phoiidota (Gk. pholis- a homy scale):

The body of these mammals is covered with overlapping horny scales with sparse hair in between.
Teeth are absent, e.g. Manis (scaly ant eater or pangolin).

(6) Primates (L. primus- of the first rank):

Primates have highly developed brain. The living primates include prosimians (meaning before
monkeys) and simians. The prosimians include lemurs, lorises and tarsiers the simians include
monkeys, apes and men.
(7) Rodentia (L. rodo- gnaw):

They have one pair of sharp chisel-like incisors in each jaw. The canines are absent, leaving a
toothless space, the diastema in the jaw no canines, e.g., rats, mice, squirrels, guinea-pigs and
porcupines!

(8) Lagomorpha (Gk. logos- hare, morphe- form):

They have two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw and one pair of incisors in the lower jaw and no
canines, e.g., rabbits and hares.

(9) Cetacea (L. cetus- whale):

They have fish-like body, well adapted for aquatic life. They have fin-like fore limbs, but no hind
limbs. Testes are abdominal. The skin has a thick layer of fat called blubber serving as reserve
food, an insulator for reducing the specific gravity.

Pinnae are reduced or absent. Hair is only on lips. They do not have sweat and oil glands, e g
whales, dolphins and porpoises. Blue whale is the largest living animal. Whales nor-mally lack
pelvic girdle and hind limbs.

The Green land whales, however, possess vestiges of pelvic girdles and bones of hind limbs inside
the body

(10) Carnivora (L. Caro- flesh, vorare- to eat):

They are flesh eating mammals. These animals have sharp pointed canines, strong jaws and well
developed claws, e.g., dog, cat, wolf, jackal, fox, cheetah, lion, tiger, hyaena, mongoose, bear,
panda, otter, seal, walrus, sea lion. Cheetah is the fastest runner. It can cover a distance of 120 Km
in one hour.
(11) Proboscidea (Gk. pro- in front, boskein- to eat):

They have a long muscular trunk. They are thick skinned animals hence called pachyderms (Gk.
pachys – thick, derm – Skin). They are the largest land animals, e.g., elephants.

(12) Sirenia (Gk. siren- sea nymph):

They are herbivorous aquatic mammals with fin-like forelimbs and no hind limbs. They have few
hairs and do not have external ears.

They have thick blubber. Testes are abdominal. The males have tusks, e.g., Manatee, Seacows.

(13) Perissodactyla (Gk. perissos- odd, dactylos- toes):

They are herbivorous odd-toed hoofed mammals or ungulates (L. ungula- hoof) or hoofed which
have an odd number of toes (1 or 3). True horns with a bony core are never present.

The stomach is of non-ruminating type (these are not cud chewing animals) e.g., horses, asses,
mules, zebras, tapirs and rhinoceros.

(14) Artiodactyla (Gk. artios- even, dactylos- digit):

They are herbivorous even toed hoofed mammals or ungulates (hoofed) which have even number
of toes (2 or 4). True horns or antlers are present in many animals of this order. Many even toed
hoofed mammals like cow and camel are ruminants or cud-chewing.

The four chambered stomach of cow is capable of digesting cellulose of plant materials by micro-
organisms (ruminococcus bacteria, protozoans and fungi), present in the rumen (first part of their
stomach) e.g., cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, deer, antelopes, yaks, camels, giraffes, pigs and
hippopotamuses.
Reproduction in mammalia

In reproductively mature female mammals, an interaction of hormones from the pituitary gland
and the ovaries produces a phenomenon known as the estrous cycle. Estrus, or “heat,” typically
coincides with ovulation, and during this time the female is receptive to the male. Estrus is
preceded by proestrus, during which ovarian follicles mature under the influence of a follicle-
stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary. The follicular cells produce estrogen, a hormone
that stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining, or endometrium. Following ovulation, in late
estrus, the ruptured ovarian follicle forms a temporary endocrine gland known as the corpus
luteum. Another hormone, progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, causes the endometrium
to become quiescent and ready for implantation of the developing egg (blastocyst), should
fertilization occur. In members of the infraclass Eutheria (placental mammals), the placenta, as
well as transmitting nourishment to the embryo, has an endocrine function, producing hormones
that maintain the endometrium throughout gestation.

If fertilization and implantation do not occur, a phase termed metestrus ensues, in which the
reproductive tract assumes its normal condition. Metestrus may be followed by anestrus, a
nonreproductive period characterized by quiescence or involution of the reproductive tract. On the
other hand, anestrus may be followed by a brief quiescent period (diestrus) and another preparatory
proestrus phase. Mammals that breed only once a year are termed monestrous and exhibit a long
anestrus; those that breed more than once a year are termed polyestrous. In many polyestrous
species the estrous cycle ceases during gestation and lactation (milk production), but some rodents
have a postpartum estrus and mate immediately after giving birth.

The menstrual cycle of higher primates is derived from the estrous cycle but differs from estrus in
that when progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum ceases, in the absence of fertilization, the
uterine lining is sloughed. In anthropoids other than humans, a distinct period of “heat” occurs
around the time of ovulation.

Monotremes lay shelled eggs, but the ovarian cycle is similar to that of other mammals. The eggs
are predominantly yolk (telolecithal), like those of reptiles and birds. Young monotremes hatch in
a relatively early stage of development and are dependent upon the parent (altricial). They reach
sexual maturity in about one year.

The reproduction of marsupials differs from that of placentals in that the uterine wall is not
specialized for the implantation of embryos. The period of intrauterine development varies from
about 8 to 40 days. After this period the young migrate through the vagina to attach to the teats for
further development. The pouch, or marsupium, is variously structured. Many species, such as
kangaroos and opossums, have a single well-developed pouch; in some phalangerids (cuscuses
and brush-tailed possums), the pouch is compartmented, with a single teat in each compartment.
The South American caenolestids, or rat opossums, have no marsupium. The young of most
marsupials depend on maternal care through the pouch for considerable periods, 13 to 14 weeks
in the North American, or Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Young koalas are carried in
the pouch for nearly 8 months, kangaroos to 10 months.

Implantation, gestation, and birth

Reproductive patterns in placental mammals are diverse, but in all cases a secretory phase is
present in the uterine cycle, and the endometrium is maintained by secretions of progesterone from
the corpus luteum. The blastocyst implants in the uterine wall. Villi are embedded in the lining of
the uterus. The resulting complex of embryonic and maternal tissues is a true placenta. The uterine
lining may be shed with the fetal membranes as “afterbirth” (a condition called deciduate) or may
be resorbed by the female (nondeciduate). Placentas have been classified on the basis of the
relationship between maternal and embryonic tissues. In the simplest nondeciduate placental
arrangement, the chorionic villi are in contact with uterine epithelium (the inner surface layer). In
the “intimate deciduous” types, seen in primates, bats, insectivores, and rodents, the capillary
endothelium (the layer containing minute blood vessels) of the uterine wall breaks down, and
chorionic epithelium is in direct contact with maternal blood. In advanced stages of pregnancy in
rabbits, even the chorionic epithelium is eroded, and the embryonic endothelium contacts the
maternal blood supply. In no case, however, is there actual exchange of blood between mother and
fetus; nutrients and gases must still pass through the walls of the fetal blood vessels.

The period of intrauterine development, or gestation, varies widely among eutherians, generally
depending on the size of the animal but also influenced by the number of young per litter and the
condition of young at birth. The gestation period of the golden hamster is about 2 weeks, whereas
that of the blue whale is 11 months and that of the African elephant 21 to 22 months.

At birth the young may be well-developed and able to move about at once (precocial), or they may
be blind, hairless, and essentially helpless (altricial). In general, precocial young are born after a
relatively long gestation period and in a small litter. Hares and many large grazing mammals bear
precocial offspring. Rabbits, carnivores, and most rodents bear altricial young.

After birth young mammals are nourished by milk secreted by the mammary glands of the female.
The development of milk-producing tissue in the female mammae is triggered by conception, and
the stimulation of suckling the newborn prompts copious lactation. In therians (marsupials and
placentals) the glands open through specialized nipples. The newborn young of marsupials are
unable to suckle, and milk is “pumped” to the young by the mother.

Milk consists of fat, protein (especially casein), and lactose (milk sugar), as well as vitamins and
salts. The actual composition of milk of mammals varies widely among species. The milk of
whales and seals is some 12 times as rich in fats and 4 times as rich in protein as that of domestic
cows but contains almost no sugar. Milk provides an efficient energy source for the rapid growth
of young mammals; the weight at birth of some marine mammals doubles in five days.

Response to environmental cycles

Mammals may react to environmental extremes with acclimatization, compensatory behaviour, or
physiological specialization. One way for a mammal to endure stressful environmental conditions
is to become dormant. Dormancy is the general term that relates to the reduced metabolic activity
adopted by many organisms under conditions of environmental stress. Dormancy is differentiated
from sleep, which is not necessarily a response to environmental stess but rather occurs as part of
an organism’s daily rest cycle. Physiological responses to adverse conditions include torpor,
hibernation (in winter), and estivation (in summer). Torpor is a type of dormancy that may occur
in the daily cycle or during unfavourable weather; short-term torpor is generally economical only
for small mammals that can cool and warm rapidly. The body temperature of most temperate-zone
bats drops near that of the ambient air whenever the animal sleeps. The winter dormancy of bears
at high latitudes is an analogous phenomenon and cannot be considered true hibernation.
Strictly speaking, hibernation only occurs in warm-blooded vertebrates. True hibernation involves
physiological regulation to minimize the expenditure of energy. The body temperature is lowered,
and breathing may be slowed to as low as 1 percent of the rate in an active individual. There is a
corresponding slowing of circulation and typically a reduction in the peripheral blood supply.
When the body temperature nears the freezing point, spontaneous arousal occurs, although other
kinds of stimuli generally elicit only a very slow response. In mammals that exhibit winter
dormancy (such as bears, skunks, and raccoons), arousal may be quite rapid. Hibernation has
evidently originated independently in a number of mammalian lines, and the comparative
physiology of this complex phenomenon is only now beginning to be understood.

Inactivity in response to adverse summer conditions (heat, drought, lack of food) is termed
estivation. Estivation in some species is simply prolonged rest, usually in a favourable
microhabitat; in other species estivating mammals regulate their metabolism, although the effects
are typically not as pronounced as in hibernation.
Behavioral response to adverse conditions may involve the selection or construction of a suitable
microhabitat, such as the cool, moist burrows of desert rodents. Migration is a second kind of
behavioral response. The most obvious kind of mammalian migration is latitudinal. Many
temperate-zone bats, for example, undertake extensive migrations, although other bat species
hibernate near their summer foraging grounds in caves or other equable shelters during severe
weather when insects are not available. Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), or reindeer, migrate from the
tundra to the forest edge in search of a suitable winter range, and a number of cetaceans (whales,
dolphins, and porpoises) and pinnipeds (walruses and seals) undertake long migrations from polar
waters to more temperate latitudes. Gray whales, for example, migrate southward to calving
grounds along the coasts of South Korea and Baja California from summer feeding grounds in the
northern Pacific Ocean (Okhotsk, Bering, and Chukchi seas). Of comparable extent is the
dispersive feeding migration of the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus).