Fonética y Fonología I

Fonética y Fonología I
Diseño: Prof Carina Luc
Unit 3 Tutora: Prof. Cecilia

Zemborain
The Sounds of Speech:
Ciclo Lectivo: 2018
Consonant Sounds I
Phonetics and Phonology I
Unit 3
Unit 3: The Sounds of Speech I:

Consonant Sounds
➢ Introducing the sounds of speech
➢ Consonant sounds
➢ The distinctive features of consonant sounds
➢ Common difficulties of Spanish speakers regarding consonant sounds
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Unit 3
PART 1
Introducing the Sounds of Speech
READING TEXT
So far, we have considered the IPA essentially as an alternative writing system,

which allows us to express a larger range of sounds than the English spelling
system would. However, looking only at those symbols might suggest that we are
dealing with individual, self-contained units when we consider phonemes and
allophones: each is like a locked black box labelled with an IPA symbol.
In fact, each IPA symbol is shorthand for a whole range of properties, and those
properties explain how the particular segment being symbolised is pronounced;
unpacking the black box for each sound reveals not a jumble, but an internal
structure, and understanding that structure allows us to make comparisons with
other sounds. When we know that [k], for instance, is a voiceless velar plosive, we
can start to see what properties it shares with other sounds which might also be
voiceless, or velar, or plosives; we can also see how it differs from other sounds
which are not voiceless, or velar, or plosives. Furthermore, we shall see what
properties different allophones of the same phoneme share, which might allow
them to be regarded as ‘the same’ by speakers of English: that is, we can work out
what particular phonetic features speakers of English tend to ignore, and which
they are aware of. Since this may be very different for speakers of other languages,
unpacking IPA notation in this way also allows cross-linguistic comparisons to be
made.
A biologist looking at some particular creature wants to know various things about
it, to work out where it should be placed in conventional biological classification.
Biologists today are, of course, working within an agreed classification: when they
observe a creature with particular physical traits, or particular behaviours, they
can slot it into a framework of herbivores and carnivores; mammals, insects, birds
and reptiles; vertebrates and invertebrates; and so on. Fortunately, phoneticians
and phonologists have a similar, generally agreed framework for sounds. For
consonants, we need to know seven things to arrive at a classification: in this unit,
we shall consider these seven sets of properties in turn, and assess which English
phonemes fit into each category. Vowel classification involves rather different
features, so we are beginning with consonants because many of their properties
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Unit 3
are easier to ascertain from self-observation, and because the systems of

consonant phonemes in different accents of English vary far less than the vowels.
We shall therefore consider a very basic set of phonetic features which enable us to
describe the articulation of the consonants of English, and to assess their
differences and similarities.
FIRST THINGS FIRST
REFLECTION
Have you noticed that most consonant phonemes are

represented by their corresponding letter of the
alphabet?
The consonants /t, d, p, b, k, g, f, v, s, l, m, n, r, w/ look

exactly like their alphabetical counterparts, which makes
them easy to remember. But, do they sound the same as in
Spanish?
Try reading the next line with Spanish sounds:
Peter ran to the corner to avoid Tom.
What happened? Did it sound ‘English’ at all? Probably not.
Similarly, when an English-speaking person first attempts to speak Spanish, they

come out with a funny accent.
Pretend that you are a British person trying to speak Spanish for the first time.
How would you say the following line?
¿Cuánto cuesta hablar por teléfono?
You probably have a smile on your face by now, which is good, because it means
that you can tell the difference between English and Spanish sounds.
Now let's move on to a more scientific approach to the study of the sounds of
speech in English.
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Unit 3
READING TEXT
Key Words: phonetic – phonological – articulatory – auditory – stricture –

narrowing – central- marginal- cluster
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS1
Vowels and consonants occur in the languages of the world, but defining what
these terms mean is not a straightforward task, nor is the distinction between
them the same in all the languages.
From the phonetic point of view (i.e., from the point of view of their production
by the organs of speech), it can be said that English vowels and consonants differ in
three main aspects:
• Consonants can be described in terms of their articulation. When we produce

consonants, we can feel the contact between the organs of speech that take part
in their production and their movements inside the mouth,
and this articulation can, thus, be described quite easily. We
can feel and describe, for instance, that for the production of
/ t/ the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the
alveolar ridge. Vowels, on the other hand, cannot be
described in the same way because, to begin with, the
organs of speech do not actually touch each other in their
production. As a consequence of this, we can probably feel
some gross positions and movements of the tongue (for
instance, we can probably say that for the production of /i:/ the Fig. 1 – Tongue
front of the tongue rises towards the hard palate, whereas for the positions for / i:/
production of /ɑ:/, it’s the back of the tongue that rises in the and / ɑ:/
direction of the soft palate), but the actual degree of tongue rising and the exact
point at which this rising occurs are very difficult to judge from a purely
articulatory point of view. In order to describe vowels, therefore, we need to
resort to auditory relationships between them, we need to estimate the extent
and nature of the auditory differences between one vowel and another.
1
Notes adapted by Prof. M. Lorenzo
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Unit 3
• Another phonetic difference between consonants and vowels is that in the

articulation of consonants there’s usually a stricture, that is to say, an
obstruction of some kind to the passage of the air. This is a consequence of the
fact that in the production of consonants the organs of speech come into
contact with one another in many different ways. In the case of vowels, the air
can go out in an unimpeded way, usually along the centre of the tongue, since in
their production, the organs only approximate in different degrees, without
actually touching one another, as was said before. However, this feature – the
presence of a stricture of some kind in the production of consonants – does not
apply when we describe certain sounds of English, such as the sound at the
beginning of the word yes. Traditionally, this sound / j / has been included
within the category of consonants, but in its production, the air can go out in an
unimpeded way, no such stricture being present in its production. We will
explain this below.
• The third phonetic difference between these two types of speech sound is that
some consonants are produced with vocal fold vibration, and some others are
produced without such vibration; i.e., some consonants are voiced and some are
voiceless. All the vowels (and also the diphthongs) are voiced.
• A fourth difference between vowels and consonants is a phonological rather

than a phonetic one, and it has to do with the distributional aspect, i.e., with the
position of consonants and vowels within the syllable. From this distributional
(or phonological, or functional) point of view, consonants are all marginal in
the syllable, and vowels are central; i.e., consonants occur at the beginning
and/or end of syllables, and vowels occur at their centre. This explains why the
sound / j / that was discussed above is treated as a consonant in spite of its
vowel-like resonance: it always occurs in marginal positions in the syllable,
followed only by vowels (cf. /jes/, for instance).
Try this:
Read the words in the columns below: First read down each column; then
read each line across (eg. /i:/, /ki:/, /ki:n/, etc.).
  
eee / i: / key / ki:/ keen/ki:n/
ooh / u: / two / tu:/ tool/tu:l/
or / ɔ: / nor / nɔ:/ naught/nɔ:t/
er / ɜ:/ sir / sɜ: / surf/sɜ:f/
ah / ɑ: / bar / bɑ: / bark /bɑ:k/
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Unit 3
When you read column 1 down, become aware of the air coming out of your
vocal tract in an unimpeded way along the centre of your tongue. This is
because you’re producing vowels.
When you read column 2 down, you should notice the closure or narrowing at
the beginning of each syllable to produce a consonant, and the immediately
following opening of the vocal tract to produce a vowel.
When you read column 3 down, become aware of the same closure or
narrowing at the beginning of the syllable, the opening immediately
following, and then a new closure or narrowing to produce another
consonant at the end of the syllable. Notice the distributional aspect of
consonants being marginal and vowels being central in syllables.
Sources:
❖ Jones, Daniel: An Outline of English Phonetics, W. Heffer and Sons Ltd., 1964.
❖ Roach, Peter: English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course, Cambridge
University Press, 1991.
❖ Gimson, A. C.: An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, 3rd Edition;
Edward Arnold, 1975. (Figure 1, from p. 39)
QUICK CHECK
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. Quick Check Key (1)
a) Define the terms "consonant" and "vowel", phonetically speaking.
b) Why can’t consonants and vowels be described using the same parameters?
c) Why are some differences described as ‘phonetic’ whereas others are

‘phonological’?
Now check your answers with the key at the end of the unit.
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Unit 3
REFLECTION
 What do you know already about the vocal folds?

 How important do you think they are in the production of sounds?
 Can you locate them in your body?
READING TEXT
Key Words: vocal folds – cartilage – tissue – unimpeded –

vibration – friction –glottal stop
It has already been said that the vocal folds are situated inside the larynx, and
that they are two folds (or 'lips') of ligament and elastic tissue which are capable
of considerable movement. It has also been said that they play an essential role
in the production of speech; that is why we will now describe them in some more
detail. In order to see the vocal folds, we would need to look down the throat and
into the cartilages that make up the larynx, and this can be done only by means of
special optical equipment. A possible schematic representation of the main parts
that make up the vocal folds as observed from above and using such equipment is
presented in Fig. 1 below:
FRONT
VOCAL FOLDS
GLOTTIS
ARYTENOID CARTILAGES
BACK
Figure 1: The vocal folds as seen from above
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Unit 3
At the front the vocal folds are joined together and fixed to the inside of the
thyroid cartilage. At the back they are attached to two small cartilages called the
arytenoid cartilages, and these in turn are attached to the top of the cricoid
cartilage (the lower cartilage in the larynx). This pair of cartilages can move, and
this produces the movement of the vocal folds: when the cartilages move, the vocal
folds may come together or go apart (this is shown by the dotted lines in Figure 1
above). The opening between the vocal folds is referred to as the glottis, so we talk
about the glottis being open or closed, depending on whether the vocal folds are
apart or pressed together respectively.
This vocal fold movement is responsible for the functions the folds have in the
production of speech. We are going to describe four states of the vocal folds which
have a clear role in this:
1) They are wide apart (the glottis is wide open). If they are in this
position, the air coming up from the lungs can go through the glottis in
an unimpeded way into the pharynx. This is the position of the vocal
folds when we breathe, and also the position for the production of
consonants such as /p, f, s/.
open
glottis
2) They are apart, but not as wide open as for position 1) above (there
is a narrow glottis). If air passes through the glottis when the vocal
folds are in this position, there is glottal friction, i.e., we produce the
sound /h/.
narrow
glottis
3)The edges of the vocal folds touch each other lightly, so that air
passing through them causes them to vibrate: the air coming up
from the lungs pushes the vocal folds apart so that a little air
escapes; as the air flows quickly past the edges of the vocal folds,
the folds are brought together again. This opening and closing
happens very rapidly and is repeated regularly, averaging roughly
between two and three hundred times per second in a woman´s voice vibrating vocal
and about half that rate in adult men´s. This is the position of the folds
vocal folds for the production of all English vowels and diphthongs,
and also of consonants such as /b, m, n/.
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Unit 3
4) The vocal folds are tightly closed (the glottis is closed). If the vocal
folds are tightly closed, air coming up from the lungs cannot pass
between them. When this happens in speech, we produce a glottal
stop, for which the symbol is /ʔ/.
closed glottis
Try this:
Practise moving your vocal folds into these different positions:
 Close your mouth and breath normally.

When you do this, your vocal folds are in position 1) above.
 Say /fffffffffffff/ or /θθθθθθθ/

When you do this, again your vocal folds are in position 1) above.
 Say /ahahahahahaha /.
When you do this, your vocal folds alternate between positions 3)
and 2) above.
 Say / zzzzzzzz/ or /vvvvvvvvvvvvv/

When you do this, your vocal folds are vibrating as in position 3)
above.
 Cough gently several times.

When you do this, you should feel the tight closing of the glottis first
(position 4 above), and then the sudden release of air with audible
friction of the /h/ type described in 2) above.
 Also say / aʔaʔaʔaʔa/

When you do this, your vocal folds alternate between positions 3)
and 4) above.
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Unit 3
VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS

The vibrating or non-vibrating state of the vocal folds, then, respectively
determines the presence or absence of voice in the speech sounds we produce:
➢ if there is no vocal fold vibration (cf. positions 1 and 2 above), we say that
the speech sounds we produce are voiceless;
➢ if there is vibration (cf. position 3 above), we say that the speech sounds we
produce are voiced.
In general terms, then, we can say that some English sounds are voiced and
some others are voiceless. However, it is necessary to remark that the voiced or
voiceless quality of sounds is not always an absolute value, as in context, the
degree of voicing of a sound may affect the degree of voicing of a neighbouring
sound (a voiced sound may lose part or all of its voicing in contact with a voiceless
sound, or with silence, for instance). We will discuss this issue later on in the
course. Anyway, it is very important to be aware of this characteristic of English
sounds because knowing this and consciously trying to produce voice or not, will
help you improve the quality of production of your sounds.
Broadly speaking, then, we can say that all English vowels and diphthongs are
voiced, and that some consonants are voiced and some others are voiceless.
Voiced consonants: /b/ /d/ /g/ /z/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ /v/ /w/ /j/ /ð/
/m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /r/
Voiceless consonants: /p/ /t/ /k/ /s/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/ /f/ /h/ /θ/
Try this:
 Say / ffffvvvvffffvvvv/ and /sssszzzzsssszzzz /. In order to feel

the vocal fold vibration, as you say these sequences of sounds,
do the following:
put your fingertips against your larynx;
or cover up your ears;
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Unit 3
Can you feel the vibration? Which of the two sounds in each
sequence is voiced and which is voiceless?
or try to sing a simple tune alternating first with the / fffff /
sequence and then with / vvvvv /.
Can you "sing" both sounds?
The one that you can sing is voiced and the one you cannot is
voiceless.2
QUICK CHECK
Unit 3 Key  (2)
Are the following statements true or false? Correct the false ones.
1. A sound is ‘voiced’ when there is glottal friction.____
2. The term ‘voiceless’ refers to the absence of vibration in the vocal

folds. ____
3. All consonants are voiceless. ____
4. All vowels are voiced. ____
2
Prof. Daniel Jones, the well-known phonetician, suggested that voiced sounds can be sung while
voiceless sounds cannot. (Daniel Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics, W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., 9th Ed.
1964; p. 21)
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Unit 3
FURTHER READING
In order to revise and enlarge your

knowledge of these basic concepts, read
Chapter 2 ‘The Production of Speech Sounds’
and Chapter 4 ‘Voicing and Consonants’ from
the book ‘English Phonetics and Phonology’
by Peter Roach.
READING TEXT
THE CONSONANTAL TYPE
Since, as we have seen, the production of a speech sound may involve the action
of a source of energy, a vibrator, and the movement of certain supra-glottal organs,
any description of consonantal articulations must first consider the following
points:
1. If they are pulmonic or non-pulmonic, i.e. if the air-stream is set in motion by

the lungs or by some other means.
2. If they are egressive or ingressive, i.e. if the air-stream is forced outwards or

sucked inwards.
3. If they are voiced or voiceless, i.e. if the vocal folds vibrate or not.
4. If they are oral, nasal or nasalized, i.e. if the soft palate is raised, thus
directing the air-stream through the mouth, or lowered, allowing the
passage through the nose.
5. Their place of articulation, i.e. at what point or points and between what
organs the closure or narrowing takes place.
6. Their manner of articulation, i.e. what the type of closure or narrowing is at

the point of articulation.
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Unit 3
7. One last aspect that has to be considered is if they are fortis or lenis, i.e. the
degree of breath and muscular effort involved in their articulation.
To start our description we can then say that those English consonants which
tend to be articulated with relatively weak energy (normally the voiced
consonants) are lenis; whereas those which are always relatively strong (normally
the voiceless consonants) are said to be fortis.
Secondly, most speech sounds, and all normal English sounds, are made with
egressive lung air. At any point of articulation, a consonantal sound may be voiced
or voiceless. This description already accounts for points 1., 2. and 3. above.
Try this:
1. Use the list of paired words below. Say each pair aloud, checking that the
sounds are the same except for the voiced / voiceless distinction.
2. Whisper the same pair. Try to hear and feel the difference in the force of
your breath. If you put your open palm close to your lips you can also feel
the difference in the force of the expelled air. For example:
pea bee
tea dee
chore jaw
came game
fire via
three then
sue zoo
mission measure
You should find that even when you whisper you can still distinguish between the
consonants on the left and those on the right. The question is: how did you make
the difference? You probably found that you made the consonants on the left with
a relatively stronger muscular effort and force of exhalation, and those on the
right with a relatively weaker degree of muscular effort and exhalation. These are
then, respectively, fortis (strong) and lenis (weak, gentle) consonants.
The classification into fortis and lenis sounds is as follows:
Lenis consonants: /b/ /d/ /g/ /z/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ /v/ /w/ /j/ /ð/
/m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /r/
Fortis consonants: /p/ /t/ /k/ /s/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/ /f/ /h/ /θ/
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Unit 3
Does this classification ring a bell? If not, have a look at page 10 again.
In conclusion, then, voicing / voicelessness is not the only difference between

the pairs of consonants. There is the additional and separate choice of putting
more or less energy into the breath. It happens that in English it is the voiced
consonants that are lenis, or weaker in their force of exhalation, and their
voiceless counterparts that are fortis, or stronger in their force of exhalation.
When the voicing distinction is reduced or absent, as for example when we

whisper, then the fortis / lenis distinction may be the only remaining contrast
between a pair of consonants.
We will now consider the classification of consonants according to the place and
manner of articulation, which will cover the remaining points above.
PLACE OF ARTICULATION
To produce any consonant, an active

articulator, usually located somewhere along
the base of the vocal tract, moves towards a
passive articulator, somewhere along the
top. Where those articulators are,
determines the consonant’s place of
articulation. The chief points of articulation
for English consonant sounds are:
1. Bilabial.- The primary articulators are

the lips, which are brought together. This
is the case of /p, b, m/.
2. Labiodental.- The upper teeth touch the

lower lip, as in /f, v/.
3. Dental.- The tip and rims of the tongue touch the upper teeth, which is the case
of /ð,θ/.
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Unit 3
4. Alveolar.- The tip and blade of the tongue touch the alveolar ridge, as in /s, z,
d, t, n, l/.
5. Post-alveolar.- The tip and blade of the tongue touch the alveolar ridge and
there is at the same time a raising of the tongue towards the hard palate. This is
the case of /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, r/.
6. Palatal.- The front of the tongue touches with the hard palate, as in /j/.
7. Velar.-The back of the tongue touches the soft palate, as in /k, g, ŋ/.
8. Glottal.- There is an obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction but not

vibration, between the vocal cords, which is the case of /h/.
• The consonant sound /w/ is produced with both labialization and back-
tongue rising (the back of the tongue approaches the velum as for velar
sounds) so, as it is coarticulated, it is described as labial-velar or labio-
velar.
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Manner of articulation refers to the nature of the obstruction of pulmonary airflow.

In order to fully appreciate the differences among speech sounds, as well as
indicating the place of articulation, it is necessary to determine the nature and
extent of the obstruction of airflow involved in their articulation. The type of
airflow obstruction is known as the manner of articulation. The manner of
articulation is particularly defined by four major factors: (a) whether there is
vibration of the vocal cords (voiced vs. voiceless), (b) whether there is obstruction
of the airstream at any point above the glottis (consonant vs. vowel), (c) whether
the airstream passes through the nasal cavity in addition to the oral cavity (nasal
vs. oral), and (d) whether the airstream passes through the middle of the oral
cavity or along the side(s) (non-lateral vs. lateral). An example of this can be found
by looking at the following words:
nine /naɪn/ dine/daɪn/ line/laɪn/
They all begin with voiced, alveolar consonants /n/, /d/, and /l/. Yet, they are all
clearly different in both sound and meaning. The kinds of constriction made by the
articulators are what make up this further dimension of classification.
The obstruction made by the organs of speech in articulating a consonant may be

total, intermittent, partial, or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause
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Unit 3
friction3. The chief manners of articulation, in decreasing degrees of closure,

are:
 Plosive.- There is complete closure at some point in

the vocal tract, behind which the air pressure builds
up and can be released explosively. The English
COMPLETE CLOSURE
plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g/.
 Affricate.- There is complete closure at some point in

the mouth, behind which the air pressure builds up;
the separation of the organs is slow compared with
that of a plosive, so that friction is a characteristic
second element of the sound. The English affricate
consonants are / tʃ, dʒ/.
 Nasal.- There is complete closure at some point in the

mouth but the soft palate is lowered; the air, then,
escapes through the nose. These sounds are
continuant and voiced. They are, to this extent, vowel-
like, and they are /m, n, ŋ/.
These sounds are also known as stops.
 Lateral.- A partial closure is made at some point in

CLOSURE
PARTIAL
the mouth, the air-stream being allowed to escape on

one or both sides of the contact. There is only one
lateral phoneme in English: /l/ which has three
allophonic variations: clear /l/, dark /ɫ/ and devoiced
/l/.
 Fricative.- Two organs approximate to such an extent

NARROWING
that the air-stream passes through them with friction.

The fricative consonants in English comprise this
large set: /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/.
 Approximants (or Frictionless continuants) – These

include the common variety of Southern British /r/ as
well as the so-called semi-vowels /w, j/, which are
3
The sound produced when air passes a constriction made in the vocal tract.
16
Unit 3
produced without the closure or stricture

characteristic of consonantal articulations; they have,
however, the functional status of consonants since
they have a marginal function in the syllable, and may
therefore be considered “consonants”, in spite of their
vowel-like resonance.
Obstruents and sonorants
Two other very useful terms when dealing with consonants are obstruent and
sonorant4. These refer to large classes of manners of articulation.
Sonorant consonants are the following:
• nasals
• approximants
Obstruent consonants are the following:
• plosives
• affricates
• fricatives
EXERCISES
Which of the central consonants in the following group of words have

friction? Write F next to the corresponding words. The first two have
been done for you.
Unit 3- Key  (1)
PASSION F
VITAL -
Your Turn
MANOR
AHEAD
VISION
4
Vowels are also sonorant.
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Unit 3
COVER
PACKET
LIZARD
COMMA
LONGER
RABBIT
LESSEN
TOUGHER
In the next group of words, some central consonants are ‘voiced’ while others are
‘voiceless’. Lay your fingers on your Adam's apple quite gently and say the words
aloud. Which ones are voiced (have vibration of the vocal folds) and which ones
are voiceless (no vibration)? Make sure the vibration you feel happens while you
are producing the consonant, not the vowel (all vowels are voiced =vibration).
Unit 3 – Key  (2)

Indicate like this:
VOICED  V+
VOICELESS  V-
Examples:
APPEAR  V-
ABOUT  V+
Your Turn
MOTOR
ROLLER
CAPER
LAUGHING
LOVING
CUNNING
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Unit 3
TERROR
OTHER
FILTHY
ENGINE
PIGEON
FUTURE
TENSION
EXACT
DECISION
PHONETIC TABLE OF THE CHIEF ENGLISH CONSONANTAL ARTICULATIONS
The following chart now shows a classification of the chief English consonantal
articulations. This chart is based on a vertical axis showing manner of articulation;
a horizontal axis showing place of articulation; and a pairing of consonantal types
to show the voiceless (or fortis) variety on the left and the voiced (or lenis) variety
on the right.
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Unit 3
P l a c e o f A r t i c u l a t i o n
M B L D D A P A P V G L
A I A E E L O L A E L A
N L B N N V S V L L O B
N A I T T E T E A A T I
N B O A A O O T R T O
E I L L L L A A V
R A A A L L E
O L R R L
F A
A R
R
Complete Oral /p,b/ /t,d/ /k,g/
T Closure
I PLOSIVE
C NASAL /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
L AFFRICATES /tʃ, dʒ/

A
T
Partial Closure /l/
I LATERAL
O Narrowing /f,v/ /θ, ð/ /s, z/ /ʃ, ʒ/ /h/
N FRICATIVE
/r/ /j/ /w/

APPROXIMANT
Sources:
❖ Underhill, Adrian: Sound Foundations, Heinemann, 1994.
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Unit 3
❖ Gimson, A. G.: An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, Edward Arnold

Ltd., 1970
Remember that in order to describe an English consonant we should include

the following aspects:
Voicing  place of articulation  manner of articulation ( place of velum
(nasal/oral)  force of articulation (lenis/fortis))
Eg. /p/: voiceless – bilabial – plosive ( – oral – fortis)
EXERCISE
Unit 3 Key  (3)
Describe the following consonant sounds taking the criteria above into
account. Also, provide an example word which contains the consonant sound
in question.
1) /s/ .......................................................................................................
Example word: ......................
2) /m/.......................................................................................................
Example word: ......................
3) /v/.......................................................................................................
Example word: ......................
4) /ŋ/.......................................................................................................
Example word: .....................
5) /ʃ/.......................................................................................................
Example word: ....................
21
Unit 3
6) /j/.......................................................................................................
Example word: .....................
7) /tʃ/.......................................................................................................
Example word: .....................
  
22
Unit 3
PART 2
DETAILED STUDY OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
Now we are going to study consonants in a more detailed way. The classification
we are going to deal with is manners of articulation.
  
There are six plosive consonants: /p, b, t, d, k, g/. Why do you think they are called
‘plosives’?
Let’s go back to some words from the ‘Reflection’ section:
PETER CORNER TOM
The initial sounds in each of them constitute examples of the plosives /p, k, t/ If
you concentrate on the articulation of the initial sound of the word PETER, you will
notice that there are three stages in the production of the phoneme /p/:
The closing stage, during which the articulating organs move together, or
approximate so as to touch each other, in order to form the obstruction.
The hold or compression stage, during which lung action compresses the air
behind the closure; this stage may or may not be accompanied by voice, i.e.
vibration of the vocal folds.
5
Notes prepared by Prof. Monica Lorenzo
23
Unit 3
The release or explosion stage, during which the organs forming the
obstruction part rapidly, allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly.
However, it is not always the case that plosives in English have a third stage
consisting of a sudden oral release of air, either in the form of aspiration or as an
immediately following vowel. The main variants are:
• No audible release stage in final position: In final positions, as in map, mat,

mack, the closure stage may be maintained, the air compression becoming
weak and the release being achieved by a gentle, delayed, and relatively
inaudible opening of the oral closure.
Try this:
1- Read the words in column A, and pay attention to the strong release of
the plosive before the vowel.
2- Then read the words in column B, and notice how the last plosive is
“quieter” than the plosive in initial position before a vowel.
3- Finally, read the words in contrast, trying to produce a strong release
stage for the words in column A, and a weaker one for those in column
B.
Column A Column B
pen cup
pocket pipe
Paris stamp
pepper pot help
tea eat
top pot
tennis boat
car Mark
carpet plastic
cup of coffee milk
24
Unit 3
• No audible release in stop clusters: When there is a cluster (group) of two

stops (plosives or plosive + affricate) either within a word or at word
boundaries, the first plosive has no audible release, e.g. in dropped (/p/ +
/t/), good boy (/d/ + /b/). The closure for the second stop is made before
the release of the first. But it should also be noted that, in addition to the
omission of an audible third stage of the first plosive in clusters, the first
stage of the following stop is also inaudible. Thus, in sequences of three
plosives, e.g. wept bitterly (/p + t + b/) locked door (k + t + d) the central
plosive has no audible first or third stage; when this position is occupied by
/p, t, k/, the plosive is manifested only by a silence of a certain duration, i.e.
the length of its second stage. The past tense termination /t/ following /k/
or /p/ and not released in a final position, as in worked, slipped, may provide
no audible clue as to the tense, such a clue being supplied only by the
context.
• In general terms, plosives can be released nasally or laterally if a nasal or

lateral consonant follows. This renders the plosive release relatively
inaudible.
Try this:
1. Read the words column A, and pay attention to the strong release of
the plosive before the vowel.
2. Then read the words in columns B and C, and notice the different effect
of the nasal or lateral release.
3. Finally, read the words in contrast, trying to feel the difference
between both types of the release stages.
Column A Column B Column C
(lateral release) (nasal

release)
pay play happen
peas please topmost
cat cattle lighten
cub club nutmeg
keen clean darken
tick tickle thicken
25
Unit 3
Notice that the release in words such as happen, lighten, darken, thicken is
nasal only if you don´t pronounce an /ə/ before the last consonant. English
speakers would produce both versions depending on their preferences, or on
how careful their speech is.
MAIN FEATURES OF ENGLISH PLOSIVES
VIDEO ACTIVITY
“Where do you expect me to sleep?”
In this sketch Vicki Hewitt, our language assistant, has just

arrived in our country. A group of elementary level students are interviewing her.
Here's the link to the video:
http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/fonetica.asp (Video 6 - 01.58 onwards)
What caused the communication breakdown?
The communication breakdown was caused by the lack of ASPIRATION in the

initial consonant of the word ‘pet’. Aspiration is a feature of spoken English. It
affects a group of consonants called fortis plosives (p, t, k). For native speakers,
aspiration is much more important than we can imagine. It is the only difference
they make between similar plosive consonants. Without aspiration, ‘pet’ and ‘bed’
sound practically identical. Similarly, without aspiration they wouldn’t be able to
hear the difference between ‘Ted’ and ‘dead’ or ‘cot’ and ‘got’.
The RP plosive phonemes comprise three pairs: /p, b/; /t, d/; /k, g/, which may be
realised by means of one or several of the following phonetic features:
1. Place of articulation: / p,b/ are bilabial, /t,d/ are alveolar and /k,g/ are velar.
26
Unit 3
2. Force of articulation: / p,t,k/ are relatively strong or fortis; / b,d,g/ are

relatively weak or lenis.
3. Aspiration: Aspiration is the voiceless interval consisting of strongly expelled

breath occurring between the release burst of the stop and the onset of the voicing of
the following sound.
• When fortis consonants / p,t,k / are at the beginning of an accented syllable ,

they are usually accompanied by aspiration. The vowel must be strong.
E.g. Peter / pʰi:t ə / kite / kʰaɪt/ retake (v.) / ri:ˈtʰeɪk /
The symbol h represents aspiration in phonetic transcription
• When / p,t,k / are followed by /l,r,w,j/ and are initial in an accented position,
there is no aspiration, and this lack of aspiration is manifested through the
devoicing of /l,r,w,j/.
E.g. please / pli:z/ tune / tju:n/

try / traɪ/ queue/kju:/
twice / twaɪs / clean / kli:n/
• Some devoicing may also occur in relatively unaccented situations, e.g. apricot,
atlas, applicant, vacuum, etc.
• When /s/ precedes /p,t,k/ initially in a syllable, there is practically no

aspiration, even when the syllable carries a strong accent.
Cf. pin spin / spɪn/
• The lenis series /b,d,g/ is not normally aspirated.
4. Voicing:
• The lenis series /b, d, g/ may have full voice during their second stage when
they occur in positions between voiced sounds. E.g. labour, leader, eager, rub
out, read it, egg and...
27
Unit 3
• While remaining lenis, in initial position / b,d,g/ may be only partially voiced.
• In final position, / b,d,g/ are normally completely devoiced.
E.g.: club /klʌb/ lid /lɪd/ bag / bæg/
• The fortis series /p,t,k/ is not voiced.
5. Length of preceding sounds: It is a feature of RP that syllables closed by fortis

consonants are considerably shorter than those which are open, or closed by a
lenis consonant. This variation of length is particularly noticeable when the
syllable contains a ‘long’ vowel or diphthong.
Cf. rope / rəʊp/ robe / rəʊb/
hurt /hɜ:t / heard /hɜ:d /
seat /si:t/ sea /si:/
PRACTICE
• You can practise pronouncing these sounds by revising the units about
plosives in ‘Ship or Sheep?' (Units 24 to 29)
• Watch and do the dictation on PLOSIVES

http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/fonetica.asp (Video 7 - Dictation
1). There’s a key for self-correction at the end of the unit. Take the
dictation in phonemic script.
28
Unit 3
TIPS FOR PHONEMIC DICTATIONS
• Keep a copy of the Phonemic Chart at hand.
• Listen as many times as you need.
• Avoid writing in ordinary spelling; you will only get more confused.
• Forget how the word is spelt, concentrate ONLY on how it sounds.
• Count how many sounds you hear, you must have the same number of
symbols in your text.
• Some people find that they can hear better if they close their eyes as they
listen. Perhaps this could work for you!
You will• find

Dothat the key includes
the following pauses –indicated by means of slanted bars
Quick Check.
(/ and //)- and stress –indicated by means of stress marks at the beginning of
the stressed syllable ('). You must include these features in your dictations
(and transcriptions) as well.
VIDEOS TO LEARN HOW TO ARTICULATE
THE ENGLISH PLOSIVE SOUNDS
NB On the video focusing on the difference between the sounds /t/ and /d/,
the speaker wrongly describes the sound /d/ as voiceless.
29
Unit 3
SOUND VIDEO
/p/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
sounds/con_voiceless_1.shtml
/t/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/k/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/b/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
sounds/con_voiced_1.shtml
/d/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/g/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
EXERCISES
Unit 3 – Key  Plosives
Are the following statements about plosives True or False? Correct the False
ones.
1. The first stage in the production of a plosive consonant is the release

stage.__
2. Some plosive consonants are lenis (voiced) and others are fortis
(voiceless).___
3. Voiceless/fortis plosives can be accompanied by aspiration.__
4. Sometimes, voiced /lenis plosives have aspiration too. __
5. When a fortis plosive is at the end of a word, the vowel preceding it will be
shorter than usual (especially long vowels and diphthongs).___
6. When a fortis plosive is followed by one of the following sounds /l, r, w, j/
there is no aspiration accompanying the plosive.___
7. Lenis/ voiced plosives are equally voiced in all positions in the word.___
Circle the correct answers (there may be more than one correct answer for
each question)
• The plosive consonant in the word ‘APPEAR’ :
30
Unit 3
a. Is voiced
b. Aspirated
c. Is voiceless
• Which of the following have aspiration?
a. spouse
b. pear
c. Thames
d. praise
e. clay
• In which of the following phrases is the plosive release inaudible?
a. went trekking
b. went out
c. played badly
d. looked up
Now check your answers with the key at the

end of the unit.
THE PHONEMIC CHART - PRACTICE
Unit 3 – Key  Plosives
WRITTEN PRACTICE:
Write the following sentences in ordinary spelling. Read them aloud.
Note: you will be required to read aloud from phonemic script in the final exam.
31
Unit 3
1. //ˈpræktɪs ˈmeɪks ˈpʰɜ:fɪkt//
2. //ˈblaɪnd əz ə ˈbæt//
3. //ə ˈstɔ:m ɪn ə ˈtʰi:kʌp//
4. //ˈdʌl əz ˈdɪtʃ wɔ:tə//
5. //ˈkʰu:l əz ə ˈkju:kʌmbə//
6. //ˈɔ:l ðət ˈglɪstəz / ɪz nɒt ˈgəʊld//
Write the following phrases in phonemic script. Indicate stress and

aspiration (the symbol for aspiration is not in the phonemic keyboard
website, you can copy , paste it and save it from this page.)
1. An angry postman.
2. Dan is quiet.
3. Wednesday party.
4. Thompson is bored.
5. Anthony likes brandy.
6. Shepherd’s pie.
Note: check your words with the Pronunciation Dictionary before looking at the
key!!
ORAL PRACTICE:
Try the following tongue twisters. Say them slowly the first time and then faster
each consecutive time.
/t/ A twister of twists once twisted a twist;

A twist that he twisted was a three-twisted twist;
If in twisting a twist one twist should untwist,
The untwisted twist would untwist the twist.
32
Unit 3
/p/ Purple, paper, people

Purple, people, paper
People, purple, paper
Paper, purple, people.
/b/ Betty bought a bit of butter, but she found
the butter bitter, so Betty bought a bit of better
butter to make the bitter butter better.
/d/ If one doctor doctors another doctor, does the doctor
who doctors the doctor doctor the doctor the way the
doctor he is doctoring doctors? Or does he doctor
the doctor the way the doctor who doctors doctors?
/g/ Gobbling gorgoyles gobbled gobbling goblins.
/k/ Kiss her quick, kiss her quicker, kiss her quickest!
  
33
Unit 3
MAIN FEATURES OF ENGLISH FRICATIVES
VIDEO ACTIVITY
“If you want sweets , you have to pay for them.”
Huge misunderstanding at the kiosk! Why? What happened?
Here's the link to the video:
http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/fonetica.asp (Video 6 - 01.26)
What caused the communication breakdown?
This is one of the most common pronunciation errors among learners of
English: /f/ and /v/. The dental fricative /v/ is articulated with the tongue under
your upper teeth. /f/ is articulated with your lower lip against your upper teeth.
In the articulation of a fricative consonant, two organs are brought and held
sufficiently close together for the escaping air-stream to produce strong friction.
Unlike plosives and affricates, then, fricatives can be sustained and given shorter
or longer duration. The friction, which provides the characteristic sound of these
consonants, may or may not be accompanied by voice.
The RP fricative series comprises 9 phonemes:
/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/
34
Unit 3
1. Place of Articulation: There are only four places in the mouth where the
restriction to the air flow is made, each place yielding two phonemes, so that
we have the following pairs: / f, v/ - labio-dental; /θ, ð/ - dental; / s, z / -
alveolar; /ʃ, ʒ / - palato-alveolar; /h/ is glottal. This series must be considered
a relatively complex one, because the existence, in particular, of place-
oppositions between the dental, alveolar, and palato-alveolar areas of
articulation necessitates great precision of articulation.
2. Force of Articulation: Within the four pairs, / f, θ, s, ʃ / tend to be pronounced

with relatively more muscular energy and stronger breath force than / v, ð, z, ʒ
/; the former are fortis, the latter are lenis. / h / is normally fortis.
3. Voicing:
• Like the lenis plosives and affricates, / v, ð, z, ʒ / tend to be fully voiced only
when they occur between voiced sounds, e.g. in cover, other, easy, leisure.
• In initial position, e.g. in van, that, zoo (i.e. with silence preceding) they are only
partially voiced.
• Finally in leave, breathe, peas, rouge (i.e. with silence following) the friction is
typically voiceless, though the consonant remains lenis: / v, ð, z, ʒ /.
• The fortis series is voiceless in all positions.
• / h/, however, occurring only in word initial and medial situations, though
voiceless in an initial position, may have some voicing medially between voiced
sounds, e.g. anyhow.
4. Length of preceding sounds: Like all fortis consonants, / f, θ, s, ʃ / have the

effect of reducing the length of the preceding vowel (particularly a long vowel
or diphthong and of /l, m, n / interposed between the vowel and the fricative.
Cf. fife five
loath loathe
place plays
self selves
pence pens
proofing proving
racer razor
35
Unit 3
fission vision
THE ENGLISH FRICATIVE SOUNDS
SOUND VIDEO
/f/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
/sounds/con_voiceless_5.shtml
/θ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/s/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/ʃ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/h/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
sounds/con_other_4.shtml
/v/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/ð/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/z/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/ʒ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
PRACTICE
• Work with ‘Ship or Sheep?' units: 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 40,41, 42 . Listen
and read, record yourself and compare with the original sounds.
• Watch and do the dictation on FRICATIVES

http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/fonetica.asp (Video 7 - Dictation 2).
There’s a key for self-correction at the end of the unit. Take the dictation in
phonemic script.
36
Unit 3
EXERCISES
Unit 3 – Key  Fricatives
Answer the following questions about

FRICATIVES
1. What are the main differences between

fricatives and plosives as regards manner of
articulation?
2. When is the fricative /h/ voiced? Give one
example.
3. When are lenis fricatives fully voiced? Give 3
examples.
4. When are long vowels or diphthongs
shortened?
PRACTICE WITH FRICATIVES
Unit 3 – Key  Fricatives
WRITTEN PRACTICE
Read the following phrases aloud. Then, write them out in ordinary spelling
and read them aloud again. Transcribe your words into phonemic script and
check with the version here. They should be the same.
1. //ˈsləʊ ˈməʊʃən//
2. //ə ˈθɪn mju:ˈzɪʃən//
3.// ə ˈmeʒər əv ˈvɒdkə//
4. //ə ˈwɜ:ðɪ ˈhʌzbənd//
5. //pəˈtrɪʃə ɪz verɪ ˈwelθɪ//
37
Unit 3
6.// ˈθɜ:zdeɪ ɪz ə ‘bɪzɪ ˈdeɪ//
7. //ə ˈlʌvlɪ ˈvju://
Transcribe the following phrases in phonemic script. Add stress marks

where suitable.
Note: look up any new words in your Pronunciation Dictionary .
1. A creative professor.
2. First things First.
3. An exact sum.
4. The fox’s cubs are in the zoo.
5. Ship to shore communication.
6. Your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions.
ORAL PRACTICE
/θ/ Thursdays are thirsty days for lethargic Ruth and Thelma.
/ð/ Bathing in the bays is soothing to those teething brothers.
/v/ Vivian, Valerie, and Virginia verbally voiced vivid salvos.
/f/ Fill in the forms while I halt the unfurling of the flag.
/s/ Strict strong stringy Stephen Stretch slickly snared six sickly silky
snakes.
/ʃ/ She sells sea shells by the sea shore.
The shells she sells are surely seashells.
So if she sells shells on the seashore,
I'm sure she sells seashore shells.
/z/ Zizzi's zippy zipper zips.

/h/ A huge success haunted Herman's four horses.
/ʒ/ Casual clothes are provisional for leisurely trips across Asia.
38
Unit 3
MAIN FEATURES OF ENGLISH AFFRICATES
Affricates are plosives in which the articulating organs are separated more slowly
than usual. This produces a release stage which is a little slower than for the
plosive alone, so that considerable friction occurs approximately at the point
where the plosive stop is made. The friction present in an affricate is of a shorter
duration than that which characterizes the fricatives proper. Only /t/ and /d/
may have this type of release.
Although the English affricates are a combination of two sounds, they are
produced so close that they can be considered as one.
PALATO-ALVEOLAR AFFRICATES /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
The soft palate being raised and the nasal resonator shut off, the obstacle to the
air-stream is formed by a closure made between the tip, blade and rims of the
tongue and the upper alveolar ridge and side teeth. At the same time, the front of
the tongue is raised towards the hard palate in readiness for the fricative release.
The closure is released slowly, the air escaping in a diffuse manner over the whole
of the central surface of the tongue with friction occurring between the blade/front
region of the tongue and the alveolar/front palatal section of the roof of the mouth.
The lip position will be conditioned by that of adjacent sounds, especially that of a
following vowel.
* During both stop and fricative stages, the vocal folds are wide apart for /tʃ/ but
may be vibrating for all or part of /dʒ/ , according to the situation in the utterance.
/dʒ/ shares the features of devoicing in initial and final positions exhibited by
plosives and fricatives.
6
Notes prepared by Prof Monica Lorenzo
39
Unit 3
* /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ differ from plosives in that they never lose their fricative release
stage. Thus in the past tense of verbs ending in /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ , the fricatives release
stage has to be audible:
attached / əˈtætʃt/
pledged /pledʒd/
But in the past tense of verbs ending with the plosives /p,b,k,g/, as we have seen,
these consonants have no audible release stage.
lapped
robbed
locked
begged
The same thing applies to compound words and to juxtapositions of words: the
affricates are pronounced with audible release stage:
latch-key /lætʃ ˈki: /
which place /ˈwitʃ ˈpleɪs /
large town /ˈlɑ:dʒ ˈtaʊn/
Judge Jeffreys /ˈdʒʌdʒ ˈdʒefrɪz/
Dutch cheese /ˈdʌtʃ ˈtʃi:z/
The plosive consonants have no audible release stage in similar clusters.
* The fortis /tʃ/, when final in a syllable, has the same effect of reducing the length
of preceding sounds as was noted for the fortis plosives and fricatives;
comparatively full length of preceding sounds is retained before /dʒ/ . This effect
40
Unit 3
must be taken as a primary distinctive feature of the /tʃ/ - /dʒ/ opposition in final
positions.
THE ENGLISH AFFRICATE SOUNDS
SOUND VIDEO
/tʃ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
/sounds/con_voiceless_3.shtml
/dʒ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
PRACTICE
• Work with ‘Ship or Sheep?’ Units 34 and 35. Listen, repeat and record a list
of selected sounds to compare later with the original.
• Watch and do the dictation on FRICATIVES

phonemic script.
EXERCISES
Unit 3 – Key  Affricates
Circle the correct alternatives.
1. Affricates have a lot in common with:
a. fricatives
b. plosives
c. both plosives and fricatives
41
Unit 3
2. The lenis affricate / dʒ / is fully voiced in
a. initial position
b. medial position
c. final position
3. Affricates
a. must be released before a plosive

b. must not be released before a plosive
c. can sometimes be unreleased before a plosive
PRACTICE WITH AFFRICATES
Unit 3 – Key  Affricates
WRITTEN PRACTICE
Read the following phrases aloud. Then, write them out in ordinary spelling
and read them aloud again. Transcribe your words into phonemic script and
check with the version here. They should be the same.
1. //ðə ˈtʃɪldrən ˈɑ:r ɪn ðə ˈkɪtʃən//

2. //ˈdʒɒn ən ˈtʃɑ:lz / ˈwɒtʃ ðə ˈvɪlɪdʒ//
3. //di: ˈɪŋglɪʃ ˈlæŋgwɪdʒ//
4. //ə ˈdʒɜ:mən ˈsəʊldʒə//
5. //ˈɒrɪndʒ ˈdʒu:s//
6. //ə ˈkwestʃən əv ˈtʃɔɪs//
Transcribe the following sentences in phonemic script. Indicate stresses.
42
Unit 3
Look up new words in your Pronunciation Dictionary.
1. Change the subject.

2. Christian loves chocolate.
3. Choose your future.
4. The cottage is just at the end of the village.
5. Let’s exchange jobs.
ORAL PRACTICE
/tʃ/ Chester Cheetah chews a chunk of cheep cheddar cheese.

/dʒ/ Imogene, George, and Roger are diverging fugitives.
  
43
Unit 3
PART 3
MAIN FEATURES OF ENGLISH NASALS
We have already studied the biggest groups of consonants: plosives, fricatives and
affricates. Now it is time to turn to the smaller sets: nasals /m, n, ŋ/, the lateral /l/
and the approximants /r, j, w/.
The basic characteristic of a nasal is that the soft palate is lowered so that air
passes through the nose and not through the mouth or oral cavity. This is made
thanks to a complete closure in the mouth at some point. There are three types of
closures, corresponding to the three places of articulation of the nasals:
• bilabial (lips): /m/

• alveolar (tongue blade against alveolar ridge): /n/
• velar (back of tongue against the palate): /ŋ/
Nasals, the lateral consonant and /r/ can be produced in a continuous,

uninterrupted flow, for this reason, early authors called them ‘continuants’. They
share some characteristics with vowels:
• they are voiced

• they are produced without friction
• they can have a central syllabic position (happen /ˈhæpn/, tickle /ˈtɪkl/,
apple / ˈæpl/) /n/ and /l/ have a syllabic function.
• the air can escape freely through the nose in the case of nasals and through
the mouth in the case of /l , r, w , j/
The nasal /ŋ/ is a particular case
This velar is phonetically simple since it is no more difficult to pronounce than /m/
or /n/. It is however phonologically complex.
As far as distribution is concerned, /ŋ/ never occurs in initial position, while the
other two nasals can occur freely.
Its pronunciation is also particular when it is followed by the letter ‘g’. Some words
with orthographic ‘ng’ in middle position will be pronounced /ŋg/ while others
will have /ŋ/ without g. Let us analyse the following examples:
44
Unit 3
A B
‘finger’ /'fɪŋgə/ ‘singer’ /'sɪŋə/
‘anger’ /'æŋgə/ ‘hanger’ /'hæŋə/
The difference between A and B lies in their morphology, i.e. the way they are
constructed. The words in column B can be divided into two grammatical pieces or
morphemes: ‘sing’ + ‘-er’, ‘hang’ + ‘-er’. Words in column A are morphologically
different since they cannot be divided into two morphemes.
The pronunciation rules are thus that:
• /ŋ/ occurs without a following /g/ if it occurs at the end of a morpheme:

gang /gæŋ/, ring, spring, thong, wing, strong, young
• if it occurs in the middle of a morpheme, it should be pronounced /ŋg/:

anger /'æŋgə/, angle, hunger, hungry, jungle, language, wrangle
The main exception to that second rule concerns the comparative and
superlative suffixes ‘-er’ and ‘-est’. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives
are to be treated as single-morpheme words.: longer /lɒŋgə/; longest /lɒŋgəst/
• <ng> is pronounced /ndʒ/ when followed by an <e>: dungeon, danger,

fringe, challenger, sponge, tangerine, engineer, harbinger, angel
• <ng> is pronounced /ndʒɪ/ when followed by a <y>: dingy, rangy, stingy

/'stɪndʒɪ/
• <ng> is pronounced /ng/ when it is part of an unstressed prefix and <g> is

part of a stem: congratulate /kən'grætjʊleɪt/, ingredient, ungainly,
ungrammatical
When we have the combination <nk> in the middle of a word, it is always

pronounced /ŋk/: thinking /'θɪŋkɪŋ/
The only exception is when <nk> occurs in an unstressed syllable. /nk/ is

preferred: enclose /ɪn'klәʊz/, incapable, increase, incredible, uncouth
READ all about nasals in chapter 7 of the book ‘English

Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course’ by Peter
Roach.
45
Unit 3
EXERCISES
Unit 3 – Key  Nasals
1. The soft palate must be lowered to allow the air to escape through the
nose.___
______________________________________________________________________
2. All nasals can be found in word initial, medial and final position .____
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The velar nasal /ŋ / has the same place of articulation as /k/ and /g/. ____
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Nasals feature a complete closure in their production.____
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. In words which contain the cluster /ŋg/, the sound /g/ should never be
pronounced. ____
_________________________________________________________________________________________
THE ENGLISH NASAL SOUNDS
46
Unit 3
SOUND VIDEO
/m/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
/sounds/con_other_1.shtml
/n/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
/ŋ/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/
PRACTICE
• Work with ‘Ship or Sheep?’ Units 43 to 45. Listen, repeat and record a list of
selected sounds to compare later with the original.
• Watch and do the dictation on NASALS

phonemic script.
PRACTICE WITH NASALS
Unit 3 – Key  Nasals
WRITTEN PRACTICE
Underline the combinations that can occur in RP
/ɪŋ/ /ɔ:ŋ/ /ʌŋ/ /eŋ/ /ʊŋ/ /i:ŋ/ /ɜ:ŋ/
Underline the correct pronunciation of the following words:
1. FINGER / fɪngə fɪŋə fɪŋgə/
2. BANGER / bæŋə bæŋgə bængə/
47
Unit 3
3. HUNGER / hʌŋə hʌŋgə hʌngə/
4. HANGER /hæŋgə hæŋə hænə/
5. STRONGER /strɒngə strɒŋgə strɒŋə /
6. THINKER /θɪnkə θɪŋə θɪŋkə /
READ THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES ALOUD
1. /ˈlet mɪ ˈsɪŋ ə ˈsɒŋ/

2. /ðə ˈkɪŋ ˈdræŋk wɪð ə ˈmʌŋk/
3. /ðə ˈjʌŋ ˈfɪʃmʌŋgə ˈsəʊld ə ˈdʌzn ˈi:lz/
4. /ðeɪ ˈni:d ə ˈstrɒŋgə ˈmæn/
5. /ˈdʒɪm hæz ðə ˈstreŋkθ əv ən ˈɒks/
TRANSCRIBE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES IN PHONEMIC SCRIPT
Look up new words in your Pronunciation Dictionary.
1. Mandy sees pink elephants.

2. It’s the wrong answer.
3. Ron longs for a month in the jungle.
4. What happened to your knee?
5. Tim combed the horse’s mane.
ORAL PRACTICE
48
Unit 3
TONGUE TWISTERS
/m/ Mary Mac's mother's making Mary Mac marry me.

/n/ Nine nice night nurses nursing nicely.
/ŋ/ The King’s ring rung wrong.
  
MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENGLISH LATERAL
There is only one lateral consonant in RP: /l/. Why do you think it is called
‘lateral’?
CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS?
Make a prolonged, uninterrupted /l/ sound . Where is the tip of the tongue? How
does the air escape from the mouth?
The passage of air through the mouth does not go in the usual way along the centre
of the tongue. Instead, there is a closure between the centre of the tongue and the
part of the roof of the mouth where contact is to be made (alveolar ridge). So the
only way for the air to escape is along the sides of the tongue. As far as distribution
is concerned, /l/ can occur initially, medially and finally. Sometimes the letter ‘l’ is
written, but not pronounced, for example in HALF /hɑ:f/
The lateral consonant has two allophones (clear and dark /l/) but we will be
dealing with this topic in an oncoming unit.
Read all about the lateral consonant in section 7.2 (chapter 7) of

Peter Roach’s book 'English Phonetics and Phonology.'
49
Unit 3
VIDEO TO LEARN HOW TO ARTICULATE
THE ENGLISH LATERAL SOUND
PRACTICE
• Work with ‘Ship or Sheep?’ Unit 46. Listen, repeat and record a list of
selected sounds to compare later with the original.
PRACTICE WITH THE LATERAL CONSONANT
Unit 3 – Key  Lateral

SOUND VIDEO
/l/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
WRITTEN PRACTICE
Read the text below in a loud voice and underline the words in which ‘l’ is not
pronounced.
Mary talked with Colonel Simpson for a long time. He was a wealthy man from
Suffolk and Mary thought she could marry him if she was clever enough. That
evening, she cooked salmon in an almond sauce for him. Unfortunately, the colonel
was allergic to fish. He told her that he would not even taste a bit of it. Mary was a
bit disappointed, “Country folks!”, she thought.
TRANSCRIPTION PRACTICE
Transcribe the text above in phonemic script. Indicate pauses where you consider
appropriate. Look up new words in the Pronunciation Dictionary.
ORAL PRACTICE
TONGUE TWISTERS
50
Unit 3
/l/ Lily ladles little Letty's lentil soup.

Larry sent the latter a letter later.
  
MAIN FEATURES OF ENGLISH APPROXIMANTS
It is time to study the last three consonants in our classification: /r/ , /w/, /j/.
The term ‘approximant’ refers to their very particular articulation; there is no

complete closure –as is the case of plosives and nasals- and no friction-as in
fricatives. In fact, they resemble vowels in their manner of articulation, except that
–phonologically- they have a marginal distribution like all consonants.
Examples: WIN YET RED  the consonants are marginal and the vowels are
central.
Another indication that approximants are consonants and not vowels, is the choice
of indefinite article before a word beginning with the approximants /w, j/.
Examples: A WAVE (not ‘an’ wave)
A YELLOW BIRD ( not ‘an’ yellow bird)
Finally, the pronunciation of the definite article before an approximant is the same
as with any other consonant.
Examples: The University of London /ðə ju:niˈvɜ:sətɪ əv ˈlʌndən/
The world /ðə ˈwɜ:ld/
(The definite article is pronounced /ði:/ before vowels, as in ‘the open door’/ ði:
ˈəʊpən ˈdɔ:/)
As far as its articulation is concerned, the consonant /r/ is a post-alveolar

approximant, pronounced with the tip of the tongue slightly curled back
approaching the alveolar area in approximately the way it would for /t/ or /d/, but
it never actually makes contact with any part of the roof of the mouth. As far as its
distribution is concerned, The approximant /r/ only occurs before vowels in RP,
51
Unit 3
whereas other accents, e.g. Scottish, Irish, and most American ones, also can have it
after vowels. Therefore those accents can make a distinction between e.g. saw and
sore, which are pronounced exactly alike in RP. Therefore:
red /red/ arrive /ə'raɪv/ hearing /'hɪərɪɲ/
but
car /kɑː/ hard /hɑːd/ verse /vɜːs/
Sometimes it is necessary to pronounce the /r/ after a consonant. This is the case
of word final /r/ followed by a vowel at the beginning of the next word.
Examples: The car is blue. /ðə ˈkɑ:r ɪz ˈblu:/
Four American boys. /ˈfɔ:r əˈmerɪkən ˈbɔɪz/
This /r/ is called ‘linking /r/’.
The consonant phonemes /j/ and /w/ are the last two approximants. As we
have already seen, they are phonetically like vowels and phonologically like
consonants. They are sometimes called ‘semivowels’.
The approximant /j/ is a palatal approximant, and /w/ is a velar approximant,

why, twin, square. /w/ always has lip-rounding as well, and therefore it is
sometimes called labio-velar.
• /w/ and /j/ are normally voiced. However, they become devoiced after
/p,t,k/, for example: queue /kju:/, twin /twɪn/ , pure /pjʊə/
• /w/ and /j/ appear as ‘intrusive’ sounds when we link words such as GO
AWAY / ˈgəʊwəˈweɪ/ or ENJOY IT / ɪnˈdʒɔɪjɪt/. This feature happens inside
words too: SEEING / si:jɪŋ/
Intrusive /w/ appears after /u:/ or a diphthong ending in /ʊ/.
Intrusive /j/ appears after /i:/ or a diphthong ending in /ɪ/.
52
READ all about the approximant consonants in Chapter 7, section

7.3 and 7.4 of ‘English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course’ by Peter Roach.
Unit 3
THE ENGLISH APPROXIMANT SOUNDS
SOUND VIDEO
/r/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
/w/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
/j/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron
PRACTICE
• Work with ‘Ship or Sheep?’ Units 38, 39, 48, and 49. Listen, repeat and
record a list of selected sounds to compare later with the original.
• Watch and do the dictation on APPROXIMANTS

phonemic script.
PRACTICE WITH APPROXIMANTS
Unit 3 – Key  Approximants
WRITTEN PRACTICE
Answer the questions about /r/
1. What is the place of articulation of /r/?

2. Is there only one correct articulation of this sound?
3. What is the most noticeable difference between RP /r/ and Spanish
‘r’?
4. Why do young English children say ‘w’ instead of ‘r’ when they are
first learning to speak?
5. What is the most important rule to remember about the distribution
of /r/ in RP?
53
Unit 3
Underline the cases of intrusive /j/ and /w/. Read the sentences aloud.
1. They open at five.

2. No umbrellas are allowed here.
3. She’s staying with a cousin.
4. Two ales, please.
5. Go out now!
ORAL PRACTICE
Read these sentences aloud
1. //ə ˈrəʊz ɪz laɪk ən ˈəʊpən ˈhɑ:t //

2. //ˈɪntrəstɪŋ ˈvɜ:s/ bət ˈaɪ prɪˈfɜ: ˈtɒməs//
3. //ˈðæt ˈrɪvər ɪz ˈrɪəlɪ ˈʃɔ:t//
4. //ˈmeərɪ ˈkɑ:nt ˈstænd ˈaɪənɪŋ//
TONGUE TWISTERS
/w/ When a twister a-twisting will twist him a twist,

For the twisting a twist, he three twines will entwist;
But if one of the twines of the twist do untwist,
The twine that untwisteth untwisteth the twist.
/j/ Unique New York, Unique New York, Unique New York.
/r/ Ray Rag ran across a rough road. Across a rough road Ray Rag ran.
Where is the rough road Ray Rag ran across?
54
Unit 3
  
DICTATION PRACTICE
Listen to the 5 sentences in the audiofile provided (Unit 3 Dictation Practice) and write
them down in phonemic script.
PART 4
Common difficulties of Spanish speakers regarding consonant sounds
Perhaps more than any other area of pronunciation, stereotyped pronunciations

involve mispronunciations of consonants. For this reason, as well as to improve
comprehensibility, it is important to address them.
Spanish is a Romance language. As Spanish is spoken in many countries, there is

substantial dialect variation. The problems with consonant sounds described
below are common to speakers of most varieties of Spanish, although there are not
necessarily experienced by every native speaker of this language.
1. /ð/ and /θ/ pronounced as /d/, /t/, /s/ or /z/.
How to overcome this difficulty:
The interdental articulation of these sounds is the most difficult feature of the
pronunciation of these consonant sounds. The student needs to know that the tip
of the tongue protrudes a bit between the teeth and the air passes out over the
tongue.
2. /b/ and /v/ pronounced alike.
The student has to remember that /b/ is a bilabial sound (produced with both
lips), whereas /v/ is an interdental sound (the upper teeth touch the lower lip).
3. /tʃ/ pronounced like /ʃ/.
Argentinian students may also make the reverse substitution, pronouncing /ʃ/ like
/tʃ/.
55
Unit 3
The student has to remember that in the sound /ʃ/ the tongue does not make
strong contact with the top of the mouth and that /t/ is part of the pronunciation
of /tʃ/ even when it is not necessarily shown in spelling and although it is not
heard as a separate sound, it must be pronounced.
4. /z/ and /s/ pronounced alike.
The student has to bear in mind that /s/ is a voiceless sound, therefore there is no
vibration of the vocal folds when it is pronounced. As /z/ is its voiced counterpart,
there is vocal fold vibration in its production.
5. /s/ + consonant clusters at the beginning of words
Speakers whose L1 is Spanish often add a short /e/ vowel sound at the beginning
of words with the cluster "s + consonant" (e.g. state, special) so that they conform
to Spanish patterns.
Students who add the /e/ sound in front of these cluster should prolong the sound
of the consonant /s/ (/sssss/) and then practise reducing the length of that down
to a short initial /s/. This will help them avoid starting the word with a vowel
sound.
6. /r/ strongly trilled and pronounced where normally silent
The student has to remember that the consonant sound /r/ in English is not
articulated like the same sound in Spanish. The tip of the tongue starts up and
back and then lowers. The tip of the tongue does not touch the top of the mouth.
7. /ŋ/ pronounced as /n/
56
Unit 3
It is necessary to remember that with /n/ the tip of the tongue touches behind the
upper teeth, but with /ŋ/, the back of the tongue rises to touch the velum (the back
of the roof of the mouth) and the tip of the tongue rests behind the lower teeth.
8. /h/ pronounced very strongly
The student has to remember that when this consonant sound is produced the
airstream is to be directed out, not in. In order to practise this sound, the student
can hold his/her hand, palm-up, in front of his/her mouth; place a cotton ball on
the heel of his/her palm and exhale. If he/she exhales properly, the cotton ball will
move forward on his/her hand.
9. /j/ confused with /dʒ/
Some of students' confusion over the sound /j/ is caused by spelling, and the
phonetic symbol does not help.
The student is advised to remember that the tongue position for the sound /j/ is
initially the same as /i:/, therefore it is useful to begin with practice of some words
with this sound.
10. /w/ pronounced as /g/
This consonant sound is close to the sound /u:/. The student is advised to make
his/her lips round and hard in order to produce the sound /w/.
11. dropping of final consonant sounds
The most pervasive and persistent errors with consonants occur when they are in
final position. Errors with final consonants can lower students' comprehensibility
as well as their grammatical accuracy.
Although controlled practice of consonants is important for students to gain skill,

they also need to use them in connected speech, that is, move beyond the domain
of the word. Just like we always say.... practice, practice and more practice!
57
Unit 3
FURTHER PRACTICE
• Visit the following website:

http://www.cambridgeenglishonline.com/Phonetics_Focus/
Click on "Record and Practise" and download the free tool to help you practise and
therefore improve all the sounds in the IPA chart.
Also, click on "Phon' Maze" and then "Consonants", an entertaining game to practise
your recognition of consonant sounds.
  
58
Unit 3
Self-assessment
How well do you know the topics in Unit Four? Tick

the boxes that apply.
I know this topic I know this topic I need to revise

TOPIC very well quite well this topic
The difference
between consonant
and vowel sounds
Main features of
Plosive Consonants
Main features of
Fricative Consonants
Main features of
Affricates
Main features of
Nasals
Main characteristics
of the Lateral
consonant
Main features of
Approximants
Place and manner of
articulation of
English consonants
Special features of
consonant sounds:
aspiration in plosive
fortis sounds,
devoicing, linking /r/
and intrusive /w, j/
Common difficulties
of Spanish speakers
regarding consonant
sounds and how to
overcome them
In Unit 3 we will be dealing with vowel sounds.
59
Unit 3
KEY TO UNIT 3
QUICK CHECK (1)

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.
a) Define the terms "consonant" and "vowel", phonetically speaking.

Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction to the airstream
during the articulation. Vowels are speech sounds where the airstream escapes the
oral tract (organ of speech) unobstructed.
b) Why can’t consonants and vowels be described using the same

parameters?
The articulation of consonants is easily ‘felt’, for example, we can feel how the lower
lip articulates with the upper teeth in the fricative /v/. We say therefore, that
consonants can be described in articulatory terms. On the other hand, it is very
difficult to feel the position of the tongue inside the mouth to describe the
articulation of vowels. We do not actually make contact in any part of the mouth. For
this reason, we observe external features such as lip and jaw position and we pay
close attention to the ‘sound’ of each vowel and we compare one with the others. That
is what we mean by ‘auditory’ relationships.
c) Why are some differences described as ‘phonetic’ whereas others are

‘phonological’?
Phonetic differences refer exclusively to the production of single phonemes, for

example when we describe the place and manner of articulation of a consonant or
the position of the tongue in a vowel.
Phonological differences refer to longer stretches of sounds, for example words.

Characteristics that deal with stress, position of a phoneme in the syllable, intonation
and so on, cover more than just a phoneme, they are therefore phonological features.
QUICK CHECK (2)

1. A sound is ‘voiced’ when there is glottal friction.__F__
60
Unit 3
A sound is voiced when there is vibration of the vocal folds.
2. The term ‘voiceless’ refers to the absence of vibration in the vocal folds. __T__
3. All consonants are voiceless. __F__
Some consonants are voiceless and some are voiced.
4. All vowels are voiced. __T__
Unit 3 – Key  (2)

Which of the central consonants in the following group of words have
friction?
MANOR
AHEAD Friction /h/
VISION Friction /ʒ/
COVER Friction /v/
PACKET
LIZARD Friction /z/
COMMA
LONGER
RABBIT
LESSEN Friction /s/
TOUGHER Friction /f/
Unit 3 – Key  (2)
MOTOR  V-
ROLLER  V+
CAPER  V-
LAUGHING  V-
LOVING  V+
CUNNING  V+
TERROR  V+
OTHER  V+
FILTHY  V-
ENGINE  V+
PIGEON  V+
FUTURE  V-
TENSION  V-
EXACT  V+
DECISION  V+
61
Unit 3
Unit 3 – Key  (3)

Describe the following consonant sounds taking the criteria above into
account. Also, provide an example word which contains the consonant sound
in question.
The example words are suggested answers.
1) /s/ voiceless - alveolar - fricative ( - oral - fortis). Example word: maps.
2) /m/ voiced - bilabial - nasal ( - nasal - lenis). Example word: come.
3) /v/ voiced - labiodental - fricative ( - oral - lenis). Example word: veal.
4) /ŋ/ voiced - velar - nasal ( - nasal - lenis). Example word: prank.
5) /ʃ/ voiceless - palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) - fricative ( - oral - fortis).
Example word: short.
6) /j/ voiced - palatal - approximant ( - oral - lenis). Example word: you.
7) /tʃ/ voiceless - palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) - affricate ( - oral - fortis).
Example word: match.
PLOSIVES
Are the following statements about plosives True or False? Correct the False
ones.
1. The first stage in the production of a plosive consonant is the release stage.
False. The release stage is the last stage.
2. Some plosive consonants are lenis (voiced) and others are fortis (voiceless).
True
3. Voiceless/fortis plosives can be accompanied by aspiration. True
4. Sometimes, voiced /lenis plosives have aspiration too. False. Lenis
/voiceless consonants are never accompanied by aspiration.
5. When a fortis plosive is at the end of a word, the vowel preceding it will be
shorter than usual (especially long vowels and diphthongs). True
6. When a fortis plosive is followed by one of the following sounds /l,r,w, j/
there is no aspiration accompanying the plosive.True
7. Lenis/ voiced plosives are equally voiced in all positions in the word. False.
When a voiced consonant is initial in the word , it is partially voiced
(bag). In medial position it is fully voiced (ago), in final position it is
devoiced (load).
Circle the correct answers (there may be more than one correct answer for
each question)
Correct answers are highlighted in purple.
• The plosive consonant in the word ‘APPEAR’ :

62
Unit 3
a. Is voiced
b. Aspirated
c. Is voiceless
• Which of the following have aspiration?
a. spouse
b. pear
c. Thames
d. praise
e. clay
• In which of the following phrases is the plosive release inaudible?

a. went trekking
b. went out
c. played badly
d. looked up
Write the following sentences in ordinary spelling. Read them aloud.
Note: you will be required to read aloud from phonemic script in the final exam.
1. /ˈpræktɪs ˈmeɪks ˈpʰɜ:fɪkt/ : Practice makes perfect.

2. /ˈblaɪnd əz ə ˈbæt/ : Blind as a bat.
3. /ə ˈstɔ:m ɪn ə ˈtʰi:kʌp/: A storm in a teacup.
4. /ˈdʌl əz ˈdɪtʃ wɔ:tə/: Dull as ditch water.
5. /ˈkʰu:l əz ə ˈkju:kʌmbə/ : Cool as a cucumber.
6. /ˈɔ:l ðət ˈglɪstəz / ɪz nɒt ˈgəʊld/: All that glisters is not gold.
Write the following phrases in phonemic script. Indicate stress and

aspiration (the symbol for aspiration is not in the phonemic keyboard
website, you can copy , paste it and save it from this page.)
1 An angry postman./ ən ˈæŋgrɪ ˈpʰəʊstmən/
2 Dan is quiet. /ˈdæn ɪz ˈkwaɪət/
3 Wednesday party. /ˈwenzdɪ ˈpɑ:tɪ/
4 Thompson is bored. /ˈtʰɒmpsən ɪz ˈbɔ:d/
5 Anthony likes brandy. /ˈæntənɪ ˈlaɪks ˈbrændɪ/
6 Shepherd’s pie. /ˌʃepədz ˈpaɪ/
63
Unit 3
FRICATIVES
Answer the following questions about FRICATIVES
1. What are the main differences between fricatives and plosives as regards
manner of articulation?
Plosives feature a complete closure or stricture in which two organs of

speech are in firm contact. Fricatives present a narrowing in which the
organs are close enough to produce friction when the flow of air passes
between them.
2. When is the fricative /h/ voiced? Give one example.
/h/ is voiced in medial position , between vowels. AHEAD
3. When are lenis fricatives fully voiced? Give 3 examples.
Lenis fricatives are fully voiced in medial position, between vowels.
ABOUT – ADAM - DAGGER
4. When are long vowels or diphthongs shortened?
Long vowels and diphthongs are shortened when the syllable they are in is
closed by a fortis, for example: CASE – REACH - LAUGH
Read the following texts aloud. Write them out in ordinary spelling.
1. /ˈsləʊ ˈməʊʃən/ Slow motion.
2. /ə ˈθɪn mju:ˈzɪʃən/ A thin musician.
3. /ə ˈmeʒər əv ˈvɒdkə/ A measure of vodka.
4. /ə ˈwɜ:ðɪ ˈhʌzbənd/ A worthy husband.
5. /pəˈtrɪʃə ɪz verɪ ˈwelθɪ/ Patricia is very wealthy.
6. /ˈθɜ:zdeɪ ɪz ə ‘bɪzɪ ˈdeɪ/ Thursday is a busy day.
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Unit 3
7. /ə ˈlʌvlɪ ˈvju/ A lovely view.
Transcribe the following phrases in phonemic script. Add stress marks

where suitable.
Note: look up new words in your Pronunciation Dictionary .
1)A creative professor. /ə krɪˈeɪtɪv prəˈfesə/
2)First things First. /ˈfɜ:st ˈθɪŋz ˈfɜ:st/
3)An exact sum. /ən ɪgˈzækt ˈsʌm/
4) The fox’s cubs are in the zoo. /ðə ˈfɒksɪz ˈkʰʌbz ɑ:r ɪn ðə zu:/
5) Ship to shore communication. /ˈʃɪp tə ˈʃɔ: kəˌmju:nɪˈkʰeɪʃən/
6) Your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions.
/jɔ:r ˈəʊld ˈmen / ʃəl ˈdri:m ˈdri:mz / jɔ: ˈjʌŋ ˈmen / ʃəl ˈsi: ˈvɪʒənz/
AFFRICATES
Circle the correct alternatives.
1. Affricates have a lot in common with:
a. fricatives
b. plosives
c. both plosives and fricatives
2. The lenis affricate / dʒ / is fully voiced in
a. initial position
b. medial position
c. final position
3. Affricates
a. must be released before a plosive

b. must not be released before a plosive
c. can sometimes be unreleased before a plosive
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Unit 3
THE PHONEMIC CHART – PRACTICE
Read the following texts aloud.
1 /ðə ˈtʃɪldrən ˈɑ:r ɪn ðə ˈkɪtʃən/
The children are in the kitchen.
2 /ˈdʒɒn ən ˈtʃɑ:lz / ˈwɒtʃ ðə ˈvɪlɪdʒ/
John and Charles watch the village.
3 /ði: ˈɪŋglɪʃ ˈlæŋgwɪdʒ/
The English language.
4 /ə ˈdʒɜ:mən ˈsəʊldʒə/
A German soldier.
5 /ˈɒrɪndʒ ˈdʒu:s/
Orange juice
6 /ə ˈkwestʃən əv ˈtʃɔɪs/
A question of choice.
Transcribe the following sentences in phonemic script. Indicate stresses.
1.Change the subject. //ˈtʃeɪndʒ ðə ˈsʌbdʒekt//
2.Christian loves chocolate. //ˈkrɪstʃən ˈlʌvz ˈtʃɒkəlɪt//
3.Choose your future. //ˈtʃu:z jɔ: ˈfju:tʃə//
4.The cottage is just at the end of the village.
//ðə ˈkɒtɪdʒ ɪz ˈdʒʌst /ət ði: ˈend əv ðə ˈvɪlɪdʒ//
5.Let’s exchange jobs. //ˈlets ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ ˈdʒɒbz//
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Unit 3
NASALS
1)The soft palate must be lowered to allow the air to escape through the nose.True
2)All nasals can be found in word initial, medial and final position .False
The velar nasal does not occur in initial position .
3)The velar nasal /ŋ / has the same place of articulation as /k/ and /g/. True
4) Nasals feature a complete closure in their production.True
5)In words which contain the cluster /ŋg/, the sound /g/ should never be
pronounced. False
The sound /g/ should not be pronounced when it is at the end of a word or at
the end of a morpheme (root word), for example: ‘long’ (end of the word),
‘singer’ (root word: ‘sing’ , suffix : ‘er’).
But, there is an exception to this rule: in comparatives and superlatives of

adjectives-which are formed by the root word (adjective) followed by a suffix
(er/est), the sound /g/ is pronounced, for example in ‘longer’ or ‘strongest’.
PRACTICE WITH NASALS
Underline the combinations that can occur in RP
/ɪŋ/ /ɔ:ŋ/ /ʌŋ/ /eŋ/ /ʊŋ/ /i:ŋ/ /ɜ:ŋ/
Underline the correct pronunciation of the following words:
1)FINGER fɪngə fɪŋə fɪŋgə
2)BANGER bæŋə bæŋgə bængə
3)HUNGER hʌŋə hʌŋgə hʌngə
4)HANGER hæŋgə hæŋə hænə
5)STRONGER strɒngə strɒŋgə strɒŋə
6)THINKER θɪnkə θɪŋə θɪŋkə
READ THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES ALOUD
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Unit 3
1)/ ˈlet mɪ ˈsɪŋ ə ˈsɒŋ / Let me sing a song.
2) /ðə ˈkɪŋ ˈdræŋk wɪð ə ˈmʌŋk / The king drank with a monk.
3)/ðə ˈjʌŋ ˈfɪʃmʌŋgə ˈsəʊld ə ˈdʌzn ˈi:lz/ The young fishmonger sold a
dozen eels.
4)/ðeɪ ˈni:d ə ˈstrɒŋgə ˈmæn/ They need a stronger man.
5)/ˈdʒɪm hæz ðə ˈstreŋkθ əv ən ˈɒks/ Jim has the strength of an ox.
TRANSCRIBE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO PHONEMIC SCRIPT
1)Mandy sees pink elephants. //ˈmændɪ ˈsi:z ˈpʰɪŋk ˈelɪfənts//
2)It’s the wrong answer. //ɪts ðə ˈrɒŋ ˈænsə//
3)Ron longs for a month in the jungle. //ˈrɒn ˈlɒŋz fər ə ˈmʌnθ ɪn ðə
ˈdʒʌŋgl//
4)What happened to your knee? //ˈwɒt ˈhæpənd tə jɔ: ˈni://
5)Tim combed the horse’s mane. //ˈtʰɪm ˈkʰəʊmd /ðə ˈhɔ:sɪz

ˈmeɪn//
LATERAL
Read the text below in a loud voice and underline the words in which ‘l’ is not
pronounced.
Mary talked with Colonel Simpson for a long time. He was a wealthy man from
Suffolk and Mary thought she could marry him if she was clever enough. That
evening, she cooked salmon in an almond sauce for him. Unfortunately, the colonel
was allergic to fish. He told her that he would not even taste a bit of it. Mary was a
bit disappointed, “Country folks!”, she thought.
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Unit 3
//ˈmeərɪ ˈtʰɔ:kt/ wɪð ˈkʰɜ:nl ˈsɪmpsən/ fər ə ˈlɒŋ ˈtʰaɪm// hi: wəz ə ˈwelθɪ
ˈmæn frəm ˈsʌfək /ən ˈmeərɪ ˈθɔ:t /ʃi: kʰʊd ˈmærɪ hɪm/ɪf ʃi: wəz ˈklevər
ɪnʌf// ðæt ˈi:vnɪŋ / ʃi: ˈkʰʊkt ˈsæmən / ɪn ən ˈɑ:mənd ˈsɔ:s/ fə ˈhɪm//
ʌnˈfɔ:tʃənətlɪ / ðə ˈkʰɜ:nl wəz əˈlɜ:dʒɪk tə ˈfɪʃ// hi: ˈtʰəʊld ˈhə / ðət hi:
wəd ˈnɒt ˈi:vn ˈtʰeɪst / ə ˈbɪt əv ɪt// ˈmeərɪ wəz ə ˈbɪt dɪsəˈpʰɔɪntɪd//
ˈkʰʌntrɪ ˈfəʊks / ʃi: ˈθɔ:t//
APPROXIMANTS
Answer the questions about /r/
1. What is the place of articulation of /r/?

Post alveolar.
2.Is there only one correct articulation of this sound?

No, there are different articulations of this sound, depending on the accent of the
speaker, for example Scottish and American English have different articulations
compared with RP.
3. What is the most noticeable difference between RP /r/ and Spanish ‘r’?
Spanish is a ‘rhotic’ accent, so all the ‘r’ sounds are pronounced. Besides, for the
Spanish ‘r’, there is some contact with the palate. English is a non-rhotic accent,
that means that the ‘r’ is not always pronounced. In the articulation of RP /r/, the
tongue never touches the palate.
4. Why do young English children say ‘w’ instead of ‘r’ when they are first learning
to speak?
In the articulation of /r/, the lips are slightly rounded, just a bit less than for the
articulation of /w/. The latter is easier to make than /r/ and young children
produce it as an interphase before they manage to pronounce /r/.
5. What is the most important rule to remember about the distribution of /r/ in
RP?
Never pronounce /r/ after a vowel.
Read the sentences aloud
1. //ə ˈrəʊz ɪz laɪk ən ˈəʊpən ˈhɑ:t // A rose is like an open heart.
69
Unit 3
2. //ˈɪntrəstɪŋ ˈvɜ:s/ bət ˈaɪ prɪˈfɜ: ˈtɒməs// Interesting verse, but I

prefer Thomas.
3. //ˈðæt ˈrɪvər ɪz ˈrɪəlɪ ˈʃɔ:t// That river is really short.
4.//ˈmeərɪ ˈkɑ:nt ˈstænd ˈaɪənɪŋ// Mary can’t stand ironing.
Underline the cases of intrusive /j/ and /w/. Read the sentences aloud.
1. They open at five.

2. No umbrellas are allowed here.
3. She’s staying with a cousin.
4. Two ales, please.
5. Go out now!
Transcribe the following texts into phonemic script.
TEXT 1
Some colours are said to affect the way you feel. For example, red makes people
violent , while blue is really relaxing.
// səm ˈkʰʌləz/ ə ˈsed tʊ əˈfekt ðə ‘weɪ jʊ ˈfi:l// fər ɪgˈzɑ:mpl / ˈred meɪks ˈpʰi:pl
ˈvaɪələnt/waɪl ˈblu: / ɪz ˈrɪəlɪ rɪˈlæksɪŋ //
TEXT 2
A five-year old girl went out for the first time in her grandparents' new car. As the
law demands, they told her to sit in one of the rear seats.
// ə ˈfaɪv jɪər əʊld ˈgɜːl / went ˈaʊt fə ðə ˈfɜːst ˈtʰaɪm ɪn hə ˈgrændpeərənts ˈnjuː ˈkʰɑː
// əz ðə ˈlɔː dəˈmɑːndz / ðeɪ ˈtʰəʊld hə tə ˈsɪt ɪn ˈwʌn əv ðə rɪə ˈsiːts //
TEXT 3
This sheet of paper is square, but my copybook is oblong and so are the walls, the
ceiling, and the floor. My desk is big and black, but James's is small and white.
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Unit 3
// ðɪs ˈʃiːt əv ˈpʰeɪpər ɪz ˈskweə / bət maɪ ˈkʰɒpɪbʊk ɪz 'ɒblɒŋ / ən səʊ ɑː ðə ˈwɔːlz /
ðə ˈsiːlɪŋ ən ðə ˈflɔː // maɪ ˈdesk ɪz ˈbɪg ən ˈblæk / bət ˈdʒeɪmzɪz ɪz ˈsmɔːl ən ˈwaɪt //
TEXT 4
Cinderella used to wake up at six thirty every morning. She cleaned the house,
washed her sister's clothes, and went to the market while her sisters stayed in bed.
Cinderella did all the work. Her sisters didn't do anything.
// sɪndəˈrelə ju:st tə weɪk ˈʌp / ət sɪks ˈθɜ:tɪ /ˈevrɪ ˈmɔ:nɪŋ //ʃi: ˈkli:nd ðə ˈhaʊs /
ˈwɔ:ʃt hə ˈsɪstəz ˈkləʊðz /ən ˈwent tə ðə ˈmɑ:kɪt / waɪl hə ˈsɪstəz / ˈsteɪd ɪn ˈbed //
sɪndəˈrelə ˈdɪd ˈɔ:l ðə ˈwɜ:k // hə ˈsɪstəz ˈdɪdənt du: ˈenɪθɪŋ //
TEXT 5
Well, all those nuts and bolts and screws fit in somewhere, and there won't be any
left over when I've finished. Come on, Andrew, give me the oil can and that
spanner now. We can't be long.
// wel / ˈɔ:l ðəʊz ˈnʌts ən ˈbəʊlts ən ˈskru:z / ˈfɪt ɪn ˈsʌmweə / ən ðeə ˈwəʊnt bi: ˈenɪ
left ˈəʊvə / wen aɪv ˈfɪnɪʃt // ˈkʰʌm ɒn / ˈændru: / ˈgɪv mi: ði: ˈɔɪl ˈkʰæn / ən ðæt
ˈspænə ˈnəʊ // wi: ˈkʰɑ:nt bi: ˈlɒŋ //
NB
to ------> before consonants: /tə/ before vowels: /tʊ/
KEY TO THE DICTATIONS
PLOSIVES
FRICATIVES
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Unit 3
AFFRICATES
NASALS
APPROXIMANTS
DICTATION PRACTICE
1- //wɪ ˈhæd ə ˈwʌndəfʊl ˈmi:l / ˈlɑ:st 'fraɪdɪ ˈnaɪt//

2- //ɪt wəz maɪ ˈbrʌðəz ˈbɜ:θdeɪ / ən ðə ˈhəʊl ˈfæmɪlɪ / went ˈaʊt//
3- //ðə wə ˈtʰen əv ʌs / 'mi: / 'maɪ ˈbrʌðə / 'ɑ: ˈpʰeərənts / 'ɑ:
ˈgrænmʌðə / 'ɑ: ˈkʰʌzɪnz / ən maɪ ˈbrʌðəz ˈbest ˈfrendz//
4- //wɪ ˈɔ:l ˈhæd ˈpʰæstə//
5- //maɪ ˈgrænmʌðə 'fel əˈsli:p/ 'ɑ:ftə ˈtʰu: ˈglɑ:sɪz əv ˈwaɪn//
72

Fonética y Fonología I - Unit 3 - 2018

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Fonética y Fonología I - Unit 3 - 2018

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Diseño: Prof Carina Luc

Unit 3 Tutora: Prof. Cecilia

Unit 3: The Sounds of Speech I:

Introducing the Sounds of Speech

So far, we have considered the IPA essentially as an alternative writing system,

are easier to ascertain from self-observation, and because the systems of

FIRST THINGS FIRST

Have you noticed that most consonant phonemes are

The consonants /t, d, p, b, k, g, f, v, s, l, m, n, r, w/ look

Try reading the next line with Spanish sounds:

Peter ran to the corner to avoid Tom.

What happened? Did it sound ‘English’ at all? Probably not.

Similarly, when an English-speaking person first attempts to speak Spanish, they

¿Cuánto cuesta hablar por teléfono?

Key Words: phonetic – phonological – articulatory – auditory – stricture –

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS1

• Consonants can be described in terms of their articulation. When we produce

• Another phonetic difference between consonants and vowels is that in the

• A fourth difference between vowels and consonants is a phonological rather

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

a) Define the terms "consonant" and "vowel", phonetically speaking.

c) Why are some differences described as ‘phonetic’ whereas others are

 What do you know already about the vocal folds?

Key Words: vocal folds – cartilage – tissue – unimpeded –

Figure 1: The vocal folds as seen from above

Practise moving your vocal folds into these different positions:

 Close your mouth and breath normally.

 Say /fffffffffffff/ or /θθθθθθθ/

 Say / zzzzzzzz/ or /vvvvvvvvvvvvv/

 Cough gently several times.

 Also say / aʔaʔaʔaʔa/

VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS

 Say / ffffvvvvffffvvvv/ and /sssszzzzsssszzzz /. In order to feel

Can you "sing" both sounds?

1. A sound is ‘voiced’ when there is glottal friction.____

2. The term ‘voiceless’ refers to the absence of vibration in the vocal

3. All consonants are voiceless. ____

4. All vowels are voiced. ____

In order to revise and enlarge your

THE CONSONANTAL TYPE

1. If they are pulmonic or non-pulmonic, i.e. if the air-stream is set in motion by

2. If they are egressive or ingressive, i.e. if the air-stream is forced outwards or

6. Their manner of articulation, i.e. what the type of closure or narrowing is at

The classification into fortis and lenis sounds is as follows:

In conclusion, then, voicing / voicelessness is not the only difference between

When the voicing distinction is reduced or absent, as for example when we

To produce any consonant, an active

1. Bilabial.- The primary articulators are

2. Labiodental.- The upper teeth touch the

8. Glottal.- There is an obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction but not

Manner of articulation refers to the nature of the obstruction of pulmonary airflow.

nine /naɪn/ dine/daɪn/ line/laɪn/

The obstruction made by the organs of speech in articulating a consonant may be

friction3. The chief manners of articulation, in decreasing degrees of closure,

 Plosive.- There is complete closure at some point in

 Affricate.- There is complete closure at some point in

 Nasal.- There is complete closure at some point in the

These sounds are also known as stops.

 Lateral.- A partial closure is made at some point in

the mouth, the air-stream being allowed to escape on

 Fricative.- Two organs approximate to such an extent

that the air-stream passes through them with friction.