Report

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

UV−Visible Spectrometers: Versatile Instruments across the

Chemistry Curriculum
Demetra A. C. Czegan* and Diana K. Hoover
Division of Natural and Health Sciences, Seton Hill University, Greensburg, Pennsylvania 15601, United States

ABSTRACT: This article describes a wide range of commercially available UV−

vis spectrometers, with particular emphasis on educational models, and how this
technique can be included in all aspects of the chemistry curriculum. Portable
instrumentation and new software technologies are also highlighted.
Downloaded by Jaime Casas Matevi at 14:55:46:885 on May 23, 2019
from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ed200776x.

KEYWORDS: Analytical Chemistry, Laboratory Instruction, Instrumental Methods, Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus,

UV−Vis Spectroscopy
FEATURE: Instrumentation Topics for theTeaching Laboratory

U ltraviolet−visible absorption spectroscopy (UV−vis) was

reported as the most common technique taught and
employed in instrumental analysis courses in an article in this
Journal, which asked undergraduate institutions to list the most
important instruments in the chemistry curriculum.1 Here, we
provide an overview of UV−vis spectrometers, representing the
full continuum of commercially available instruments. A brief
literature survey of the educational use of UV−vis in many of
the courses in the chemistry curriculum is also included, as well
as a characterization of the benefits and options of emerging
technologies.
typically consist of a tungsten lamp source, a grating mono-
chromator, phototube detector, and LED or analog built-in
display. One beam of light passes through one cuvette of
sample and then onto the detector. These instruments require
manual background adjustments for each wavelength and type
of sample; therefore, it can be cumbersome to collect spectra,
although it is quite practical for uses requiring multiple mea-
surements at one wavelength, as in Beer−Lambert law experi-
ments, for example. These instruments are also affordable,
durable, semiportable, and, because of their inherent simplicity,

■
WHAT IS OUT THERE? THE RANGE OF
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE UV−Vis
SPECTROMETERS
A vast array of UV−vis spectrometers are available in the
market, ranging dramatically in price, size, and functionality.
Many are highly suited to academic uses, from high schools
through university research laboratories. These instruments can
be divided into three categories: single-beam, double-beam, and
dispersive; variations occur based on five basic components:
light source, light dispersing unit, sample holder, detector, and
readout device. Almost all instruments use a cuvette-based sample
holder; however, high-end instruments may have thermostatted
sample chambers, flow-cells, or integration spheres. Tables 1 and 2
outline the features of several different instruments, providing a
sampling from each category.
Single-Beam Spectrometers
The simplest type of UV−vis spectrometer is a single-beam, non-
scanning model, such as a Thermo Spec20. These instruments
© 2012 American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
can be starting points for students learning about spectroscopy.
More modernized scanning versions of the single-beam
instrument are now available and include automatic wavelength
adjustment and computer interfacing. These instruments still
have one light beam and one sample; however, the blank is
zeroed over the selected spectral range and stored in the com-
puter memory, and then subtracted from the sample spectrum.
An example of this type of instrument is the PhotoLab 6600
manufactured by Global Water. Scanning single-beam instru-
ments offer more functionality than the traditional nonscanning
version, but also come with a higher price tag.
Double-Beam Spectrometers
Scanning double-beam UV−vis spectrometers, such as the
Perkin-Elmer Lambda series, are the most prevalent at colleges
and universities. These instruments consist of two sample
chambers, one for a blank and one for the sample. The light
beam is divided, passes through each chamber, and the difference
between the two beams is detected, allowing for instantaneous
Published: January 25, 2012
304 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200776x | J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 304−309
 Table 1. Specifications of Dispersive UV−Visible Spectrometersa
Ocean Optics USB4000-UV−VIS and
Model Specificationsb Vernier SpectroVis Plus USB-ISS-UV−VIS Spectral Evolution PSP1100
Description Affordable spectrophotometer and fluorometer Scientific-grade small footprint spectrometer and Portable fiber optic-based
integrated sampling system source spectrophotometer ideal for reflectance
studies
Type Dispersive Dispersive Dispersive
Primary Use Educational Research and teaching laboratories; Industrial Environmental and geological
Range, nm 380−950 200−850 310−1100
Resolution, nm 2.5 1.5 3.2
Abs Max 1.0 Variable (slit dependent) 3.3
Journal of Chemical Education

Source and Detector Tungsten halogen (Abs) and 2 LEDs for RF deuterium and tungsten lamps with cuvette Tungsten halogen lamp; diffraction grating;
Components fluorescence (405 and 500 nm); diffraction holder; Czerny−Turner grating; linear CCD array Si diode array detector; fiber optic input
grating; linear CCD array detector detector
Size, in. 6 × 3.5 × 1.5 11 × 4 × 1.5 (combined) 5.5 × 2.5 × 6.5
Interface and Computer USB computer interface (PC or Mac) PC (Windows/Linux) and Mac with USB interface USB interface (PC only) or Bluetooth
Compatibility wireless PDA interface
Cost, U.S. Dollarsc $500 $5000 $15,000
Portability Portable Portable Portable
Additional Options Optical fibers; LabQuest data logger (operation Additional entrance slits, long-pass filters, optical Cuvette system ($2000)
without computer) fibers
Web Site URLs http://www.vernier.com/ (accessed Jan 2012) http://www.oceanoptics.com/ (accessed Jan 2012) http://www.spectralevolution.com/
(accessed Jan 2012)
a
The instruments listed here were selected to provide a representative sample of the variety of UV−vis spectrometers available on the market; for a more complete list of manufacturers, refer to Table 3,

305
and search online. bThese specifications were obtained from company Web sites or representatives and are meant for comparison purposes only. A detailed description of each instrument is beyond the
scope of this article; please consult company Web sites and local representatives for more specific information. cThe costs shown here are approximate, provided for comparison purposes only; actual
purchase prices will varyplease consult company Web sites and local representatives for more specific information.
Report

dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200776x | J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 304−309

 Table 2. Specifications of Single- and Double-Beam UV−Visible Spectrometersa
Model
Specificationsb Global Water PhotoLab 6600 Thermo Scientific Spectronic 20D+ Shimadzu UV-2600/2700 Perkin-Elmer Lambda 750 UV/vis/NIR
Description Portable spectrophotometer for Low-cost, rugged, and reliable Double-beam scanning spectrometer High-performance spectrophotometer for
both field and lab measurements spectrophotometer chemistry and materials science
Type Single-beam scanning Single-beam Double-beam scanning Double-beam scanning
Primary Use Environmental (water testing) Educational and industrial Research and teaching laboratories; industrial Research and industrial
Range, nm 190−1100 350−950 185−900 190−3300
Resolution, nm 1 20 0.1 0.2
Abs Max 3.0 2.0 >5.0 6.0
Source and Detector Xenon flashlamp; grating Tungsten halogen lamp; grating Deuterium and tungsten halogen lamps; single (2600) or Deuterium and tungsten halogen lamps; double-
Components monochromator; photodiode monochromator; phototube double (2700) monochromator; photomultiplier detector beam, double-monochromator; photomultiplier
Journal of Chemical Education

detector detector and Peltier-cooled PBS detectors

Size, in. 16 × 8 × 12.5 16 × 8.5 × 13.5 18 × 24 × 9 40 × 29 × 12
Interface and Integrated display and keypad Computer interfacing requires after- USB interface, (PC only/Windows 7 [32 bit] compatible) USB Interface (PC only/Windows95)
Computer (stand-alone); USB interface market adaptations
Compatibility (PC only)
Cost, U.S. Dollarsc $7500 $2000 $15,000 $40,000
Portability Semiportable Semiportable Not portable Not portable
Additional Options 12 V power supply adapter; bar- None Integration sphere ($8000) Integration sphere ($15,000−30,000); Peltier
code scanner accessories for thermostatting
Web Site URLs http://www.globalw.com http://www.thermo.com (accessed http://www.ssi.shimadzu.com (accessed Jan 2012) http://www.perkinelmer.com (accessed Jan 2012)
(accessed Jan 2012) Jan 2012)
a
The instruments listed here were selected to provide a representative sample of the variety of UV−vis spectrometers available on the market; for a more complete list of manufacturers, refer to Table 3,

306
and search online. bThese specifications were obtained from company Web sites or representatives and are meant for comparison purposes only. A detailed description of each instrument is beyond the
scope of this article; please consult company Web sites and local representatives for more specific information. cThe costs shown here are approximate, provided for comparison purposes only; actual
purchase prices will varyplease consult company Web sites and local representatives for more specific information.
Report

dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200776x | J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 304−309

Journal of Chemical Education Report

Table 3. Representative List of Manufacturers of UV−Visible Spectrometers Available in the United States
Manufacturing Company UV−Vis Instrument Line(s) Instrument Web Site URLsa
b
Agilent Technologies Cary series (100) http://www.chem.agilent.com/
AstraNet Systems Ltd. Astra UV−vis spectrometerc http://www.astranetsystems.com/
Avantes, Inc. Customer-defined spectrometer systemsc http://www.avantes.com/Avantes-USA/
BaySpec, Inc. Super Gamut seriesc http://www.bayspec.com/
Beckman Coulter DU 700 seriesd http://www.beckmancoulter.com/
Bibby Scientific Ltd. Jenway 6320Db; 7300 series; http://www.bibby-scientificusa.com/
6700 series; 6800 series; Genovad http://www.jenwayusa.com/
Buck Scientific Buck Model 100/105b http://www.bucksci.com/
Cecil Instruments 1000 series;b Aurius series; Aquarius series http://www.cecilinstruments.com/
Cole-Parmer Cole-Parmer spectrophotometers http://www.coleparmer.com/
GBC Scientific Equipment Cintra series http://www.gbcscientific.com/
Global Water PhotoLab seriesd http://www.globalw.com/
Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc. U-5100;b U-2900/2910; U-4100, U-3900 http://www.hitachi-hta.com/
Jasco Analytical Instruments JASCO V-600 series http://www.jascoinc.com/Home.aspx
Ocean Optics CHEM-4 series;b,c Red Tide series;b,c USB 2000 series;c USB 4000 seriesc http://www.oceanoptics.com/
PerkinElmer, Inc. LAMBDA Series http://www.perkinelmer.com/
Shimadzu UV-Series http://www.ssi.shimadzu.com/
Spectral Evolution Spectrometers;b spectrophotometersb http://www.spectralevolution.com/
Spectrophotometers.com UVSB-061;e VS-071;b UVDB series; UVSB series; VSB series; VS series http://www.spectrophotometers.com/
Thermo Scientific AquaMate;e BioMate;c Evolution series; Genesys series;e Spectronic seriese http://www.thermoscientific.com/
Vernier SpectroVis Pluse http://www.vernier.com/
UNICO SpectroQuest series;e 1000 series;e 1100 series;e 1200 series; 2100 series http://www.unicosci.com/
a
All sites accessed Jan 2012. bMiniaturized, highly portable, or fiber-optic based instruments. cInstruments designed for biological or life science
applications. dInstruments designed for water or environmental analysis. eInstruments recommended by manufacturer for educational use.

subtraction of the blank. These instruments have many
variations in components in order to obtain different working
wavelength ranges and resolutions; prices range from a few
thousand dollars to tens of thousands of dollars. The double-
beam instrument is typically large and not portable, and is best
suited for use in upper-level college courses or research
laboratories. The light sources usually consist of a tungsten and
deuterium lamp combination or a xenon lamp. The light is
dispersed by a Chezny−Turner grating monochromator, with
some high-end models containing double monochromators for
better resolution. The double-beam system commonly consists
of a chopping mirror, which alternates the light beam through
the sample and reference cells, generating a sinusoidal signal
that is monitored by a photomultiplier detector. Alternatively,
some double-beam systems use a semitransparent mirror to
split the beam into two beams that travel simultaneously
through the sample and reference paths to individual
photodiode detectors electronically coupled to monitor the
difference between the two signals. The latter system is more
simple and compact, while the former is generally considered
the best for resolution and high-end use.
Dispersive Spectrometers
The third type of UV−vis spectrometer is a dispersive
instrument, which is the newest in the market, using modern
electronics to make small, highly portable sizes possible. Ocean
Optics is a major manufacturer of these small, portable
spectrometers and offers a wide range of customizable
components for high-end research and industrial use, as well
as educational models. These instruments use LED lamps or
tungsten and deuterium sources. The light beam goes through
the sample and is then dispersed, usually with a grating, onto a
diode array detector, which measures the entire range
simultaneously. The diode array detector is actually many
small photodiodes assembled into an array; the number of
diodes in the array determines resolution on these instruments.
307
An external computer interface is required for operation and
collection of data. Small dispersive spectrometers are similar to
the single-beam scanning models in that the blank signal is
measured and stored for subtraction from the sample signal. At
prices as low as a few hundred dollars and with a small size that
is ideal for classrooms where space is an issue, these
instruments are advantageous for the high school or small
college level. Another benefit is rapid sampling times, with
entire spectra being collected in less than a minute, making it
possible to incorporate small experiments into short classes.
■ WHAT CAN IT DO? INTEGRATION OF UV−Vis
SPECTROMETERS IN THE CHEMISTRY
CURRICULUM
The nearly ubiquitous presence of UV−vis use in the chemistry
curriculum has been documented extensively in this Journal, as
well as others. UV−vis spectrometers are a natural component
of the analytical chemistry laboratory,2−5 and are also
commonly found in upper level undergraduate chemistry
courses such as inorganic6−8 and physical chemistry.9−11 In
organic chemistry, UV−vis instruments are occasionally used to
study highly colored products,12,13 polymers,14 and have found
some applications in green chemistry synthesis.15 Biochemistry
relies on several techniques that are based on UV−vis
absorbance measurements, including the classic Bradford16
and Lowry17 protein assays and nucleic acid extraction purity
determinations.18 The study of enzyme kinetics is often
possible through absorbance measurements of colored
products.19−21
Historically, advanced instrumentation was often underutil-
ized or missing altogether in first-year undergraduate chemistry
courses; however, in the past two decades or so, this deficiency
has begun to attract the attention of chemical educators and
initiate discussions on this matter.22,23 Some examples of UV−
vis spectrometry experiments developed for general chemistry
dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200776x | J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 304−309
Journal of Chemical Education
include examining coordination complexes,24 waters of
hydration of cupric compounds,25 and household products,
such as sunscreens.26
The impact of these versatile instruments does not stop at
the boundaries of chemistry. There are many applications that
appear in a variety of related fields, such as biology,
environmental science, forensic science, and physics. For
example, not only are many of the biochemical techniques
previously mentioned used in molecular biology, but UV−vis
spectrometry can be used to study more complex biological
systems, such as photosynthesis in nongreen leaves.27 Many
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) methods used to
determine water contaminants, such as inorganic ions and
organics, are based on UV−vis measurements;28 heavy metal
toxins (e.g., chromium) can also be determined in a similar
fashion.29 Forensic science applications are typically based on
comparing two or more samples. A spectrometer can be used to
compare paint samples through reflectance30 or absorbance
measurements,31 or to compare textile dyes in fibers.32 In
physics, one of the obvious choices for the use of these
instruments involves color and light. For example, photometry
in an interesting Halloween-themed demonstration33 or in a
color-mixing discussion34 may make these topics easier for
students to fully grasp.
■ WHAT IS ON THE HORIZON? PORTABILITY AND
TECHNOLOGY IN (AND OUT OF) THE CLASSROOM
Development of portable instruments that can be used
independently of cumbersome power sources and data
recording systems drastically expands chemical measurements
to a wide range of environments. Two major areas of
innovation for UV−vis spectrometers include the ability to
integrate mobile technology with existing instrumentation, as
well as increasing portability of the measurement device itself.
These instruments can be easily used with student-owned
technology, including laptop computers, iPads, smart phones,
and so forth. For example, several of the manufacturers
mentioned in Table 1 are introducing the use of handheld
devices used with portable instruments. Vernier portable
instruments are used with Logger Pro software. This software,
available with a generous site license, makes it possible to use
student-owned laptop computers to actively collect and analyze
data in real time. The Spectral Evolution portable spectroscopy
systems can be operated wirelessly through a Bluetooth
connection with mobile devices. Ocean Optics spectrometers
can be used with Pasco’s DataStudio. This software suite is
compatible with Mac or PC computer platforms, and has
recently released a Bluetooth wireless capable interface. This
system, in conjunction with the Sparkvue app (available from
iTunes), makes it possible to collect data directly to a personal
device, such as an iPad or iPhone.
The ability to operate a UV−vis spectrometer wirelessly
would permit one to take chemical measurements in awkward,
extreme, or remote environments. While the average user may
not have the opportunity to scale a volcano or set out to sea
with a portable spectrometer, it would be possible to take
advantage of this technological breakthrough in other ways. For
example, when conducting sensitive experiments in a glovebox
or hood, where limiting exposure to fumes or reagents is
critical, a wireless UV−vis spectrometer would be ideal.
Forest and Rayne35 discuss the important role that
integrating field trips at the college level can play in student
learning. The use of field trips have also been described in order
308
Report
to increase student engagement in nonmajor science courses.36
Many of the examples of field trips given in the literature for
chemistry courses include walking tours or other relatively
passive activities. Allowing students the opportunity to collect
data on site, using portable UV−vis instrumentation, could
further enrich experiences, such as a trip to a local winery or
water treatment plant.
If time, financial, or geographical restraints preclude a field
trip to an off-site location, the use of portable instrumentation
can still enrich the curriculum without leaving campus. For
example, the analysis of carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments in
plants can be performed on site.37,38 The ability to perform an
experiment on plant samples in the field would allow for quick
sample preparation to analysis times, reducing impacts of
degradation on results. As shown in Figure 1, students are able
Figure 1. Photograph of students using a Vernier SpectroVis Plus
VIS−NIR spectrophotometer to analyze chlorophyll in green plants.
Reproduced with permission.
to take a UV−vis spectrometer outside to study chlorophyll
samples extracted from different plants. In this case, students
would be able to choose different plant species to test and
compare, allowing for more flexible, student-designed experi-
ments.
UV−vis spectrometers have been useful tools for inves-
tigation and learning in chemistry courses for many years.
Because of recent technological developments, these instru-
ments are now more versatile and affordable than ever. We
hope this will make exciting learning opportunities more
accessible to a wider range of students.
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: czegan@setonhill.edu.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the Spectroscopy Society of Pittsburgh (SSP)
for funding to purchase portable Vernier instrumentation, some
of which is referenced within the paper. We also thank Michelle
Bushey, editor, for her helpful comments on the draft. Finally,
we would like to thank Chelsie Binda, Kaitlin Martin, and
Amanda Dumi for their assistance in preparing the figures in
this manuscript.
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