Discrete Mathematics and Algorithms (CSE611)

Dr. S Bapi Raju

Professor
Cognitive Science, Neuroimaging, Neural & Cognitive Modeling
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
Gachibowli 500032, Hyderabad, India
E-mail:raju.bapi@iiit.ac.in

October 21, 2019

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 1 / 12
Outline

1 Subgroups
2 Cosets
3 Normal Subgroups
4 Quotient group
5 Order of a group
6 Order of an element in a group
7 Homomorphism
8 Morphisms
9 Kernel Of Group Homomorphism

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 2 / 12
Subgroups

Let [G , ·] be a group and H ⊆ G be a subset of G. If H is also a group,

under the same composition as defined in G, then H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem
If H is a subgroup of G then identity of H is same as the identity of G.

Theorem
Let H be a subset of G. Then H forms a subgroup of the group G if and
only if h1 · h2−1 , ∀ h1 , h2 ∈ H.

Example
If “a” be a fixed element of the group G , then show that the set
N(a) = {x ∈ G |xa = ax} is a subgroup of G under the ordinary
multiplication.

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 3 / 12
Cosets

Left Coset
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The left coset of G relative to H are
defined by g · H = {g · h|h ∈ H}, ∀g ∈ G .

Right Coset
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The right coset of G relative to H are
defined by H · g = {h · g |h ∈ H}, ∀g ∈ G .

Problem
Prove that if H is any subgroup of G and h ∈ H, then H · h = H = h · H

Theorem
The left coset relation in an equivalence relation on G and the equivalence
classes are the left cosets of G with respect to H.

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 4 / 12
Normal Subgroups

A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup if the left

coset partition induced by H is identical to the right coset partition
induced by H. Equivalently, H is normal if, g · H = H · g , ∀g ∈ G
Theorem
A subgroup H of a group G is Normal if and only if , g −1 · H · g ⊆ H,
∀g ∈ G

Example
Let H and K be two subgroups of a group G. The product set of H and K
is written as H.K, is the set of all products of the form hk, for h ∈ H and
k ∈ K , that is, H · K = {hk|h ∈ H, k ∈ K }. Prove that the product set
H · K is a normal subgroup of G, if H and K are normal in G.

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 5 / 12
Quotient group

Quotient Structure
Let H be a normal subgroup of a group [G , ·]. A structure < G /H, ◦ > is
said to be a quotient structure if ‘◦0 is defined as [g ] ◦ [h] = [g · h] ,
∀g , h ∈ G , where [g] is the coset of G relative to H, g · H (w.r.t. Left
coset), H · g (w.r.t. Right coset) ∀g ∈ G .

Theorem
The group < G /H, ◦ > is called the Quotient group, if H is a normal
subgroup of a group < G , · > and < G /H, ◦ > in the quotient group.
Then the mapping f : G → G /H defined by f(g) = [g], the coset of
g ∈ G , is a group Epimorphism.

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 6 / 12
Order of a group

Definition
The number of distinct elements in the underlying set G of a group {G , ·}
is called order of the group. A group {G , ·} is called finite group if the
underlying set G consists of a finite number of elements. If a group is not
finite then it is said to be an infinite group.

Lagrange’s Theorem:
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |G | is divisible by |H|.

Theorem
Let G be a finite group. If a ∈ G then O(a) divides |G |.

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 7 / 12
Order of an element in a group

Definition
The order O(a) of an element “a” in a group G is the least positive integer
m such that am = e, where e is the identity element in G. In other words,
a1 , a2 , ..., am−1 , am = e are all the distinct elements in G.

Theorem
Any group of prime order is cyclic.

Example
Let G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and assume G is a group under an
operation * with these properties:
1 a ∗ b ≤ a + b ∀a, b ∈ G ;
2 a ∗ a = 0 ∀a, b ∈ G ;
Write out the operation table for G.
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Homomorphism

0 0
Let [G , ◦] and [G , ∗] be two Groups then mapping, µ : [G , ◦] → [G , ∗] be
a morphism if,
0 0 0
∀g , g ∈ G , µ(g ◦ g ) = µ(g ) ∗ µ(g )
0
µ(eG ) = eG 0 ; where eG and eG 0 are the identities in G and G
respectively.
(µ(g ))−1 = µ(g −1 ), ∀g ∈ G

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 9 / 12
Morphisms

0
A homomorphism µ : G → G is called
Monomorphism: if the map µ is injective,
Epimorphism: if the map µ is surjective,
Isomorphism: if the map µ is bijective,
0
Endomorphism: if G = G ,
0
Automorphism: if G = G and the map µ is bijective.

Isomorphism
0
If a group homomorphism µ : G → G has an inverse homomorphism, then
0
µ is said to be an isomorphism, and G and G are said to be isomorphic,
0
written G ≈ G

Dr. S Bapi Raju (IIIT Hyderabad) Discrete Maths and Algorithms (Monsoon’16) October 21, 2019 10 / 12
Kernel Of Group Homomorphism

0
Let G and G be two groups. The kernal of a group homomorphism
0
f : G → G is the set of domain elements that is mapped onto the identity
element in the range. If k is the kernal of f, then,
f (k) = {eG 0 } i.e f (x) = eG 0 ; ∀x ∈ K

Theorem
0
Let f : G → G be any group homomorphism, then the kernal K of f is a
0
normal subgroup of G, where G and G are groups.

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 Thank You

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