LESSON MANUSCRIPT

Introduction:

Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish

significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodlands, etc.

A firefighter suppresses fires to protect lives, property and the environment.

One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic

environment created by combustible materials. The four major risks are smoke,

oxygen deficiency, elevated temperatures, and poisonous atmospheres.[3] Additional

hazards include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems

encountered in a toxic environment. To combat some of these risks, firefighters

carry self-contained breathing equipment.

The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the

origin of the fire and to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water,

fuel or oxidant removal, or chemical flame inhibition.

The Bureau of Fire Protection is an agency of the Department of the Interior

and Local Government (DILG) responsible for implementing national policies related

to Firefighting and fire prevention as well as implementation of the Philippine Fire

Code (PD 1185), which has been repealed and replaced by the New Fire Code of the

Philippines (RA 9514). Formerly known as the Integrated National Police Fire

Service, the BFP is in charge of the administration and management of municipal

and city fire and emergency services all over the country.

The Bureau of Fire Protection was created to perform one of many function

which is to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires

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on: Building, houses and other structures; Forest; Land transportation vehicles and

equipment; Ships and vessels docked at piers or wharves anchored in major sea

ports; Petroleum industry installations; Plane crashes; and Other similar activities.

Definition of FIRE

Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel

and an oxidizer- typically the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases

energy in the form of heat and light.

Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or in some

cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of a flame,

which is composed of glowing particles of the burning material and certain gaseous

products that are luminous at the temperature of the burning material.

THE TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE

Basically there are three elements of fire: fuel, heat, and oxygen. The fourth

element which is known as Tetrahedron of fire is a transition of the triangular figure

into a four-sided solid geometric figure resembling a pyramid and serves as the base

representing the chemical chain reaction.

FUEL- refers to any material that can be oxidized or a reducing agent which

has a reference to a fuels ability to reduce an oxidizing agent.

OXYGEN- Oxidizing agent explains how some materials can be burn in an

oxygen-free atmosphere.

HEAT/TEMPERATURE- Heat is a type of energy in disorder while

temperature is a measure of the degree of that disorder.

CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION- refers to the vapors of gases distilled during the

process of burning of materials carried into the flame. These vapors contain

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unchanged atoms and molecules having electrical charge which attract or repel other

particles.

OXYGEN SOURCE

Approximately 16 percent of oxygen is required for combustion. Normal air

contains 21 percent carbon dioxide. Some fuel materials contain sufficient oxygen

within their make-up to support burning.

HEAT SOURCES

Some of the examples of the sources of heat are open flame- the sun, hot

surfaces, sparks and arcs, friction- chemical reaction, electrical energy, and

compression of gases.

PHASES OF BURNING:

There are three (3) progressive phases of burning:

1. Incipient or Beginning Phase- Under this phase, the oxygen content in the air has

not been significantly reduced and the fire is producing water vapor, carbon dioxide,

carbon monoxide, perhaps a small quantity of sulfur dioxide, and other gases. Some

heat is being generated and the amount will increase with the progress of the fire.

The flame may be producing a flame temperature well above 1000 degrees

Fahrenheit, yet the temperature in the room at this stage may be only slightly

increased.

2. Free Burning Phase- The second phase includes all the free burning activities of

fire. During this phase, oxygen-rich air is drawn into the flame as convection (the rise

of the heated gases) carries the heat to the uppermost portion of the confinement

area. The heated gas spread out laterally from the top downward, forcing the cooler

air to seek lower levels and eventually igniting all the combustible materials in the

upper levels of the room. In this situation firefighter must prevent breathing the

superheated air as it can destroy their respiratory tract. At this instance, the

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temperature can exceed 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit at the upper portion of the room.

As the fire continues, it will consume the free oxygen until it is not enough to react

with the liberated fuel, then the fire is reduced into the next stage.

3. Smoldering Phase-The flame on this stage may stop to occur if the area do not

have supply of air. Burning under this point is reduced to glowing embers. The room

is completely filled with a dense smoke & fire gases that pressure force them to seep

deep the cracks of the building. The temperature will be as high as over 1000

degrees Fahrenheit. The heat vaporized the lighter fuel such as hydrogen &

methane, from the materials consumed by fire in the room and therefore, increases

the hazard.

FLASHOVER-This is the final stage of the process of the fire growth, wherein all the

combustible materials within a compartment are all ignited. The cause of the

flashover is due to the excessive build up of heat from the fire itself and once all the

contents of the fire area are heated gradually into its ignition temperature

simultaneous ignition occurs and the entire area becomes fully involved with fire.

FLAME SPREAD-It is the rate at which flame travels over the surface. Interior

building materials & finishes have a flame spread rating that indicates the rate at

which flame will spread over the surface of the material. The lowest rating is zero

while a higher number indicates a faster rate of travel on the material.

FIRE EXTIGUISHING METHODS

There are four methods of fire suppression:

1. Removal of Fuel- This method is effective but not applicable at all times. Fuel

removal includes turning off the fuel supply, pumping flammable liquids from a

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burning tank, removing unburned portion of a pile of combustible materials (silos or

coal piles), or diluting a burning liquid material (ethyl alcohol) when diluted with is

soluble in water. In the case of flammable liquids which are not soluble with water

can be treated with “emulsifying agent” that will cover the top layer of the flammable

liquid to stop vaporization. Foam & other surface-active agents contain flammable

vapors so that removal of fuel is also applicable while flammable gases can be

diluted with inert gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) to make it non-combustible.

2. Exclusion of Oxygen- This involves separation of oxygen from other materials that

creates a fire by the process of “smothering” or “blanketing”. One of the common

example of this method is extinguishing a grease during prying by placing a cover on

a pan. But it should be take note there are some plastics (cellulose nitrate) and

combustible metals (titanium) that cannot be extinguished by exclusion of oxygen

because this substances do not depend on external air supply to burn so that special

method of control is required.

3. Reduction of Temperature- Temperature control ( “cooling off “ or “ quenching ”)

involves the absorption of heat with a resultant cooling of the fuel to a point at which

it ceases to release enough vapors to maintain a flammable vapor.

4. Inhibition of Chain Reaction-This method is applicable during combustion process,

on which scientist have found that the simultaneous formation & consumption of

certain atoms are the key to the chain reaction which produces the flame. Some

chemical substances, when introduced into the fire in proper amounts, breaks up this

reaction and inhibits the atoms and the fire cannot continue to burn and therefore, it

is extinguished.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE & THEIR EXTINGUISHING METHODS

1. Class “A” Fires – Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as wood,

cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.

Class “A” Fire Extinguishment:

Water is used in a cooling or quenching effect to reduce the temperature of

the burning material below its ignition temperature.

2. Class “B” Fires – Fires involving flammable liquids, greases, and gases.

Class “B” Fire Extinguishment:

The smothering or blanketing effect of oxygen exclusion is most

effective. Other extinguishing methods include removal of fuel and temperature

reduction.

3. Class “C” Fires – Fires involving energized electrical equipment.

Class “C” Extinguishment:

This fire can sometimes be controlled by a non-conducting

extinguishing agent. The safest procedure is always attempt to de-energized high

voltage circuits and treats as Class A or Class B fire depending upon the fuel

involved.

4. Class “D” Fires – Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium,

titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.

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 Class “D” Fire Extinguishment:

The extremely high temperature of some burning metals makes water

& other common extinguishing agents ineffective. There is no agent available that

would effectively control fires in all combustible metals. Special extinguishing agents

are available for control of fire in each of the metals & are marked specially for that

metal.

5. Class “K” Fires – fires involving kitchen materials. This classification was added

during the 1998 NFPA portable extinguishers standard exhibition.

CLASSES OF FIRE BASED ON CAUSE

1. Natural

2. Accidental

3. Intentional

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat can travel throughout a burning building by one or more of the four (4)

methods. The existence of heat within a substance is caused by a molecular action.

Thus as the vibration of the molecules becomes more intense, & sense heat is a

disordered energy, it never remains constant but continually transferred from objects

of higher temperature to those of lower temperature. The colder of the two bodies in

contact will absorb heat until both objects are of similar temperature.

1. Conduction – Heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct contact

of the bodies or by an intervening heat-conduction medium. The amount of heat that

will e transferred and its rate of travel by this method depends upon conductivity of

the material through which the heat is passing. Not all materials have the same heat

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conductivity. Aluminum, copper and iron are good conductors. Fibrous materials such

as felt, cloth and paper are poor conduction.

Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat because of the free movement

of their molecules. Air is very poor conductors of heat because of the free movement

of their molecules. Air is a very poor conductor. Certain solid materials when

shredded into fibers and packed into batts, makes good insulation because the

material itself is a poor conductor and there are air pockets within the batting. Double

building walls which contain an air space provide additional insulation.

2. Radiation – This method of heat transmission is known as the radiation of heat

waves. Heat & light waves are similar in nature but they differ in length. Heat waves

are longer than light waves and they are sometimes called infra-red rays. Radiated

heat travel through space until it reaches an opaque object. As the object is exposed

to heat radiation it will in return radiate heat from its surface. Radiated heat is one of

the major sources of fire spread and its importance demands for an immediate

defensive attack at points where radiation exposure is severe.

3. Convection – is the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid. This

movement is different from the molecular motion discussed in conduction. When

liquid gases are heated, they begin to move in themselves. For example, when water

is heated in a glass container, an upward movement within the vessel can be

observed through the glass.

The spread of fire by convection has more influence upon the positions for fire

attack and ventilation that either of the previously discussed methods of heat

propagation. Heated air in the building will expand and rise. For this reason, fire

spread by convection is mostly in an upward direction although air currents can carry

heat in any direction. Convected heat currents are generally the cause of heat

movement.

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4. Direct Flame Contact – Fire also spreads along and through the material that will

burn by direct flame contact. When substance is heated to a point where flammable

vapors are given off, these vapors may be ignited. Any other flammable material

which is in contact with the burning vapors may be heated to a temperature where it

will ignite and burn.

PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS

TYPES OF EXTINGUISHERS

1. Water Types Extinguishers (Pump Tanks). This types contains one and one half

to five gallons of water and applicable to Class “A” fires. It is hand pump operated.

2. Stored Pressure Water Extinguishers. It is applicable to Class “A” fires. It has an

average air pressure of 100 PSI., stored with the water on the chamber.

3. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers. This type is applicable to Class “B” & Class “C”

fires. A carbon dioxide gas is stored under pressure and expelled by operating

valves. The discharge expels a cloud of carbon dioxide gas with some snow through

the nozzle horn.

4. Halon Extinguishers. It is applicable to Class “B” & “C” fires, consists a liquid that

will readily vaporize to a gas which will inhibit the chain reaction of the combustion

process.

5. Ordinary Base Dry Chemical Extinguishers. These types is applicable to Class

“B” and “C” fires. Its contained alkaline base chemical is expelled either by gas

cartridge or stored pressure on the same container which is operated by a nozzle

shut-off valve.

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 I. FIRE SCENE MANAGEMENT

1.1 FIRE SUPPRESSION, STRATEGIES & TACTICS

FIRE STREAMS

Fire Streams is defined as a stream of water or other extinguished

agent, after it leaves the fire hose and nozzle until it reaches the desired point

in the desired configuration. The purpose of using fire steam is to provide

protection by reducing the temperature by one of the following methods:

1. by applying water directly to the burning material;

2. By reducing high atmospheric temperature and by absorbing and/or

dispensing hot smoke and fire gases from a heated area in a confined

space.

3. By reducing the temperature over an open fire and thus permit a closer

proximity with hand hose lines to effect extinguishment.

4. By protecting fire fighters and property from heal through the use of fire

streams as water curtain

PROPERTIES OF WATER AS AN EXTINGUISHING AGENT

 Water has a greater heat absorbing capacity than other common

extinguishing agents.

 A relatively large amount of heat is required to change water into

steam.

 The greater the surface area of the water that is exposed, the

more rapidly the heat will be absorbed.

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  Water converted into a steam occupies several hundred times its

original volume.

TYPES OF FIRE STREAMS

BROKEN STREAMS – is a solid stream that has broken into coarsely divided drops

for the purpose of protecting exposed buildings by spraying water curtains. Some of

the means employed to produce broken streams can be by the se of rotary distributor

nozzle, flat spoonbill nozzles or by directing two solid streams together in the midair.

FOG OR SPRAY STREAMS – a term used to describe a jet of water that is divided

into drops with a definite shape or design. “Fog”-means a condensed water drops

from a firefighting nozzle.

SOLID STREAM – is designed to reach areas, which have not been reach, by other

mediums.

VENTILATION

Ventilation – is the planned and systematic release and removal of heated air,

smoke, and toxic gases from a confined area and the replacement of these products

of combustion with a supply of fresh cooler air.

OBJECTIVES OF VENTILATION

The major objectives of fire fighting force are to reach the scene of the fire as

quickly as possible, rescue trapped victims, locate fire, and apply suitable

extinguishing agents with a minimum of fire, water, smoke, and heat damage.

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Ventilation during fire fighting is definitely an aid to the fulfillment to these objectives.

Needed respiratory protection for all hazards must be taken into consideration by the

firefighters.

ADVANTAGES OF VENTILATION

1. Aids life saving and rescue;

2. Speeds fire attack & extinguishment;

3. Reduces the danger of back draft or smoke explosion;

4. Reduces mushrooming;

5. Makes firefighting easier;

6. Reduces fire & water damage;

7. Reduces smoke and heat damage;

8. Permits prompt salvage operations;

9. Helps provide confinement.

FIRE CONTROL

Before ventilating a building, afire officer must provide manpower and

adequate fire control facilities, because the fire may immediately increase in intensity

when the building is opened. These facilities should be provided for both the building

involved and other exposed buildings. As soon as the building has been opened to

permit hot gases and smoke to escape, the next requirement is to reach the seat of

fire extinguishment.

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LOCATION OF THE FIRE

Ventilation should not be carried out until the location of the fire established.

Opening for ventilation purposes before the fire is located may spread the fire

throughout areas of the building that would not otherwise have been affected.

EXTENT OF FIRE

The severity and extent of the fire usually depend upon the kind of fuel, the

time it has been burning, installed fire protection devices, and the degree of

confinement of fire. The phase to which the fire has progressed is a primary

consideration in determining ventilation procedures. Some of the ways by which

vertical extension occurs are follows:

1. Through stairwells, elevators and shafts by direct flame contact or by

convicted air currents;

2. Through partitions and walls and upward between the walls by flame contact

and convicted air currents;

3. Through windows or other outside openings where flame extends to other

exterior openings and enters upper floors;

4. Through ceilings and floors by direct flame contact;

5. Through floor and ceiling openings where sparks and burning material fall

through to lower floors; &

6. By the collapse of floors and roofs.

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SALVAGE AND OVERHAUL

Salvage work – consists of those methods and operating procedures allied to

the fire fighting which aid in reducing fire, water and smoke damage during & after

fires.

Overhaul Operations – consists of the search for & extinguishment of hidden

or remaining fires; placing the building, its contents, and the fire area in a safe

condition, determining the cause of the fire; and recognizing and preserving any

evidence of arson.

Overhauling – the practice of searching a fire scene to detect hidden fires or

sparks which will rekindle and to detect and safeguard signs of arson.

Salvage covers – are made from closely woven canvas materials; which have

been treated, for waterproofing. Size can be 9 x 12 feet to 14 x 18 feet.

a) Plastic Salvage Covers – made from 100 percent polyethylene film, are

extremely lightweight and easy to handle.

1.2 BFP OPERATIONAL MANUAL ON POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Republic Act 6975 also known as the DILG Act of 1990, Section 54. Powers

and Function of BFP. The Fire Bureau shall be responsible for the prevention and

suppression of all destructive fires on all buildings, houses and other structures,

forest, transportation vehicles and equipment, ship or vessel docked at piers or

wharves or anchored in major seaports, petroleum industry installation, plane

crashes or other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code and

other related laws. The Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all causes of

fires and, if necessary, file the proper complaint with the city or provincial prosecutor

who has jurisdiction over the case.

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BASIC CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES AND GUIDEPOSTS

Personnel accountability system must be in place all throughout the

firefighting operation. Members of volunteers shall also be part of the accountability

system to ensure that no firefighter shall be left unaccounted before and after the

operation.

First responding units should always have a firefighting unit and water

tank/supply unit.

Responding Personnel determine point of entry and at least teo (2) means of

egress for the firefighters.

All responding personnel wear Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

and carry additional hose lines to supplement the hoses.

RESPONSIBILITIES

Municipal and City Fire Station – first responder responsible for the initial

management of fire scene,

District and Provincial Offices – responsible for coordinating and deploying

additional resources district/province wide.

Regional Offices – responsible for dispatching additional resources region

wide.

National Headquarters – responsible for coordinating and dispatching of

additional resources that are beyond the capability of the region.

GENERAL PROCEDURES

1. All responding personnel wear appropriate Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE)

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 2. The Incident Commander (IC) with the barangay/management for initial

gathering of information and initiates transfer of command.

3. The IC activates and deploys Evacuation, Search and Rescue, Emergency

Medical Services (EMS) and Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) response teams/s, if

needed.

4. The IC conducts Damage Assessment and Need Analysis (DANA) and

reports the same to the next higher office.

5. The IC directs the conduct of fire operations in accordance with phases of

firefighting, whenever applicable.

6. The IC declares “fire under control” when there is no probability for fire to

escalate.

7. Responding personnel perform overhauling until fire is totally extinguished.

8. The IC declares “fire out” after determination of total extinguishment.

9. The IC directs the BFP investigators to continue the conduct of

investigation.

10. The responding unit returns to the station after the demobilization only.

11. The Fire Marshal, together with the fire fighting unit, conducts post fire

analysis.

12. The station’s Chief Operations submits After Fire Operation Report to the

Fire Marshal for subsequent submission to the next higher office.

ii. FIRE GROUND COMMANDER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

FIRE GROUND COMMANDER (FGC)

An officer or non-officer position such as Regional Director, Provincial/City

Municipal Fire Marshal or Supervisor/Team Leader, specifically identified on whose

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shoulders the responsibilities of management, supervision, and control of firefighting

activities in a specific fire alarm or conflagration are vested.

The overall responsibility for the command of an emergency is vested in the

FGC. The FGC, regardless of rank, must maintain an overall view of the situation.

The FGC is responsible for the command functions at all times. As the identity

of the FGC changes, through transfers of command, this responsibility shifts with the

title.

The FGC must consider the need to maintain the safety of firefighters, the

public and members of other responding emergency services when considering

control of the incident.

The FGC must prepare an After Fire Operation Report (AFOR) addressed to

the Office of the Fire Chief., Attention to Directorate for Operatins, Thru the Fire

Suppression Operation Division.

The FGC can file the proper charges against BFP officers who failed to

respond in fire and other emergency situations.

Resources and Control

The FGC is responsible for securing and controlling resources on the fire

ground. This assessment and control of resources will include:

- Appliances (FireTrucks, ladders, tankers, etc.)

- Personnel (BFP Personnel, Volunteers)

- Equipment (Fire Hose, wye connections, nozzles, etc.,) , and

- Consumables (e.g. fuel, barricade tapes, BA cylinders, foam, etc.)

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 The degree of control to be maintained by the FGC will depend in part, on

the size and demands of the incident. At larger fire incidents, specific areas of

resource control maybe delegated to appointed officers. Such areas may include:

- Firefighting

- Command Support

- Trafic/Water Control

- Logistics

- Decontamination

- Foam

- Breathing Apparatus

- Volunteer Support

FIRE ALARM LEVELS

The BFP has fire alarm levels to determine how many fire trucks should

respond to the scene. Fire incidents raised to the first to third alarm levels are under

the responsibility of the local substation. Should the alarm level for an incident raised

from third to fourth alarm level, the Ground Commander should notify the District Fire

Marshal concerned. Fires under the fourth and fifth levels are handled under the

district-level. The District Fire Marshall determines if a fire warrants a Task Force-

level alarm. Task Force responses are handled by the Regional Director who

determines if a fire requires a general alarm response which warrants the response

of all available fire trucks and the support of fire trucks from other districts.

The prescribed boundaries of fire alarm or conflagration situated equated

according to the number of firefighting apparatus coming from one or various fire

station(s) of cities and/or municipalities having the capability to extinguish fire.

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 RUNNING CARD SYSTEM

Running Cards show which fire companies will respond to a particular fire

alarm.

Every fire company cannot respond to every alarm. By predetermining a

response pattern, the most efficient use of resources is accomplished in a timely

fashion. By using street patterns, one-way streets, firehouse locations, bridges,

highways, railroad tracks, and other physical barriers, the fire companies with the

quickest possible response are pre-selected. For multiple alarms above the first

alarm, the process includes determining a response to the fire location, and also to

cover firehouses near the scene of the fire.

A systematic responding system that serves as guide to raise the Fire Alarm

Level and identifies the next responding units to support the fire operation.

MODE OF RESPONSES

TOTAL
NUMBER OF
NUMBER OF
ALARM LEVEL BFP OFFICER/S TO RESPONSE RESPONDING
RESPONDING
FIRETRUCKS
FIRETRUCKS

Senior Fire Officer Shift-in-

FIRST 2 2
Charge/Team Leader

Senior Fire Officer Shift-in-

SECOND 4 6
Charge/Team Leader

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 CFM/MFM concerned/Station
THIRD 4 10
Commander

FOURTH Provincial/District Operations Chief 4 14

FIFTH Provincial/District Operations Chief 2 16

TASK FORCE ALPHA P/DFM concerned 1 17

C, Operation, C, Intelligence and

Investigation Branch
TASK FORCE BRAVO 1 18
P/DFM & all C/MFMs of the

Provincial/District concerned

TASK FORCE CHARLIE DRDO 2 20

TASK FORCE DELTA Regional Director 2 22

TASK FORCE ECHO Regional Director 2 24

All available All available

GENERAL ALARM Regional Director
firetrucks firetrucks

III. ADVANCE FIREFIGHTING AND MANAGEMENT

The Advanced Fire Fighting encompasses all skills and knowledge gained in

the Basic Fire Fighting Course and additionally teaches practical knowledge in the

use of hand-operated firefighting equipment. It is a different fire fighting approach in

areas like the Oil & Gas, Mining, Petrochemical, Manufacturing and Chemicals.

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 USE OF DRONES IN THE FIELD

Across the U.S., and throughout the world, drones are being used more and

more in firefighting operations.

And with good reason. Drones help firefighters collect vital information about

ongoing fires, which helps them focus their efforts on where their help is most

needed, keep them from harm’s way, and save lives.

Here are seven different ways fire departments are using drones in their operations

right now.

1. ASSESS RISK AND DANGER

Drones support firefighting operations by providing an overhead view of the scene of

the fire, which gives firefighters real time information about how a fire is unfolding.

When dealing with wildfires, drones can help firefighters understand how the fire is

spreading and where it might go next.

In dealing with a structure fire, drones can provide key information about exits and

entry points, as well as revealing information about the nature of the fire that might

not otherwise be possible to gather.

Also, when a fire is starting to die out, it can still contain smoldering hot spots that are

invisible to the naked eye, and a thermal camera attached to a drone can help

firefighters find these spots and make sure to avoid them.

2. RESPOND TO DISASTERS

Firefighters don’t only fight fires.

UAVs can give firefighters a quick, safe way to capture information related to

catastrophic events like floods, earthquakes, and hurricanes.

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This early information helps incident commanders and emergency managers

understand the magnitude of community impact on building infrastructure, road

conditions, and living conditions, and this information can help in determining what

additional resources might be needed from FEMA, neighboring communities, or other

organizations.

The data drones collect during disasters can also help find people trapped in their

homes or vehicles, and divert rescue efforts to help them.

3. SAVE LIVES

Using thermal cameras, firefighters can find people who might be trapped on an

upper level of a building, or in a wildfire, and focus their efforts on saving them.

4. MAKE EMERGENCY DELIVERIES

Firefighters are also using drones to make emergency deliveries in disaster

situations, carrying items like Automated External Defibrillators (or AEDs), and

whatever other equipment might be needed on the ground.

5. CREATE PRE-FIRE PLANS

Situational awareness is everything when it comes to saving lives and preventing

damage during a fire, and half the battle is knowing what you’re walking into.

That’s why firefighters have been using drones to capture images and create

orthomosaic maps of key buildings and facilities, like schools, within the areas where

they work.

These maps help firefighters to know where the exits are, and can be used by the

incident commander during a fire to provide a comparison between normal conditions

and fire conditions for different parts of a building.

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6. CONDUCT INVESTIGATIONS

Using a drone to capture aerial footage while a fire is burning can provide a twofold

value—one, the situational awareness of what is currently happening on the scene;

and two, the collection of first-hand information about how the fire burned while it was

active.

This information, collected in photos and videos, can be archived and used for

investigations into how the fire may have taken place.

Firefighters are also using drones after a fire has burned out to survey the scene and

collect images that can be turned into orthomosaic maps. These maps serve as a

record of the post-fire scene, so that even if the scene changes over time there is still

a complete data set that can be used to investigate what might have caused the fire,

and how it burned while it was active.

7. CREATE TRAINING MATERIALS

The aerial video footage and images captured while a fire is burning can be crucial in

after-action assessments, in which firefighters critique their own efforts so that they

can improve their approach and identify future training needs.

These materials can also be used to train new firefighters, providing real life

examples of how a fire might unfold, and where decisions on the ground were made

well or could have been made better.

ROBOTICS IN FIREFIGHTING

The use of robotic systems in firefighting is being increasingly studied due

to firefighters routinely being exposed to dangerous conditions to save

lives. A robotic system is a mechanical device that performs a task using

sensors to perceive its environment, computer programs to control the

robot based on its environment, and a human operator to assist with robot

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operation. In 2011, 70,090 firefighters in the U.S. alone were injured in the

line of duty with 61 deaths.

There are a variety of robotic system s being developed to support

firefighters due to the wide range of fire events including fires involving

structures, vehicles, aircrafts, ships, and wildlands. In addition to the wide

range of fire scenarios, the functionality included in the robotic syste m

may need to vary to support firefighters in tasks such as sizing up the fire,

identifying trapped people, locating the fire, monitoring conditions,

controlling fire spread, and suppression. This article provides an overview

of robotic systems that have been developed for firefighting as well as

some design aspects of these robots.

There are two general types of robotic systems that have been developed

for firefighting: fixed systems and mobile systems. Fixed systems, such as

automated fire monitors, are being used in applications where there is a

significant fire hazard and the fire needs to be extinguished rapidly. Some

example applications include aircraft landing areas, warehouse

storage, and tunnels. These systems have UV and/or IR sensors to assist

with fire localization to target the suppression agents onto the fire. Mobile

systems have more advanced features to assist the operator in navigation

and perform a wider range of tasks.

Outdoor ground-based mobile robotic systems are predominately vehicles

with onboard suppression systems that are remote controlled by an

operator. Examples of ground-based mobile robotic systems that have

been developed for outdoor firefighting are seen below. These robots

travel 2.4 – 20 km/h (1.5 – 12.4 mi/h) using wheels or tracks, weigh 450 –

9300 kg (990 – 20,450 lbs), and have suppression capabilities onboard the

robot. The robots are powered by batteries or a diesel engine.

Suppression systems mounted onto the robots include water -based fire

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monitors, foam nozzles, nozzles on articulating arms for more range of

motion, and a water fog system. In addition to the remote control

operation, these systems use a wireless connection to transmit information

from sensors onboard the robot to the operator for assisting in navigati on

and fire suppression. Sensors on the robots include visual cameras, IR

cameras, gas concentration sensors, and rangefinders to assist in

avoiding obstacles.

Outdoor Robots for Fire Suppression

Aerial vehicles are also being used in many outdoor firefi ghting and

search-and-rescue operations performed by fire departments. Many fire

departments are beginning to use basic quadrotors that are controlled by

an operator, but due to their limited payload capacity they typically contain

limited sensors, such as a camera and microphone. 7 Despite the limited

technology onboard, these aerial vehicles are very effective at quickly

providing firefighters with an alternative view of the search area to support

their efforts. Recently, plane and helicopter drones develo ped for military

operations are being repurposed to support aerial suppression of wildland

fires. 8 These drones are larger in size (meters in length / wingspan),

capable of larger payloads (up to 6,000 lbs), and contain numerous sensor

and mapping capabilities to assess and monitor conditions on the ground. 9

A wide variety of robotic designs are being pursued for indoor mobile

firefighting robots due to the confined, complex, and cluttered

environments required for navigation. These include aerial vehicles

(primarily quad or hex rotors), track/wheeled ground vehicles, biomimetic

type robots (snake-like 10 and bug 11 ), and humanoids. 12 Robots are being

considered both as a fire watch as well as an assistant to firefighters. In

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these roles, the robots are being designed for detecting fires, sizing up the

hazards inside a structure, locating and suppressing fires, and search -

and-rescue.

Since structures are designed for humans, humanoid robots are being

developed to assist firefighters with performing tasks in em ergency

operations such as operating valves, opening doors, using stairs, and

operating fire hoses. The humanoid robot THOR developed at Virginia

Tech shown below maintains perception in harsh environments using

sensors with multiple modalities including stereoscopic IR thermal imagers

for rangefinding through smoke and fire environment classification, a

rotating laser rangefinder (LIDAR) to create a 3D point cloud of obstacle

locations in unobscured environments, and stereoscopic RGB cameras to

create a color point cloud of obstacles (i.e., obstacle locations over a color

image of the scene). This robot was developed in the Shipboard

Autonomous Firefighting Robot (SAFFiR) program to assist the United

States Navy with inspection and firefighting tasks funded by the Office of

Naval Research.

In November of 2014 onboard the ex-USS Shadwell operated by the Naval

Research Laboratory, THOR walked on the heat warped decks while

holding a water nozzle and worked with a human to suppress a

compartment fire using the ship’s water nozzle connected to a hose reel.

Though the advances in using robots in confined, cluttered indoor

environments has been accelerating, the use of robots to navigate through

unknown spaces is challenging and still requires some level of human

operation. In addition, identifying, localizing, and manipulating objects is a

complicated task which still necessitates a human operator and significant

computing power, especially for performing tasks on unknown objects.

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Future use of robots in firefighting will depend on the robot durability,

sufficient sensors for environment monitoring and perception, task

capabilities, cost, level of autonomy, and movement speed. Many of the

robots being designed for firefighting applications are lacking in some or

all of these areas. For firefighters, cost is a significant consideration and

is currently restricting the more broad use of robotics in firefighting.

However, as these robots become more effective at conducting firefighting

tasks while firefighters monitor their performance at safe locations, robots

will be used more routinely to support firefighters.

AERIAL FIREFIGHTING

Aerial firefighting is the use of aircraft and other aerial resources to combat wildfires.

The types of aircraft used include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. Smokejumpers

and rappellers are also classified as aerial firefighters, delivered to the fire by

parachute from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft, or rappelling from helicopters.

Chemicals used to fight fires may include water, water enhancers such

as foams and gels, and specially formulated fire retardants such as Phos-Chek.

EQUIPMENT

A wide variety of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are used for aerial firefighting. In

2003, it was reported that "The U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land

Management own, lease, or contract for nearly 1,000 aircraft each fire season, with

annual expenditures in excess of US$250 million in recent years"

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HELICOPTER

Helicopters may be fitted with tanks (helitankers) or they may carry buckets. Some

helitankers, such as the Erickson AirCrane, are also outfitted with a front-mounted

foam cannon. Buckets are usually filled by submerging or dipping them in lakes,

rivers, reservoirs, or portable tanks. The most popular of the buckets is the

flexible Bambi Bucket. Tanks can be filled on the ground (by water tenders or truck-

mounted systems) or water can be siphoned from lakes, rivers, reservoirs, or a

portable tank through a hanging snorkel. Popular firefighting helicopters include

variants of the Bell 204, Bell 205, Bell 212, Boeing Vertol 107, Boeing Vertol 234 and

the Sikorsky S-64 Aircrane helitanker, which features a snorkel for filling from a

natural or man-made water source while in hover. Currently the world's largest

helicopter, the Mil Mi-26, uses a Bambi bucket.

AIRTANKERS

Airtankers or water bombers are fixed-wing aircraft fitted with tanks that can be filled

on the ground at an air tanker base or, in the case of flying boats and amphibious

aircraft, by skimming water from lakes, reservoirs, or large rivers.

Various aircraft have been used over the years for firefighting. In 1947, the United

States Air Force and United States Forest Service experimented with military aircraft

dropping water-filled bombs. The bombs were unsuccessful, and the use of internal

water tanks was adopted instead.[8] Though World War II- and Korean War-era

bombers were for a long time the mainstay of the aerial firefighting fleet, newer

purpose-built tankers have since come online. The smallest are the Single Engine Air

Tankers (SEATs). These are agricultural sprayers that generally drop about 800 US

gallons (3,000 l) of water or retardant. Examples include the Air Tractor AT-802,

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which can deliver around 800 US gallons (3,000 l) of water or fire retardant solution

in each drop, and the Soviet Antonov An-2 biplane. Both of these aircraft can be

fitted with floats that scoop water from the surface of a body of water. Similar in

configuration to the World War II–era Consolidated PBY Catalina, the Canadair CL-

215 and its derivative the CL-415 are designed and built specifically for firefighting.

The Croatian Air Force uses six CL-415s as well as six AT 802s for firefighting

purposes.

Medium-sized modified aircraft include the Grumman S-2 Tracker (retrofitted with

turboprop engines as the S-2T) as used by the California Department of Forestry &

Fire Protection, as well as the Conair Firecat version developed and used by Conair

Group Inc. of Canada, while the Douglas DC-4, the Douglas DC-7, the Lockheed C-

130 Hercules, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune, and the Lockheed P-3 Orion – and its

commercial equivalent, the L-188 Electra – have been used as air tankers. Conair

also converted a number of Convair 580 and Fokker F27 Friendship turboprop

airliners to air tankers.

The largest aerial firefighter ever used is a Boeing 747 aerial firefighter, known as

the Global Supertanker, that can carry 19,600 US gallons (74,200 l) fed by a

pressurized drop system. The Supertanker was deployed operationally for the first

time in 2009, fighting a fire in Spain.[12] The tanker made its first American operation

on August 31, 2009 at the Oak Glen Fire.[13][14] It has since been replaced by

a Boeing 747-400. Another wide body jetliner that is currently being used as an air

tanker is the modified McDonnell Douglas DC-10 operated by the 10 Tanker Air

Carrier company as the DC-10 Air Tanker. It can carry up to 12,000 US gallons

(45,400 l) of fire fighting retardant.

The Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations operates convertible-to-cargo Ilyushin

Il-76 airtankers that have been operating with 11,000-US-gallon (41,600 l) tanking

systems, and several Beriev Be-200 jet powered amphibians. The Be-200 can carry

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a maximum payload of about 12,000 litres (3,200 US gal) of water, making "scoops"

in suitable stretches of water in 14 seconds.

Bombardier's Dash 8 Q Series aircraft are the basis of new, next-generation air

tankers. Cascade Aerospace has converted two pre-owned Q400s to act as part-time

water bomber and part-time transport aircraft for France's Sécurité Civile, while

Neptune Aviation is converting a pre-owned Q300 as a prototype to augment

its Lockheed P-2 Neptune aircraft. The Sécurité Civile also operates twelve Canadair

CL-415 and nine Conair Turbo Firecat aircraft. Neptune Aviation also currently

operates converted British Aerospace 146 jetliners as air tankers. The BAe 146 can

carry up to 3,000 gallons of fire fighting retardant. Air Spray USA Ltd. of Chico,

California has also converted the BAe 146 jetliner to the role of air tanker. Another

modern-era passenger aircraft that has now been converted for aerial firefighting

missions in the U.S. is the McDonnell Douglas MD-87 jetliner. The MD-87 can carry

up to 4,000 gallons of fire fighting retardant. Coulson Aviation unveiled the future of

aerial fire fighting with the Boeing 737-300 in May 2017. Six aircraft have been

purchased from Southwest Airlines for the RADS system conversion which is set to

enter service in December 2017. The 737 aircraft is smaller than the C-130Q which

allows for a wider range of airfields to be utilized. Britt Coulson further explained the

aircraft will be able to retain the current seat and galley configuration for tanker

operations. On 22 November 2018, the 737 was used for the first time to fight a fire

new Newcastle, Australia

LEADPLANES

The Lead Plane function directs the activities of the airtankers by both verbal target

descriptions and by physically leading the airtankers on the drop run. The leadplane

is typically referred to as a "Bird Dog" in Canada or "Supervision" aircraft in Australia.

The O-2 Skymaster, Cessna 310 and OV-10 Bronco have been used as spotter and

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lead plane platforms. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has also used

the Cessna 337. The Beechcraft Baron was long used as a leadplane or air attack

ship, but most were retired in 2003; more common now is the Beechcraft King

Air and the Twin Commander 690. A Cessna Citation 500 jet owned by Air Spray

(1967) LTd. was used by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests beginning in 1995

and used for two fire seasons to lead the very fast Electra L188 air tanker to the fires.

This was the first time a jet aircraft was used as a lead plane or "bird dog". The

Department of Parks and Wildlife in Western Australia operates a fleet of

nine American Champion Scouts 8GCBC during the summer months as spotter

aircraft and Air Attack platforms. The Provinces of Alberta and British Columbia and

the Yukon Territories contract to supply Twin Commander 690 as bird dog aircraft for

their air tanker fleets. Air Spray owns 9 Twin Commander 690 for use as bird dog

aircraft.

FLEET GROUNDING

In the United States, most of these aircraft are privately owned and contracted to

government agencies, and the National Guard and the U.S. Marines also maintain

fleets of firefighting aircraft. On May 10, 2004, The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and

the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) announced that they were cancelling

contracts with operators of 33 heavy airtankers. They cited liability concerns and an

inability to safely manage the fleet after the wing failure and resulting crash of a C-

130A Hercules in California and a PB4Y-2 in Colorado during the summer of 2002.

Both aged aircraft broke up in flight due to catastrophic fatigue cracks at the wing

roots. After subsequent third-party examination and extensive testing of all USFS

contracted heavy airtankers, three companies were awarded contracts and now

maintain a combined fleet of 23 aircraft

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IV. ROLE OF EMS AND SRU IN FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS

Emergency medical services (EMS) are emergency services which treat

illnesses and injuries that require an urgent medical response, providing out-of-

hospital treatment and transport to definitive care

EMS units will respond to first alarm fires within their AOR, all fire alarms on

specific calls: schools, dormitories, orphanages, and hospitals, places of mass

assembly (malls, theaters, hotel, restaurants and the like. EMS units will respond to

Task Force Alpha on adjacent districts.

EMS personnel conducts proper assessment, initiates treatment or medical

management within the scope of level of training and standard of care.

The Special Rescue Unit (SRU) is designed to meet the rising demands of

rescue assistance through the application of knowledge, skills and teamwork gained

through rigid training, thorough research and actual exposure to rescue operations.

SRU shall identify critical factors, hazards, develop back-up plans and

coordinate with other responders and other service providers. SRU sizes-up and

gather necessary data such as floor plans and other information relevant to the

location of the victim/s.

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