Multidiciplinary Journal

i
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Eddie R. Babor, Ph.D., Holy Name University
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Rolando A. Alimen, Ph. D., John B. Lacson Foundation Maritime University - Molo
Andrea G. Azuelo, Ph. D., Central Mindanao University
Rumila P. Bullecer, Bohol Island State University
Ma. Rio A. Naguit, Ph.D., Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Consorcio A. Namoco, Jr., Mindanao University of Science and Technology
Donna Lou E. Neri, Ph. D., Liceo de Cagayan University
Anacleta P. Valdez, MD, Ph.D., Lyceum of the Philippines University - Batangas
MANAGING EDITOR
Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D., Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines
AIMS AND SCOPE
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Journal aims to publish new discoveries in

the various disciplines of knowledge which are contributed by member researchers
from around the world.
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Journal is a National peer reviewed and
multidisciplinary journal that provides a venue for scholars to publish their research
findings for advocacy and utilization.
ISSN 20123981
JPAIR
Philippine Association of Institutions
for Research
Volume 6 May 2011
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Canonical Correlation Analysis of Student Perception on
Instructional Quality and Satisfaction
HENRY C. ENCABO
17 Class Size and Academic Performance

of BISU-MC Engineering Students
VIRGILIA ARANJUEZ, ADELAIDA L. CAYUNDA,
RYAN TORRALBA, ERIC BALILI, & ANN JELLY POLO
31 Competencies of Instructors: Its Correlation

to the Factors Affecting the Academic Performance of Students
MELROSE A. SALI-OT
52 Correlates of Word Problem Solving

Capabilities in Algebra of the First Year Engineering Students
MELANIE D. LUGO
65 Development and Validation of Modules in English 2:

Writing in the Discipline
MARDIE D.EMOTIN-BUCJAN
77 Dialects, Beliefs and Practices of the Tinguians of Abra

DIGNA JOCELYN L. ABAYA, MARCIANA P. DE VERA &
MANUEL A. BAJET JR.
90 Determinants of L.E.T. Performance of the Teacher

Education Graduates in a State University
JUANITA B. PASCUA & JANE D. NAVALTA
103 Diversity and Status of Butterflies in

Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok, Camiguin Island, Philippines
JOLIESA MAE S. TOLEDO, ALMA B. MOHAGAN,
117 Gleaning, Drying and Marketing Practices of Sea Cucumber

in Davao del Sur, Philippines
MILAGROS C. SUBALDO
127 LCCB as a Professional Learning Community (PLC)
in the Eyes of the Faculty
RANDDIE P. CUELO
142 Love and the Mentally Challenged:

Unraveling the Affective Domain
ROSELLE J. RANARIO
163 Morphological Analysis of Gay’s Spoken Discourse

ARIEL B. LUNZAGA, HERMABETH O. BENDULO
& VIOLETA B. FELISILDA
183 Perceptions of Secondary School Teachers on the Utilization

of Educational Technology
VICPHER D. GARNADA
197 Phytochemical and Pesticidal Properties

of Barsanga (Cyperus rotundus Linn.)
SOLITA EVANGELINE S. BAÑEZ
LIZA CASTOR
215 Poverty’s Political Face: The Case

of Pasil, Cebu City
RHODERICK JOHN S. ABELLANOSA
232 Predictors of Nursing Board Examination Performance

REMEDIOS T. NAVARRO, AURELIA T. VITAMOG
RIZZA JOY C. TIERRA & DONNA MARIE J. GONZALEZ
247 Enhancement Activities for the Day Care Centers

and Development Workers
MARIA NANCY Q. CADOSALES
261 The Ati-Atihan Festival: Its Impact to the Economy

and Tourism Industry in Kalibo, Aklan
CHRISTOPHER G. CALOPEZ, CHARLOTTE GAAS
GILBERT LLEVA, DIANA ROSE MANECLANG & DENNIS FUSIN
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indexed by the following agencies: (1) Public Knowledge Project (a consortium
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viii
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
National Peer Reviewed Journal JPAIR Multidisciplinary Journal
Canonical Correlation Analysis

of Student Perception on
HENRY C. ENCABO
hencabo@yahoo.com
Director for Academic Quality Assurance
Brokenshire College
Madapo Hills, Davao City
Philippines
Date Submitted: April 20, 2011

Final Revision Accepted: April 25, 2011
Abstract - The study models student perceptions

on instructional quality and student satisfaction using
canonical correlation analysis. Data from two survey
occasions were modeled to assess the strength and
relative consistency of the instructional quality variables
in predicting student satisfaction. Results show that
student’s perception on the adequacy, usefulness,
accessibility, safety and convenience of the learning
facilities and their perception on the faculty teaching
strategies and subject matter knowledge are the most
influential factors of student satisfaction. Canonical
functions and cross-loadings derived from the data
sets show similar pattern or trend which is taken to
indicate consistency of the models. The implication of
the findings to managing student satisfaction among
higher education institutions is briefly discussed.
1
INTRODUCTION
Student satisfaction is an important indicator of service quality in

higher education. With the students as the primary customers, student
satisfaction on the services of a college or university will most likely
determine student choices, loyalty and retention (Kara and Deshileds,
2004). This is often the reason why student satisfaction is considered
as a key outcome among many higher education institutions (HEIs).
With the growing competition among HEIs locally and globally,
students are presented not only with a lot of choices on academic
programs but also on which colleges or universities to enroll in. This
is where student’s perception on the reputation and instructional
quality of HEIs come into perspective. If the reputation or perception
of instructional quality in a college or university is poor, students may
likely opt for a better perceived option. If students feel unsatisfied,
they may likely leave or transfer to a more favorable choice. But, if
satisfied, a student can be loyal and is likely to re-enroll and even help
promote the college or university among friends and colleagues.
In this context, it is imperative for higher education institutions
to measure and wisely manage student’s satisfaction. In doing so,
HEIs can monitor if they are “doing things right” and “doing the right
things” for their students. In other words, higher education institutions
get to continually pursue and meet the kind of services and service
inputs (such as facilities and laboratories) that students expect. Thus,
measuring and managing student satisfaction promotes continuous
improvements in curricular programs, teaching and support services.
Managing student satisfaction requires a deeper understanding
of its key drivers or factors. In this paper, it is posited that student’s
perception on a combination instructional quality variables are drivers
of student satisfaction. Hence, directly are also the key drivers of
institutional improvement. This paper examined and derived models
of student’s perception on instructional quality and satisfaction
using canonical correlation analysis. Data from two survey occasions
were modeled to assess, the strength and relative consistency of the
instructional quality variables in predicting student satisfaction. With
the models presented, critical factors that influence student satisfaction
are assessed. The implication of the models to managing student
satisfaction is briefly discussed.
2
Canonical Correlation Analysis of Student Perception on
FRAMEWORK
A number of different key factors that influence customer or

student satisfaction can be found in literature. These factors can be
generic (see Staes, and Thijs, 2008; Zeithaml, et al., 1990 and Johnston,
1995) which is thought to be useful regardless of business-type or
industry or they can be academe-based such as to those identified by
Elliot (2003), Garcia-Aracil (2009) Wiers-Jenssen et al. (2002). These
factors are closely tied to a) the provision of the service itself, b) service
provider’s competence and c) the immediate environment in which
the service is delivered.
In this study, the key drivers or factors thought to influence
student satisfaction are collectively referred to as instructional quality
variables. These variables include student’s perception on the quality
of: subject matter knowledge of faculty, faculty teaching strategies,
rapport with students; accessibility, convenience, adequacy, safety and
usefulness of facilities.
These variables are aligned with or similar to those found in
literature. For example, student’s perception on subject matter
knowledge of faculty can be linked to the service provider’s competence
and faculty teaching strategies, rapport with students are provisions
of the service; whereas, accessibility of facilities, convenience,
adequacy, safety and usefulness of facilities pertains to the immediate
environment in which service is delivered. On other hand, student
satisfaction is assessed in terms of the overall satisfaction and the
student’s perception of the value of their money.
Student satisfaction is thought to be dependent on the quality of
services as exemplified by the different instructional quality variables.
Hence, student’s perception on these variables as measures of the
quality of service should be directly related to student satisfaction.
This study investigates this hypothesized relationship by using
canonical correlations. As a multivariate procedure, the canonical
correlation analysis examines the strength of student’s perception
on the instructional quality variables as predictors of student overall
satisfaction and the perception of the value of their money.
3
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study determined the canonical correlation analysis of

student perception in institutional quality and satisfaction. The study
also examined the consistency of the models derived by comparing
two data sets taken on separate occasions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
The study used the descriptive design with inferential techniques.

A database of the Academic Quality Assurance Office of Brokenshire
College on two survey occasions was accessed for this study. The first
data set involved 1099 students, of which 22.12% are male and 71.79%
are female. The second data set includes responses from 1193 students
with 34.12% male and 65.88 female students.
Measures
A Student Satisfaction Survey Tool was administered to the

participants of the study. The tool was designed to assess student’s
perception on the quality on instructional quality variables and their
satisfaction. The tool has 3 parts: a) Teaching Service dimension
which assesses Subject Matter Knowledge of Faculty, Faculty
Teaching Strategies, and Rapport with Students, b) Learning Facilities
dimension which Accessibility of Facilities, Convenience, Adequacy,
Safety and Usefulness of Facilities and c) Student Satisfaction which
assesses Overall Satisfaction and student’s Perception of the Value of
their Money.
For Teaching Service and Learning Facilities dimensions students
are asked to rate using a 4-point scale, ranging from Very Poor to
Excellent, while for student satisfaction students are asked to rate a
4-point scale, ranging from Very Dissatisfied to Very Satisfied.
Factor loadings for the Teaching Dimension ranges from 0.61 – 0.74,
Learning Facilities Dimension: 0.59 – 0.75, and Student Satisfaction: 0.5
-0.93. Goodness-fit-Statistic show a good fit with c2 (18) = 79.81, p<0.01.
4
Procedure
Data set from this study is collected on two separate survey

seasons. The first data set was obtained in a survey in August 2010 and
the second was obtained in a survey conducted in February 2011, both
in the same school year. The surveys did not use the same students
twice since it would be technically impossible given the anonymous
nature of participation. Students were explained of the purpose of the
survey and were encouraged to give truthful answers. Responses of
students are electronically coded and saved for analysis.
Data Analysis
The data sets were analyzed using canonical correlation procedures.

The canonical functions were the first to be derived followed by the
canonical loadings and cross-loadings of each variable. To assess the
significance of the canonical models or functions, Wilks’ Lambda,
Pillai’s Trace and Hotelling-Lawley Trace were computed. For
simplicity, only standardized canonical loadings and cross-loadings
are obtained. Since it is not the interest of the study to examine how
well the dependent variables explain the independent variate, its cross-
-loading statistics are not reported. The consistency of the models was
examined at face value by observing the highest and lowest canonical
loadings and cross-loadings. Pattern similarities and dissimilarities are
observed.
RESULTS
Data Set 1
Canonical correlation analysis was performed to meet the objective

of developing models for instructional quality variables as predictors
of student satisfaction. The analysis for the first data set yielded two
canonical models or functions, with only the first function being
statistically significant (p=0.00). Multivariate tests show that derived
canonical roots, if taken together, is also significant (see Note on Wilks’
Lambda, Pillai’s Trace and Hotelling-Lawley Trace statistics). Since,
5
the derived second canonical function is of no particular significance,

further analysis on its statistics is ignored. Table 1.0 shows the overall
fit of the derived canonical functions for the first data set.
In the first function canonical correlation is positive and fairly
strong at 0.51 (p<0.01) although the variance in student satisfaction
variate that is explained by students perception of the instructional
quality variables is approximately 27%.
Table 1.0 Overall fit of derived canonical functions
Canonical Canonical
Canonical R2 F df Probability
Function Correlation
1 0.51 0. 27 21.96 16 0.00
2 0.06 0.00 0.48 7 0.85
Note: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.73, F (16, 2054)=21.96, p<0.01; Pilla’s

Trace = 0.27, F(16,2056) =20.20, p<0.01; Hotelling-Lawley Trace = 0.37,
F(16,1677)=23.74, p<0.01
The canonical loadings for the predictor variate showed a strong

influence of learning facilities related variables. The highest canonical
loadings can observed from the students perception on the adequacy
(0.76), usefulness (0.74), accessibility (0.73) and convenience of facilities
(0.71). Among teaching related variables, student’s perception on the
teaching strategies (0.71) of the faculty has the most influence. on the
other hand, canonical loadings for student’s satisfaction variate show
a comparable influence of student’s overall satisfaction (0.87) and
perception on the value of money(0.88). Figure 1.0 shows the model
for the first canonical function.
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Figure 1.0 Model for the first canonical function illustrating the
canonical loadings and correlation
Further examination of canonical cross-loadings, shows that the

variate on student satisfaction is also mostly influenced by learning
facilities related variables: student’s perception on adequacy (0.40),
usefulness (0.39), accessibility (0.38) and convenience of facilities (0.37).
Among teaching related variables: student’s perception on teaching
strategies (0.37) and subject matter knowledge (0.32) are the most
influential factors. Student’s perception on rapport (0.29) has the least
influence among the predictor variables. it can also be noted that the
canonical cross-loadings are all positive, implying direct relationship
between the individual predictor variables and student satisfaction.
Table 2.0 shows the canonical cross-loadings for the first data set.
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Table 2.0 Canonical cross-loadings for the first data-set
Canonical Canonical
Variables
Function 1 Function 2
Subject Matter Knowledge 0.32 0.00

Teaching Strategies 0.37 -0.02
Rapport with Students 0.29 -0.01
Accessibility of Facilities 0.38 -0.02
Adequacy of Facilities 0.40 -0.004
Convenience of Facilities 0.37 -0.002
Safety of Facilities 0.34 0.02
Usefulness of Facilities 0.39 0.02
Data Set 2
Analysis for the second data set yielded two (2) statistically
significant canonical functions (p=0.00; 0.03). Multivariate tests show
that the derived canonical roots, taken together, are significant.
Canonical correlation for both functions is positive and shows direct
relationship between independent and dependent variate. However,
the strength of the canonical correlation in first function (0.64) is more
prominent than that of the second function (0.11). In the first function,
the amount of variance in student satisfaction variate that is explained
by student’s perception of the instructional quality variables is 41% in
comparison to the 1% in the other function. This means that while
the second function is statistically significant, its relative importance
is lesser compared to that of the first function. The analysis however,
takes note of the significance that the canonical and cross-loadings of
the second function.
8
Table 3.0 Overall fit of derived canonical

functions for the 2nd data set
Canonical Canonical
Canonical R2 F df Probability
Function Correlation
1 0.64 0. 41 42.50 16 0.00
2 0.11 0.01 2.18 7 0.03
Note: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.58, F(16, 2176) =42.50, p<0.01; Pilla’s

Trace = 0.43, F(16,2178)=36.76, p<0.01; Hotelling-Lawley Trace = 0.71,
F(16,1776)=48.44, p<0.01
Figure 2.0 Model for the first canonical function of Data Set 2
illustrating the canonical loadings and correlation
9
Figure 3.0 Model for the second canonical function of Data Set 2
illustrating the canonical loadings and correlation
Figure 2.0 and 3.0 shows the models for the first and second
canonical functions respectively. In the first function, the variate for the
predictor variable is strongly influenced by student’s perception of the
usefulness (0.85), convenience (0.83), accessibility (0.82), and adequacy of
facilities (0.81). Among the teaching related variables both the student’s
perception of the subject matter knowledge (0.70) and teaching strategies
(0.71) of the faculty has the most influence. Student’s perception
on rapport (0.61) has, again, the least influence among the predictor
variables. Figure 2.0 shows a similar trend to that of the findings in the
first data set as shown in figure 1.0. This may be taken to indicate some
consistency on the model.
The second function, however, shows a different structure. Some
variables have showed negative canonical loadings, which indicate
an inverse relationship with their respective variates. In addition, the
10
variables on the safety of facilities (0.40) and rapport with students (0.11)
seem to influence their variates better than in the way it did in the
first function. Interestingly, the student’s perception on the safety of
the facilities (0.40) teaching strategies of the faculty (0.15) and rapport with
students (0.11) remained to be largely influencing its variate. This may
be taken to indicate that perceptions are robust predictors of its variate.
It is also interesting to note that the findings in the canonical cross-
loadings show a similar pattern or trend to that of the findings on the
canonical loadings in the first data set (see Table 2.0). Facilities related
variables still largely influence the variate in student satisfaction
while, subject matter knowledge and teaching strategies are the most in
influential among teaching related variables.
On the other hand, while canonical cross-loadings are almost
negligible in the second function, it is notable that the student’s
perception on the teaching strategies (0.02) of the faculty and the safety
of facilities (0.05) remained to be positively most influential to student
satisfaction.
Table 4.0 Canonical cross-loadings for the second data set
Canonical Canonical
Function 1 Function 2
Subject Matter Knowledge 0.45 0.01

Teaching Strategies 0.45 0.02
Rapport with Students 0.39 0.01
Accessibility of Facilities 0.52 -0.06
Adequacy of Facilities 0.52 0.00
Convenience of Facilities 0.53 -0.01
Safety of Facilities 0.45 0.05
Usefulness of Facilities 0.55 0.00
DISCUSSION
The findings of the study point to the importance of student’s

perception on the provisions for learning facilities and teaching to
student satisfaction. Student’s perception on the adequacy, usefulness;
11
accessibility, safety and convenience of the learning facilities has been

observed to largely and consistently influence student satisfaction.
While on the other hand, among teaching related variables student’s
perception on the teaching strategies and subject matter knowledge of the
faculty are the most consistent and influential factors.
The importance of material provisions (adequacy, accessibility
and convenience) and provision of its use as inputs to instructional
activities has been highlighted in many quality assurance systems. ISO
9001:2008 through the International Workshop Agreement 2 (2003),
for example, gives importance to the provision and management of
material resources in conformance to student requirements. Local
accreditation standards and systems (e.g. ACSCU-AAI, PAASCU,
etc.) also emphasize the importance of facilities in achieving a certain
accreditation level. The findings of this study show the primary
importance of quality provisions such as adequacy, access and
usefulness of facilities. It also highlighted environmental characteristics
such as safety and convenience. The results also seem to suggest the
stronger impact of facilities to student satisfaction in comparison to the
other instructional quality variables.
In this end, it would be important for higher education institutions
to ensure that there are “adequate, convenient, safe and accessible
learning facilities” for students and teachers to “use” for instructional
purposes. It would be wise for the management to plan for continuous
investments and improvements on facilities that are useful and
ensure that every student gets adequate access. It is also important
to monitor facility usage and upkeep to ascertain whether there are
unused facilities or there are needed facilities that are inadequate
or unavailable. Most importantly, the findings point to the practical
implication of linking monitoring data to planning for investments in
facilities to ensure that higher education institutions gets to acquire
adequate facilities for its students.
On the other hand, the importance of student’s perception on the
teaching strategies and subject matter knowledge of faculty give value to
the quality of service that the teacher’s provide in relation to student
satisfaction. Shulman (1987) who described these factors as, “content
knowledge” and “pedagogical content knowledge” emphasized these
factors as necessary “know-how” for effective teaching practice. This
12
gives importance of the “teaching competence” that the faculty should

demonstrate in order to satisfy their students.
To manage these key teaching drivers of student satisfaction,
HEIs must a) ensure that it has qualified faculty members who act as
competent service providers to students and b) that they continue to
demonstrate such competence all throughout. It is also important to
highlight that “qualification” includes “subject matter knowledge” and
“pedagogical content knowledge” or the knowledge of using appropriate
strategies to make students understand the content. In this perspective,
qualifications go beyond an examination of mere educational
credentials and one-shot class demonstrations. Qualifications and
competence in this sense should be sustainable such that interventions
and faculty development programs should seek to develop and
improve both subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills.
Moreover, higher education institutions must find innovative means
to monitor and ensure the quality of classroom teaching practices.
This requires a thoughtful and constant rethinking of supervision and
quality assurance systems in instruction.
It is also interesting to note that while “rapport with students”
remained important, its value as a predictor of student satisfaction is
diminished in comparison to the faculty’s competence in knowledge
and pedagogy. This has been consistently shown in the results of
the two survey occasions. This may mean that among the teaching
factors, management priority should focus on faculty knowledge and
pedagogy over rapport.
In addition, considering that the cross-variances explained in
the study are only around 27% to 41%, it would be interesting to
explore other factors and key drivers of student satisfaction in further
studies. One possibility would be to include other areas in classroom
management besides “rapport”, such as the faculty skills in “discipline”
and “communication” management.
CONCLUSIONS
The canonical models highlighted the importance and influence

of student’s perception on the adequacy, usefulness; accessibility, safety
and convenience of the learning facilities, teaching strategies and subject
13
matter knowledge of the faculty to student satisfaction. Among these key

drivers the students’ perception on the quality provisions for facilities
seemed to be most influential. The consistency of these models also
strengthens the position that student perceptions on the identified key
drivers are not to be taken lightly by higher education institutions.
Poor management of these perceptions will likely lead to poor student
satisfaction. Poor student satisfaction will likely result to undesirable
student choices and retention outcomes. For the management of higher
education institutions, student satisfaction is simply an outcome that
they cannot underachieve.
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teaching, ways of learning about teaching. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 28, 393-396.
Shulman, L.
1986 Those who understand: Knowledge growth in
teaching. Educational Researcher, 15 (2), 4-14.
Shulman, L.
1987 Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new
reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57 (1), 1-22.
Staes, P. and N. Thijs

2008 European Primer on Customer Satisfaction Management, Paris:
European Institute of Public Administration.
Wang, Y.S.
2003 Assessment of learner satisfaction with asynchronous
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Wiers-Jenssen, J., B. Stensaker &. J. B. Grøgaard

2002 Student satisfaction: Towards an empirical deconstruction of
the concept. Quality in Higher Education, 8, 183-195.

16
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Class Size and Academic Performance

VIRGILIA ARANJUEZ,
ADELAIDA LEONOR CAYUNDA,
RYAN TORRALBA,
ERIC BALILI,
AND ANN JELLY POLO
mar_m_a@hotmail.com
Bohol Island State University

Abstract - The main thrust of the study was to

determine the relationship between class size and the
academic performance of Engineering students of
BISU MC during the academic years 2008-2009, 2009-
2010 and 2010-2011. Specifically, the study sought to
identify the profile of students’ class size and academic
performance, the difference between the academic
performance of students belonging to a class size
of less than or equal to 50 and a class size of greater
than 50, the relationship between class size and the
academic performance and the action plan that could
be proposed based on the result of the study. The study
made use of the descriptive documentary method
wherein the academic performance ratings were
obtained from the Registrar’s Office. Z-test was used to
get the difference between the academic performance
of students belonging to a class size of less than 50 and
17
students belonging to a class size of greater than 50.

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was
used to get the relationship between class size and the
academic performance. It was found out that there is
no significant difference in the academic performance
of students belonging to a class of less than or equal
to 50 and students belonging to a class of greater than
50. It was also found out that there was no significant
relationship between class size and academic
performance of students. The researchers suggest the
following recommendations: For the convenience of
both students and teachers, observance to the CHED
Memorandum Order No. 52 on the ideal class size is
recommended. They also recommend having further
studies on the instructors’ teaching efficiency and
their attitudes toward students in large classes as well
as on the effects of big class sizes to students. Finally,
other researchers may replicate this study to further
verify different variables such as the economic factors,
family background, etc. that may influence students’
academic performance. The researchers come up with
a proposed action plan for the improvement of the
learning conditions of the students.
INTRODUCTION

Education in its broadest sense is any act that has formative effect
on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. It plays
an important role in the life of an individual since it provides him
the necessities for living and relating with others. Hence, education
process must be very effective.
The success and effectiveness of education lies in many factors. To
properly put into effect the said process, one primary factor to consider
is an environment conducive for learning. Evidently, a lesser number
of students in a class influences the conduciveness of the environment.
With a limited number of students in a class, instructors can easily
18
facilitate, assess and evaluate students’ academic performance. There

will be an increase of the level of concentration for the students.
Sufficient classroom space may also be provided for group activities.
Educational institutions, with their discretion have designed
their own class size according to purposes that serve them best.
These academes both private and public may have considered such
factors as number of enrollees, number of faculty members to handle
specific subject areas and availability of classrooms. On the contrary,
government agencies delegated with education have issued orders
regarding the ideal number of students in a class. Public schools and
state universities must place top priority or conformity with these
memorandum orders.
The Bohol Island State University is one of the leading and growing
institutions. It accommodates many young people of Bohol and other
provinces who choose professional and vocational courses. Specifically,
in the College of Engineering and Architecture of BISU - Main Campus
at Tagbilaran City, the number of enrollees has been increasing in the
recent years. These breathtaking increases in enrolment inevitably
lead to college/university students facing larger class sizes. With this,
the number of students in a section has reached to 60 or even more.
Accommodating such a greater number of students in a class poses
some major concerns and problems for both students and instructors.
To this end, the researchers conducted a study to find out how class
size may affect students’ academic performance. It sought to determine
the relationship between class size and academic performance of
first year Engineering and Architecture students of BISU MC in the
academic years 2008-2009, 2009-2010 and 2010-2011.
FRAMEWORK
Class size or group size is the direct measure of the number of

students in each class. It is the average number of students per class
calculated by dividing the number of students enrolled by the number
of classes. (Education at a Glance OECD, Paris, 2002, Glossary).
Currently, it is understood by the educational community to be the best
measure of a teacher’s “true opportunity to build direct relationships
with each student.”
19
According to Russell P. Chuderewicz, in his brief review on

whether smaller class size improve student performance, practically
everyone, students, teachers, and the concerned public would without
a doubt, prefer smaller class sizes relative to larger class sizes. (http://
www.fiu.edu/documents/classsize_rschud.doc).
From the information presented in Education Week’s recent special
report on the state of public education in America, class size is pointed
out as one of the most commonly named culprits in the decline of its
education system.
In addition to, the established literature on class size effects in
primary and secondary schools provides useful guidance (Krueger
1999, Angrist and Lavy 1999, Hoxby 2000), in universities where the
range of class sizes is typically larger than at other levels of the education
system. Although tertiary education may involve self-learning than
primary or secondary education, class size remains solidly at the top of
the policy agenda and concerns of both faculty and students in United
Kingdom. (http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/4471).
20
In the Philippine educational system, the standard class size of

the State University for the undergraduate courses in a lecture class
shall be 50 students. Departure from the foregoing rules shall only be
upon the authorization of the Department Chairman and the Dean
concerned, with the approval of the Dean of Instruction. The State
college (now a University) may limit its enrollment, if such limitation
is reasonably necessary. (http://www.carsu.edu.ph/index.php/class-
size-in-the-university.html)
Article II, Section 5 of the CHED Memorandum Order No. 52,
Series of 2007 states that for lecture classes, the ideal size is 35 students
or less per class, and the maximum should be 50. Special lectures
with class size more than 50 may be allowed as long as the attendant
facilities are provided which means that, if a classroom is bigger and
has enough space for more chairs with proper ventilation and the
necessary facilities are provided, then having more than 50 students in
a class could be considered.
In connection to the aforementioned memorandum, Article III,
Section 1 in the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers (Reganit, et.
al, 2004) states that:
A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of
the youth; he shall, therefore, render the best service by providing an
environment conducive to such learning and growth.
It is the teacher’s responsibility to create and maintain a learning
environment that would promote and enhance students’ opportunities
for learning.
Teachers as custodian of the learning opportunities of the students
must design his classroom considering the factors that cannot be
altered easily such as students’ needs and class size.
Of significance to this study is Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory. Lewin’s
basic premise is that every object exists in a “field of forces” that moves
to change it, define it or give it a degree of stability and substance
(Lundgren, 1980:314). The behavior of an individual at a given moment
is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life
space. In Lewin’s view, the ideas, expectations, feelings, attitudes, and
needs of the individual constitute the internal forces; while everything
in the physical world including other human beings, with which the
internal forces interact at a given moment constitute the external forces
21
of his life space. Changes in any of these forces are likely to result in
changes of behavior. It also emphasized the properties and structure of
the field or surrounding or setting in which behavior occurs. Students
should be exposed in a well-organized classroom so that the behavior
of the students will be developed and that learning would be achieved
(Meece, 2002).
This study is also anchored on Thompson’s Attribution Theory
which states that people will attempt to maintain Self-image.
Therefore, when they do well in an activity, they are likely to attribute
their success to their own efforts or abilities; but when they do poorly,
they will believe that their failure is due to factors over which they
have no control. It means that, as much as people would like to give
the attributions of all their success and achievements to themselves,
they as well hate to accept blame of all their failures instead throw
the blame to the factors in their environment that is beyond their
control, believing that this could not lessen their good self-image in
fact increase or maintain it. In relation to our study, if students are
performing poorly in the class they most likely attribute their failures
into the environmental factors that is beyond control. One of those is a
less conducive classroom due to big class size.
In view thereof, the above facts served as basis for the researchers
to conduct this study. They perceived that the class environment
particularly class size has a great impact on the students’ academic
performance.
The study determined the correlation between class size and academic
performance of BISU-MC engineering students.
22
Null Hypothesis
There is no significant relationship between class size and academic

performance of the students.
Significance of the Study
The researchers believed that this study would be of great help to

the following:
Students. The findings of the study provided positive feedback
regarding the students’ academic performance that despite having
bigger class size, they were performing well.
Instructors. The study encourages them to find teaching strategies
suitable for big classes. The study could possibly provide them
necessary information in the consideration of class size reduction.
Using it as the basis, they may propose to implement the class size
reduction.
Administrators. This study would provide relevant feedback on
the academic performance of Engineering students belonging to a
class size of lesser than or equal to 50 and a class size of more than
50. This could also serve as their basis in planning a program that
could hopefully improve the students’ academic performance such as
the increased use of balanced instructional methods including higher
degrees of individualization.
Guidance Counselors. The result of this study will provide basis
for what action plan should be taken to assess the students’ needs.
Future Researchers. This study may be used as reference material
in pursuing related or parallel study.
23
The researchers used the descriptive documentary method. It

made use of the data based on the records obtainable at the Registrar’s
Office. Documentary analysis was employed in this study.
The researchers used this design in order to determine the
relationship between the class size and the students’ academic
performance of the Engineering students.
Research Environment and the Participants

The research study was conducted at the Bohol Island State
University, Main Campus, situated along CPG North Avenue,
Tagbilaran City. It is one of the campuses of BISU System. It covered
the academic years 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011.
The research participants of the study were the Engineering
students who enrolled in English 1, English 2, Filipino 1, and Filipino
2 during the academic year 2008-2009, 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. They
were composed of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering,
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering and Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering
students.
The researchers used the unrestricted random sampling to get
the targeted respondents. The study focused on the class size and
academic performance of Engineering students.
Research Instrument
In conducting the study, the researchers used the students’ final
grades in English 1, English 2, Filipino 1, and Filipino 2 which were
copied from the records obtainable at the University Registrar’s Office.
The students’ final grades in their academic subjects and the profile
of class size made up the data to be analyzed using statistics.
24
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
These data were collated, tabulated and analyzed with the

application of statistical formula that resulted in the interpretation and
solution of the problem viewed in this study.
Table 1 presents the profile of class size of Engineering students in
BISU MC for the academic years 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011.
It shows the varied class sizes that range from 18 to 71. These varied
class sizes were grouped into two: 1) class size of less than or equal to
50, and 2) class size of greater than 50. As shown, 24 sections out of 66
had a class size of less than or equal to 50 while the other 42 sections
had a class size of greater than 50.
Table 1. Profile of students’ class size (N = 66)
≤50 F % R >50 F % R
18 1 4.17 9.5 51 2 4.76 9.5
34 2 8.33 6.5 52 3 7.14 5.5
36 1 4.17 9.5 53 4 9.52 3
37 1 4.17 9.5 54 2 4.76 9.5
43 2 8.33 6.5 55 1 2.38 15.5
44 1 4.17 9.5 56 4 9.52 3
25
45 4 16.67 1 57 2 4.76 9.5
47 3 12.50 3.5 58 6 14.29 1
48 3 12.50 3.5 59 4 9.52 3
49 3 12.50 3.5 60 3 7.14 5.5
50 3 12.50 3.5 61 2 4.76 9.5
62 1 2.38 15.5
63 1 2.38 15.5
64 2 4.76 9.5
65 1 2.38 15.5
66 1 2.38 15.5
69 2 4.76 9.5
71 1 2.38 15.5
Total 24 100 Total 42 100
Rank 1 of the 1st group is the class size of 45 that got a frequency of
4 or 16.67% while rank 1 of the second group is the class size of 58 with
a frequency of 6 or 14.29%.
If the classroom area of the Engineering Building is taken
into consideration, it is expected that majority of the students had
experienced a classroom which was too crowded.
26
Table 2. Mean academic performance of engineering

students in a class size of less than or equal to 50 and in a
class size of greater than 50
Class size of less than Class size of greater

or equal to 50 than 50
Academic Descriptive
Performance value
F % Rank F % Rank
1.0 – 1.5 Excellent 2 8.33 3.5 2 4.76 4
Very
1.6 – 2.0 13 54.17 1 12 28.57 2
satisfactory
2.1 – 2.5 Satisfactory 7 29.17 2 21 50.00 1
2.6 – 3.0 Poor 2 8.33 3.5 7 16.67 3
3.1 - below Failed 0 0.00 5 0 0.00 5
Table 2 shows the mean academic performance of students

belonging to a class of less than or equal to 50 and to a class of greater
than 50.
The academic ratings revealed the performance of the students.
It illustrates that of the students belonging to a class of less than or
equal to 50, 54. 17% got a grade of 1.6 – 2.0 which is described as
very satisfactory. This range is ranked 1. It is followed by 29.17% or
seven sections of students that got a grade of 2.1 – 2.5, described as
satisfactory. There were also two sections or 8.33% that got a grade of
1.0 – 1.5, described as excellent and two other sections or 8.33% that
got a grade of 2.6 – 3.0, described as poor.
Conversely, twenty-one sections or 50% of all the students
belonging to a class of greater than 50 got a grade of 2.1 – 2.5, described
as satisfactory. It is followed by another twelve sections or 28.57% that
got a grade of 1.6 – 2.0. This range is described as very satisfactory.
Another seven sections got a grade of 2.5 – 3.0, described as poor. This
range got a percentage of 16.67% and ranked 3. There were also two
27
sections or a percentage 4.67% that got a grade of 1.0 – 1.5, described

as excellent. This range is ranked 4.
Table 3 presents the difference between the academic performance
of students belonging to a class size of less than or equal to 50 and a
class size of greater than 50. It shows the result of z-test. The tabulated
value is 1.96 while the computed value is 0.108.
Table 3. Difference between academic performance of students in a

class size of less than or equal to 50 and in a class size of greater than 50
Tabular Level of
Difference between Computed z Description
Value Significance
Academic Performance of students

In a class size of less than or equal
No
to 50 and in a class size
significance
greater than 50 size 1.96 0.108 0.05
The table shows that there is no significant difference in the

academic performance of students belonging to a class size of less than
or equal to 50 and a class size of greater than 50. Specifically, there is
no significant increase in the academic performance of the students as
manifested by their final grades in English and Filipino subjects.
As presented in Table 4, the variables have slight correlation. The
results confirm that class size has no adverse effect on the students’
academic performance. Thus, the null hypothesis is accepted.
28
Table 4. Relationship between class size and students’

academic performance
Level of
Computed r Interpretation
Significance
Relationship between
Class Size
Slight
and the Academic
Correlation,
Performance 0.32 0.05 df
Definite but Small
Relationship
CONCLUSIONS
In the light of the findings, the following conclusions are

formulated:
There is no significant difference in the academic performance of
students when grouped by class size. It means that the Engineering
students of BISU MC are performing well despite their large class
sizes. These students have learned how to manage their studies and
adapt themselves to the existing conditions.
The class size of the Engineering students did not influence their
academic performance. Thus, it can be concluded that students’
academic performance is not dependent on class size.
LITERATURE CITED
Reganit, A.A.
2004 Essentials of Student Learning. Mutya Publishing House:
Valenzuela City.
Bustos, A.S.
1996 Psychological, Anthropological, and Sociological Foundations of
Educations. Katha Publishing Co., Inc.: 388 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City.
29
Gonzalos, C.L.
2008 Students’ Perception on Classroom Environment in Relation
to Their Academic Performance. Central Visayas State College
of Agriculture, Forestry and Technology, Tagbilaran City
Campus, Tagbilaran City.
WEB SOURCES
http://cea.fiu.edu.documents/classsize_rschud.doc
http://www.voxeu.org/index/php?q=node/4471
http://www.carsu.edu.ph/index.php/class-size-in-the-university.html

30
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Competencies of Instructors: Its Correlation

to the Factors Affecting
the Academic Performance of Students
MELROSE A. SALI-OT
melrosesaliot@yahoo.com
J.H.Cerilles State College
Dumingag Campus
Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur
Philippines
Date Submitted: May 14, 2011

Final Revision Accepted: May 18, 2011
Abstract - The study determined the competencies

of instructors and its correlation to the factors affecting
the academic performance of students in Western
Mindanao State University- External Studies Units,
Western Mindanao, Philippines. The descriptive
research method was employed in the conduct of
the study. The respondents were randomly selected
with the used of stratified sampling. A questionnaire-
checklist was the main instrument in collecting data
from the respondents. Weighted mean, ranking, and
coefficient of correlation by Spearman’s formula were
used to analyze the data gathered. The instructors
are much competent in the five indicators of the
teaching competencies. The students’ performance
was sometimes affected with the predetermined
factors. The two groups of respondents have the
same responsesas to the teachers’ competencies and
the factors affecting the academic performance. The
31
most prevailing competency was communication

with the learners, and the least prevailing is learner
reinforcement- involvement. The most prevailing
factor was intellectual, and the least prevailing was
physical. There was moderate correlation between
the competencies of college instructors and the factors
affecting the academic performance of students.
Keywords - competencies, instructors, academic

performance, factors affecting academic performance
INTRODUCTION
The teacher or instructor occupies a strategic position in the

teaching-learning process (De Guzman 1998). Effective teachers are
equipped with repertoire of best teaching practices such as strategies,
procedures, and approaches in presenting, implementing and
assessing classroom instruction in accordance with the objectives set.
They are imbued with values, attitudes and dispositions that foster a
classroom atmosphere of mutual trust for individual characteristics,
especially student’s needs, interests, and abilities (Salandanan 2005).
It could be noted that improvement of classroom instruction is largely
dependent upon the competencies of the teacher. As such, obtaining
higher academic performance depends upon several factors but most
importantly, the mental ability and study skills of the students. The
academic performance of students is based on how they spend time
in performing the academic work. Students’ academic performance
can be influenced by their abilities and interests, routine practices,
classroom management, motivation, and even the instructional quality
(Aquino 1989).
The Western Mindanao State University-External Studies Unit
(WMSU-ESU) is occupying classes in venues owned by the elementary
and secondary schools. This is a scheme to bring tertiary education
to the doorsteps of developing municipalities. Team supervision and
classroom observation are done by Western Mindanao State University
and LGU Education Committee to ensure quality instruction and
learning. WMSU, through external affairs, conducts seminars,
32
conference, and workshops for External Studies Units instructors to

upgrade their competencies and skills for college teaching. Until such
time instructors in WMSU-ESU go beyond the performance of their
routine duties and responsibilities they would not be able to achieve
effective level of competencies which is expected of them. Hence, this
study is conducted to determine the competencies of college instructors
and its correlation to the factors affecting the academic performance
of students. Results of this study would be of benefits to the school
heads to have direct and administrative functions over the instructors,
the result is paramount importance in upgrading instructors’ teaching
competencies. It is also beneficial to college instructors to continually
attain the maximum competencies for the good of the students. It
is also expected to serve the needs of the students to enhance their
learning through quality instruction. Thus it will build self- confidence
to achieve high level of performance in all subject areas.
The study determined the competencies of instructors and its

correlation to the factors affecting the academic performance of
students. Specifically, the study pursued the following objectives:
(1) to determine the competencies of instructors of terms of
planning, teaching materials, instructional strategies and techniques,
communication with the learners, learner reinforcement –involvement,
and professional standards. (2) to determine the factors affecting the
academic performance of students in terms of intellectual, physical,
environmental, psychological, and teacher factors. (3) to compare the
responses of the two groups of respondents on the predetermined
competencies of instructors, and the factors affecting academic
performance. (4) assess to determin the relationship between the
competencies of instructors and the factors affecting academic
performance of students.
The respondents of the study were composed of 150 college

instructors and 500 Bachelor in Elementary Education students.
33
The respondents were randomly selected with the used of stratified

sampling based on ratio and proportion. A questionnaire-checklist
was the main instrument in collecting data from the respondents. The
variables on teaching competencies were borrowed from the work of
Donald Medley as cited by Ornstein (1992). The variables on factors
affecting the academic performance were borrowed from the work of
Jose Rizal G. Sanchez (1996). The data collected were then analyzed
using the following statistical tools: weighted mean, ranking, and
coefficient of correlation by Spearman’s formula.
The data presented in Table 1 revealed the average weighted mean

distribution in rank order based on the responses of instructors and
students in terms of planning, teaching materials. Got the highest
rank is item 2, uses information about the effectiveness of instruction
with an average weighted mean of 4.65. Rank second is item 4, plans
a realistic expectation for the learning process and students’ readiness
for learning, 4.60. Third in rank is item 1, plans units of instruction
in a variety of ways, 4.59. Rank fourth is item 5, uses appropriate
instructional materials and equipment to facilitate learning activities
4.56. Last rank is item 3, keeps informed of the current trends and
resources available, 4.44. The overall average mean of 4.57 with an
adjectival equivalent of much competent implies that the instructors
have sufficient competency in planning for the learning process and
teaching materials that facilitate learning activities.
34
Table 1. Competency of instructors on planning,

teaching materials
RESPONSES
College BEED
ITEMS Instructors Students AWM AE
WM AE WM AE
1. Plans unit of instruction

4.75 MC 4.47 MC 4.59 MC
in a variety of ways.
2. Uses information about
the effectiveness of 4.76 MC 4.53 MC 4.65 MC
instruction
3. Keeps informed of
current trends and 4.71 MC 4.16 MC 4.44 MC
resources available
4. Plans a realistic
expectation for the
learning process and
student readiness for 4.72 MC 4.47 MC 4.60 MC
learning.
5. Uses appropriate
instructional materials
and equipment to 4.69 MC 4.44 MC 4.56 MC
facilitate learning
activities.
Average Mean 4.72 MC 4.42 MC 4.57 MC
Legend:
AWM - Average Weighted Mean
AE - Adjectival Equivalent
WM - Weighted Mean MC - Much Competent
Table 2 presents the data concerning the responses of instructors

and students on instructional strategies and techniques. Item 5,
demonstrate knowledge in the subject matter, got the highest rank
with an average weighted mean of 4.73. Second in rank is item 1,
develops and demonstrate in problem-solving skills, 4.59. Third in
rank is item 4, provides learning experiences which enable students to
transfer principles and generalizations to situations outside of school,
35
4.58. Rank fourth is item 2, uses a variety of instructional strategies,

resources and materials, 4.57. Last in rank is item 3, structures the use
of time to facilitate students’ learning, 4.55. The overall average mean
of 4.61 with an adjectival equivalent of much competent implies that
the instructors always employ instructional strategies and techniques
that will set the moods of classroom activities and improve students’
performance.
Table 2. Competency of instructors on instructional

strategies and techniques
RESPONSES
College BEED
ITEMS Instructors Students AWM AE RANK
WM AE WM AE
1. Develops and
demonstrate
4.66 MC 4.53 MC 4.59 MC 2
problem-
solving skills.
2. Uses a variety
of instructional
strategies, 4.66 MC 4.48 MC 4.57 MC 4
resources and
materials.
3. Structures the
use of time to
4.69 MC 4.42 MC 4.55 MC 5
facilitate student
learning
36
4. Provides learning
experiences
which enable
students
to transfer
4.74 MC 4.41 MC 4.58 MC 3
principles and
generalizations
to situations
outside the
school.
5. Demonstrate
knowledge of the 4.78 MC 4.68 MC 4.73 MC 1
subject matter
Legend:

WM - Weighted Mean
MC - Much Competent
Table 3 presents the responses of the two groups of respondents on

communication with the learners. Rank first is item 5, uses questions
that lead students to analyze, synthesize and think critically, 4.83.
Second in rank is item 4, gives clear directions and explanations, 4.78.
Third in rank is item 2, expresses a positive personal attitude towards
teaching profession, 4.69. Ranked fourth is item1, demonstrate
proper listening skills, 4.67. Ranked last is item 3, provides feedback
to learners on their cognitive performance, 4.52. The overall average
mean of 4.70 with an adjectival equivalent of indicates that instructors
show effective communication skills which play a very important role
in instruction.
37
Table 3. Competency of instructors on

communication with the learners
RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1.Demonstrates proper
4.81 MC 4.53 MC 4.67 MC
listening skills.
2.Expressess a positive
personal attitude
4.85 MC 4.53 MC 4.69 MC
towards the teaching
profession.
3.Provides feedback
to learners on
4.75 MC 4.29 MC 4.52 MC
their cognitive
performance
4. Gives clear directions

4.89 MC 4.67 MC 4.78 MC
and explanations
5. Uses questions that

lead students to
4.90 MC 4.76 MC 4.83 MC
analyze, synthesize,
and think critically.
Legend:
WM - Weighted Mean
MC - Much Competent
Table 4 displayed the responses of instructors and students on

learner reinforcement-involvement. It is evident that rank 1 is item 3,
assist students in discovering and correcting errors and inaccuracies,
4.63. Rank second is item 4, implements an effective classroom
environment, 4.48. Third in rank is item 2, develops students’ feedback,
evaluation skill and self-evaluation, 4.47. Fourth in rank is item 3,
38
uses positive reinforcement patterns with students, 4.42. Placed the

last rank is item 1, maintains an environment in which students are
actively involved in working on task, 4.41. The overall mean of 4.48
with an average mean of much competent indicates that instructors
were deeply concerned with the students’ performances, students’
opinions, and effective classroom environment.
Table 4. Competency of instructors on learner

reinforcement-involvement
RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1.Maintains an environment
in which students are 4.49 MC 4.33 MC 4.41 MC
actively working on task.
2.Develops students’
feedback, evaluation skills, 4.59 MC 4.35 MC 4.47 MC
and self-evaluation.
3.Uses positive reinforcement

4.47 MC 4.36 MC 4.42 MC
patterns with students.
4. Implements an effective
classroom management
4.59 MC 4.37 MC 4.48 MC
system for positive student
behavior.
5. Assists students in
discovering and correcting 4.73 MC 4.53 MC 4.63 MC
errors and inaccuracies.
Legend:
WM - Weighted Mean
MC - Much Competent
39
Table 5 presents the responses of teachers and students on

professional standards. The highest rank is item 1, acts as an appropriate
model in terms of ethics, attitudes and values with an average weighted
mean of 5.58. Second in rank is item 3, understands and follow school
policies, procedures and their effects, 4.74. Ranked third is item 5,
accepts responsibility with enthusiasm and commitment, 4.69. Fourth
in rank is item 2, participate actively during in-service trainings, 4.62.
Ranked last is item 4, shows evidences of cooperation with others in
planning and teaching, 4.50. The overall average mean of 4.69 with
an adjectival equivalent of much competent indicates that instructors
possess professional competence with high dignity and moral values.
Table 5.Competency of instructors on professional standards
RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Acts as an appropriate
model in terms of ethics, 4.91 MC 4.73 MC 5.58 MC
attitudes and values.
2. Participates actively
during in-service 4.76 MC 4.49 MC 4.62 MC
trainings.
3. Understands and
follows school policies,
procedures and their 4.83 MC 4.66 MC 4.74 MC
effects including
professional standards.
4. Shows evidences of
cooperation with others 4.75 MC 4.45 MC 4.50 MC
in planning and teaching.
5. Accepts responsibility
4.82 MC 4.55 MC 4.69 MC
with enthusiasm.
Legend: AWM - Average Weighted Mean AE- Adjectival Equivalent

WM- Weighted Mean MC - Much Competent
40
Factors Affecting Academic Performance of Students
The data presented in table 6 reveals the weighted mean distribution

in rank order based from the responses of instructors and students
on intellectual factors affecting the academic performance. Based on
the findings, item 1 got the highest rank, performs below the expected
level of mental ability with an average weighted mean of 3.46. Rank
number 2 is item 3, exhibits poor comprehension in grammar and
other related courses, 3.32. Third in rank is item 5, encounters serious
difficulty in making school work, 3.30. Ranked number 4 is item 2,
finds difficulty in connecting information with past experience, 3.29.
Last in rank is item 4, finds difficulty in revealing new information,
3.24. The overall weighted mean is 3.32 with an adjectival equivalent of
sometimes affected. The result shows that the low mental ability level
affect students' academic performance.
Table 6. Intellectual factors affecting the academic

performance of students
RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Performs below the

expected level of mental 3.33 SA 3.59 FA 3.46 SA 1
ability.
2. Finds difficulty in
connecting new
3.26 SA 3.32 SA 3.29 SA 4
information with past
experience.
3. Exhibits poor
comprehension in
3.28 SA 3.37 SA 3.32 SA 2
grammar and other
related courses.
41
4. Finds difficulty in
receiving new 3.21 SA 3.27 SA 3.24 SA 5
information.
5. Encounters serious
difficulty in making school 3.19 SA 3.42 SA 3.30 SA 3
work.
Average Mean 3.25 SA 3.39 SA 3.32 SA
Legend: AWM - Average Weighted Mean

WM - Weighted Mean
MC - Much Competent
FC - Frequently Competent
Table 7 provides the responses of instructors and students in terms

of physical factors affecting academic performance. As reflected in
Table 7, the highest rank is item 4, finds hard to speak orally with the
weighted mean of 3.23. Ranked number 2 is item 5, gets easily tired
due to poor health, 3.05. Third in rank is item 2, gets discouraged
when mistakes are corrected, 3.00. Ranked fourth is item 1, possesses
poor vision and sense of hearing, 2.96. Last in rank is item 3, keeps on
transferring from one place to another, 2.91. The overall average mean
is 3.03 with an adjectival equivalent of sometimes affected. This implies
that the academic performance of students is sometimes affected with
the physical factors such as poor health, poor speaking ability, poor
vision and sense of hearing.
42
Table 7. Physical factors affecting the academic

RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Possess poor
vision and sense of 3.02 SA 2.96 SA 2.96 SA 4
hearing.
2. Gets discouraged
when mistakes are 3.03 SA 3.00 SA 3.00 SA 3
corrected.
3. Keeps on
transferring from
one seat to another 2.97 SA 2.91 SA 2.91 SA 5
due to auditory
problem.
4. Finds hard to speak

3.19 SA 3.23 SA 3.23 SA 1
orally.
5. Gets easily tired

3.08 SA 3.05 SA 3.05 SA 2
due to poor health.
Average mean 3.06 SA 3.03 SA 3.03 SA
Legend:
AW - Average Weighted Mean
WM - Weighted Mean
MC - Much Competent
Table 8 shows the weighted mean distribution according to

rank based from the responses of the two groups of respondents on
psychological factors affecting academic performance. Obtained
the highest rank is item 2, experiences emotional problem with an
average weighted mean of 3.25. Second in rank is item 1, feels unable
43
to associate with others registered a weighted mean of 3.12. Ranked

third is item 3, feels inferior to participate in class activities, 3.07. Item
4 registered the fourth rank, develops negative attitude towards school
work, 2.99. Item 5 obtained the last rank, perceives being unwanted
to join the group, 2.91. The overall mean is 3.07 with an adjectival
equivalent of sometimes affected. This indicates that students are
sometimes affected with emotional problems, feeling of inferiority,
negative attitude towards school work, and being unwanted to join in
group.
Table 8.Psychological factors affecting the academic

RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Feels unable to
3.16 SA 3.08 SA 3.12 SA 2
associate with others.
2. Experiences
3.15 SA 3.35 SA 3.25 SA 1
emotional problem.
3. Feels inferior to
participate in class 3.09 SA 3.05 SA 3.07 SA 3
activities.
4. Develops negative
attitude towards 3.05 SA 2.92 SA 2.99 SA 4
school work.
5. Perceives being
unwanted to join the 2.87 SA 2.95 SA 2.91 SA 5
group.

Legend: AWM- Average Weighted Mean AE - Adjectival Equivalent
44
Table 9 shows the weighted mean distribution according to

rank based from the responses of the two groups of respondents on
environmental factors affecting academic performance. Obtained the
highest rank is item 5, finds difficulty to borrow textbooks and other
references due to limited number of copies, 3.51. Second in rank is item
4, occupies a classroom with poor ventilation and lighting facilities,
3.14. Rank third is item 1, holds classes not conducive to learning, 3.02.
Item 3 obtained the last rank, exhibits negative behavior due to the
influence of peers, 2.90. The overall mean is 3.11 with an adjectival
equivalent of much competent. The result indicates that students’
academic performance is affected with limited copies of textbooks and
references, overcrowded classroom with poor ventilation and lighting
facilities.
Table 9. Environmental factors affecting the academic

RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Occupies
overcrowded 2.99 SA 3.11 SA 3.05 SA 3
classroom.
2. Holds classes in
an environment
2.95 SA 3.08 SA 3.02 SA 4
not conducive to
learning.
3. Exhibits negative
behavior due to 2.84 SA 2.95 SA 2.90 SA 5
influence of peers.
4. Occupies a
classroom with
poor ventilation 3.07 SA 3.21 SA 3.14 SA 2
and lighting
facilities.
45
5. Finds difficulty to
borrow textbooks
and other
3.42 SA 3.61 FA 3.52 FA 1
references due to
limited number of
copies.

The data presented in table 10 revealed the weighted mean

distribution in rank order based from the responses of instructors
and students on teacher factors affecting the academic performance.
Based on the findings, item 1 got the highest rank, shows authority in
the classroom, 3.42. Rank second is item 5, imposes strict discipline,
3.31.Third in rank is item 2, ignores students’ personal opinion and
reaction, 2.97. Ranked fourth is item 4, gets irritated when students
cannot immediately follow instruction, 2.96. Last in rank is item 3,
plays favorites and unwanted remarks, 2.92. The overall weighted
mean is 3.11with an adjectival equivalent of sometimes affected. This
indicates that teachers play a very important role in the classroom.
They must possess wholesome well-being and maintains harmonious
relationship with pupils because he/she is the center stage in the
learning environment.
46
Table 10.Teacher factors affecting the academic

RESPONSES
College BEED
WM AE WM AE
1. Shows authority
3.35 SA 3.49 SA 3.42 SA 1
in the classroom.
2. Ignores student’s
opinions and 2.95 SA 2.98 SA 2.97 SA 3
reaction.
3. Plays favorites
and unwanted 2.85 SA 2.98 SA 2.92 SA 5
remarks.
4. Gets irritated
when students
cannot
2.87 SA 3.04 SA 2.96 SA 4
immediately
follow
instruction.
5. Imposes strict
3.19 SA 3.44 SA 3.31 SA 2
discipline.

Table 11 provides the degree of comparability between the responses

of instructors and students on the competencies of instructors and the
factors affecting the academic performance of students. The result
reveals that the five variables on competencies of instructors have the
same adjectival equivalent of much competent. Each variable differ
only based on the average weighted mean obtained by the two groups
of respondents. The highest rank was on communication with the
47
learners with 4.70 average weighted mean. Followed by professional

standards, 4.69; instructional strategies and techniques, 4.61; planning,
teaching materials, 4.57; and the least prevailing was learner-
reinforcement-involvement, obtained an average weighted mean
of 4.48. This implies that instructors foster effective communication
with the learners in the sense that communication is a very important
element in our relationship with others. It links us to others physically,
emotionally, and intellectually.
As to the factors affecting the academic performance of students, the
result shows that the five variables have the same adjectival equivalent
of sometimes affected. The most prevailing was intellectual factors
with an averageweighted mean of 3.32; followed by environmental
factors with an average weighted mean of 3.13; teacher factors, 3.11;
psychological factors; and physical factors, 3.03. This indicates that
students need to be given preferential attention to increase their mental
ability level.
Table 11.Degree of comparability between the responses of

instructors and students on competencies of instructors and factors
affecting academic performance
VARIABLES RESPONSES
Instructors Students AWM AE R
Competencies of
Instructors WM AE WM AE
1. Planning, Teaching Materials 4.72 MC 4.42 MC 4.57 MC 4
2. Instructional Strategies and
Techniques 4.71 MC 4.50 MC 4.61 MC 3
3. Communication with Learners 4.84 MC 4.56 MC 4.70 MC 1

4. Learner Reinforcement-
Involvement 4.58 MC 4.39 MC 4.48 MC 5
5. Professional Standards 4.81 MC 4.58 MC 4.69 MC 2
Variables on Factors Affecting
Academic Performance
48
1. Intellectual factors 3.25 SA 3.39 SA 3.32 SA 1

2. Physical factors 3.06 SA 3.00 SA 3.03 SA 5
3. Psychological Factors 3.06 SA 3.07 SA 3.07 SA 4
4. Environmental Factors 3.05 SA 3.19 SA 3.13 SA 2
5. Teacher Factors 3.04 SA 3.19 SA 3.11 SA 3
Table 12. Correlation between the competencies of instructors and

the factors affecting the academic performance of students
Variables on Competencies of Instructors Students Rx Ry G

Instructors X Y
1. Planning, Teaching Materials 4.72 4.42 3 4
2. Instructional Strategies and 4.71 4.50 4 3 1
Techniques
3. Communication with Learners 4.84 4.56 1 2
4. Learner Reinforcement- 4.58 4.39 5 5
Involvement
5. Professional Standards 4.81 4.58 2 1 1
Variables on Factors Affecting
Academic Performance
1. Intellectual factors 3.25 3.39 1 1
2. Physical factors 3.06 3.00 2.5 5
3. Psychological Factors 3.06 3.07 2.5 4
4. Environmental Factors 3.05 3.19 4 2.5 1.5
5. Teacher Factors 3.05 3.19 5 2.5 2.5
(
∑G) 6
=
Ho: There is no correlation between the competencies of instructors

and the academic performance of students as responded by the two
groups of respondents.
Table 12 reflects the result on the correlation between the

competencies of instructors and the factors affecting the academic
49
performance of students as responded by the two groups of respondents.

The statistical treatment used was the correlation by Spearman
Formula. Based on the given data, it yielded a computed R = 0.64 which
falls within the + 0.41 to + 0.70, interpreted as moderate correlation,
substantial relationship. The findings indicate that competencies of
instructors are essential to minimize the factors affecting the academic
performance of students. It could mean further that since the value of R
is within the bracket of moderate correlation, therefore, competencies
of college instructors have substantial relationship with the academic
performance of students.
CONCLUSIONS
The instructors are much competent in the five indicators of the

teaching competencies. The students’ performance was sometimes
affected with the predetermined factors. The two groups of respondents
have the same responses as to the teachers’ competencies and the factors
affecting the academic performance. The most prevailing competency
was communication with the learners, and the least prevailing is
learner reinforcement- involvement. The most prevailing factor was
intellectual, and the least prevailing was physical. There was moderate
correlation between the competencies of college instructors and the
factors affecting the academic performance of students.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Sincere gratitude is extended to the coordinators of Western

Mindanao State University External Studies Unit, for their assistance
in the administration and retrieval of the questionnaire-checklists.
The researcher is thankful to the Research Committee of Southern
Mindanao Colleges for their professional expertise and contributions
in the success of this research. Above all, to the Heavenly Father who
showered His blessings.
50
LITERATURE CITED
Aquino, G. V.
1989 Principles and Methods of Effective Teaching. Second Edition.
Mandaluyong City.National Book Store.
De Guzman, Z.D.
1998 Suggestions for Training Children-How to Study Effectively.
The Philippine Journal of Education. Volume LXXVI .
Ornstein A.C.
1990 Strategies for Effective Teaching. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers Inc.
Salandanan, G. G.
2005 Teaching and the Teacher. Quezon City, Metro Manila.
Sanchez, J.G.
1996 Supervision as management and development in the
Philippine Setting. Manila: saint Bernadette Publishing Inc.
51
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Correlates of Word Problem Solving

Capabilities in Algebra of the First Year
Engineering Students
MELANIE D. LUGO
melanierul@yahoo.com
melllanierul@gmail.com
De La Salle Lipa, Philippines

Abstract - Word problems are topics in Algebra

which are abhorred by most students. The study
aimed at identifying the correlation that contribute
to problem solving capabilities of freshmen college
students who were enrolled in Algebra of De La Salle
Lipa. It was anchored on three groups of correlates
that contributed to problem solving capabilities of
students; personal, cognitive, and social factors. The
respondents’ entrance examination result in Math;
word problem solving scores were considered in the
findings of the study. Results showed that respondents’
attitude towards problem solving had affected their
capabilities to a large extent. Study strategies have
been affected to a large extent, while only one affected
their capabilities to a small extent. There is a significant
relationship between the problem solving capabilities
of the students in the three factors. The common
problems exhibited were wrong representation,
wrong computation, and use of trial and error method,
misinterpretation, forgotten formulas, and forgotten
concepts. The cognitive and the social factors had a
52
Correlates of Word Problem Solving Capabilities
in Algebra of the First Year Engineering Students
significant effect on the problem solving capabilities of

the students.
Keywords: correlation, algebra, word problem

solving, personal factor, cognitive factors, social
factors
INTRODUCTION
Algebra is the first mathematics subject taken by the first year college
students. The same subject is also part of the secondary education
curriculum. Despite the commonality of topics being discussed in the
course, it has been observed that students still dislike the subject. The
cognitive factors include the type of language, comprehension, and
conceptual, computational, process skills of the students. The social
factors of the students also include the interaction of the student with
peers and with the teachers. Their social integration includes informal
friendships, supports groups, and contact with the faculty.
FRAMEWORK
Algebra is a branch of mathematics using symbols to explore

relationships between numbers and the operations used to work with
them. As a language of higher mathematics, algebra is a gateway
to future study and mathematically significant ideas, but is it often
a wall that blocks the paths of many (Chick, n.d.). Verschaffel, et.al.
(2000) defined word problems as verbal descriptions of problem
situations wherein one or more questions are raised, the answer to
which can be obtained by the application of mathematical operations
to numerical data available in the problem statement. In their most
typical form, word problems take the form of brief texts describing.
The student himself plays a greater part in his academic performance.
Personal factors that influence problem solving capabilities are those
that are personally relevant and therefore vary with the individual.
These include interest, personalization, and familiarity (Wiest, 2002).
Students in the study expressed strong feelings and specific ideas
about what did and did not interest them.
53
Jitendra (2002) said that most models for understanding and

assessing student’s solution of problems are derived from cognitive
psychology, and that problem solving instruction emphasizes
conceptual understanding (Xin & Jitendra, 1999 in Jitendra, 2002).
Academic adjustment is also a factor considered in the student’s
performance not only in Mathematics but in all other subject areas.
The degree to which the student was socially integrated into the
college community is an interaction factor. Social integration includes
informal friendships, support groups, participation in extracurricular
activities, contact with faculty, and social networks formed during
the college experience. Interaction with faculty also appears to be an
important factor in academic adjustment and student performance
(Boulter, 2002).
The study was based on the concept of Kroll and Millers (1993)
as regards problem-solving. According to them, problem solving
capabilities in middle-grade students are influenced by several major
factors. They are knowledge factors, affective factors, and socio-
cultural factors.
Problem-solving capability and difficulty is influenced by three
major factors. They are personal factors, cognitive factors, and social
integration factors.
The social factors include the interaction of the student with peers
and with the teacher. Social integration includes informal friendships,
supports groups, and contact with faculty (Boutler, 2002). The
interaction with the faculty was found to be an important factor in the
student’s academic adjustment and performance (Boutler, 2002).

The study aimed to identify the correlation that affect the problem
solving capabilities of first year engineering students of De La Salle
Lipa. The data analyzed were the responses given by 176 first year
students enrolled in the Engineering Programs of De La Salle Lipa
during the first semester of school year 2008-2009.
54

This study used the descriptive research design. The study
was conducted at De La Salle Lipa, The data were obtained from
the students enrolled in the Engineering programs. The survey was
administered during the second semester of school year 2008-2009. The
researcher adopted the questionnaire from the study of Lugo 2005 on
the factors that contribute to the students’ problem solving capabilities
in Algebra. The researcher distributed the copies of the questionnaire.
The respondents were all first year engineering students enrolled at De
La Salle Lipa AY 2008-2009. The questionnaires were retrieved and the
responses were summarized and analyzed.
Data were summarized and tabulated using frequency counts,
percentage and weighted means.
The Math entrance examination results showed that majority of

the students (37.0%) have Math entrance scores 32 to 37. It is followed
by students getting a range of scores of 26 to 31 (30.1%) and a range of
scores of 38 to 43 (21.2%). There are a very small percentage of students
getting a range of scores of 44 to 50 (2.7%). There are varied capabilities
of students in terms of their mathematical ability. The results were in
consonance with the study made by Weist (2002) who reported that
individual responses to mathematics varies according to community
type, geographical location, individual personality and academic
ability. Students coming from varied types of secondary schools had
carried with them the same abilities they manifested during their high
school.
The Level of Problem Solving Capabilities of the Respondents
shows the scores obtained by the students in the word problem
examination administered to them. The scores ranged from zero to 100,
indicating a similar finding in the entrance examination results. There
are 30 or 17.1% of the students who performed very poorly in solving
the word problems. This further shows that the students have difficulty
in problem solving. However, there are 26 (14.9%) who performed
excellently in solving the word problems. There are also students who
55
got perfect scores in the given word problems. Those respondents may
be regarded as possessing excellent problem solving capability. Most
of the respondents (66 or 37.5%) had scores from 60 to 79. The students
were characterized as possessing high problem solving capabilities.
The average score of the respondents is 50.48. The respondents who
got a high score were able to solve the problems using the following:
step-by-step process; they easily determine the goal of the problem
correctly and able to find the correct relationships among the pieces
of information given in the problem; and they were able to make a
correct representation of the problem situation. The respondents who
got a low score did not use the step-by-step process; showed poor
comprehension of the problem by not being able to determine the
problem goal correctly; and did not know what formulas to be used.
The students perceived problem solving as helping them to
develop the mind and teaching them to think to a large extent (4.11).
Students recognize the importance or the use of mathematics and
problem solving in their lives. Mathematics is a work of the mind and
requires a lot of thinking process. The students perceived that they see
to it that they understand their classmate’s solution to a problem before
they agree with it (mean of 4.02). Results show that they don’t just
agree with their classmates’ solution unless they see how they came
up with the answers. Two items of the ten attitude scale had affected
the students’ problem solving capabilities to a small extent with a
mean of 3.35 to 3.42. The students perceived that they never give up
on a problem (mean of 3.42), and to a small extent (3.35), they don’t
skip parts that require them to do problem solving. Results revealed
that persistence and patience in solving problems is manifested in the
students to a lesser degree. Most students would like to do problem
solving haphazardly such that when they have the answers, they
would not redo it or try other ways of solving them.
Taking notes in class affected their problem solving capabilities
to a large extent (3.91). They also believed that copying notes during
lecture helps them to be familiar with different kinds of formulas. They
said their notes gave them something to read when they study their
lessons at home. The students reported that reviewing word problems
that they have solved has affected their problem solving capabilities
(3.82). Results show that some of the students reviewed their solutions
56
to check the correctness of their solutions (3.82). It will be noted that

the students worked out solutions to problems with the instructor only
to a very small extent (3.31).
In nine of the ten criteria on the language used, problem solving
capabilities helped to a large extent (3.49 to 3.78). Only one affected
their capabilities to a small extent (3.49), which was on the use of
reference terms. This further showed that students feel strongly that
mathematical word problems should be presented in the simple and
direct terminologies. This was affirmed by the highest mean in the use
of words that are easy to understand (3.72). Because of such difficulty,
it is advised that the teacher use familiar names and problem contexts
which students could relate well to help them in problem solving.
Word and sentence length should be considered to determine the
difficulty level of the text.
The respondents’ comprehension of the problem greatly affects
the students’ problem solving capabilities. Word problems easy to
comprehend and well stated are needed for comprehension. This will
help to a large extent the problem solving capabilities of students.
To allow better comprehension, students should be presented real
life often-relational ideas about numbers to influence them in better
assessment of word problems. Teachers should create or choose story
concepts that are familiar and that used key terminologies and ideas
within the students grasping level. As reported by Hembree (1992 in
Weist, 2002), students perform better on problems that include some
measure of action.
The Conceptual skills as perceived by the students in seven of the
ten items affected their problem solving capabilities to a large extent,
with mean scores ranging from 3.5 to 3.64. The highest perception was
on the recognition of different approaches to problem to a large extent
(3.64). However three of the ten items had affected their problem solving
capabilities to a small extent only. The students reported that they
had analyzed the word problems easily (item 1) and that conceptual
problems arose when a student does not clearly understand the idea
behind the problem. The findings are in relation to the student’s
language and comprehension skills. If a student does not grasp the idea
presented in the problem, further analysis is not possible. Students do
not want to spend time thinking. This may be due to the fact that they
57
have been used to spoon feeding technique. The mathematical problem

solving instruction should emphasize conceptual knowledge of the
operations and a highly integrated understanding of the fundamental
operations. In solving word problems, teachers should teach their
students to make a models or diagrams that can be used to represent
the information in a problem and to figure out what operation is
needed to solve the problem. Mathematical problem solving requires
the ability to organize problems by structural similarity.
The teachers should provide quality instruction that emphasizes
both problem representation and problem solution. Mathematical
problem solving instruction should emphasize conceptual knowledge
of the operations and should also facilitate a highly integrated
understanding of the operations and the many different but related
meanings.
The Computational skills result shows that mastery of the
fundamental operations is a big help in the problem solving process
(mean of 3.91). Making manual computations and making mental
computations on fundamental operations affects the problem solving
capabilities to a large extent. In addition, familiarity in the use of the
calculator (mean of 3.71) is also contributing to the problem solving
process to a large extent.
It was also found that students depended much on the calculator
for their computations. However, they still lacked the skills in doing
computations, either manually or with the use of a gadget. Students
were always in a hurry to get a value as the final solution without
making reviews as to whether the answer they got was correct. Many
students never checked their answers.
The component perceived to have the least effect was item 8. They
reported that they were able to finish the computations easily (mean
of 3.24) and that they had arrived at a solution with the use of the
calculator (mean of 3.31). It was a common observation that students
seemed to be working on a race pace every time something is asked of
them to do. They believe that if they submitted their papers ahead of
the others, they are more intellectually capable, irrespective of whether
they had done it correctly. They would always rely on the calculator
and when confronted for having a wrong answer, would blame the
calculator for doing so. Teachers need emphasize the checking of the
58
students’ answers by reversing the process. The best way to teach

checking is to require students to do it.
The Process skills result shows that six of the ten criteria on the
respondents’ process skills affect their problem solving capabilities
to a large extent, with the highest mean score of 3.72 for reviewing
solutions. The next highest rating was on the use of different approaches
to problem solving (3.67), and the use of a definite step-by-step process
(3.61). Students were found to be lazy in reviewing their solutions.
Getting to an answer, whether it is correct or not, makes them feel that
they had already achieved something.
The two process skills that contributed to a small extent to
the problem solving capabilities of students are performing the
mathematical process well (3.38), and drawing diagrams and models
(3.41). In most cases, students had the belief that they are fully equipped
and are highly capable of solving problems. They also had the feeling
that whenever they draw diagrams for a problem, their illustrations
were correct.
The problem should be read first to analyze what is given and what
is required. Pictures can be used to simplify the problem. Calculations
can be done using the calculator and should be reviewed twice. When
an answer is arrived at, results should be checked and if possible, the
problem could be solved using another method.
Teachers should be able to teach students how to make illustrations
and diagrams that represent the problem. Sample problems provided
by the teacher should emphasize drawing of models. More exercises
on how to draw diagrams and models and the formulation of equation
from therein should be given to facilitate the student’s problem solving
skills.
Peer interaction could also affect the capabilities of students in
problem solving. The students felt that getting help from classmates
makes problem solving easier. Students turned to their classmates and
peers in identifying the formula as well as the techniques to use. The
students likewise make comparisons and confirmations of the solution
and the answers. Other criteria involving peer interaction affects the
problem solving capabilities of the students to a small extent.
For the teacher interaction, the students’ responses revealed that
teacher interaction helps the students’ problem solving process. The
59
students reported that they are greatly helped when the teacher gives
examples as guides, and when she/he gives the step-by-step process.
Likewise, when the teacher gives comments to students’ solutions and
when the teacher finds ways to help the students, problem solving could
be made easier. Asking the teacher for classifications when confused in
a particular problem affects their problem solving capabilities only to
a small extent (3.30).
It is a teacher’s responsibility to focus on every student’s learning
and present the material clearly so that students should pass the
subject. Both the student and the teacher should have a proactive
attitude towards mathematics education. Adequate assistance from
the teacher is necessary to alleviate the student’s fear of solving word
problems. The students learn best when they are active rather than
passive learners.
Planning and organizational skills and attention factors can impact
on math skills. It is important for students to understand the nature of
their math difficulties and the reasons underlying them, so they can
explain their needs to their instructors. It shows that the correlation
analysis between the problem solving capabilities and the personal,
cognitive, and social factors were all found to be direct. Correlation
analysis between the problem solving capabilities and the personal
factors were found to be direct. This means that as the perception
on the personal factors increases, the problem solving capabilities
also increases. When students viewed mathematical word problems
as something that challenges the mind and makes them think, it
allowed them to do better. The use of varied strategies in studying
also resulted in higher performance. Taking down notes and making
regular reviews of the lesson could develop the memory techniques in
problem solving. The relationship was found to be significant.
The relationship between the cognitive factors and the problem
solving capabilities was also found to be positive. This means that as
the perception on the cognitive factors increases, the problem solving
capabilities likewise increases. The relationships were significant.
It was shown that students who better understood the language
of mathematics perform better. The use of familiar terms and the
conciseness of the presentation helped the students in the process of
60
getting the correct solution to the problems. When word problems

were written short and contain only the relevant and required units
and quantities, students were able to grasp the content and were able
to get the solution to them. The recognition of the different approaches
to solving the problem also developed their conceptual skills and
eventually allowed them to do well in the word problem examinations.
When students had already known the basic concepts and the
formulas related to the problem, they were able to get the solution.
Because of frequent use, the mastery of fundamental operations can be
a useful tool in the process of problem solving. Using a step-by-step
process also led to the solution to the problem. The combination of the
foregoing cognitive factors helped the students perform higher in the
field of word problem solving.
There was also a direct relationship between the social factors and
the problem solving capabilities. As the student made use of available
help such as those coming from their classmates and their teachers,
the performance in problem solving was improved. Learning can be
achieved with inputs coming from various sources. Interaction with
peers and asking the help of the authority, the teacher, increased the
level of performance in word problem solving.
The correlation analysis revealed a significant, direct relationship
between the personal, cognitive, and social factors and the student’s
performance in word problem solving. This shows that the problem
solving capabilities could be a product of intermingling factors such as
the personal, the cognitive, and the social factors.
The regression analysis revealed that 17.67% of the variation in the
word problem solving capability was due to the personal, cognitive,
and social factors. It shows the beta coefficients resulting from the
regression analysis. In the table results shows that in the t-value it is
not significant at 5%, but it is significant at 5%. The analysis revealed
that the three factors considered in the study have significant effect
on the problem solving capabilities of the students. When analyzed
individually, the cognitive and the social factors had a significant effect
on the problem solving capabilities of the students, while personal
factors had no significant effect.
61
To make a prediction on the problem solving capability of a

student, the following regression equation was formulated.
Regression model:
Y = -45.0254 + 1.8021 (personal) + 14.4588 (cognitive) + 10.6874
(social)
The analysis showed that to make predictions of the problem

solving capability of an individual student, the use of the questionnaire
that elicits their perception of the personal, cognitive, and social factors
as affecting their capabilities can be used. The cognitive factors would
contribute the most to forecasting the student’s performance. This
is followed by the social factors and the last is the personal factors.
This further showed that the student’s command of the language,
the comprehension, the conceptual skills, the process skills, and
the computational skills contributed a lot to the problem solving
capabilities of the students.
CONCLUSIONS
Students were average in their knowledge of Mathematics.

However, they had high capability on problem solving. Personal
factors had affected the problem solving capability to a large extent. The
attitude towards problem solving and the study strategies employed
affected the problem solving capability to a large extent. The attitude
towards problem solving and the study strategies, and the cognitive
factors affected the problem solving capability to a large extent. These
components were: the language used comprehension, conceptual,
computational, and process skills.
There is significant relationship between the problem solving
capabilities of the students and the personal, cognitive, and social
factors. The cognitive and the social factors had a significant effect on
the problem solving capabilities of the students.
The attitude of the students toward mathematics is one factor
that affects the capabilities of the students in mathematics problem
solving. The personal, cognitive, and social factors affect the students’
capabilities to solve word problems. There is significant relationship
62
between the personal, cognitive, and social factors and the students’
capability to solve word problems, alternative hypotheses is accepted.
Of the three factors, the cognitive and the social factors had significant
effects on the student’s problem solving capabilities, alternative
hypotheses is accepted.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Steps should be taken by the school and the teachers to make

the learning of mathematics more interesting and meaningful to the
students. This may be done through contests, fair, displays and the
like. Activities in the math classes may be made more interesting with
student-friendly teacher by encouraging the students to ask questions
and participate in the discussions.
The school may create a committee to prepare a compilation
of problems in mathematics which are according to the level and
understanding of the students. The Mathematics Department and the
English Department may coordinate in the preparation of mathematics
problems to ensure clarity and specificity of the language used.
LITERATURE CITED
Boulter, L. T.
2002 Self-concept as a predictor of college freshmen academic
adjustment. College Student Journal. (June, 2002).
Chick, H. (n.d.)
The future of the teaching and learning of algebra. University
of Melbourne. www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au.
Kroll, D.L. & T. Miller.

1993 Insights from research on mathematical problem solving in
the middle grades. In D.T. Owens. Ed. Research ideas for the
classroom: middles grades mathematics. N. Y.: Macmillan
Publ. Co.
63
Laniog, M. SJ.
2001 Problem solving skills of selected students in college algebra,
SY 2000-2001: A case analysis. Unpublished thesis. DLSU,
Manila.
Lugo, M. D.
2005 Factors Affecting Word Problem Solving Capabilities in
Algebra of the First Year Engineering Students of the De la
Salle Lipa: Basis for Teaching Strategy. Unpublished thesis.
PLM, Manila.
Jitendra, A., C. M. DiPipi, N. Perron-Jones.

2002 An exploratory study of schema-based word problem-
solving instruction for middle school students with learning
disabilities. Journal of Special Education. Spring 2002.
Perry, A. B.
2004 Decreasing math anxiety in college students. College Student
Journal.
Weist, L. S.
2002 Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics.

64
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Development and Validation of Modules in

English 2: Writing in the Discipline
MARDIE D.EMOTIN-BUCJAN
mardie_bucjan@yahoo.com.ph
Surigao del Sur State University
Tandag Campus, Philippines

Abstract - Writing is one of the four macro-skills

to be developed in language among the students. This
paper focused on the Development and Validation of
Modules in English 2: Writing in the Discipline. The
modules aimed to enhance the basic organizational,
judgmental and mechanical writing skills of students
as they follow the writing process while performing
written tasks and assignments required for their
academic pursuits. The study utilized a content
validated feedback questionnaire for the pool of experts,
instructors and students. The study employed the
descriptive method of research. The study underwent
the four phases of material development namely:
design phase, development phase, field-try out phase,
and evaluation phase based on Johnson’s Model (1998).
The gathered data were statistically treated using
the arithmetic mean and analysis of variance. The
results of the study reveal that the contents; activities,
exercises and techniques used in the modules were
varied allowing the students to work independently
and creatively; the over-all assessment of the pool
of experts, teachers and students revealed that the
65
modules were appropriate to the level and needs of the

students; These conclusions were drawn: the varied
activities and techniques used in the modules were very
helpful to the learners, and the tandem of teaching and
learning was evident allowing the students to work
independently; the modules were very relevant and
very useful for use in the class because these answer
the need of the students to improve writing skill.(3.)
The format, contents and organization of the modules
were generally commendable as perceived by the
three- group of evaluators.
INTRODUCTION
Writing is one of the four macro-skills to be developed in language

among the students. It is vital for every student to develop this skill
because as part of his academic training, a college student is required
to write research papers, summarize articles, and write book reports,
movie reviews and other related activities which need the ability to
write accurately and clearly.
The primary purpose of writing is communication (Alcantara, et. al
2003). Business world, academic world and the like require the ability
in writing so that one can cope with the rapid increase of technological
know-how due to the continuously changing world. The present age
requires a great deal of writing skills.
The students communicate with people from outside their
classrooms like their family, peers, officials and the like wherein they
convey information that is real and necessary for their existence. As
explained by Giddens & Lobo (2008) writing is a fundamental skill and
valuable learning that involves application, analysis and synthesis. The
essence of writing underlies with the communicative task. For Worley
(2008), writing is an important communication skill that encompasses
much more than technology education- it is a life skill.
The need for the language teachers to make their students feel
the importance of mastering the skill, CHED issued Memorandum 30
series of 2004 specifying certain courses to be included in the General
Education Curriculum which cater to the development of the Filipino
66
Development and Validation of Modules
in English 2: Writing in the Discipline
learners in writing skill. This is English 2: Writing in the Discipline.

This course aims to develop the student’s competence in writing.
Writing in the discipline is based on the premise that each learner must
be equipped with this very important skill- writing.
According to Nicosia (2005), one attempt to meet the challenge
with the need to improve students’ basic language skills in writing
is to incorporate more writing assignments into classrooms across all
disciplines. On the other hand the learning of students is well facilitated
when the teacher is on the right pace of teaching his/ her students.
The mark of a teacher who has grown in chosen area of specialization
is his/her ability to organize and develop curriculum materials suited
to children’s level of readiness and understanding (Salandanan 2009).
Salandanan further stressed that instructional materials offer the best
means by which a teacher can provide direction in her student’s daily
search for new understanding and verifications, particularly by the
use of printed materials. The researcher advocates the need to develop
instructional materials such as modules to further help the learners
acquire basic skills. Teachers are encouraged to create modules in such
away strategies and activities that are readily available would help
eliminate their inferiority in developing the writing skill in them. The
researcher contest the idea of developing modules as teaching materials
for English 2 because there is no main textbooks or prescribed books to
be used by the students. In so doing, in this way the students can have
readily available materials for the course. This is supported by Vitasa
(2006), who stresses that the development and the use of self-made –
instructional materials as one strategy can help develop their skills in
writing. The study is purposely made to answer the call for the need
of instructional materials which help students develop confidence
in writing because a good hand at writing is apparently an edge in a
competitive world where ability and proficiency in English language
is called for.
FRAMEWORK
The development of modules and other teaching materials is a

better initiative of a teacher who is very concern on every learning
output of the students. Vitaza (2006) cited The Richard Arrend’s
67
Theory on effective teaching. This stresses the characteristics of an

effective teacher as “one who has the repertoire of best strategies that
can help them improves the teaching learning process”. The teacher’s
innovative style and creativity help the students to acquire necessary
skills in language.
In coming up with the idea of designing the instructional
materials, the researcher referred to some models and theories such
as that of Collin (1998) in Prado (2004) which discusses four steps
intended to respond to the learning needs of the students. Others
like the instructional design theory, Johnson’s model and Dosinaeg’s
writing skills development model gave the researcher insights in
designing modules for a writing class. The present study is adapting
the instructional design theory. According to Smith (2009) instructional
design theory is the study of how to best design instruction so that
learning will take place.
The most common model used for creating instructional materials is
the ADDIE model; these acronym stands for five phases of the material
development; A stands for Analyze - analyze learner characteristics,
and task to be learned, D for Design - develop learning objectives and
choose an instructional approach, D for Develop - create instructional
or training materials, I for Implement - deliver or distribute the
instructional materials and E for Evaluate - make sure the materials
achieved the desired goals. This is also anchored on Johnson’s model
as used by Delfin (2004). The model shows the four phases of material
development namely: Design phase, development phase, field try-out
phase and evaluation phase.
Another important model considered in this study is the Dosinaeg’s
writing skill development model in Clarpondel (2002) which stresses
that materials should provide stimulus to learning. It says that
learning is really about the increased probability of a behavior based
on stimulus. The instructional materials make available the ability to
write and empower students with sense of efficacy and achievement.
Therefore the need to see learning as an activity without beginning or
end and to create the right environment and materials for continued
learning is a good stimulus to the learning process of the students.
This is anchored on the theory of Krashen as cited by Schutz
(2007), the theory of second language acquisition in one of his five
68
major hypotheses; the input hypothesis which suggests the idea that
“comprehensible input +1” a kind of formula in the selection of text,
tasks and activities for the learners to be challenging and motivating
for their optimum learning. The modules must bear tasks and activities
something beyond the familiar and a little beyond their experience. In
writing, the students must have the schema on other language skills
such as grammar, spelling, vocabulary and punctuations so that he
can process and organize his thoughts on paper. Writing requires
knowledge and focuses thought. Meanwhile, in order to write
students must have something to say and he must have the schema on
the different stages of process approach in writing. According to Kroll
(19991) in Rico and Weed (2006) the process approach is particularly
important for English learners who are developing their oral language
skills at the same time their written skills because it involves more
interaction, planning and reworking.
The process approach is a very significant approach as to give the
learners opportunities to explore in processing their thoughts and
ideas into their papers. It is therefore practical to consider that there is
actually a writing procedure involved in composition writing. These are
the three general stages; pre-writing, writing and post- writing. These
allow the students to organize, develop and refine concepts and ideas
that make writing a rewarding activity. Writing is a very essential skill
to be mastered among the learners. However, learning to write is not an
overnight task. As Gershovich in Warner (2008) points out, “Freshmen
English isn’t a magic pill you take to make yourself write well for the
rest of your college career”. Mastery of this language skill is long and
a continuous process. In this sense, college instructors play the very
significant role in helping their learners achieve and master the skill.
To design self-instructional materials needed in a particular discipline
is tough but challenging so that students from the different walks of life
are able to benefit from it. The development of instructional materials
provide the students a variety of activities of academic writing that
enable them to articulate their ideas properly even with considerable
attention of accuracy rather than on the fluency of the language use.
Most people agree that writing skills are equally important and yet
oftentimes not adequately taught in the classrooms. It is in this view
that the researcher has conceptualized and to this effect the researcher
69
is inspired to develop teaching modules for writing. These modules

provide the students a unique avenue to learn writing process which is
based on the premise of writing in the discipline of CMO no. 30 s.2004.
This is on the concept that learners must be equipped with this very
important language skill - writing.
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the study is the development and validation

of teaching modules for English 2: Writing in the discipline. Specifically
this study aimed to: identify the contents and activities of the lessons
to be developed in the modules;point out the appropriateness of the
developed lessons in the modules as perceived by the pool of experts,
instructors and students; determine the significant difference between
the perceptions of the students, instructors and the experts on the
modules format, content and organizations.

The study employed the descriptive method of research. The

descriptive type of research is appropriate for gathering information
about existing condition and determines and reports the way things are
(Sevilla, 1994 as cited by Emotin, 2003). The study underwent the four
phases of material development namely: design phase, development
phase, field-try out phase, and evaluation phase based on Johnson’s
Model (1998) (in Delfin 2004).
The subjects of the study were the first year students of Surigaodel
Sur State University, Tandag Campus for the SY 2009-2010. This study
utilized the simple random sampling technique. This is a technique
where each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected as subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single
step with each subject selected independently of the other members
of the population (http://www.experiment-resources.com/simple-
random sampling.html). Out of the 10 sections for English 2 classes,
the researcher randomly chose the group of subjects for the study.
There were three sections of English 2 classes which were utilized as
subjects for the field try-out phase of the modules. Table 1 shows the
70
total number of students per class.

Table 1. Subjects of the Study
Sections/ Course N
Bachelor of Secondary Education -BSED 44

Bachelor of Elementary Education -BEED 40
Bachelor of Science in Banking Administration- BSBA 51
Overall Total 135
The researcher tapped eight (8) English Language Experts from

the four accredited Higher Education Institutions of CARAGA Region
namely: PNU (Philippine Normal University)-Agusan Campus, FSUU
(Father SaturninoUriosUnivesrity, Butuan City, ASSCAT (Agusan del
Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology) Bunawan, Agusan
del Sur and SSPSC ( Surigao del State University) Tandag Campus,
there were two from each institution who were requested to scrutinize
the modules for content validation.
The study utilized a content validated feedback questionnaire for
the pool of experts and students to gather feedback on the modules
developed and used in the class. The researcher adapted the instrument
of Kilem (2000). Adaptations were made to fit the present study.
The instrument went through content validation from three English
language experts. The three experts were Professors coming from the
SDSSU systems, one from SDSSUTagline, Sand two from SSPSC Main
Campus. In pursuing this development and validation research, the
researcher adapted and modified the Johnson’s model of materials
development.
The study underwent the four phases of material development:
design phase, development phase, field-try out phase, and evaluation
phase. The gathered data were statistically treated using the arithmetic
mean and analysis of variance. The weighted mean was used to get the
general feedback of the pool of experts who evaluated the modules
and the instructors and students who used the modules. The analysis
of variance was used to answer problem 3 and the hypothesis of the
study.
71
The contents and activities of the developed modules. The study

revealed that the activities and contents of the modules were varied
and very helpful to the learners. Teaching style and learning style were
in tandem allowing the students to work alone on the different tasks
presented in the modules.
The appropriateness of the developed modules as perceived by

the pool of experts, students and instructors. The second question
called for the appropriateness of the modules as perceived by the pool
of experts, students and instructors. To find out the appropriateness of
the materials; the modules were evaluated in two general parameters;
the format of the modules and the organization and contents.
The feedback of the experts; the grand mean of 4.66 which

gained a descriptive rating of outstanding based on the Likert’s
scale is the general expert’s feedback. There were six specific criteria
where the experts rated it very satisfactory and came out that the
“appropriateness of illustrations” got a mean of 4.38 a very satisfactory
rating when entire section is taken as one and the rest were rated
outstanding. This reflects the expert considered the varied activities
and exercises of module’s lesson appropriate and useful. As the other
experts commented; “the choice of reading text relating to sports, politics,
environment, entertainment and arts, culture and heritage is commendable.”
While other experts added; “the tasks are varied and well-organized;
teachers would have an easier time to adjust the activities to the level of the
learners.” The format and the contents and organization are generally
acceptable as perceived by the experts.
The feedback of the students; the two criteria set to measure

the modules show that the perceptions of the students resulted to
outstanding. The resulting grand mean of 4.71 is the general feedback
of the students. All of the 23 specific statements of the criteria set,
revealed that all of the students’ responses fall to outstanding. This
implies that the student’s enjoyed the activities and found the modules
as very useful materials, as they commented that the modules help
72
them to develop their skill in writing. “It is good; it will not consume time
for nothing because of the many activities that will make our time useful in
improving our learning especially in writing”, one student commented.
“The modules are very interesting and very challenging to use for learning
process. It enhanced my writing skill and it developed more my critical
thinking ability. It stirred up my curiosity and insightful understanding about
the subject that were thoroughly explained in these modules. It motivated me
a lot,” other students added.
The teacher evaluation result; this is the feedback of the

instructors who implemented the modules in class. The specific
components on “the appropriateness of illustrations gained 4.33 and
topics which gained 4.45 a very satisfactory rating. This revealed that
very satisfactory rating is the lowest rating gathered so far. It can be
deduced that the over-all assessment of 4.68 is outstanding. This also
implies that the modules possessed the appropriate activities, exercises
and techniques in teaching and somehow very useful material to use
in the class. As one of them commented,” the module is cost-effective to
the learners, it allows independent teaching and learning, the activities and
exercises cater to the level of the student’s understanding”. “The teacher‘s
role is a facilitator and the class is very manageable, it lessened the teacher’s
burden in preparing instructional materials for the day’s lesson “, one of the
instructors added. The Grand mean of 4.68 is the over-all mean, which
is an outstanding rating. This goes to show that the three evaluators
have similar assessment on the modules format, organization and
contents.
The significant differences in perceptions
Table 2. Analysis of variance of the perceptions
Mean Perception Analysis of Variance

Decision
CRITERIA Critical Conclusion
Expert Instructors Students Computed on Ho
at 5%
Not Not
Format 4.48 4.60 4.65 0.77030 3.89
Rejected Significant
73
Organization Not Not

4.72 4.74 4.72 0.00495 3.15
and Content Rejected Significant
To determine if a significant difference exists in the perception of

the students and pool of experts on the format and organization and
content of the developed module, analysis of variance was applied and
the results of the analysis are presented in Table 7. With respect to
format, the analysis of variance yielded a computed value of 0.77030
which is lower than 3.89, the critical value at 5% significance level.
Thus, the null hypothesis is not rejected. This implies that the three
groups of evaluators of the modules have similar perceptions relative
to the format. In terms of the organization and content of the modules,
the analysis of variance yielded a computed value of 0.00495 which
is very much lower than 3.15, the critical value at 5%. Therefore,
null hypothesis is not rejected. This result would indicate that the
perceptions of the pool of experts, the instructors and the students
are relatively the same relative to the organization and content of the
modules.
CONCLUSION
The study concludes that the varied activities and techniques used
in the modules were very helpful to the learners, and the tandem of
teaching and learning was evident allowing the students to work
independently;the modules were very relevant and very useful for use
in the class because these answer the need of the students to improve
writing skill; the format, contents and organization of the modules
were generally commendable as perceived by the three- group of
evaluators.
LITERATURE CITED
Alcantara, R. D.
2003 Teaching Strategies for the Teaching of Communication Arts:
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. Katha Publishing
Co. Inc. Makati City
74
Clarpondel, J.C.
2002 Proposed materials in Teaching Writing for Second Year High
School Students. Unpublished Thesis. PNU, Manila.
Delfin, L. B.
2004 Development and Validation of Modules for Supplementary
Reading for Grade IV Pupils. Unpublished Thesis. PNU,
Manila.
Emotin, M.D.
2003 Pronunciation Difficulty of Kamayo Students of Barobo
National High School: Basis for the Development of Oral
English materials. Unpublished Thesis. PNU, Agusan del Sur.
Gayeta, M. S.
2002 Improving the Compositions of Students through process
Approaching Writing. Unpublished Thesis. PNU, Manila.
Giddens, J.F. and Lobo, M.

2008 Analyzing Graduate Student Trends in Written Paper
Evaluation. Journal Nursing Education 47 no.10, 480-30
Kilem, MJ.G.
2000 The Development, Validation and Effectiveness of a Workbook
on the Reading Skills Achievement Level of College Freshmen
Students. Unpublished Dissertation. Cagayan Capitol College,
Cagayan de Oro C ity.
Nicosia, G.
2005 Developing an On-line Writing Intensive Course: Will It Work
for Public Speaking? Retrieved from http:// www.adprima.
com/ijim.htm.
Prado, J.O.
2004 Reading- based Instructional Materials and the Development
of the Language Proficiency of College Freshmen Students
75
of St. Theresa College in the CARAGA Region. Unpublished

Dissertation. UST. Manila
Rico, L D. and K. Z. Weed

2006 The Cross-cultural Language and Academic Development
Handbook Third Edition. Person Education, Inc. United State
of America.
Salandanan, G.
2009 Teacher Education ( Revised Edition) Katha Publishing
Co. Inc. Makati City
Schutz, R.
2007 Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition
retrieved from http://www.sk.com/br/sk-krash.html.
Smith, K.J
2009 Instructional Design Theory retrieved from http://www.
ic.arizona.edu/ic/edp511/isd1.html.
Vitasa, Z. O.
2006 Development and Validation of Prototype Instructional
Materials in Reading for Freshmen Engineering Students.
Unpublished Thesis. PNU, Manila.
Warner, F.
2008 Improving Communication Is Everyone’s Responsibility.
Retrieved from http:// www.heldref.org.
Worley, P.
2008 Not Just for English Classes: Writing Skills Essential in Tech Ed
Today. Retrieved from http:// www. Techdirections.com/
76
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Dialects, Beliefs and Practices

of the Tinguians of Abra
DIGNA JOCELYN L. ABAYA
jl_abaya@yahoo.com
MARCIANA P. DE VERA
dr.marsha_devera@yahoo.com
MANUEL A. BAJET JR.

manuelbajet@yahoo.com
University of Northern Philippines,
Heritage City of Vigan, Ilocos Sur

Abstract - This descriptive research identified the

dialects,beliefs and practices of the Tinguians in Abra
utilizing a questionnaire – checklist coupled with
personal interview and ethnography. Of the twenty-
seven (27) municipalities of Abra, onlytwenty-two (22)
speak the eleven (11) Ethno linguistic dialects: Adasen,
Balatok, Banao, Belwang, Binongan, Gobang,Inlaud,
Mabaka, Maeng,,Masadiit and Moyadan; while
Fourteen(14)municipalities speak the Inlaud dialect.
Courtship was never practiced. Tani was the mode of
marriage. The Danon was done on moonlight nights.
The Sab-ong was discussed when the marriage was set.
One is assigned for the Billite to all the relatives and
friends when the marriage was set. The deads were
not embalmed, thus, bagungon lasted only for three
77
days. Somebody does the Beccaang to the relatives

and friends about the death of a relative. Taradyo
was collected. Tadek was danced during marriage
and burial. Uggayamand Salidummay were chanted
during death and danon. The deads were buried in the
yards, under the houses orstairs. Balliwes was danced
after the burial. Golgol was done a day after the burial.
Today, Bagungon, Taradyo,Waksi and Tadek are still
practiced. Tani, Danunand Sab-ong are no longer
practiced. Billite and Beccaang are now obsolete ways
of information during marriages and death of their
relatives. Deads are already buried in cemeteries.

INTRODUCTION
Abra is a land-locked province situated at the western side of the

Cordillera in northern Luzon. It is bounded on the west by Ilocos Sur,
on the north by Ilocos Norte and Apayao, on the east by Kalinga, and
on the south by Mt. Province.
The Abreños has an elaborate network of beliefs and practices as
manifested in their songs, dances and ceremonies particularly during
mourning’s, courtships, weddings and festivals.
However,these beliefs and practices are now slowly dying or
already been forgotten due to modern transformation in all aspects of
life. This started when Filipinos wanted to experience luxurious living
and to look for greener pastures that prompted them to go abroad
bringing home these new practices, beliefs, styles and fashions that
were imitated and adopted.
Inevitably,Abra is not exempted from the fast pace of development
and from other influences brought about by modernization. With these
powerful changes, these dialects, beliefs and practices are now slowly
being set aside or not being appreciated by the new generations.
Although our modern society manifests the progress brought about
by cultural influences, social changes and technological advances, it
could still be seen and heard that there are still people who value these
legacies.
78
In as much as the Province of Abra is on its metamorphoses,

this endeavor has set the following objectives:1)to identify the
dialects spoken by the Tinguians; 2) to trace the roots or origin
of the different Tinguians; 3)to identify the different tribes in the
different municipalities/barrios where the Tinguians reside; 4)to
explore,identify and enumerate the different beliefs and practices of
the early Tinguians; 5)to identify the beliefs and practices still being
practiced or observed today;and 6) to preserve these heritages through
documentation that would serve as reminder to the present Abreῇos of
the rich legacy left by their forebears.
Considering the significant contributions and instrument of
creating solidarity among the Abreῇos, it is deemed necessary for
the preservation of these dialects, beliefs and practices. These would
continuously serve as a reminder about the rich and famous culture.
This would serve as an avenue for the Abreῇos to realize and nurture
the legacy left by their ancestors that would guide them in going
through their lives. The preservation of these legacies would also serve
as a challenge for the Abreῆos to continue speaking, practicing and
preserving these legacies.
Hopefully, the findings would serve as a reminder to all Abreῇos
and the future generations about the rich legacy that their ancestors
have left and serve as their binding force.
In addition, the findings would serve as an eye opener for the
Department of Education (DepEd) of Abra to review and include
in their curriculum particularly in their Music, Arts and Physical
Education (MAPE) the study of the ethnic songs and dances as well as
in their Araling Panlipunan the beliefs and practices of the province.
Furthermore,results of this study would entice the Office of
Representative, Provincial Government and the National Center
for Indigenous People (NCIP) of Abra to include in their programs
concrete activities showcasing these beliefs and practices.
The study made use of the descriptive method of research coupled

with personal interview. Ethnographic profile, field immersion and
observation were also done.
79
The researchers gathered initial information at the Office of the

National Center for Indigenous People(NCIP), Bangued, Abra as to
the tribes and the Tinguian municipalities.
The researchers spent days in these places and interviewed
personally the elders in the Tinguian municipalities.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION
The succeeding presentation discusses the results of the study.
Table 1. Dialects distribution of the Tinguian

municipalities/villages of Abra
Dialects Municipality Barrio/ Barangay

Lagayan
Ba-I
Lagangilang
Adasen Bacooc
Tineg
Malibcong
Banao Daguioman
Binongan Licuan-Baay/Baay-Licuan
Gobang Malibcong Bangilo
Bucay Abang
Danglas
Dolores Malaylay
Lagayan
Lapaz Alimudong`
Langiden Palpalitpit
Lagangilang
Penarrubia Bolbolo
Pilar Tangbao
Inlaud San Isidro
San Juan
San Quintin Gaddani
Tayum
Villaviciosa Lumaba
Luba
Maeng Tubo
Villaviciosa
Lacub Bacag,Buneg,Talampak
Mabaka Malibcong Mataragan
80
San Ramon
Moyadan Manabo
Catacdegan
Boliney
Nasadiit Bucloc
Sallapadan
As gleaned from the table, Inlaud is the dialect that the majority or
fourteen (14) municipalities speak; Adasen, Maeng and Nasadiit come
next with three (3) municipalities each. Banao and Mabaka having two
(2) municipalities each; and Binnongan, Gubang and Moyadan with
one (1) municipality each.
However, looking closely at the table, it is noticed that there are
some barrios in the mentioned municipalities that speak some other
dialects like in Ba-i, Lagayan and Bacooc, Lagangilang wherein Adasen
is spoken; and in Mataragan, Malibcong wherein Mabaka is used by
the natives. But the differences in their dialects are not hindrances for
understanding. This agrees with the findings of Begnalen (2009) that
their dialects although spoken differently have commonalities, thus;
they understand each other.
Table 2. Origin of the Tinguian tribes
Tribes Origin
This is found at the Northern part of Abra.

Variant of Apayao and Kalinga dialects.
Adasen
This group came from Cagayan, then moved somewhere in Kalinga then to Abra
Variant of Belwang and Sadanga dialects

Others were those who landed in the coastal towns of Cagayan then moved to
Banao
Ilocos before settling to Abra
Balatok These were the people who came from the coastal towns of Cagayan
These were the same group of people who came from the coastal towns of
Belwang
Cagayan
Could be the predecessors of the Inla-uds and probably the group who landed
Binongan first in the Ilocos coastal towns then moved upward to where they are now.
Dao-ayan Variant of Kalinga in Dao-ayan and Baklinga
In Bangilo, a barrio of Malibcong.

Gubang
Came from coastal towns of Cagayan
Inlaud This is at the low land of the province.
81
Mabaca Northern side of the Binongan River

Mixture of Igorot and Kalinga in Southern Abra. They come from Narvacan,
thenmoved to Abra to settle peacefully without being disturbed by the next
Ma-eng
groups of settlers.
Nasadi-it Eastern towns
Traces their origin from the Mountain Province through the mountain towns of
Moyadan Ilocos Sur.
As reflected in the table, it could be observed that the settlers of the

different Tinguian tribes were migrants from the different neighboring
towns of the province. This migration proves the existence of the
different dialects spoken by these tribes. However, as stated in the
study of Begnalen (2009), despite differences in points of origin, the
phonemic similarity could be traced with slight variation across
dialects. Begnalen (2009) further said that it is also evident of the
borrowing of these words among the Abra dialects.
The succeeding Tables 3 to 6, present the beliefs and practices
that are practiced and observed by all the Tinguians of Abra. These
findings showed that the Tinguians are united although they speak
different dialects.
Table 3. Courtship practices of the Tinguians
Practices
1. Tani/Tampa
2. Danun or Kalkalimusta
3. Katulagan/Puon/Sab-ong(Dowry)
1. Kwarta (Money)
2. Daga (lot)
3. Carabao
4. House
5. Farm
4.Sillot / Beddel as a sign of engagement
5.Singing of the Salidummay
6. Dancing of the Lab-labbaan
Looking at Table 4, courtship was not observed during that time.

The Tani or Tampa system was strictly observed. This agrees with the
82
findings of Rosal and Somera (2003) that the parents of both parties
have already agreed to have their children, even when they were still
inside the wombs of their mothers, to be married when the time comes.
The Danun or kalkalimusta was done as related by Guinaban and
Dumasing (2010) to retain their property and power. When the man
and his parents go for the Danun or Kalkalimusta, the most respected
elder or panglakayen of their place accompanied them.
The Katulagan of the Puon/Sab-ong was tackled in the forms
ofmoney, lot and animal title or declaration preferably carabao,house
and farm land. According to Dugayen, Sad-ang and Rivas (2010), the
Sab-ong was very important for the couple as well as their parents and
friends. The Sab-ong served as the property that the couple used to
start their married life.
The Sillot/Beddel (beads or batek) is left to the woman as a sign of
their being engaged. This was worn until marriage. Pariῆas, Aquino
and Taverner (2010) said that the Danun was not complete without
singing the Salidummay and dancing the Lab-labbaan. This was also
a sign of their unity.
Table 4. Marriage practices of the Tinguians
Practices
1. Somebody was sent for the Billite as to the exact date of marriage.
2. Marriage was done in the house of the bride.
3. The marriage was officiated by the most respectedPanglakayen (elder).
4. Uggayam and drinking of Basiwere done on the eve and during the wedding.
5. After the ceremony, the imbentaryo of the Puonwas read.
6. The couple danced theTadek accompanied by the Gansa
7. The Sab-it or Bitor and Parwad were done as the couple danced.
8. Patan-aw was done after the marriage in the house of the groom.

As shown in the Table, the date of the marriage has to be known
by all the relatives and friends of the couple through the Billite a
month prior to the exact date because during those days, the means
of communication was very hard. The marriage among the Tinguians
was done in the house of the bride and officiated by the most respected
Elder or Panglakayen of the place. This is an evidence of the high
respect and belief towards their Elders.
83
The relatives particularly the Elders of both parties gathered

together for the Uggayam. Thisis an exchange of wordsby both parties.
They chanted their advices and their happiness for the couple.
The Inventory of the Puon(agreement during the Danun) was read
before being handed to the couple. This also showed the honesty being
observed by the Tinguians.
The marriage ceremony was not complete without the Sab-it
or Bitor(Jueves andGulam 2010) as the couple danced the Tadek
accompanied by the Gansa. As musedly stated by Guinaban (2010),
this was the way of manifesting that the couple will live harmoniously
and that understanding between the couple and their parents who
were very much in favor of their marriage.
The Patan-aw was done when the couples went to the house of the
groom. This was a welcome rite to the bride in their house. This was
done because not all the relatives of the groom were able to attend their
wedding. Everybody danced again the Tadek. Gifts were again given
to the couples. They butchered pig to be served to all those present.
Table 5. Wake (Bagungon) and burial (Panagipunpon)

practices of the Tinguians
Practices
Wake (Bagungon)
1.The dead is bathe and clothe with the Tinguian dress and
decorated with theBatekbut removed when buried.
2. The wake lasted only for a maximum of three days.
3.Somebody did the Bekkaang
4.The dead was seated in an armchair or lied in a papag.
Burial (Panagipumpon)
1.The Albaab (Dung-aw) with Basi was done while waiting for the
arrival of the relatives and guests.
2.The Taradyo (Namin) was collected from every house
3.The Batakan started when the relatives arrived.
4.The Sangsangngit/ Uggayam was done for the duration of the wake.
5.The Palpalubos was done before the dead was buried.
6. Everybody danced the Wagwag/Balliwes.
7. The dead was buried in their yard, under their house or under their stairs.
84
The table reflects the practices observed by the Tinguians when

their relative’s die. Cleanliness was observed as evidenced by bathing
the dead before thedead was dressed with the native clothes and
decorated with the Tinguian jewelries or the Batek. The dead was
seated on a native chair or lied down on a bamboo bed. The wake
lasted for only three days because there was no embalming yet.
Since it was hard for the relatives who were from other places and
barrios to know about their dead relatives, they were notified through
the Bekkaang .The Albaab or Dung-aw (Jeffrerson, Rivas and Dugayen,
2010) was done by the barrio folks while waiting for the relatives and
guests to arrive. Of course, the Basi was already served. The Taradyo
or Namin was collected from the households. This showed their help
to the bereaved family. The Bahamian was also displayed during the
whole wake. The barrio folks offered their services without anything
in return. Leadership and responsibility were also displayed in the
preparation of food, orderliness, cleanliness and all other activities
during the wake.
When the relatives arrived, the Batakan was done. It was headed
by an elder who was knowledgeable of the process and assigned a
mantenedor to manage the activity. The Sangsangngit or Uggayam
was done for the whole wake with the Basi being served.
During the last day of the wake, the palpalubos was done wherein
the dead was brought outside the house for the last activity. The
mantenedor assigned persons in the gathering to represent the widow/
widower,children,relatives and guest. They were the ones to do the
Sangsangngit when the dead were already brought outside the house
for the last respect. Everybody who was in the occasion danced the
Tadek. After the Punpon,the Wag-wag Balliwes was danced(Crisologo,
2009)was danced to show that all their grief were removed.
Since there was no cemetery during the early days,they buried
their dead in their yards, under their house or under their stairs. This
practice showed of the close family ties. They still wanted to see their
dead because they believed that whenever the family has problems
or experiencing trials, their dead’s were always around looking and
protecting them. The widow/widower was not allowed to join the
others when the dead is placed inside the tomb. They believed that
this practice would prevent of the immediate death of another relative
or members of the family.
85
Table 6. After the burial (Panagipunpon)

practices of the Tinguians
Practice
1. The nine-day prayer starts on the night the dead was buried.
2. The following day, all the members went to the river for the Gol-gol.
3. The old woman applies oil on the hair of all the members of the bereaved
family before all of them plunged into the river at the same time.
4. No one looked back when going home so as not to be forgetful.
5. The Waksi was done after a year of mourning by the bereaved family
During the first night that the dead was already buried,they started
praying for nine days. The following day,everybody went to the river
for the Golgol. An old woman performs the ceremony before applying
oil. The oil was mixed with the burned rice straw(arutang).After that,
they plunged into the river at the same time. All the clothes that the
bereaved family used were thrown into the river. This was a belief that
all the worries and misfortunes that come went with those thrown into
the river. When they went home, nobody should look back to prevent
them from being forgetful. The waksi showed close family ties because
it was done after a year.
Table 7. Beliefs and practices of the Tinguians
Still Practiced/observed Not Practiced/ Not Observed

Tani / Tampa
Wakes
Namin/Taradyo Danun / Kalkalimusta
Waksi Lab-labbaan
Tadek Dowry / Sab-ong
Billite
Beccaang
Burying of deads on yards, under houses or
under stairs
The table reflects that the following beliefs and practices are no
longer practiced orobserved today. Tampa/Tani, Danun, Dowry, Lab-
86
labbaan are now being forgotten. as observed and musedly commented

by Mrs. Campol (2010) Today, a woman already gets pregnant before
getting married or no marriage is done; Billite and Beccaang are no
longer done due to modern technology of communication; cemeteries
and gardens now served as cemeteries, thus the deads are no longer
buried in their yards. The in observance of these are due to the effects
brought about by science and technology and due to the influences
brought by those who come home abroad and are later imitated.
However, Wakesup to now are still very important to the
Tinguians. The close family ties are still shown. Funeral parlors offer
services including embalming. Thus, Wakes last for a week or more.
The Namin or Taradyo is still practiced today. The Tadek is still done.
The Waksi is done after a year.
CONCLUSIONS
Based from the results and discussions, the following

conclusions were drawn:
1. There were nine (9) dialects spoken by the Tinguians in the

twenty-two (22) Tinguian municipalities of Abra with the eleven (11)
Ethno linguistic groups namely: Adasen, Balatok, Banao, Belwang,
Binongan, Gobang, Inlaud, Mabaka, Maeng, Nasadiit and Moyadan.
2. Majority or fourteen (14) Tinguian municipalities speak
Inlaud. These are: Abang, Bucay; Danglas; Malaylay, Dolores;
Lagayan;Alimudong, Lapaz; Langiden, Palpalitpit Lagangilang;
Penarrubia; Bolbolo, Pilar; Tangbao,San Isidro; San Juan; an Quintin;
Gaddani, Tayum;and Lumaba, Villavbiciosa. Adasen, Maeng and
Nasadiit come next. This could be due to the fact that Inlaud is the
easiest dialect to learn, spoken and understand.
3. Courtship was never done. Tampa or Tani was the mode of
marriage. This was to retain their Property and power. The man and
his parents accompanied by their Elder went to the woman’s home for
the Danun or Kalkalimusta. The Katulagan of the Puon or Sab-ong
was discussed first before the marriage was set.
4. The Lab-labbaan was danced and the Salidummay was sung.
The Billite was the form of informing the relatives on the set date of
87
marriage. Wakes lasted only for three days because their deads were
not preserved before. The Beccaang was done to inform the relatives
and friends about the death of a person.
5. The Tadek was danced accompanied by the Gansaduring
marriage and burial ceremonies. The Uggayamand the Salidummay
were sung during death and Danun respectively. The Balliwes was
danced after the burial of their dead. TheGolgol was done after the
burial. The Lay-og was the means of remembering their deads and at
the same time reunion.
6. Wakes, Lay-og, Namin/Taradyo and Tadek still hold true
today. Today, Tani/Tampa, Danun, and Sab-ongare no longer practiced
when marriages are planned. Beccaang and Billite are now obsolete
to inform their relatives during death and marriage. Deads are now
buried in cemeteries.
LITERATURE CITED
Begnalen, N.B
2009 ”Mapping and Inventory of the Tingguian Ethno-Language”
(Published Research) Research Journal, Abra State Institute of
Sciences and Technology. Vol.7 No. 1 June, Lagangilang, Abra,
Philippines.
”Practices and Traditions of the Tinguians of Abra”The Abrenian

Institute and Research Center.DivineWordCollege,Bangued,Abra.
Copyright 2003.
Rosal and Somera

2003 ”Cultural Confluences in Asilang,San Juan and Cabugao,
IlocosSur.
INTERVIEWS
Alvin “Sad-ang” Jefferson, Ex-Sanggunian Bayan

Member;Jordan”Kutig”Rivas, Executive Assistant. LGU,and
88
Dionisio “Edao” Dugayen (main informant),

Lamao, Bucloc, Abra. Personal Interview. 12 March 2010.
Benigno “Loting” Aquino, Erasmo “Rasmo” Taverner and Rodrigo

“Digo” Parinas. Elders of Lagayan,Abra. Personal Interview.6
Feb.2010.
Johnny Guinaban,Ex-mayor,Licuan – Baay,Chairman of the Binongan

Tribe. Personal Interview. 1 April2010.
Juanita Campol,retired Elementary Teacher, Boliney, Abra. Personal

Interview. 30 April 2010.
Ireneo Jueves and Felicidad Gulam,residents. Malibcong,Asbra.

Personal Interview.15 Feb. 2010. Mayor Masayo Dumasing,
Chairman of the Moyadan Tribe, Manabo, Abra. Personal
Interview.
13 Aug.2010.
Personnels of the National Center for Indigenous People of the

Philippines,Bangued,Abra.11 Jan.2010.
Pio Crisologo, Ex-mayor of Tineg, Abra(1979-1980) and Ex-

Sangguniang Bayan(1977-1979),Province of Abra. Personal.
Interview. 16 Oct.2009.
89
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Determinants of L.E.T. Performance

of the Teacher Education Graduates
in a State University
JUANITA B. PASCUA
nitzpascua@yahoo.com
JANE D. NAVALTA
jane_d_navalta@yahoo.com.
College of Teacher Education,
Nueva Vizcaya State University,
Director, University Review Center

Abstract - This study determined the

correlation of personal and educational related
factors with the LET performance of the
Teacher Education graduates of NVSU, second
semester, S.Y. 2007-2008. The respondents’ personal
and educational data were gathered from the
Registrar’s records while the result of the LET
performance was taken from the PRC through the
LET Review Committee. The study used descriptive
survey method with the use of documentary analysis.
T-test was used to determine the difference in the LET
performance when grouped according to gender and
degree course. F-test was used to determine if there is
significant difference in LET performance and English
proficiency of the respondents. Scheffe Post Hoc Test
was utilized to determine the significant difference
in English proficiency in terms of percentile ranks.
There were more Elementary Education respondents
90
Determinants of L.E.T. Performance of the
Teacher Education Graduates in a State University
than Secondary Education. English proficiency of

respondents ranged from 23.00-73.75. There were more
passers from the Elementary level than those from the
Secondary level. Females’ performance in LET was
statistically the same with their male counterpart and
that the BEEd performed better than the BSEd and all
other courses combined (BSMath, BSAExt, BSHT, BSIE,
BSAEd).Degree Course, GPA, English Proficiency, and
Admission Test Score indicated significant relationship
with LET performance.
Key words: Licensure Examination for Teachers

(LET), English proficiency, Teacher Education
graduates
INTRODUCTION
The quality of education in the country is low as stipulated in

research findings. This issue particularly on low quality education
poses more implications as one strives to deal with globalization,
educational reform, technological change and survival issue (Duque,
1999).
The Philippines prohibits any individual from practicing or
offering to service the teaching profession without having previously
obtained a certificate of registration and a valid professional license
from the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) to ensure that the
student teachers become competent teachers (www.pinoytest.com).
This is the main reason why the commission conducts the Licensure
Examination for Teachers (LET) to regulate the profession and to
provide license to deserving individuals who passed the LET (http://
www.pinoytest.com/teacherlicensureexam).
In 2008, NVSU has an institutional passing rate of 75.90% for the
elementary level and 50.67% for the secondary level. On the other hand,
the national rate for the elementary level is 30.47% while the secondary
level has a passing rate of 35.34% (http://NVSU.edu.ph/news).
Moreover, Grade Point Average (GPA) as one of the main factors
associated with the LET performance of students, measures how well
91
one is doing in his academic studies. It is the average obtained by

dividing the total quality hours for courses for which one is registered
for any stated period of time. Under GPA, performance in a given set
of courses in the variable summarizes overall performance (tru.ca/
policy/allpolicy.html).
Furthermore, before students enter the college and pursue their
education at Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU), they must first
take the admission test administered by the Testing Center. The test
determines students who may take a degree or a non-degree course.
The scores provide further information regarding the ability and
knowledge of the students in the different subject areas whether they
are capable to take the course they wanted or not.
These facts and issues prompted the researchers to look into the
determinants of LET performance of the 2008 Teacher Education
graduates.
FRAMEWORK
Recent survey reveals that there is a decline in English proficiency

among Filipino graduates. Based on data presented in 2003, only 19
percent of the country’s 53,000 public school teachers in English passed
the Self-Assessment Test for English (SATE) conducted by DepEd.
In 2004, only 5 percent of high school graduates could speak well in
English well enough to proceed college (Gamba, 2008). Furthermore,
successful candidates receive certification to teach schools where
English is the language of instruction, and where the primary
obligation of the elementary and secondary school teacher is to meet
the needs of the learner. To do this effectively, the teacher must be
able to communicate effectively in English, the students’ language of
instruction. Likewise Dunar (2002) mentioned that the poor 20 percent
rate was blamed on the poor level of English proficiency on the part of
the students who took the BAR examination.
In this context, gender, degree course, Grade Point Average
(GPA), English Proficiency, and Admission Test Scores (ATS) are the
factors that are presumed to be related with the LET performance of
the respondents.
92

The study used descriptive – correlational and comparative survey
with documentary analysis. This method assessed the determinants
of LET performance such as gender, degree course, specialization,
Grade Point Average (GPA), and English proficiency and admission
test score. Frequency counts and mean were used in drawing the level
of performance of the graduates in LET and admission test scores.
Correlation survey was used to determine the relationship between
LET performance and the demographic profile: gender, degree course,
Grade Point Average (GPA), English Proficiency, and Admission
Test Scores (ATS). Comparative analysis was used to determine the
difference in the LET Performance of the respondents when grouped
according to: gender, degree course, Grade Point Average (GPA), and
English proficiency.
Profile of Respondents
Morethan one half, 69 (51.8%) of the respondents were BEEd

graduates; 37 (27.8%) BSEd; 3 (2.3%) BSIE; 9 (6.8%) BSAEd and 2
(1.5%) BSAExt; 10 (7.5%) BSMath and 3 (2.3%) BSHT graduates. The
data revealed that most of the respondents were BEEd graduates who
took the LET than graduates of other courses. The majority of the
respondents were MAPEH majors (27.82%); 10 (7.52%) Mathematics;
12 (9.02%) Agriculture/fishery Arts; 3 each (2.26%) Home Economics
and Industrial Arts; and only one (0.75%) TLE major.
93
Respondents’ Level of English Proficiency
The respondents’ level of English proficiency is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Respondents’ level of English proficiency
English Proficiency Frequency Percentage
70.00- above 6 4.51

60.00-69.99 25 18.80
50.00-59.99 54 40.60
40.00-49.99 36 27.07
Below 40.00 12 9.02
Total 133 100.00
Range: 23.00 - 73.75
Mean Percentage: 52.32
Table 1 shows that the English proficiency of the respondents

which ranged from 23.00 to 73.75, while the mean percentage was
52.32 which indicated that on the average, the English proficiency level
of the respondents was higher than the 50% of the whole examinee for
the English proficiency exam.
Performance in the Admission Test by Degree/Course

For BEEd, the highest percentage of 51% is on average with a
score range within 42-51; BSEd, the highest percentage of 46% got below
average whose score range is 30-41. BSIE had a uniform percentage of
33% for below average with score range of 30-41, average with score
range of 42-51; very superior with score range of 72-81. BSAED got
90% of below average with a score range of 30-41, BSAExt achieved
100% average with a score range of 30-41, BSMath, had 50% average
with a score range of 42-51, 50% above average with a score range of
52-61 and BSHT had 100% below average with a score range from 30-
41. Generally, most of the respondents got an average score ranging
from 42-51.
94
Mathematics has a frequency of 10 and a mean of 79.6; Home

Economics has a frequency of 3 and a mean of 79.0; MAPEH has a
frequency of 37 and a mean of 78.3; Industrial Education has a frequency
of 3 and a mean of 76.6; and TLE has a frequency of 1 and a mean of
75.4. All the respondents passed in their own fields of specialization
except for Agriculture/Fishery Arts that has a frequency of 12 and a
mean of 69.00 which means failed.
Performance in the LET General Education

Component by Degree/ Course
In the LET performance of the examinees of the different courses,

in the General Education, 60 (87%) of the examinees from the BEEd
passed the General Education part of the LET while 9 (12%) failed.
For BSEd, 16 (43%) passed and 21 (57%) failed. BSIE had 1 (33%) who
passed the General Education and 2 (67%) who failed; BSAEd got 4
(44%) who passed and 5 (56%) who failed. For BSAExt, 1 (50%) passed
the General Education. and 1 (50%) failed. From the BSMath, 10 (100%)
of the examinees passed the General Education while in BSHT, 1 (33%)
passed and 2 (67%) failed. In general, 93 (70%) of the examinees passed
the General Education. while 40 (30%) failed. This means that there
were more examinees who passed General Education than those who
failed.
The Respondents’ Performance in the LET

Professional Education Component by Degree Course
Fifty eight or (84%) of the examinees from the BEEd passed the
Professional Education while 11 or (16%) failed. for BSEd, 21 or (57%)
passed while 16 or (43%) failed. From the BSIE, 1 or (33%) passed and 2
or (67%) failed while 4 or (44%) passed from the BSAEd and 5 or (55%)
failed. From the BSAExt, 1 or (50%) passed and 1 or (50%) failed. From
the BSMath, 9 or (90%) passed and 1 or (10%) failed while 3 or (100%)
from the BSHT passed. In general, 97 or (73%) of the examinees passed
the Professional Education part of the LET while 36 or (27%) failed.
This means that there were more Professional Education passers than
those who failed.
95
Performance in the LET Specialization

Component by Degree Course
The performance of the graduates in the different courses and their

specialization. Thirty four or (92%) of the examinees from the BSEd
passed the specialization and 3 or (8%) failed while 2 or (67%) passed
from the BSIE and 1 or (33%) failed. From the BSAEd, 8 or (89%)
passed and 1 or (11%) failed while 1 or (50%) passed from the BSAExt
and 1 or (50%) failed. Nine or (90%) from the BSMath passed and 1 or
(10%) failed; 3 or (100%) passed from BSHT. In general, 57 (89%) of
the examinees passed the specialization part of the LET while 7 (11%)
failed.
The Over-all LET Performance of the

Respondents by Degree Course
The level of performance of the graduates in the different courses

in all the LET components. Fifty-eight (84%) from the BEED passed
and 11 (16%) failed. From the BSED, 24 (65%) passed and 13 (35%)
failed. From the BSIE, 1(33%) passed and 2 (66%) failed. From the
BSAED, 4 (44%) passed and 5 (56%) failed. From the BSAExt, 1 (50%)
passed and (50%) failed. From the BSMath, 9 (90%) passed and 1 (10%)
failed. From the BSHT, 2 (67%) passed and 1 (33%) failed. In general,
99 (74%) of the examinees passed and 34 (26%) failed. This means that
there are more passers than those who failed.
Difference on LET Performance
Table 2. Difference on LET performance by gender
Gender N Mean SD T/F value Sig
Male 25 75.77 3.28 -0.29 0.77

Female 108 76.03 6.37
Table 2 shows the performance of the respondents in the LET when

grouped according to gender was not significantly different from each
96
other. Females’ LET performance was statistically the same with the
male counterpart. This conclusion was based on the T- value of -0.29
together with the significant value of 0.77.
Degree/ Course
Table 3. Difference on LET performance by degree course
Course N Mean SD T/F value SIG
Elementary 69 77.00 5.69

2.06 0.04
Secondary 64 74.90 5.79
BSED 37 74.79 5.55 2.04 0.12
BS MATH 10 78.64 3.67
BSAExt/BSHT/BSIE 8 72.70 9.26

BSAEd 9 73.00 5.00
As shown in Table 3, the T-value of 2.06 and the significance value

of 0.04 suggest that there is a significant difference on means on the
LET performance of the graduates of Elementary Education (77.00) and
the Secondary Education combined (74.90). The Elementary Education
performed better in the licensure examination than the Secondary
Education combined.
Among the BSEd courses, only the BS Math graduates obtained
a passing rate of 78.64. However, the F-value of 2.04 and significance
value of 0.12 indicate that the mean scores of the four groups were
statistically equal.
97
GPA
Table 4. Difference on LET performance of the respondents

when grouped by Grade Point Average (Scheffe)
Scheffe Mean difference Sig
1.25 - 1.50 vs 2.50 - 2.75 15.43* 0.01

1.50 - 1.75 vs 2.00 - 2.25 6.08* 0.01
1.50 - 1.75 vs 2.50 - 2.75 13.30* 0.00
1.75 - 2.00 vs 2.00 - 2.25 4.30* 0.01

1.75 - 2.00 vs 2.50 - 2.75 11.52* 0.00
*Significant
Table 4 points out that by using the Scheffe post hoc test, it was
identified that graduates with GPA of 1.25 to 1.50 performed better in
the LET than those graduates with GPA of 2.50 to 2.75. Graduates with
GPA of 1.50 to 1.75 performed better in the LET than those with GPA
which ranged from 2.0-2.25 and 2.50-2.75. Likewise, those graduates
with GPA of 1.75 to 2.00 performed better in the LET than those with
GPA of 2.00-2.25 and 2.50 to 2.75.
English Proficiency
Table 5. Difference on LET performance according to English

proficiency using the Scheffe Post Hoc Test
Mean
Scheffe Sig.
Difference
below 40.00 vs. 70.00- above 8.967 0.031
40.00-49.99 vs. 60.00-69.99 5.580 0.005
40.00-49.99 vs. 70.00- above 8.642 0.014
40.00-49.99 vs. 50.00-59.99 3.663 0.049
98
Table 5 points out that by using the Scheffe post hoc test, it was
identified that graduates with English proficiency of 70 percentile
rank and above performed better in the LET than those graduates
with English proficiency percentile ranks of 40.00-49.99 and less than
40. Likewise, graduates with English proficiency percentile scores of
50.00- 59.99 and 60.00-69.99 performed better than those students with
English proficiency percentile ranks of 40.00-49.99.
Relationship between the LET Performance

and the Profile Variables
Gender
Gender was not a good determinant of the LET performance as

established on the r-value of 0.031 together with the 0.721.
Table 6. Relationship of the LET performance to gender, degree

course, GPA, and Admission Test Score
LET
Correlation Matrix
r Sig
Gender 0.031 0.721
Degree Course 0.290 0.210
GPA -0.560* 0.000
English Proficiency 0.413 0.001
Admission Test Score 0.380 0.210
*Significant (0.05)
Degree Course
The computed r value of 0.29 described a low positive correlation

which reveals a significant relationship between LET scores and
degree course since it exceeds the critical value of 0.21 at 0.05 level
of significance. Findings indicate the rejection of the null hypothesis.
Thus, degree course of respondents is significantly related with their
performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
99
GPA
The higher the grade point average of the graduate, the higher was
the expected performance in the LET. This conclusion was based on
the r-values of -0.560 together with the significant value of <0.001. This
supports the claim of (Stotsky, 2003) that grade Point Average is one
main factor associated with the LET performance of students.
English Proficiency
It can be inferred that the LET Performance and the English

Proficiency of the respondents were significantly related to each other.
This conclusion was based on the significance value of <0.001 and the
strength of the relationship between each other is found to be 0.413.
This further implies that, the higher the English proficiency, the higher
is the LET performance.
Admission Test Score
The computed correlation r is 0.38 that describes a low positive

correlation. The table further reveals that the computed Pearson r is
greater than the critical value of 0.21 at 0.05 level of significance, thus
the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between
LET and Admission Test Score is rejected. This means that there is a
significant correlation between LET and Admission Test Scores (ATS).
This further implies that as the respondent’s score in the Admission
Test increases there is a tendency that the Licensure Examination
for Teachers (LET) score would be high. On the other hand, as the
Admission Test Score (ATS) gets low, the LET score would likely be
low.
100
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are

drawn:
There were more female respondents. Most of the respondents are

BEEd graduates who took the LET than graduates of other courses.
Majority of the respondents from the secondary level belonged to
MAPEH major. Most of the examinees’ Grade Point Average ranged
from 2.00– 2.25.
On the average, the English proficiency level of the respondents is
higher than the 50% of the whole examinees for the English proficiency
exam. Most of the respondents got an average score which ranged
from 42-51 in the Admission test.
All the respondents passed in their own fields of specialization
except for Agriculture/Fishery Arts. Most of the respondents passed
the General Education (Gen. Ed) component, Professional Education
(Prof. Ed) component and the Specialization component of the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
Degree of course is associated with LET performance; the higher
the GPA, the higher the expected LET performance; the higher is the
English proficiency, the higher is the LET performance; and as the
respondent’s Admission Test Score increases, there is a tendency that
the LET score would be high.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations

are given:
1. A review session for incoming freshmen may be offered by the
university before taking the admission test by the University Testing
Center.
2. A curriculum review in general education should be done to
assess the scope of English subjects.
3. Admission and retention requirements should be strictly
implemented.
4. Further study is recommended to relate High School GPA
101
with the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET); a study on the

effectiveness of the English plus program; and a study on the factors
that causes low performance of the Secondary Level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The researchers would like to express their gratitude to the

following:
Dr. Revelita G. Cuntapay, Dean, College of Teacher Education, for
challenging the researchers to come up with a research output;
Dr Elbert A. Sana and Prof. Josefina S. Sana, Professors of NVSU,
for editing the manuscript;
Prof. Julius S. Valderama, faculty member of the College of Arts
and Sciences, for assisting the researchers in the interpretation of the
data; and
LITERATURE CITED
Duque, N. C.
1999 “The Quality of Education” The Modern Teacher.
Stotsky, P.
2007 Teacher Licensure Tests: Their Relationship to Mathematics
Teachers’ Academic Competence and Student Achievement in
Mathematics. Education Working Paper Archive (http://www.
uark.edu/ua/der/People/stotsky.html (accessed January 2010).
WEB SOURCES
http://www.tru.ca/policy/allpolicy.html (accessed January 2010).
http://NVSU.ph/news (accessed January 2010).
http://www.pinoytest.com/teacherlicensureexam (accessed January

2010).
102
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Diversity and Status of Butterflies in

Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok,
Camiguin Island, Philippines
JOLIESA MAE SALMOY TOLEDO
joliesajool@yahoo.com
I.B.A College of Mindanao, Valencia City
ALMA B. MOHAGAN
almohagan@gmail.com
Biology Department, Central Mindanao University
Date Submitted: March 15, 2011

Abstract - Diversity assessment of butterflies was conducted to

provide information on species composition, diversity trends cross
vegetation type’s status, and distribution of butterflies in Mt. Timpoong
and Mt. Hibok-hibok, Camiguin Island. This study was carried out
using catching net to collect butterfly species in the two mountains of
Camiguin namely Mt. Hibok-hibok and Mt. Timpoong from December
2009 to May 2010. The study revealed 81 species of butterflies in both
mountains. 73 species were collected in Mt. Timpoong and 41 species
in Mt. Hibok-hibok. Species richness of butterflies showed that there is
a decreasing trend across vegetation types in both mountains. Highest
diversity level was observed in the agro-ecosystem of Mt. Timpoong
(H’= 1.70) and Mt. Hibok-hibok (H’=1.48) respectively. Status
assessment showed 18 or 22 % endemic species out of which, 14 are
present in Mt. Timpoong and only 8 are present in Mt. Hibok-hibok.
Keywords - butterflies, Mt. Hibok-hibok, Mt. Timpoong
103
INTRODUCTION
Butterflies are very important to the environment. They are excellent

group for communication information in science and conservation
issues (Koplins and Opler, 1997). They are pollinators of crops, wild
plants and an excellent indicator of the ecological condition of the
most terrestrial habitats (Barua, 2009). Philippines have the highest
concentration of butterflies and the biodiversity is outstanding when
compared globally (Aguilar, 2007). The country’s endemic species by
group such as butterflies is always richer than the much larger mega-
diverse countries. Treadaway (1995) listed 1,030 of butterflies in the
Philippines. However, there is inconsistency in the number of endemic
species of butterflies in the Philippines. The inconsistencies on the
number of butterfly species diversity in the Philippines reported by
the different authors accentuates the need to survey the species of
butterflies.
Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok are the protected areas under
NIPAS. These are also Key Biodiversity Areas in the Philippines. Birds
and mammals have been studied in the area (Balete et al., 2006; Heaney,
2006) but no studies were done on butterflies. Intense commercial
logging has already denuded many slopes in forested areas which
results in severe erosion. If this problem continues, species of butterflies
may be lost in the area.
This study was conceptualized provide information of species

composition, diversity and status of butterflies in Mt. Timpoong and
Mt. Hibok-hibok, Camiguin Islandas basis for conservation.
Entry Protocol
Prior to the issuance of Gratuitous permit (GP); a Prior Inform
Consent (PIC) was secured from Camiguin DENR during PAMB
meeting. The PIC was released last July 2010 after the board resolution.
GP application was done by sending a proposal of the study and a
104
request letter to the DENR and PAWD in December 2009. The Wildlife
GP application was approved last July in which it has a permit no.
2010-01.
Place and Duration of the Study
The study was done in Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok,

Camiguin Island from the month of December 2009 to May 2010.
Establishment of Sampling Stations

and Sampling Techniques
Two transect belts were established within Mt. Timpoong and

Mt. Hibok-hibok. Three vegetation types were identified per transect
belt. Mt. Timpoong includes agroecosystem, dipterocarp forest and
montane forest. Mt. Hibok-hibok includes agroecosystem, montane
forest and mossy forest. In each station, two 20x20 m. plots/ quadrats
were established. Transect walks were done between 8:00 and 11:00 in
the morning and between 2:00 and 5:00 in the afternoon under sunny
weather conditions each for a duration of three hours. Opportunistic
sampling was used to sample butterflies outside the quadrats and
transects.
Sampling Schedule and Collection Techniques
Collection of butterflies which fed on flower nectar and other

sugars was done from 6:00 am to 12:00 noon. The butterflies, which
fed in vertebrate feces and dead animals, were done 1:00 p.m to 5:00
p.m using catching net. The catching net was made of silk cloth with
a measurement of 25 cm x 60 cm. and traps with fruit as bait to attract
butterflies into the bait. The baits were fermented banana or pineapple
for the frugivorous butterflies. The bait traps were installed 1.0 m
above the ground. Two traps were situated in every study stations.
Colored clothes like red, yellow were also recommended colors to
attract butterflies (Mohagan and Treadaway, 2010).
105
Diversity and Distribution Assessment of Butterflies
Density, abundance, species richness, species distribution and

Shannon- Weiner diversity index were determined using BIOPRO
software ver. 2.0. (McAleece, 1993). The reported distribution of
butterflies was based on Treadaway (1995) and Mohagan (2007). Local
distribution was based on the butterflies observed and collected in
the study station. Spatial distribution of butterflies was described as
randomly distributed or aggregate assemblages (McAleece, 1993).
Preservation and Specimen Storage
Butterflies collected were slightly killed with acetone in the killing

jar. These were placed in a wax envelope to prevent wing damage.
Specimens were placed in the box with moth balls. Specimens were
mounted on a grooved board with a long insect pin inserted through
the thorax. The specimens were labeled with the location and date of
capture and name of collector. The specimens were deposited at the
Zoology Section of the Central Mindanao University Museum.
Classification, Identification and Examination of Wing and

Antenna Morphology
Classification and initial identification of butterflies were done

using journals and photographs of identified specimens and a checklist
of Treadaway (1995). Confirmation of species was done by Dr. Alma B.
Mohagan and Mr. Dave P. Mohagan.

Conservation and Ecological Assessment
Specimens collected were also assessed using Treadaways’

checklist (1995) and IUCN (2009). Conservation status was assessed
using Treadaway’s list. Ecological status of butterflies was based on
the rarity or commonness of the species. Local populations were
considered to evaluate the local status of butterflies. It was based
on the number of individuals per study site in which it follows the
legend in which 1-3 occurrence (very rare); 4-10 occurrence (rare); 11-
106
20 occurrence (common) and 21- above occurrence (very common)

(adapted from Mohagan, 2007).
Species Composition of Butterflies
There were eighty one species of butterflies identified in Camiguin

Island. Of these, forty one species were in Mt. Hibok-hibok and seventy
three species in Mt. Timpoong. Mt. Hibok-hibok butterflies were
represented by two genera and four species of Hesperids; three genera
and four species of Lycaenids; twelve genera and fifteen species of
Nymphalids; five genera and eight species of Papilionids; five genera
and ten species of Pierids. In Mt. Timpoong, there are eight genera
and twelve species of Hesperids; sixteen genera and seventeen species
of Lycaenids; twelve genera and twenty one species of Nymphalids;
seven genera and ten species of Papilionids; and five genera and
thirteen species of Pierids.
The agroecosystem in Mt. Hibok-hibok has plenty of fruiting
trees. Its montane forest has few flowering plants and trees, the most
common tree species is Mahogany. Its mossy forest is very abundant
in moss species and only epiphytic trees are flowering. On the other
hand, Mt. Timpoong dipterocarp forest has plenty of Medenilla sps
and fruit trees that may serve as food plant of some butterfly species.
Its montane forest also has plenty of fruit trees and a quality type
forest. According to Weilbull and Ostman (2003) landscape features
largely affect species composition especially for the most mobile group
of butterflies. The percentage of land temporarily with perennial grass
and clover is the most important landscape feature for butterfly and
plant species composition. This is proven in the result of this study
in which agroecosystem in both mountains the highest species
composition has. In addition, according to Bergman et.al. (2004)
species which have high occupancy probabilities in landscape with low
amount of surrounding deciduous forests/ semi-natural grasslands are
significantly more mobile than the others. There is also a significant
relationship between butterfly species richness and habitat quality
in the form of vegetation height and abundance of flowers (Ockinger
107
and Smith, 2000). Typically, short and temporarily variable growing

seasons at high elevation result to a dramatic population fluctuation
(Boggs and Murphy, 1997).
Species Richness and Diversity of Butterflies
Figure 1. K plot of abundance on the butterfly species in Mt.

Hibok-hibok and Mt. Timpoong, Camiguin Island

Adequacy of sampling was reached for all stations except for
the mossy forest of Mt. Hibok-hibok where additional sampling
is needed (Fig. 1). Additional species of butterflymaybe listed if
sampling will be extended. A total of 50 species of utterflies observed
in the agroecosystem of Mt. Timpoong. Species abundance showed
highest in agroecosystem in Mt. Timpoong (495). This may be due
to the decreasing temperature at the higher elevation. This is true to
Mohagan (2007) study that found species richness is decreasing in the
mossy forest. This is due to the change of species composition of trees
from the lower elevation to the higher elevation as well as temperature
and humidity (Gomez, 2007). This result suggests that regional
distributions of butterflies are likely to be limited by climatic tolerances
of species, while local abundance may be influenced by local resource
level. In addition, Kocher and Williams (2008) different factors that
control the abundance and species richness of butterflies. Along
with geographical location, habitat disturbance and topographical
variability affect species richness.
108
Figure 2. Shannon Diversity index results in the species of

butterflies in Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok, Camiguin Island
Shannon Weiner index result shows that species diversity is fair

for all stations except the mossy forest of Mt. Hibok-hibok (H’=0.91)
(Fig. 2). Higher diversity level was observed in agroecosystem of Mt.
Timpoong (H’=1.70), and agroecosystem of Mt. Hibok-hibok (H’=
1.48 (Table 2). Vegetation types might be the most important factor
that affects the diversity of the species. This result is consistent to
Mohagan (2007). Haribon (2000), reported that species diversity,
endemism and distribution of species is influenced by the two factors:
the temporal (date and time) and spatial (faunal region, ecosystem and
habitat). Ghazoul (2004) demonstrated the abundance and diversity
of the butterfly community decreases with the increase in logging
disturbance. During the conduct of the study trunks of trees traversed
across the transects. It seemed that trees were artificially logged.
Endemicity and Local Status of Butterflies
Out of eighty one (81) species of butterflies only eighteen or 22%

are endemic. This indicates that endemicity is low for both mountains.
There are thirteen Philippine endemic and one Mindanao endemic in
Mt. Timpoong while Mt. Hibok-hibok has seven Philippine endemic
and one Mindanao endemic species. These analyses suggest a more
endemic butterfly species at the undisturbed site. According to Ghazoul
(2004) butterflies abound most frequently in the undisturbed site. Posa
109
and Sodhi (2005) reported endemicity and larval host plant specificity
are significant for butterflies. Butterflies were negatively affected by
anthropogenic disturbance but may respond to different components
in the habitat (i.e., structure and resources).
For the local status of butterflies there are many locally very
rare species in Mt. Hibok-hibok and many common species in Mt.
Timpoong. This indicates that the number of individuals in every
butterfly species is higher in Mt. Timpoong than of the same species
in Mt. Hibok-hibok. This may be due to weather conditions, flowering
seasons of food plants and availability of food plants, geographic
locations and disturbance of the site which happened in Mt. Hibok-
hibok like volcanic eruption. It also indicates that only few individuals
were observed in Mt. Hibok-hibok.
CONCLUSIONS
Mt. Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok are the home of eighty one
species of butterflies and eighteen endemic species. Of these, forty
one species are in Mt. Hibok-hibok and seventy three species in Mt.
Timpoong. Butterfly abundance is high in the agroecosystem and
montane forest in Mt. Timpoong. Diversity level using Shannon-
Weiner index showed fair except for the mossy forest of Mt. Hibok-
hibok (H’=0.91). Diversity of endemic butterfly is low (22%) for Mt.
Timpoong and Mt. Hibok-hibok.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The study recommends further sampling of butterflies for the

two mountains in order to enhance turn over of more species which
were not yet listed in this study. . Explore new and other collection
techniques for the fast and high flyers to enhance species diversity
and richness of butterflies. Protection and conservation to the endemic
and threatened species of butterflies should also be done. Factors that
may affect the distribution of species should also be studied and other
vegetation types of the mountains should also be considered.
110
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to extend their most sincere gratitude and
thanks to all the people who enabled them to complete the paper. To
their family for all the love and support. To Dr. Victor Amoroso and
late Dr. Cecilia Amoroso for their valuable suggestions and corrections
for the better outcome of the paper. To the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) for the financial support. DENR Cagayan de Oro
and DENR Camiguin for the permit and allowing the authors to
conduct the study in Mt. Hibokhibok-Mt.Timpoong complex. To
the faculty and staff of the Graduate School and the Department
of Biology for the training and support. To all the porters and guides
for helping them in the entire sampling. Above all, to the Heavenly
father for the knowledge, wisdom and strength. To all butterfly and
environment lovers, the authors dedicate this piece of work.
LITERATURE CITED
Balete, D., B. Tabaranza and L. Heaney

2006 An Annonated Checklist of the Birds of Camiguin Island,
Philippines. Fieldiana Zoology. (106): 58-72
Danielsen, F and C. Treadaway

2003 Priority Conservation Areas for Butterflies
(Lepidoptera:Rhopalocera) in the Philippine Islands. The
Zoological Society of London. United Kingdom
Koplins, R. and Opler, P.

1997 Butterfly Diversity and a Preliminary Comparison with Bird
and Mammals Diversity. Biodiversity. (2): 69-75
Mohagan, A.B. and C.G. Treadaway

2010 Diversity and Status of Butterflies across Vegetation Types of
Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines. Asian Journal of
Biodiversity. 1:1. pp 1-24.
111
Ockinger, E. and H. Smith

2000 Landscape Composition and Habitat Area Affects Butterfly
Species Richness in Semi-natural Grasslands. Ecology Letters.
3(5): 449–456.
Treadaway, CG.
1995 Checklist of Butterfly in the Philippine Islands
(Lepidoptera:Rhopalocera). Nachrichten des Entomologishen
Vereins Apollo, Suppl. (14):7-118, Frankfurt am Main. Journal
Frankfort Germany
Table 1. List and count of butterfly species sampled in Mt. Hibok-

hibok and Mt. Timpoong, Camiguin Island.
MT. TIMPOONG
MT. HIBOK-
FAMILY/SPECIES
HIBOK
agroecosystem
agroecosystem
dipterocarp
Montane
montane
mossy
I-HESPERIIDAE
2
1.Aeromachus musca mabile
2.Ancestroides negrita 2
3.Caltoris cormasa 2
4.Caltoris philippina philippina 1
5.Hasora mixta mixta 1
6. Notocryta paralysos volux 1
7. Oriens californica 1
8. Pothanthus omaha bione 1
9. Potanthus mingo mingo 3 10 10
112
10. Tagiades gana elegans 1

11.Tagiades trebellus manticus 1
12. Tagiades japetus titus 1
II-LYCAENIDAE
13.Acytolepsis puspa bazilana 2

14.Allotinus fallax aphaeus 1
15.Amblopodia narada plateni 2
16.Caleta roxus angustior 2

17.Caleta panorus exiguus 2
18.Catochrysops strabo
21 21
luzonensis
19.Catochrysops cnejus cnejus 2
20.Deodonix epijarbas epijarbas 2
21.Euchrysop cnejus cnejus 23 14
22.Hypolycaena sipylus
3
tharrytas
23.Jamides bochus pulchrion 19 17
24.Jamides celeno lydanuis 3 10 26 18 5
25.Lampides boeticus 6 11 17 16 4
26. Nacaduba berenice 11 8 3
27.Rapala caerulescens 1
28. Rapala danoma 2
29.Rapala scintilla nemana 1
30.Rapala varuna nada 3 1 5
III-NYMPHALIDAE
31.Amathusia phidippus 2
32. Anosia melanippus edmondii 9 6
33. Cyrestes maenalis rizali 4
113
34. Euploea mulciber mindaensis 1 1 2 1
35. Hypolimnas anomala

1 2 12 2
anomala
36. Hypolimnas bolina

1 1 19
philippensis
37. Ideopsis juventa manillana 23 1

38. Junonia almana almana 4
39. Junonia atlithes atlithes 6
40. Junonia hedonia ida 23 25 25
41. Junonia orithya leucasia 19
42. Lassipa ebussa laettia 3
43. Melanitis boisduvalia. 2
44. Melanitis leda leda 5 3 13 14 8
45. Mycalesis frederici frederici 2 9 8 5
46. Mycalesis handana

7 1 14 21 19
micromede
7. Mycalesis mineus philippina 10 12 15 9
48. Neptis pampanga boholica 1 9
49. Parthenos sylvia 1
50. Symbrennia litea semperie 1
51. Taratia cosama cosama 1
52. Ypthima sempera chaboras 9 15 22 11
53. Ypthima sensilis 2 11 16 8
54. Ypthima stellera stellera 3 6 6 5 2
55.Vagrans sinha sinha 1
IV-PAPILIONIDAE
56.Achillides palinurus daedalus 2
57.Atrophaneura semperi
1
apthonia
58.Atrophaneura semperi
1
semperi
114
59.Graphium agamemnon
2 5 4 2
agamemnon
60.Graphium sarpedon sarpedon 1 6 2
61.Menelaides deiphobus
1 2 11 4
rumanzovia
62.Menelaides helenus hystaspes 1 8 5 2
63.Menelaides polytes ledebouria 1 11 5 2
64.Pachliopta aristochiae
2 1 1
philippus
65.Pacliopta kotzebuena
15 2
philippus
66.Papilio demolinus libanus 2 4
67.Triodes rhadamanthus 1 7 2
V-PIERIDAE
68.Appias nero zamboanga 2

69.Catopsilia scylla asema 10 2
70.Catopsilia pomona pomona 1 5
71.Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe 8 6
72.Cepora aspasia orantia 1
73.Eurema alitha alitha 3 1 12 26 20 4
4 11 22 21 2
74.Eurema blanda vallivolans
75.Eurema brigitta roberto 2 1 9 16 11 4
76.Eurema hecabe tamiathis 7 14 17 11
77.Eurema sarilata sarilata 5
78.Eurema simulatrix
11 8
mycalleneus
79.Eurema simulatrix
11 5
simulatrix
80.Leptosia nina terantia 5 12

81.Pareronia boebera trinobantes 1 6
115
Table 2. Descriptive statistics on the species richness of butterfly in

Mt. Hibok-hibok and Mt. Timpoong, Camiguin Island.
Vari-
MI SD SE TI TS
ance Shan- MCI
Sample
non
H’
Montane (H) 1.38 10.6 3.26 0.37 109 29 1.46 2.34
Mossy (H) 0.23 1 14 0.11 18 8 0.90 0.22
Agroecosystem
3.35 34.6 5.9 0.66 265 30 1.48 7.63
(H)
Agroecosystem
6.27 64 8 0.9 495 50 1.70 14.11
(T)
Dipterocarp (T) 2.98 35.1 5.92 0.67 235 22 1.34 7.74
Montane (T) 0.82 1.67 1.29 0.15 65 29 1.46 0.37
Table 3. Descriptive statistics on the status of butterfly in

Mt. Hibok-hibok and Mt. Timpoong, Camiguin Island.
Vari-
Sample MI SD SE TI TS Shannon MCI
ance
H’
Montane (H) 1.11 4.93 2.22 0.52 20 7 0.85 2.28
Mossy (H) 0.56 3.56 1.89 0.45 10 3 0.48 1.64
Agroecosystem (H) 2.56 25.44 5.04 1.19 46 4 11.75

0.60
Agroecosystem (T) 6.17 79.56 8.92 2.10 111 0 36.75

1.0
Dipterocarp (T) 3.61 50.13 7.08 1.67 65 5 23.16

0.70
Montane (T) 1.39 2.61 1.61 0.38 25 0 1.0 1.20
116
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Gleaning, Drying and Marketing

Practices of Sea Cucumber
in Davao Del Sur, PHILIPPINES
MILAGROS C. SUBALDO
msubaldo@yahoo.com
Southern Philippines Agri-Business and Marine
And Aquatic School of Technology (SPAMAST)
College of Agricultural Sciences
Matti, Digos City, Davao del Sur

Abstract - Gleaning, drying and marketing

practices of sea cucumber in Davao del Sur was
conducted to document the local practices, common
species gathered and to identify problems along
with the adopted practices. Results disclosed that
gleaning was done by skin diving with the use of air
compressor or hand picking in intertidal reef flats
during low tide. Species usually gathered includes
Stichopus horrens, Holuthuria scabra, Stichopus
hermani, Thelonota anax, Holothuria fuscolgiva,
Holothuria fuscopunctata, Bohadschia marmorata and
Holothuria whitmaei. Drying process for beche-de-mer
production includes washing, evisceration, washing,
boiling, soaking in brine solution, smoke drying and
sun drying. However, soaking in brine solution was
practiced only by processors in the 1st District of the
province purposely to extend its shelf-life. Selling
was done in “all-in” basis, cash upon delivery and
117
buyers were the one dictating the market price. Flows

of dried sea cucumber from processors were through
wholesalers coming from Digos City and Davao City
and shipped to Manila and Korean markets. Problems
identified along with the adopted practices were non-
selection as to size utilized for consumption or for sale.
Also, problems on poor drying practices, packaging
materials used non-utilization of entrails and disposal
of waste.
Keywords - Sea Cucumber, Gleaning, Drying,

Marketing Practices
INTRODUCTION
Sea cucumber is scientifically named Holothuroidea. Mostly, sea

cucumber is utilized as a delicacy, an ideal tonic food; it is higher
in protein (at 55%) and lower in fat other than most other food.
According to traditional Chinese medicine, it nourishes the blood
and vital essence, treats kidney disorder and reproductive organs. It
has a salty quality and warning nurture. It can also treat weakness,
impotence, debility of the aged, constipation due to intestinal dryness
and frequent urination. There is also an emerging market for the use
of sea cucumbers in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
Philippines is a home of to 100 species of sea cucumber, of which,
31 are commercially important. Also, a second exported of beche-de-
mer next to Indonesia as far as HongKong market is concerned (http.//
www.allbusiness.com). Currently, a technology on sea cucumber
powder had been developed and applied for patent. Moreover, research
had been conducted to developed its product line specifically the
holothuria or sea cucumber powder sauce and the fermentation of the
entrails such that it will not turn into waste.
Currently, because of the increasing demand, dried sea cucumber
produced in the Philippines was wet, ill-shaped or half-cooked.
Subsequent to processing were rejected or considered to be class “B”
thus, earning local fisheries only 40% of the maximum price offered
by marine product agents for a well processed product.
118
Practices of Sea Cucumber in Davao Del Sur, Philippines
The above situation leads to evaluation of local practices on

gleaning, drying and marketing of sea cucumber as an input in
crafting interventions to improve the productivity of local processors
and at the same a need to find ways in order to protect the depletion of
this natural resource and for the protection of Davao Gulf as Marine
Protected Areas (MPA) in the region.
OBJECTIVES
The focus of this study was on the gleaning and drying practices
of sea cucumber in Davao del Sur. Specifically, the objectives of this
study were the following: (1) to determine the demographic profile of
gleaners and processors of sea cucumber; (2) to document the gleaning,
drying and marketing practices on sea cucumber in Davao del Sur; (3)
to identify common species of sea cucumber harvested and utilized
for drying; (4) to trace the geographic flow of dried sea cucumber
produced from the province of Davao del Sur; and (5) to find out
problems related to gleaning and drying practices of sea cucumber.
The study was conducted between November 2010 to January

2011 in the province of Davao del Sur particularly in Bato, Sta. Cruz,
Brgy. Aplaya, Digos City, Piapi, Padada, Baybay, Malalag, Tanglad,
Dalamo-an and Mamacao in Sta. Maria and Brgy. Lagawlawan and
Tubalan in Malita. A total of 47 respondents were interviewed. Out
of this number, 77% or 36 individuals were gleaners and 23% or
11individuals were processors. Questionnaires were prepared and
utilized during data gathering. For easy identification, pictures of
sea cucumber pictures were shown to gleaners and local processors
of dried sea cucumber. Data gathered were analyzed using relative
frequency distribution. Below is the geographic location of areas
included in this study.
119
Figure1. Sites visited in Davao del Sur for data collection
Socio-Demographic Profile
Majority of the gleaners were at the age range of 31-40 years old
(39%) while processors were mostly at the age range of 51 years old
and above (36%). Mostly involved in gleaning and processing activities
were males and married with having 3 dependents for gleaners (24%)
while processors disclosed to have 5 and above number of dependent
(36%).
Most of the gleaners and processors attained only elementary
level of education. Also, most of the gleaners (53%) and processors
(55%) were into gleaning and processing activity for less than ten
years and considered their respective activity as their major source of
livelihood. However, both gleaners and processors have other source
of livelihood which most of them worked as laborer in their respective
communities.
120
Gleaning Practices of Sea Cucumber
Table 1. Gleaning practices on sea cucumber in Davao del Sur.

Variable f %
Method of Gathering Fresh Sea Cucumber

Diving using air compressor
7 19
Manual/ Hand picking during low tide
29 81
Basis for conducting the activity
Weather Condition
Low Tide
21 72
18 62
Time observed for the conduct of the activity
Early Morning
5 14
31 86
Evening
Average number of persons involve per activity

25 86
12 34
2-3 **
4-6 **
*** using air compressor ** hand picking
Sea cucumber is mainly harvested in two ways: diving using air

compressor up to 20 meter deep or by hand picking in intertidal
reef flats during low tide. Species usually gathered includes Stichopus
horrens, Holuthuria scabra, Stichopus hermani, Thelonota anax, Holothuria
fuscolgiva Holothuria fuscopunctata, Bohadschia marmorata and Holothuria
whitmaei. Oftentimes, gatherers usually pick all that is available
regardless of its size and maximum of 25 kilos per harvest for those
using motorized bancas while 10 kilos for those gathered through
hand picking.
121
Drying Process of Sea Cucumber
Figure1 illustrates the drying practices of sea cucumber in Davao

del Sur (page 124). The process includes:
1. Washing - washing freshly gathered sea cucumber using either

sea water or from deep well. This was done to remove foreign materials
such as sand and other sea grasses that were included during the
gleaning process.
2. Slicing – after washing freshly gathered sea cucumber, slicing
was done to remove the entrails. Slicing was done using kitchen knife.
Removal of entrails by slicing perpendicular through the median
plane. Removed entrails were just thrown back to the sea or along the
shoreline.
3. Washing – after entrails were removed, washing on was done
using sea water from the deep well.
4. Boiling– this process was done purposely in order to cook lightly.
The process will last up to the maximum of 30 minutes. Another
indicator was until the color of sea cucumber turned into pale color.
Blanching was done using big vat or locally known as “kawa”.
5. Soaking with salt – soaking in brine solution overnight. This was
done to preserve dried sea cucumber for a longer period of time after
drying. However, not all processors adopted this process.
6. Smoke drying – this process was done in order to avoid flesh of
sea cucumber broken into pieces especially to Stichopus Horrens specie
and to make the sun drying process faster. Duration period during
this process depends on the volume of sea cucumber that was in dried.
However, for 5-10 kilos sea cucumber, smoke drying lasted for half
day. Smoke drying was done using improvised oven for drying.
7. Sun drying – sun drying was done to attain the desired dryness
of sea cucumber. Drying process usually last for 3-4 days or depending
on the sunlight. Sun drying was done using a bamboo table or other
flat forms where in smoked sea cucumber were placed for sun drying
8. Packing – packing was done after sun drying where in sea
cucumber met its desired dryness or moisture content. Packing was
done use plastic cellophane and placed in a recycled cartoons ready
for delivery to buyers.
122
Species Gathered and Utilized for Drying
Common species gathered and dried taken from the province

of Davao del Sur. Results showed that Stichopus horrens, Holuthuria
scabra, Stichopus hermani, Thelonota anax, Holothuria fuscolgiva,
Holothuria fuscopunctata, Bohadschia marmorata and Holothuria whitmaei
were among the common specie identified by respondents as the
common specie sold in dried form. These were also the specie
found to be abundant in Davao del Sur as identified in the study of
Yobueno et al., 2007.
Marketing Practices of Dried Sea Cucumber
Marketing practices of dried sea cucumber in the province is being

participated by market players particularly wholesalers from Digos
City and Davao City. Wholesalers were the one that sets the price for
the commodity. Grading was not observed thus, selling in “all in”
basis. The product was delivered to the buyers and paid in cash
upon delivery. Prices per kilo according ranged from P1,000.00 to
P4,000.00
123
Figure 1. Drying process of sea cucumber in Davao del Sur.
Geographic Flow of Dried Sea Cucumber
Geographic flow of dried sea cucumber processed in Davao del

Sur is divulged in Figure 2 (page 126). Dried sea cucumber was sold
to buyers from Davao City and Digos City in Davao del Sur. Buyers
identified from Davao City, were shipper to Manila which were further
sold to Chinese individuals and some were exporters to HongKong.
Meanwhile, one buyer from Davao City is a Korean national which
is an exporter of dried sea cucumber or beche-de-mer to Korea.
Problems Identified in Gleaning and Drying Practices Adopted
1. Non-selection as to size of sea cucumber gathered for

consumption or for sale.
2. Exploitation eventually leads to depletion of the marine
resource.
3. Poor drying practices that resulted to lower market price.
4. Poor packaging or storage materials used by local processors.
124
5. No proper disposal of waste such as sea cucumber entrails.

6. The practice of selling by “all-in” method and not by classification
reduced income generated from drying sea cucumber.
CONCLUSIONS
Gathering of sea cucumber in Davao del Sur is done by diving

with the use of air compressor and hand picking in intertidal reef flats
during low tide. Species gathered and dried were Stichopus horrens,
Holuthuria scabra, Stichopus hermani, Thelonota anax, Holothuria fuscolgiva
Holothuria fuscopunctata, Bohadschia marmorata and Holothuria whitmaei.
No selection was observed by gleaners and processors as to whether
sea cucumber reach the marketable size or not during harvesting.
Drying process of sea cucumber includes washing, evisceration,
washing, boiling, and soaking in brine solution, smoke drying and sun
drying. However, the process of soaking in brine solution is practiced
only by processors in the 1st district of the province purposely to extend
the shelf-life of beche-de-mer.
Marketing of dried sea cucumber was participated by wholesalers
as market player of the commodity. Prices were dictated by the buyers
and payment on cash basis upon delivery of the product. Dried sea
cucumber in the province were being forwarded to Davao City and
further shipped to Manila and Korea Markets.
Problems identified on gleaning and drying practices of sea
cucumber includes non-selection as to size of sea cucumber gathered
for consumption or for sale; poor drying practices that resulted to
lower market price; poor packaging or storage materials used by local
processors; no proper disposal of waste such as sea cucumber entrails;
the practice of selling by “all-in” method and not by classification
reduced income generated from drying sea cucumber.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Awareness through education among gleaners must be provided

to avoid overfishing causing depletion of sea cucumber from its
natural resource and for environment protection. Ways to add value
to sea cucumber must be improve by developing a drying technology
125
for sea cucumber to be introduced to communities to increase revenue

generation among coastal dwellers. Knowledge on sea ranching must
be introduced to communities for sustainability of beche-de-mer
production in the province of Davao del Sur.
LITERATURE CITED
Yobueno, S.
2007 Resource Assessment of Sea Cucumber ( Holothuria) in
Davao Gulf. SPAMAST Research Journal. Vol. 5, Number 1&2,
2008.
WEB SOURCES
http:/www.mb.cmph/issues/205/84/oped 200540413252,html
http://bayharvest.com./process/misc.pdf
http//www.ehow.com/facts
http;//www.itmonline.org/arts/seacucumber.htm
http.//www.allbusiness.com
http://bayharvest.com./process/misc.pdf
126
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
LCCB as a Professional Learning

Community (PLC)
in the Eyes of the Faculty
RANDDIE P. CUELO
La Consolacion College Bacolod

Abstract - This study aimed to assess, through

the perceptions of its faculty, the practices of La
Consolacion College Bacolod (LCCB) relating to
professional learning communities (PLC). Ninety-
two faculty responded to the 52-item standardized
instrument “Professional Learning Community
Assessment-Revised” developed by Dr. Diane Olivier
of the University of Louisiana measured perceptions
towards the practice of the six dimensions of PLC.
Results revealed that teachers positively perceive and
agree that LCCB is a professional learning community
by virtue of the evident practices of the PLC dimensions.
Of the six dimensions, ‘collective learning and
application’ ranked first, while ‘shared and supportive
leadership’ was ranked the lowest. The perceptions of
the teachers significantly vary, indicating that teaching
classification, teaching experience, and affiliation in the
program has an influence on how a teacher recognizes
various institutional practices. The more those teachers
are involved in practices of the College, the more likely
they are to impress positive perception. The study
concluded that LCCB is a legitimate professional
127
learning community from the eyes of its teachers and

affirmed the finding of a previous related study that
a shared and supportive leadership continues to be a
need and demand by the faculty of the College.
Keywords - PLC, leadership, administration,

organization
INTRODUCTION
“Teachers are the first learners.”

Lucianne Carmichael
Successful schools share a number of attributes: good leadership,

a common vision that makes a climate of learning the highest priority,
and teachers who use best practices, effective accountability system,
and parent involvement (Haberman 2004). It is said however that one
of the most promising strategies for sustained, substantive school
improvement is developing the ability of school personnel to function
as professional learning communities (Dufour, Rebecca, & Eaker 2008).
The idea of improving schools by developing a Professional
Learning Community (PLC) is currently in vogue. Research has
shown the benefits of schools becoming PLCs, including those noted
by Newman (1991) and Hord (1997) [SEDL, 2000]. People use the term
PLC to describe every imaginable combination of individuals with
an interest in education such as a grade-level teaching team, a school
committee, a high school department, an entire school organization, a
national professional organization, and so on.
From his exposure in the United States in 2010 through a fellowship
grant, the researcher observed that a PLC is an extended learning
opportunity which fosters collaborative learning among teachers
within a particular work environment. He learned that it is used
in school organizations as a way to organize teachers into working
groups.
In one definition, a PLC is a school in which the professionals
(administrators and teachers) continuously seek and share learning
to increase their effectiveness for students, and act on what they
128
Community (PLC) in the Eyes of the Faculty
learn (SEDL, 2000). On the other hand, Hord (1997) states that PLCs
“extend classroom practice into the community; bringing community
personnel into the school to enhance the curriculum and learning
tasks for students; or engaging students, teachers, and administrators
simultaneously in learning.”
Moreover, the Ontario Ministry of Education (2005) defines a
PLC as “a shared vision or running a school in which everyone can
make a contribution, and staff is encouraged to collectively undertake
activities and reflection in order to constantly improve their students’
performance.” The concept of ‘community’ is being presented as
a crucial element to the success of PLCs where the process should
be reflective and where both individual and community growth is
achieved. Along this line, Senge (2005) believes that it is no longer
sufficient to have one person learning for the organization and further
suggests that when teams learn together there are beneficial results for
the organization.
Gajda (2005) concurs that a major principle of PLCs is that people
learn more together than if they were on their own. The idea of team
learning is an interesting concept that teachers work to promote in
their classrooms but often do not practice in their professional lives.
Edgerson & Kritsonis (2006) assert, “programs and systems are not
the measure of success, but success is measured through committed
and dedicated individuals within systems, engaged in healthy and
systematic collaboration as a result of established relationships.
Fullan (2005) reveals that numerous studies document the
fact that professional learning communities or collaborative work
cultures at the school and ideally at the district level are critical for
the implementation of attempted reforms. Truly, if schools are to be
significantly more effective, they must break from the traditional
remote model upon which they were created and embrace a new
model that enables them to function as learning communities (Dufour
and Eaker 1998). Instead of ‘organization’ the term ‘community’ places
greater emphasis on relationships, shared ideals, and a strong culture
– all factors that are critical to school improvement. The challenge
therefore for educators is to create a community of commitment – a
professional learning community.
129
At La Consolacion College Bacolod, ‘community’ is one of the core

values which takes several connotations but refers to the idea of ‘being
one’ and of ‘collaboration’. Apart from that, however, the College
employs various activities, policies and programs that resemble
attributes of an organization operating as a professional learning
community. These include regular meetings of faculty members,
supervisory visits, classroom observations with feedback mechanisms,
departmental celebrations, assessment practices, and a lot more. What
is missing from these practices, however, is the answer to this question:
Are our professionals (administrators and teachers) consciously aware
that these practices, when sustained and taken earnestly, can lead to
success for the school?
This critical question prompted the researcher to assess the
perception of the school’s professionals (administrators and teachers)
about the different practices employed in the organization that may
label La Consolacion College Bacolod as a Professional Learning
Community (PLC).
This study primarily aimed to assess and analyze, through the

perceptions of its teaching personnel, the practices of La Consolacion
College Bacolod relating to professional learning community (PLC).
FRAMEWORK
This study is anchored on Richard Dufour’s concept of Professional

Learning Community defined as a group of educators committed to
working collaboratively in ongoing processes of collective inquiry and
action research to achieve better results for the students they serve,
and which operates under the assumption that the key to improved
learning for students is continuous, job-embedded learning for
educators (Dufour, Dufour, Eaker, & Many, 2006).
In education circles, the term learning community has become a
commonplace. It is being used to mean any number of things, such as
extending classroom practice into the community; bringing community
personnel into the school to enhance the curriculum and learning
130
tasks for students, or engaging students, teachers, and administrators

simultaneously in learning - to suggest just a few.
The professional learning community model flows from the
assumption that the core mission of formal education is not simply
to ensure that students are taught but to ensure that they learn.
This simple shift from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning has
profound implications for schools.
Educators who are building a professional learning community
recognize that they must work together to achieve their collective
purpose of learning for all. Therefore, they create structures to promote
a collaborative culture. In PLCs, working together to improve student
achievement becomes the routine work of everyone in the school.
Every teacher team participates in an ongoing process of identifying
the current level of student achievement, establishing a goal to improve
the current level, working together to achieve that goal, and providing
periodic evidence of progress.
The literature on professional learning communities gives
attention to five dimensions of such organizational arrangements: (1)
shared and supportive leadership, (2) shared values and vision, (3)
collective learning and application or creativity, (4) shared personal
practices, and (5) supportive conditions which relates to other two
sub-dimensions, namely (5a) relationships and (5b) structures.
Literatures are clear about what successful professional learning
communities look like and act like. The requirements necessary for
such organizational arrangements include: (1) the collegial and
facilitative participation of the leader, who shares leadership - and
thus, power and authority - through inviting staff input in decision
making, (2) a shared vision that is developed from staff’s unswerving
commitment to students’ learning and that is consistently articulated
and referenced for the staff’s work, (3) collective learning among staff
and application of that learning to solutions that address students’
needs, (4) the visitation and review of each teacher’s classroom
behavior by peers as a feedback and assistance activity to support
individual and community improvement, and (5a) physical conditions
and (5b) human capacities that support such an operation.
Sparks (2005) said that well-implemented professional learning
communities are a powerful means of seamlessly blending teaching
131
and professional learning in ways that produce complex, intelligent

behavior in all teachers. The framework of a professional learning
community is inextricable linked to the effective integration of
standards, assessment, and accountability with the leaders balancing
the desire for professional autonomy with the fundamental principles
and values that drive collaboration and mutual accountability (Reeves,
2005).
In this study, the teaching personnel of LCC Bacolod, who are
classified either as administrator or faculty member, will assess,
through their perceptions, the evidence or practice of these attributes
and dimensions. Through their general perception, the College will be
provided with relevant information whether or not, being a teaching
educational institution, it is a professional learning community.
Eventually, keeping in mind the overall findings of the study, programs
that will formally legitimize or sustain LCCB as Professional Learning
Community will be developed. It is hoped that the information this
study will provide offers reference and basis to the College as to how it
can re-integrate the principles of a progressive educational institution.
132
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the framework
Research Design
The descriptive type of research was employed due to the nature

of the research being undertaken where there is a need to assess
the perception of the teachers and administrators about the critical
attributes and dimensions practiced by the College operating as a
professional learning community.
133
Research Locale
The study took place in La Consolacion College-Bacolod (LCCB)

which is a member of the Association of Schools of the Augustinian
Sisters (ASAS) operated by the Augustinian Sisters of our Lady of
Consolacion (ASOLC) congregation.
Respondents of the Study
The respondents of the study were the fulltime teaching personnel

-- administrators and faculty members -- of LCCB who were teaching
for the academic year 2010-2011.
Profile of the Full-Time Teaching Personnel

of LCCB Grouped according to Teaching
Classification and Length of Service
The teaching personnel of the school were the respondents of the

study who were grouped either as administrator or faculty member
in any of the five departments namely, Integrated School, School of
Architecture, Fine Arts and Interior Design (SARFAID), School of
Business and Information Technology (SBIT), School of Hospitality
and Tourism Management (SHTM) and School of Liberal Arts and
Education (SLAE).
Of the 112 enlisted fulltime teaching personnel for the AY 2010-
2011, 92 teachers responded to the survey. Almost 40% (39) of the
total respondents were from the Integrated School considering the big
population of teachers teaching in the department. Teachers from the
SLAE were the least number of respondents in the survey.
In terms of the number of years they have taught, 24 teachers
(26%) reported they have been in the service for at least 16 years, while
almost 24% of the fulltime teaching personnel, administrator or faculty
member, has taught either between one and five years or between six
and ten years.
Fourteen teachers or 15% of the total respondents were
administrators who were composed of department heads, program
heads, team leaders, coordinators or unit heads.
134
Data-gathering Instrument
This study utilized a standardized survey instrument called

Professional Learning Community Assessment- Revised (PLCA-R)
developed through collaboration by Dr. Dianne F. Olivier from the
Department of Educational Foundations and Leadership of the
University of Louisiana at Lafayette. The instrument utilizes a four-
point, forced Likert scale ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 4 =
Strongly Agree. The tool was developed in 2003 and since then has
been used by teachers and principals to assess their organizations. (See
Appendix)
Data-gathering Procedure
The instrument was distributed to the fulltime teachers of the

College in April 2011 with the assistance of the five department
secretaries. Responses of the respondents were encoded, analyzed
and interpreted with the technical assistance of the Research and
Accreditation Office (RAO).
Statistical Treatment
Mean (for problem 1), rank (problem 2), and one-way analysis of
variance (problem 3) were utilized to statistically tabulate the data
gathered.
The fulltime teaching personnel of the school, composed of

administrators and faculty members, has a positive and agreeable
general perception about the practices of LCCB operating as a
Professional Learning Community (PLC). They agree that all critical
attributes that constitute the six general dimensions that characterize
an organization as a professional learning community are seen, felt,
observed and practiced by the College.
Keeping in mind, however, the almost identical yet relative
perceptions given for the different critical attributes of a PLC
135
contextualized in LCC Bacolod, some areas needed attention from

the stakeholders of the school. These include (1) the inclusion of
staff members in the creation of expectations that serve to increase
student achievement, (2) the consistent involvement of staff members
in discussing and making decisions about most school issues, (3) the
provision of various opportunities and structure for collective learning
through open dialogue, (4) the promotion of a culture of trust and
respect, (5) the promotion of communication systems across the entire
school community, and (6) the provision of opportunities for faculty to
observe peers and offer encouragement.
The top ranked PLC dimension operating in LCCB as perceived

by the teaching personnel is ‘Collective Learning and Application’
(CLA). Attributes of this dimension include the staff and teachers’
tendency to work together to address various concerns and solve
problems (especially students’ needs), collegial relationships among
faculty, professional development, and collaboration among teachers
to improve teaching and learning.
The lowest ranked PLC practices are under the dimension of ‘Shared
and Supportive Leadership’ (SSL) where less positive perceptions are
observed when (1) staff members are not consistently involved in
making decisions, (2) administrators do not incorporate advice from
136
faculty to make decisions, (3) faculty and stakeholders may not have
accessibility to key information, (4) administrators are not proactive
and not responsive to address areas where support is needed, (5) when
opportunities may not be provided for faculty to initiate change, (6)
administrators do not share responsibility and rewards for innovative
actions, (7) administrators fail to participate with faculty in sharing
power and authority, (8) leadership is not promoted and nurtured
among faculty members, or when (9) decision-making takes place at a
limited level in the community.
Across all dimensions of professional learning community in
the context of the school organization of LCC Bacolod, there is a
significant difference in the perceptions of the teaching personnel
when they are grouped according to their teaching classification, that
is, (1) Administrators, (2) Integrated School, (3) SARFAID, (4) SBIT, (5)
SHTM, (6) SLAE. There are varying perceptions as to how attributes of
a professional learning community are practiced and observed in the
College.
CONCLUSIONS
The findings of the study generated the following conclusion:
1. From the perceptions of its teaching force, La Consolacion

College Bacolod is a professional learning community (PLC) by
virtue of the practices of the various critical attributes that constitute
the different dimensions that legitimize an organization like a school
operating as a professional learning community.
2. Collaboration can be seen, felt, and observed among faculty
members in times when problems need to be solved and when issues
and concerns relating to teaching and learning need to be addressed.
3. A leadership that is shared and supportive continues to be a
need and a demand among stakeholders, especially members, of a
school organization like LCC Bacolod which unconsciously operates
as a PLC.
4. Perceptions of teachers about how a school operates vary and
depend on their affiliations (per department) or length of service in the
profession.
137
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the light of the foregoing findings and conclusions, the following

recommendations addressing the highlights of the study are advanced
by the researcher:
1. A unified institutional program on professional learning

community which identifies concrete action plans be drafted.
Specific plans may be geared towards the promotion of a culture of
collaboration and collective inquiry among teachers such as dialogue,
peer mentoring, or sharing of best personal teaching practices.
2. Addressing the lowest rated critical attributes under each PLC
dimension, it is recommended that:
a. The offices of the VPAA and department heads/deans that
are the starting point of most academic policies that serve to increase
student achievement involve and include faculty members and staff in
the creation and setting of expectations and policies.
b. Top administration (President, VPPAS, VPAA, VPFA)
consistently involve staff members in discussing and making decisions
about most school issues.
c. Department heads that have direct supervision of the teachers
consistently provide opportunities and structure for collective learning
through open dialogue.
d. The Offices of the VPPAS and VPAA aggressively develop a
functional and concrete program which promotes a culture of trust
and respect among teachers.
e. The school, through the top administration, establishes a
mechanism which promotes an effective system of communication
across the entire school organization, including parents and partner
communities.
f. Department heads develop a concrete program or enhance an
existing one which provides opportunities for faculty to observe peers
and offer encouragement.
3. A formal institutional launch of a new tag for LCCB be done

during the personnel’s institutional assembly and for the new tag to
be included in the promotional and marketing materials produced
138
by the External Affairs Office: “LCCB: A Community of Friends; A

Community of Professional Learners.” There is prestige in the name
as most school organizations in the United States are starting to be
identified as such. This assessment study legitimizes LCCB as an
operating Professional Learning Community.
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1993 Contexts that matter for teaching and learning. Stanford,
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1993 (November). Beyond site-based management: Empowering
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R. Eaker, & R. Dufour (Eds.), On common ground: The power of
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2008 Revisiting Professional Learning Communities at Work: New
Insights for Improving Schools. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree
Press.
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1989 Teacher’s workplace: The social organization of schools. New York:
Longman.
SEDL.
2000 Launching Professional Learning Communities: Beginning
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the world. In The Jossey-Bass Reader on Educational Leadership
(pp.13-25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sparks, D.
2005 Leading for transformation in teaching, learning, and
relationships. In R. Dufour, R. Eaker, & R. Dufour (Eds.), On
common ground: The power of professional learning communities
(pp. 155-175). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree (formerly
national Educational Service).
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141
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Love and the Mentally

Challenged: Unraveling the Affective
Domain
ROSELLE J. RANARIO
bkind2roselle@yahoo.com
College of Arts & Sciences, Cebu Normal University
Philippines
Date Submitted: March 12, 2011

Final Revision Accepted: March 18, 2011
Abstract - This study describes the affective domain

specifically on the psychology of emotion among
mentally challenged male students as manifested by
their love and attraction towards the opposite sex.
Included in the study were the Mentally Challenged
pupils in selected SPED Centers, aged 15 and above
who were observed to have marked attraction toward
another person. Respondents and experts believed that
it is risky to allow mentally challenged individuals to
marry due to the following reasons: the possibility
that the MC can become pregnant; she will experience
trauma or psychological damage if she becomes
pregnant; the likelihood that the individual will
voluntarily engage in sexual activity ; be exposed to
situations where sexual intercourse is imposed upon
her; the inability of the MC to understand reproduction
and the likely permanence of that inability of the MC
to care for a child. Another presumption restricting
marriages is that mentally retarded persons do not
make successful marriage partners. The MC’s capacity
to love starts and ends in Passionate Love. The feeling
called love should be encouraged in class but with
142
proper guidance as it helps develop the MCs socio

– emotional behavior for it cultivates motivation,
participation, interaction, and happiness among the
mentally challenged.
Keywords - Mentally Challenged, Affective

Domain, Love, Socio-emotional Behaviors,
Psychological damage, trauma.
INTRODUCTION
“It is only through the heart that one can see rightly, what is
essential is invisible to the naked eye.” If we were to base the concept
of living on the very essence that Antoine St. Exupery expressed in his
novelette Little Prince, cognition would play a limited role in the life of
the Mentally Challenged. For in the quest to formulate the best possible
interventions suitable to the specific needs of the mentally challenged;
countless researches were focused on their cognitive domain hoping
to increase their already depleted mental quotient. But have we not
been informed by the same scientific researches and experiments that
there was not a single assurance that showed any improvement in the
I.Q. level?
In the country’s current curricula of educating the mentally
challenged students, cognitive, social, and sheltered workshop skills
dominated the priority listings. There has been minimal, if not none that
focuses on the affective domain of the MC’s education. It was observed
that there were specific numerous instances that MCs displayed their
vast capacity to feel. Meaning not only that they were reduced to
tantrums when they were confronted with their “triggers”; but rather,
they too were reduced to complete admiration when confronted with
people whom they were attracted to.
Just as “Sam” (I am Sam the Movie) shared his passion to a normal
woman with whom he bore a child. That resulted to the conflict in the
true-to-life film that starred Sean Penn and Michelle Pfieffer. In the
film, Sam was a mentally challenged father who raised his child single-
handedly. The custody of the child became the subject of a court battle
between Sam and the child’s mother. Sam must have been at par with
143
the normal man in the aspect of his affective skills, since he was able
to share passion with a normal woman and eventually earned the love
and trust of his daughter, who chose to be with him rather than with
her mother.
Does a mentally disabled individual, without the mental capacity
to even run a cash register, have the right, much less the capability
to raise a child? Should we as a society, allow mentally disabled
individuals to raise children? Or even marry? Wilkins (2002) makes
a compelling argument that “love is the most important ingredient
in raising a child, and as we learn from Sam, mentally challenged
individuals are definitely capable of giving love”.
Persons with mental retardation in United States have legal rights to
marry and to procreate in the hope of leading normal lives. They obtain
jobs, marry, and raise children. The normalization principle among the
MCs is also applied in the Philippine setting but unfortunately limited
to their academic development, not in their socio – cultural aspect.
It has been observed that there were pupils with MR in SPED
schools who manifest affection towards their teachers, classmates, or
anyone of the opposite sex. How can a 16 - year old lad with an IQ of
a 7 year old exhibit attraction toward the opposite sex? Could it be
that although their intellectual ability is low, their affective domain is
normal? There were some mentally challenged persons who even got
married and had children.
This study did not attempt to criticize, nor prayed to put a stop
to cognitive studies (of MC’s), but rather to tap other possible area of
focus in the attempt to establish a possible avenue of intervention. This
also attempted to reshape and educate the way people think about
the concept of love among people with developmental disabilities by
unraveling their affective domain.
This study is conducted with the hope to pave a way in the
advancement of another possible field of focus by describing the
affective domain of the MC’s trusting that it could somehow propose
an effective intervention for specific types of MCs. The study helped
identify what is important for people with Mental Retardation to
succeed in living with normal people.
144
FRAMEWORK
The following literatures describes distinct issues among the

mentally challenged to wit: its basic definition, intelligence and
emotional quotient, adaptive behavior, social competence, their
cognitive and affective aspects and their possibilities in marriage and
other martial issues in the hope of filling a gap in research particularly
the affective aspect of the mentally challenged determined through
their emotional responses.
According to Smith (2006) mental retardation is a social
phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of time. From the
beginning of recorded history, there had always been persons whose
marked intellectual limitations have made it difficult for them to
meet the demands of their social environment. What has changed
over time is society’s understanding of the nature of the construct to
explain limited intellectual functioning and its consequence – social
incompetence. Mental retardation often affects people emotionally as
well as intellectually. Many mentally retarded people function on an
emotional and social level that is below what is appropriate for their
age. This emotional immaturity is often considered an endearing aspect
of mentally retarded individuals’ personalities; however, mentally
retarded individuals are commonly thought of as being friendly,
lovable, and possessing a child-like quality in their overall personality.
It was noted that Adaptive behavior is developed over a period of
time and is a function of both mental / intellectual and social / emotional
skills and abilities. Reynolds and Dombeck (2006), described mentally
retarded people as significantly limited in terms of their adaptive
functioning in at least two of the following areas: communication, self-
care, home living, social / interpersonal skills, community resource
use, self-direction, academic skills, work, leisure activities, health, and
safety. These limitations significantly interfere with an individual’s
ability to navigate through many everyday situations. Like perhaps
the MR’s “ability” if not “inability” to assert what’s going on inside his
mind.
But beyond the stark deficiencies in the cognitive facets associated in
the Mentally Challenged mind, Dorsey, (2002) asked: “Do people with
mental retardation have feelings, hopes, desires, wants, expectations,
145
goals, dreams?” – you betcha [sic] they do. Look in their eyes, watch
their faces, listen to their voices. They, each of them, want to be all
they are capable of being. Each has unique abilities and ways to both
participate and contribute. Each may have a mental disability, but each
is able. It falls to us to find the ways to help them express themselves –
to listen with all our senses, not just our ears”.
Gensley (1973), as cited in Sage Journals (2009) noted that so much
attention had been given to a [special] child in the cognitive domain
that affective and the psychomotor domain had been neglected. She
added that cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviors are implicit
in every learning experience. Gowan (no year), as cited by Gensley in
Sage Journals (2009) has noted that cognitive processes must be related
to affective process to generate creative behavior.
The emotional maturity of individuals who are diagnosed with
mental retardation is generally a function of how severely impaired
they are. Severely mentally retarded individuals are generally
more emotionally immature than are individuals with mild mental
retardation (Reynolds and Dombeck,2006). Mercer (1973), as cited
by Smith et al (2006) suggests that individuals are labeled mentally
retarded as a function of their performance in social situations.
But what role does affective domain play in the emotional
“maturity” or “immaturity” of MR’s? Emotion as described by
Dworetsky (1985), as cited by Carlson and Hatfield (1992) is a complex
feeling – state involving conscious experience and internal and overt
physical responses that tend to facilitate or inhibit motivated behavior.
Plutchik (1984) as cited by Carlson and Hatfield (1992) defined it as
an inferred complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus and includes
cognitive evaluations, subjective changes and behavior designed to
have an effect upon the stimulus that initiated the complex sequence.
Emotion then is a genetic and acquired motivational predisposition
to respond experientially, physiologically and behaviorally to
certain internal and external variables. Emotions include cognitive,
physiological, and behavioral elements. In describing the affective
domain of the mentally challenged, the researcher believes that one
must understand all three aspects of emotion.
Mowrer (1960) as cited by Carlson and Hatfield (1992) for one
argues that the emotions play a central role, indeed an indispensable
146
role, in those changes in behavior or performance which are said

to represent ‘learning’….The emotions are of quite extraordinary
importance in the total economy of living organisms and do not at
all deserve being put into opposition with ‘intelligence’. However he
(Mowrer) failed to mention emotion in the expression of the basic tenet
of affection. The emotions are, it seems, themselves a high order of
intelligence. Millenson (1967), as cited by Carlson and Hatfield (1992)
argues that scientists should not be primarily concerned with people’s
private emotional feelings. Since actual feelings are not measurable or
directly manipulable [sic], one should focus on emotional behavior
instead of thoughts and feelings. The next question would be which
emotional responses are innate?
Millenson’s concept justifies the author’s direction on understanding
the mentally challenge’s emotions (behavior) first instead of isolating
their thoughts and feelings of love. Watson (1919), as cited by Carlson
and Hatfield (1992) believed in only three innate emotional reactions
namely: fear, rage and love. Millenson’s (1967), as cited by Carlson and
Hatfield (1992) taxonomy is much the same – he considers anxiety,
anger, and elations to be the basic emotions. It is from these three basic
emotions that all other emotions are derived. Watson and Millenson
both argue that initially these three basic emotional responses are
elicited by unconditioned stimuli (Carlson and Hatfield, 1992).
Sanchez, et al (1996) further added that fear, rage and love are
basic emotions, since other emotions emerge or develop from them.
At birth, the emotion or general excitement is easily discernable. The
development of emotional response follows a general-to-specified
pattern. Later as the child grows older, specific responses become
manifest. By the age of twenty-four months, the repertoire of emotions
is nearly complete. From the general emotion of anger, a more specific
emotional response like jealousy or hostility develops. By the time the
child is about eighteen months, he is able to express jealousy. These
emotional responses are affected directly by such factors as learning
and motivation. When a child is born, he is born with the capacity to
love, but love as an emotional response is a product of learning and
maturation (Sanchez, et al, 1996).
For the sake of discussion, the three main foci of emotions, as
mentioned, were done for that very purpose. However, this study
147
focused only on one basic emotion in relation to the study which is

love. The pleasant experiences of joy, elation, laughter, excitement,
thrill, affection, and happiness have their roots in the emotional
response of love.
The development of love stems from the early experiences of the
individual from birth. If the child is reared with love and affection,
he learns to love others. The reactions to love are learned from
early childhood. They are usually patterned after affectionable [sic]
responses that the individual sees or experiences (Sanchez, et al, 1996).
According to Sanchez (et al, 1996), love between sexes is governed
by social and cultural values operating within the environment of the
individual. Physiologically, the maturing of the sex glands during
adolescence determines the emotional interest the boy manifests to
a girl and vice versa. Many emotional behaviors are stimulated and
motivated by love. Thoughtfulness, graciousness, and refinement
in manners, kindness, gentleness, tenderness, affection, care, pride,
elation, delight, and pleasure are among the positive reactions
emanating from love. On the other hand, love unrequited may cause
such aggressive reactions as resentment, envy, jealousy, annoyance,
irritation, gloom, embarrassment, and disgust.
Emotional responses vary in intensity; how we respond to stimuli
depends on the circumstances and the environment. It is a fact that
we can vary our responses depending on how much we have learned
to control or educate our emotions, so to speak (Sanchez et al, 1996).
Moreover, Sartain, et al (1973) as cited by Sanchez, et al (1996) identified
three aspects of emotion namely: physiological aspect, emotional
behavior and personal emotional experience. The succeeding study
focused only on emotional behavior, as a limitation of the researcher
among the three aspects of emotion.
Sanchez, et al (1996) further discussed that a person who
experiences an emotion manifests it almost always in some form of
overt behavior. The most common of these manifestations are facial
and vocal expressions. There are other ways of communicating an
emotion like the use of the hands and body movements, and gestures;
but people seem to pay greater attention to facial expression. It is said
that many of the animal expressions of hissing, growling, snarling,
barking, or the display of the teeth, have been modified into human
148
expressions of derision, mockery, scorn, or anger. Crying, smiling,

frowning, sighing can be traced to primitive expressions. People have
developed or learned definite expressions of joy, sorrow, lust, and
excitement. Many of these have become universal; and you can tell
easily by the expression of the face whether a person is happy, sad,
eager, or angry regardless of the race. As a matter of fact, a smile is
considered as a universal language expressing friendliness. Sartain, et
al (1973), as cited by Sanchez, et al (1996) noted that sometimes, we are
able to tell very accurately the emotional behavior of a person by merely
listening to his vocal expressions. Language of laughter nearly always
indicates joy among normal individuals. Weird laughter can also be
distinguishable in most easy case, so we are able to judge whether a
person is happy or abnormal by categorizing the kind of laughter that
we hear. The laughter of normal individual would indicate happiness
whereas the weird laughter of the abnormal may mean a different
thing. Weeping and wailing most often indicate worry. Crying may
accompany fear, anger, or in some cases, happiness. Vocal expressions
are detected by means of cues. Loudness, pitch, or change of pitch may
serve as a cue to the emotion being expressed. However, like in facial
expressions, we may err in identifying the emotional behavior simply
from listening to the vocal expression. Emotions can be judged best
by reviewing the total emotional experience rather than relying on
either facial or vocal cues of expression (Sartain, et al, 1973 as cited by
Sanchez, et al, 1996).
Even so, mentally retarded individuals presently are being moved
into the mainstream and their rights should be consistent with those
accorded to their peers. But, despite the fact that people with mental
retardation obtain jobs, marry, and raise children, society continues
to impose a number of legal and attitudinal barriers to deny retarded
adults their familial rights (i.e., marriage, procreation and parenting).
If the normalization principle is to apply to the sexual and familial
relationships among mentally retarded persons, it will be necessary to
reconsider both these restrictive legal and social practices.
According to Vitello and Soskin (1985), in a way, the lifestyle that has
become available to many adult mentally retarded persons (although
in many cases not by choice) is similar to that of non-retarded persons.
Many adult retarded persons are living together with members of the
149
same or opposite sex in various community arrangements (e.g., group

and boarding homes). Attempts to normalize institutional settings by
integrating the sexes into smaller living units are also occurring. While
these environments are being designed to encourage heterosexual
interactions and normal psychosexual development, at issue is the
question regarding what degree of sexual freedom should be extended
to retarded persons.
Many people still marry for love, sex. social legitimacy,
companionship, and/or economic stability. Vitello and Soskin (1985)
stated that mentally retarded persons, too, can benefit from any of
these marital advantages; the argument can be made that marriage for
mentally retarded persons is particularly beneficial, given the hostility
and discrimination they often encounter in community living. It has
been estimated that 50 percent of all mentally retarded persons do
marry (Bass, 1973 as cited by Vitello and Soskin, 1985). Yet, over 80
percent of the states (United States) treat mentally retarded persons
differently from non-retarded persons for the purpose of issuing a
marriage license (Linn & Bowers, 1978 as cited by Vitello and Soskin,
1985).
According to Turnbull (1977), as cited by Vitello and Soskin (1985),
it is presumed that all mentally retarded persons (as with non-retarded
persons) who have not been declared legally incompetent are capable
of giving their valid consent to a marriage contract. But even a legal
judgment of incompetence per se should not necessarily prevent a
retarded person from entering into a marriage contract. Some retarded
persons may be capable, as a result of education and counseling, of
understanding what the marriage contract entails. In these cases they
would be able to give their informed consent, and they should not be
prohibited the right to marry.
According to Reynolds and Dombeck (2006), mentally retarded
adults, like any adults, are physical creatures with sexual desires.
These desires motivate them to be attracted to sexual partners and to
engage in sexual activities. A common consequence of sexual activity,
of course, is pregnancy. At various points in history, society has felt
the need to regulate the reproductive capabilities of mentally retarded
adults for reasons alternatively paranoid and parental in nature.
150
At the beginning of the twentieth century, many mentally retarded

adults were subject to social policies based on the philosophy of
eugenics, which suggested that some people’s genetic backgrounds
were inferior to other people’s genetic backgrounds. Mentally retarded
individuals were assumed to have inferior genetic backgrounds, and
therefore a reproductive threat to the integrity of more desirable or
purer genetic lines. Two strains of eugenics were influential. Proponents
of positive eugenics urged elite families to reproduce in quantity to
drown out the reproductive efforts of undesirables such as non-whites
and mentally retarded people. Proponents of negative eugenics took
the idea of genetic purity a step further by actively promoting the idea
that undesirable sorts of people (including criminals, the mentally
ill, and the mentally retarded) should be actively prevented from
reproducing, even if this meant sterilizing them against their will
(Reynolds and Dombeck, 2006).
Mentally retarded individuals are today have rights accorded to
other citizens, among them the rights to marry and to have children.
They also have the right to use contraception to prevent pregnancy
and sexually transmitted disease. More recently, the courts have dealt
with an increasing number of cases where parents of severely retarded
daughters living at home have sought involuntary sterilizations.
Another presumption restricting marriages is that mentally
retarded persons do not make successful marriage partners. Research
findings refute this presumption. Floor, Baxter, Rosen, and Zisfein
(1973), as cited by Vitello and Soskin (1985) surveyed the marital status
of 80 formerly institutionalized retarded persons and concluded that
they were capable of assuming the responsibilities of marriage and
parenthood. Edgerton and Bercovici (1976), as cited by Vitello and
Soskin (1985), in their 12-year follow-up study of 30 deinstitutionalized
retarded persons, found that over half maintained a successful
marriage.
McDevitt, Smith, Schmidt, and Rosen (1978), as cited by Vitello and
Soskin (1985) reported on four marriages between deinstitutionalized
retarded people. They found all of the couples were functioning
adequately, none were having serious marital problems, and all were
happier than those in the study who had not married. Similar findings
have been reported in the research studies conducted by Mattinson
151
(1973) and Andron and Sturm (1973). These studies suggest that there
may be little correlation between the level of an individual’s mental
functioning, as measured by IQ scores, and his or her performance as
a marriage partner (Vitello and Soskin,1985).
In a society where one out of two marriages ends in divorce, it
would be preposterous to argue that mentally retarded persons are
more prone to unsuccessful marriages. As with non-retarded persons,
retarded persons may find marriage less than idyllic. Therefore, even if
high rates of divorce were found among retarded persons, this should
not be used as a justification to deny them the right to marry or remarry
(Linn & Bowers, 1978 as cited by Vitello and Soskin,1985). Unlike most
nonretarded persons, retarded persons, who have been segregated
from contact with the opposite sex and denied normative socialization
processes, may be less prepared for marriage. Again, the remedy is
not to deny these retarded persons the right to marry, but to create
more normalizing environments with supportive family services (e.g.,
family-life education counseling) (Vitello and Soskin, 1985).
Mentally retarded persons are perceived as being at greater sexual
risk in our society. Families with retarded relatives are concerned about
the unfortunate consequences (e.g., sexual abuse and pregnancy) that
may result from programmatic efforts to increase social interactions
between retarded and non retarded people. These legitimate concerns
need to be balanced against the right of mentally retarded persons to
express themselves sexually and to have a family life of their own.
In acknowledging these rights, care-providers, including parents,
will have to play as important an educative role as a protective role
in order to enable mentally retarded persons to develop heterosexual
and familial relationships to the degree to which they are responsible
(Vitello and Soskin, 1985).
The other side of the modern reproductive policy debate argues
that many individuals with mental retardation are not capable of
understanding the ramifications of procreating. This is especially
true when severe intellectual functioning deficits are present. Many
mentally retarded women may not be able to comprehend fully what
is happening to their bodies during pregnancy, for example. Mentally
retarded parents can legitimately be expected to have an extraordinary
amount of difficulty raising a child on their own. Then there are
152
concerns for the welfare of resulting children in the custody of parents

who themselves cannot live independently. These and other “parental”
sorts of conce 0.984251”rns need to be sorted out as debate continues
(Reynolds and Dombeck, 2006).
On the other hand, the concept of romantic love according to
Atkinson, et al (1983) is an old one, but the belief that it has much
to do with marriage is more recent and far from universal. In some
non-Western cultures, marriage is still considered to be a contractual
or financial arrangement that has nothing whatever to do with love.
In society, the link between love and marriage has actually become
stronger in the past 15 years. In 1967, about two thirds of college men,
but only about one fourth of college women, stated that they would not
marry a person they did not love even if the person had all the other
qualities they desired (Kephart, 1967 as cited by Atkinson, et. al., 1983).
Perhaps the women at that time had to be more practical about their
financial security. But in a 1967 replication of the study, it was found
that a full 86 percent of the men and 80 percent of the women would
now refuse to marry without being in love. In fact, this researchers
report that many young men and women believe that if romantic love
disappears from the relationship, that is sufficient reason to end it
(Campbell and Berscheid, 1976, as cited by Atkinson, et al, 1983).
A study of long term marriages in the United States and Japan
suggests that these romantic views may change with time. The
American marriages started out with a higher level of love than did the
Japanese arranged marriages, as measures of expressions of affection,
sexual interest, and marital satisfaction. Love decreased in both groups,
and after 10 years, there were no differences (Blood, 1967, as cited by
Atkinson, et al, 1983). As the sixteenth-century writer Giraldi put it;
“The history of a love affair is in same sense the drama of its fight
against time.” This does not imply, however, that all the marriages
were failures: some couples had gratifying marriages and others
experienced failure. The successful marriages were characterized by
communication between the partners, an equitable division of labor,
and equality of decision-making power. Romantic love is terrific for
starters, but the sustaining forces of a good long-term relationship
are less exciting, undoubtedly require more work, and have more to
do with equality than with passion. A disappointment for romantics,
153
perhaps, but heartening news and powerful propaganda for advocates

of social equality (Atkinson, et al, 1983).
Hatfield and Walster (1978), as cited by Carlson and Hatfield (1992)
point out that most people distinguish between two forms of love –
passionate love and companionate love. Passionate love is sometimes
labeled as “puppy love”, a crush”, “lovesickness”, “obsessive love”,
“infatuation”, or “being in love”. It is a state of intense longing for
union with another. Reciprocated love (union with the other is
associated) with fulfillment and ecstasy. Unrequited love (separation)
with emptiness, anxiety, or despair. A state of profound physiological
arousal”. By contrast, Companionate love is sometimes called “true
love” or “conjugal love”. It is far less intense emotion. Hatfield and
Walster (1978) define it as “the affection we feel for those with whom
our lives are deeply entwined”.
Finally, in Edgerton’s Cloak of Competence (1967) as cited by Smith,
et al (2006) sought to understand what was important for people with
mental retardation to succeed living in the community. The study was
a report of many interviews with people released from institutional
care. Their experiences were quite varied – some marrying, some
holding full - time jobs, some living with families, others ending up
in jail, living in squalor, or being victimized in one way or another.
Across the interviews, however, there was one recurring theme among
all the different kinds of lifestyles: the need to appear normal.
This study attempted to describe and explain the observable

behaviors of the mentally challenged in the aspect of their affective
domain specifically on their emotion as manifested by their expression
of love towards the opposite sex. Through the deductive - qualitative
method of research, this study employed narrative descriptions
gathered through open-ended interviews and naturalistic observations
to identify specific social– emotional behaviors and changes manifested
by the subjects in expressing affection and attraction.
Male mentally challenged students in selected Special Education
Centers, aged 20 years old and above, who were observed to have
marked liking or attraction toward another person, be it in school
154
or at home are the subjects of the study. The Snowball approach was
employed, where subjects studied were chosen or referred to by their
teachers, parents, significant others or caregivers.
To reinforce the observable affective behaviors as manifested by
the mentally challenged students, their teachers, parents, significant
others, caregivers, and the person they were attracted to were also
interviewed to describe their perceptions and reactions to the MC’s
socio-emotional aspects. The mentally challenged students were also
interviewed in an informal, conversational manner, regardless of their
erratic response, hoping to gather their perceptions and feelings for
others. Aside from classroom observations, home visits and interviews,
anecdotal records from the teacher and parents were also reviewed by
the researcher. An informed consent form was secured to assure the
security of the subjects in any event that will expose them to any form
of danger and violation to their rights or any violation thereof in the
directive of research ethical standard.
RESULTS
I. Socio – Emotional Behaviors of the MC Manifested in Expressing

Affection and Attraction
Justine and Patrick (not their real names) manifested similar

observable behaviors when the person they like was around. Smiling,
blushing, sharing, positive physical contact and giving of verbal
compliments. Justine repetitively uttered “gwapa” (pretty) to his Ate
Pam. He also blushed and found it hard to look at Ate Pam. Patrick
showed signs of embarrassment and kept hiding his face in his palms.
It was noticed that physical responses of the MCs are similar to how
normal people respond to a positive emotion of love and affection.
On the facial expressions of the mentally challenged, they blush
like normal persons if the object of their affection is around. They
smile often and such manifestations are similar to the rest of the MC’s
observed by the researcher from the different research locales.
It is believed that in the emotional response called love, the aspect
of emotional behavior specifically on the facial expression is similar
to that of normal individuals, since smiling is a universal expression.
155
But the vocal expression is different knowing that the laughter of the
mentally challenged is without inhibition, loud, and without any
reason at all. Normal individuals laugh only when prompted.
II. How MCs Manifest Attraction and Affection to Others and How
they React on the Same
It was noticed that the mentally challenged seemed to lack a sense

of inhibition and embarrassment in the presence of their love. Justine
kept on shouting Ate Pam’s name and he told everyone about it,
even while Teacher Cora was discussing. There was unending verbal
compliments like “gwapa” (pretty) or even bluntly saying to her:
”naibog baya ko nimo” (I like you).
They were often very shy when asked about their feelings. They
blushed and hid behind their hands. And yet, they were not ashamed
to tell the person that they like him / her. They are susceptible to
falling passionately in love. Although physiologic and emotional
behaviors, specifically facial expressions, may be similar to that of
normal individuals, the self – perception and judgment are not. The
normal individual’s perception of love is so much different from the
mentally challenged. To normal persons, there is commitment. More
than passionate love (the intense longing for union), they hope for
commitment in the future. The mentally challenged does not even
understand the word ‘commitment’ in love. As long as the person they
like is around, they are happy and they feel secure.
III. Socio-Emotional Behavior Change Manifested When They

Express Attraction and Affection
On the basis of Emotional Behavior, several changes were

manifested by the mentally challenged subjects when they expressed
attraction and affection towards others. From looking sick and weak
in the morning class, to a brightened and excited face when the object
of their affection arrived, these were just initial manifestations that
Justine and Patrick showed. Justine manifested echolalia. He always
repeated Ate Pam’s name. He also imitated whatever his Ate Pam
was saying. Both men were elated, smiling and laughing often, even
156
at times when there was no reason to laugh. Justine became talkative

while Patrick became participative in class, that he was able to finish
coloring his valentine card with the help of Jairah (the object of his
affection). Justine readily offered to sew beads for the bracelet he and
Ate Pam were doing. Patrick’s shyness was gone. The quiet mentally
challenged boy all of a sudden tended to be very cooperative in tasks
assigned. Both subjects were socially interacting in class.
One interesting positive change was the subjects’ high level of
participation and cooperation. The presence of the objects of their
affection was somehow an advantage as they do well in class activities.
Having their favorite person around enhances their academic and
functional performance.
IV. Perception of the Significant Others’ of the Mentally Challenged’

Affective Manifestations Towards the Opposite Sex
When the parents were asked if they would allow their special
child to marry someday, the parents were even dreadful and offended
with the idea considering it as highly impossible. Parents consider it
too risky to leave their special children to be carried away with their
emotion. Most them feared of unwanted pregnancy for the mentally
challenged daughters. Others, feared of rape.
Another fear a parent had, perhaps even more prevalent than the
fear of separation, was the thought of their child being sexually active
and possibly producing children. The parents did not agree to their
child getting married or having a special relationship with a member
of the opposite sex. They were concerned about the possibility of their
child bearing children. Most felt that their children were not capable of
meeting the demands of caring for a small infant, let alone facing the
demands of a lifetime of child rearing.
DISCUSSION
Love, as mentioned by literatures, is one of the basic and universal

responses regardless of race and culture. Attempts were made to
discover whether this universality is also applicable to levels of intellect
or mental capacity. In the emotional response called love, it should be
157
described based on the three aspects of emotion specifically, physiologic

aspect, emotional behavior and socio – emotional experience.
The aspect of emotional behavior specifically of the facial
expression is similar to the normal individuals, since smiling is a
universal expression. People smile when they are happy and if they like
the person. Thus, a smile is associated with friendliness. Likewise, the
vocal expression is different knowing that the laughter of the mentally
challenged is without inhibition, loud, and without any reason at all.
Normal individuals laugh only when prompted.
CONCLUSION
Love, as a basic emotional response regardless of race and culture,

is also universal based on the level of intellect and mental capacity.
The mentally challenged are also capable of loving, based on the three
aspects of emotion specifically, physiologic aspect, emotional behavior,
and socio – emotional experience. The aspect of emotional behavior,
specifically of the facial expression, is similar to the normal individuals
since smiling is a universal expression. People smile when they are
happy and if they like the person. Likewise, the vocal expression is
different knowing that the laughter of the mentally challenged is
without inhibition, loud, and without any reason all.
The capacity to love knows no mental disability. All (normal or
mentally disabled) were born with the inherent feeling of love. But the
MCs capacity to love only starts and ends in passionate love only. It is
impossible for them to experience companionate love when they lack
good judgment and discernment.
Mental maturity must check the innate emotional tendencies. That
is why, left with their own emotions, MC’s are in a big jeopardy as
they could not make sense and they could not organize their thoughts
and emotion logically. Their emotional immaturity, that goes with the
loving, deters their capacity to marry and bear children.
158
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162
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Morphological Analysis of Gay’s

Spoken Discourse
ARIEL B. LUNZAGA
abl.slsu.to@gmail.com
HERMABETH O. BENDULO
VIOLETA B. FELISILDA
SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Philippines

Abstract - The language of gays known as

gayspeak has now earned respect from the community
and observably been infused in the mainstream
language of the society. Language is evolving and
with its changing nature, existing language needs to
be documented for posterity reasons. Gayspeak is
not an exemption. It has to be analyzed especially its
morphology. This study focused on the morphological
analysis of the language of gays who were studying
at SLSU-Tomas Oppus in SY 2009-2010. Specifically, it
identified the common vocabulary of local gays and the
corresponding meanings through a self-administered
questionnaire and an informal conversation. Based
from the information provided by 20 purposively
selected college gays, it was learned that gayspeak
is simply an adaptation of the mainstream language
like English, Filipino, and Cebuano. For purposes of
163
shielding from the chasms of the heterosexuals, gays

construct their language through simple reversal,
syllabic reversal, simple reversal with affixation,
clipping with affixation, straight words with affixation,
and connotation through images. It was concluded that
the spoken discourse of college gays in the campus
violates the rules of English grammar yet used by
gays for purposes of expressing themselves in a way
unrecognizable by the discriminating straight men in
highly patriarchal society.
INTRODUCTION
Centuries ago, Philippine culture openly projected bias against

the gays. Biases are often manifested even within the family in which
the father, more specifically, would even disown a child who is a gay
(Casabal 2008). It was made evident then that during the times of
our forefathers, gays were considered a cause of shame to the family
(Daniels, 2010). However, in today’s generation which recognizes
changes in almost every aspect of man’s life, gays’ are no longer treated
as such. Instead, they receive different treatment letting them realize
they are unique with significant contribution to the society’s economy.
In fact, they are given recognition in the aesthetic fields exhibiting
creativity and artistry particularly in cosmetics entertainment.
With the acceptance of the gays in the society comes the propagation
of the gays’ spoken discourse commonly known as gay lingo. Gay lingo
is composed basically of terms derived from existing terminologies
like waz from Cebuano word wa (meaning nothing); bobokish from
the Tagalog term bobo (meaning dull); and zerowena from English
term zero. Some other terms are perceived to have originated from
part of the sound of a person’s name like TOM Jones meaning guTOM
na ako.
Languages evolve. New words are created and others disappear.
The words or phrases currently used by gays, particularly in Southern
Leyte State University-Tomas Oppus, may be short-lived. They may
be used only by the present batch of gays and may be replaced by
other terms in the next three or five years. According to Rafael
164
Morphological Analysis
of Gay’s Spoken Discourse
(2010), gayspeak is the most unstable and malleable of all languages.

Documenting gay lingo, therefore, is deemed important for posterity
reasons. They may be used as references or as aids in understanding
the meaning of future literature material written today.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This study not only identified the meaning of common gay terms
but also analyzed the morphological structure of the spoken discourse
of gays in SLSU-Tomas Oppus in School Year 2010-2011.

Research Site
The study was conducted within the Tomas Oppus campus of
Southern Leyte State University. The campus is located in Barangay
San Isidro, Tomas Oppus, Southern Leyte. Tomas Oppus is a 5th class
municipality and San Isidro is situated along the seashore. Being a
teacher-training institution with almost a thousand enrollees, the
flagship curricular offering of the campus is Bachelor of Science in
Elementary Education (BEEd) and Bachelor of Science in Secondary
Education (BSEd). These are courses attractive mostly to female and
gay students.
Respondents and Sampling Procedure

This study involved 20 gay students who were selected purposively.
They were overt gays, well-versed, and actually using gayspeak in
their everyday conversations with members of their group and even
with their straight classmates and friends. They were regular students
enrolled during the conduct of this study.
Research Design and Data Gathering Procedure

The study employed a one-shot survey design in which all data
needed were gathered at one time. Observing proper protocol, the
gays were requested to provide necessary information being asked in
the self-administered questionnaire. The identified gays answered the
questionnaire during their vacant period while hanging out in their
“Tambayan” (lounge) area.
165
To get data for unanswered items or for clarity of entries in the

questionnaire, the researchers immediately conducted informal
conversations with the respondents.
Research Instrument
A researcher-made and self-administered questionnaire was used
in the study. This is a one-page questionnaire divided into two parts.
Part I identified the demographic profile of the respondents which
include their age, civil status, and year level. Part II provides two
columns. In the 1st column the respondents will write the gay words/
phrases as many as they could, and the corresponding meanings of
each will be written in the 2nd column.
Data Analysis Procedure

The data which were primarily qualitative were subjected to
structural analysis. In here, the vocabulary or expressions of the gays
were examined in terms of their structure and meaning.
Words Comprising Gays’ Spoken Discourse

and their Functional Meaning
With the researcher-constructed questionnaire, the list of words

commonly used by gays of Southern Leyte State University – Tomas
Oppus was derived. Table 1 contains the words/phrases embodied in
the terminologies used by the gays in SLSU-TO.
Table 1. Words commonly used by gays of Southern Leyte State

University- tomas oppus
GAY WORD MEANING GAY WORD MEANING
atup whore tuyi love making
otad rich yagal pennis
toyab gay okad huge
ikal guy talib vagina
166
girlfriend/
bayu apuch oral sex
boyfriend
abas noisy ibal lips
sagub rice ohab foul odor
yatap dead yamag small/little
ejab girl yobmot lesbian
yohak tree arastuk spoon
obom petite rodinit fork
tilap buy asat cup
sotapas shoes tobma don’t know
gab bag awasa wife
ul-ol masturbate anab husband
kilab-kilab always repeating daling ugly
ngusib vagina ngowan face
sagal old waki you
kolu pennis aninag a while ago
id not aninas dress
eta older sister kohub hair
ayuk older brother atam eyes
nial different tobas understand
waguh dirty moni drink
tomoh smells good adsi fish
gobuh drunk/tipsy imal ug sawal nice body
yeko okey lec cellphone
gabmus punch okus angry
noak eat wajas dance
yatat father nawu-an it’s raining
tingal heaven nap bread
wabak carabao nadus viand
asab wet aap legs
abal wash tomak hands
eko-c coke atab child
aw nothing agus light
wakal walk itup white
asnik who moti black
167
ayis he/she timag use
dokil back ogil take a bath
gosub full ngaob crazy
alis them itnap panty
anyar queen trosh shorts
natawak thief alahab I don’t care
kabil backbite feirb brief
nongi ayis they said tikas painful
ocsid disco ladnas sandals
sitnub pregnant otab stone
yagabmunis indulge in fight yab house

they’re in a
wanat to see bayu alis
relationship
nahgad many gatah to give
noplis cell phone iibag night
orapal slap sotna suffer
yatnab aware of yawa fight
yakas ride orihil master
tawus write itlus-itlus rumor
oyaak very ogud blood
otul cook gawub separate
saro time otda-at let’s go
wasap food for pigs yopaks tired
norak now imalin delicious
nial others kuh ledesma underarm odor
nawu rain ngaobsing crazy/insane
konam chicken aninash dress
otda go anatsing let’s go
awatak laugh okush mad
nimas mirror erbopia poor
kali-h cry motogsing hungry
rasap pass idoshi no/not
aan there is yanansing mother
takirob whore tilapsing buy
irid here ngirevitz cat
168
yopak tired labmatz medicine
oat people alipya how much
dayab pay ab-abels mouth
kilab return yotots breast
ilad faster nayitch stomach
tini hot ohabi foul odor
otad rich tomuh-etch fragrant
amam mother rotome motorcycle
apap father orio dog
ayi his/her monica drink
kana son/daughter kolobiya dull
lepap paper tobash understand
sawag get out tikash painful
ori dog okush angry
ngeri cat ikals guy
ngilo charcoal ogobiya dull
roloc color amards drama
erbop poor donush follow
rotom motorcycle alish them
ahud two atnaks sing
layas skirt atabengs kid/child

they’re insecure/
ayus alis ohabengs foul odor
jealous
nadush viand itabea ugly
akush vomit lahamea expensive
okams I/me/my ngatubels debt
idso no/not dayabebang pay
nopahags yesterday ikalishing guy
gonuso fire motivation black/dark
ngolich nose sotomea sperm cell
abs-abs mouth talibyang vagina
liitch feet agabea shameless
kohubsina hair arkadabs friends
ohabyang foul odor alipsing how much
yamagi small/little watana see
169
abasing keep quiet awu shy
nets ten ngulob burial
motilyom dark/black Award scolded
gibutch water Awarding Ceremony scolded
otuliyang cook Famas Awards scolded
tomuhitchis fragrant nota cock/pennis
yatapsing dead nota bells cock/pennis
atame eyes notavells cock/pennis
soka me/I notation cock/pennis
iroopi poor go to hell erection
222. juninams a while ago Teri Aunor mad/angry
julditams strict luba Criticize
jumpernoms hell Tassel. cock/pennies
juestrams teacher Chaka doll Ugly
jusketeroms mosquito net Chaka Ugly
juntanams window Backstage looser/defeated
jamong all of you tombalata I don’t know
jokoy me/my/I shomalin Delicious
yuyots gay zerowena Nothing
kikiro guy jokejakjinis Joke
ngo face waz Nothing
shung-agiya to cook yesterday Yes
junun-unan paksiw bobokish Dull
junina clothes lugaritmus Place
jugpa slap tuseran forte sperm cell
jumbag punch singing bee Sing

expecting something
jugsak stab Palawan island that did not
happened
putting the
jupit pennies between shudi no/not
upper thighs
wawe shy ibajelyn Girl
kiki guy chonle Lechon
tomjones hungry yabyabon Seashore
wanggitz old
yots gay
170
sagovey rice
White or fair
itufyang
complexion
kawuv flower
lisuf gun
afmar go anywhere
tilaf buy
a-as where
kanabu companion
gatae give
okang mine
Morphological structures of the gays’ spoken discourse
As language is dynamic, changes ranging from languages’

phonological up to the discourse level can be expected. In the
morphological level of language, several morphological processes
gave way to the creation or coinage of new terminologies.
The gays’ spoken discourse is composed of words or phrases coined
or formed following different linguistic morphological processes.
The morphological process very commonly used in the formulation
or coinage of the gay lingo is simple reversal of the letters/sounds
within the word as evident in the gay words otad, yamag, yohak,
which were formed from the words dato (rich), gamay (small), and
kahoy (tree), respectively. The process is merely showing reversal of
the letters or graphical element of the word.
The table that follows shows the list of words formed by simple
reversal. Contained also in the table (third column) is the meaning of
the gay words to facilitate understanding of the terminologies.
Table 2. Simple reversal
GAY WORDS Word gay words are derived from MEANING
atup puta Whore
otad dato Rich
toyab bayot Gay
171
ikal Laki Guy
bayu uyab girlfriend/boyfriend
tuyi iyut love making
yagal lagay Pennies
okad dako Huge
talib bilat Vagina
abas saba Noisy
sagub bugas Rice
yatap patay Dead
ejab baje Girl
apuch chupa oral sex
ibal labi Lips
ohab baho foul odor
yamag gamay small/little
yobmot tomboy Lesbian
yohak kahoy Tree
obom mobo Petite
tilap palit Buy
sotapas sapatos Shoes
gab bag Bag
arastuk kutsara Spoon
rodinit tnidor Fork
asat tasa Cup
tobma ambot don’t know
awasa asawa Wife
ul-ol lo-lu Masturbate
kilab-kilab balik-balik always repeating
ngusib bisung Vagina
sagal lagas Old
kolu ulok Pennies
id di Not
anab bana Husband
daling ngil-ad Ugly
ngowan nawong Face
172
waki ikaw You
aninag ganina a while ago
aninas sanina Dress
eta ate olde sister
ayuk kuya older brother
nial lain Different
waguh hugaw Dirty
tomoh homot smells good
gobuh hubog drunk/tipsy
yeko okey Okey
gabmus sumbag Punch
noak kaon Eat
yatat tatay Father
kohub buhok Hair
atam mata Eyes
tobas sabot Understand
moni inom Drink
adsi isda Fish
imal ug sawal lami ug lawas nice body
lec cel Cellphone
okus suko Angry
wajas sajaw Dance
nawu-an uwan na it’s raining
tingal langit Heaven
wabak kabaw Carabao
asab basa Wet
abal laba Wash
eko-c coke Coke
aw wa Nothing
wakal lakaw Walk
asnik kinsa Who
ayis siya he/she
dokil likod Back
nap pan Bread
173
nadus sud-an Viand
aap paa Legs
tomak kamot Hands
atab bata Child
agus suga Light
itup puti White
moti itom Black
timag gamit use
ogil ligo take a bath
gosub busog Full
alis sila Them
anyar rayna Queen
natawak kawatan Thief
kabil libak Backbite
nongi ayis ingon sila they said
ocsid disco Disco
sitnub buntis Pregnant
yagabmunis sinumbagay indulge in fight
wanat tan-aw to see
nahgad daghan Many
noplis silpon cell phone
orapal laparo Slap
yatnab bantay aware of
yakas sakay Ride
tawus suwat Write
oyaak kayo Very
otul luto Cook
saro oras Time
ngaob boang Crazy
itnap panti Panty
trosh short Shorts
alahab bahala I don’t care
feirb brief Brief
tikas sakit Painful
174
ladnas sanda Sandals
otab bato Stone
yab bay House
bayu alis uyab sila they’re in a relationship
gatah hatag to give
iibag gabii Night
sotna antos Suffer
yawa away Fight
orihil lihiro Master
itlus-itlus sulti-sulti Rumor
ogud dugo Blood
gawub buwag Separate
otda-at adto ta let’s go
wasap pasaw food for pigs
norak karon Now
nial lain Others
nawu uwan Rain
konam manok Chicken
otda adto go
awatak katawa Laugh
nimas samin Mirror
kali-h hilak Cry
rasap pasar Pass
aan naa there is
takirob borikat Whore
irid diri Here
yopak kapoy Tired
oats tao People
dayab bayad Pay
kilab balik Return
ilad dali Faster
tini init Hot
otad dato Rich
amam mama Mother
175
apap papa Father
ayi iya his/her
kana anak son/daughter
lepap papel Paper
sawag gawas get out
ori iro Dog
ngeri ireng Cat
ngilo oling Charcoal
roloc color Color
erbop pobre Poor
rotom motor Motorcycle
ahud duha Two
layas sayal Skirt
ayus alis suya sila they’re insecure/jealous
Syllabic reversal is another morphological process employed by

gays in their terminologies. The gay terms such as aas ( asa which
means where ) , gatae ( tagae which means give ) , and okang are some
of the terms derived by gays through syllabic reverse. In this process
reversal of existing words comes by syllables. Table 3 shows the word-
formation process which is syllabic reverse.
Table 3. Syllabic reversal
GAY WORDS MEANING JUSTIFICATION
1. a-as where Asa
2. kanabu companion Kauban
3. gatae give Tagae
4. chonle lechon Lechon
5. yabyabon seashore Baybayon
6. watana see tan-awa
7. ngulob burial Lubong
Another word formation process is the simple reversal with

affixation. This process employs an addition of a phoneme and / or a
176
syllable before ( prefix ), after ( suffix ) or within ( infex) the word to

the reversed word. The table that follows presents gays’ terms which
are derived through simple reversal with affixes attached.
Table 4. Simple reversal with affixation
nadush viand sud-an + suffix h
akush vomit suka + suffix h
okams I/me/my ako + suffix ms
idso no/not di + suffix so
nopahags yesterday gahapon + suffix s
gonuso fire sunog + suffix o
ngolich nose ilong + suffix ch
abs-abs mouth ba-ba + suffix s
liitch feet tiil + suffix ch
kohubsina hair buhok+ suffix sina
ohabyang foul odor baho+ suffix yang
yopaks tired kapoy + suffix s
imalin delicious lami + suffix in
ngaobsing crazy/insane boang + suffix sing
aninash dress sanina + suffix h
anatsing let’s go tana + suffix sing
okush mad suko + suffix h
erbopia poor poor + suffix ia
motogsing hungry gotom + suffix sing
idoshi no/not di + suffix oshi
yanansing mother nanay + suffix sing
tilapsing buy palit + suffix sing
ngirevitz cat erring + suffix vitz
labmatz medicine tambal + suffix z
alipya how much pila + suffix ya
ab-abels mouth ba-ba + suffix els
yotots breast totoy + suffix s
177
nayitch stomach tiyan + suffix ch
ohabi foul odor baho + suffix i
tomuh-etch fragrant humot + suffix etch
rotome motorcycle motor + suffix e
orio dog iro + suffix o
monica drink inom + suffix ca
kolobiya dull bolok + suffix iya
tobash understand sabot + suffix h
tikash painful sakit + suffix h
okush angry suko + suffix h
ikals guy laki + suffix s
ogobiya dull bogo + suffix iya
amards drama dram,a + suffix s
donush follow sunod + suffix h
alish them sila + suffix h
atnaks sing kanta + suffix s
atabengs kid/child bata + suffix engs
ohabengs foul odor baho + suffix engs
itabea ugly bati + suffix ea
lahamea expensive mahal + suffix ea
ngatubels debt utang + suffix bels
dayabebang pay bayad + suffix ebang
ikalishing guy laki + suffix ishing
motivation black/dark itom + suffix vation
sotomea sperm cell tos + suffix omea
talibyang vagina bilat + suffix yang
agabea shameless baga + suffix ea
arkadabs friends barkada + suffix s
alipsing how much pila + suffix sing
yamagi small/little gamay + suffix i
abasing keep quiet saba + suffix ing
nets ten ten + suffix s
motilyom dark/black itom + siffix lyom
gibutch water tubig + suffix ch
178
otuliyang cook luto + suffix iyang
tomuhitchis fragrant humot + suffix itchis
yatapsing dead patay + suffix sing
atame eyes mata + suffix e
soka me/I ako + prefix s
iroopi poor poor + prefix I and suffix i
In the addition of the phoneme or syllable to the reversed words,

no definite pattern is seen; however, very common phonemes or affixes
are identified which include : sh, ms, so, s, ch, sina, yang, s, in, h, sing,
iyang, bels, ea ( eya ). These addition also projects gays’ creativity
which gave the word a different sound.
Another morphological process reflected in the formation of
terminologies in gays’ spoken discourse is clipping with affixation.
The new term is derived from existing words which are clipped or
cut (some syllables are omitted). The words like judtoy, juninams, and
kikiro are some of the words derived from this process. The table that
follows shows words employing clipping with affixation and on the
third column is the justification on the derived words.
Table 5. Clipping with affixation
Gay words Meaning Justification
judtoy went adto clipped into to + prefix jud and suffix y
juninams a while ago ganina clipped into nina + prefix ju and suffix ms
julditams strict maldita clipped into ldita + prefix ju and suffix ms
jumpernoms hell imperno clipped into mperno + prefix ju and suffix ms
juestrams teacher maestra clipped into estra + prefix ju and suffix ms
jusketeroms mosquito net musketero clipped into usketero + prefix j and suffix ms
juntanams window bintana clipped into ntana + prefix ju and suffix ms
jamong all of you kamo clipped into amo + prefix j and suffix ng
jokoy me/my/I ako clipped into ko + prefix jo and suffix y
yuyots gay bayot clipped into yot + prefix yu and suffix s
kikiro guy laki clipped into ki + prefix ki and suffix ro
ngo face nawng clipped into ng + suffix o
179
shung-agiya to cook Dung-ag clipped into ung-ag + prefix d and suffix iya
junun-unan paksiw inun-unan clipped into nun-unan + prefix ju
junina clothes sinina clipped into nina + suffix ju
jugpa slap sagpa clipped into pa + prefix jug
jumbag punch sumbag clipped into umbag + prefix j
jugsak stab dugsak clipped into gsak + prefix ju
putting the
jupit pennies between ipit clipped into pit + prefix j
upper thighs
wawe shy uwaw is clipped into waw + suffix e
kiki guy laki is clipped into kiki + suffix ki
tomjones hungry gutom is clipped into tom + suffix jones
wanggitz old tiguwang is cipped into wang + sufffx gitz
yots gay bayot is clipped into yot + suffix s
Some gay terms are derived by straightly using the existing terms
but with affixes attached. Words as zerowena, and yesterday are
some of the words employing this process. Table 7 contains gay terms
by using word straight with affixation.
Table 7. Straight words with affixation
Gay words Meaning Justification
1. zerowena nothing zero + suffix wena
2. jokejakjinis joke joke + suffix jakjinis
3. waz nothing wa + suffix z
4. yesterday yes yes + suffix terday
5. bobokish dull bobo + suffix kish
6. lugaritmus place lugar + suffix itmus
7. tuseran forte sperm cell tus + suffix eran + forte
8. singing bee sing sing + suffix ing + bee

9. Palawan expecting something that did not
palaw + suffix an + island
island happened
10. shudi no/not di + prefix shu
11. ibajelyn girl baje + prefix I + lyn
180
Another interesting process in which gay terms are formed is the

use of the existing terms or existing terms with affixes added but is
given another meaning which is based on the connotation derived
through images. The gay term nota for instance is used by the gays
to mean the penis since the image of the penis resembles that of the
musical note.
Table 8. Connotation through Images
nota cock/penis the image of a note is like the image of a penis
nota bells cock/penis nota evolves into nota bells
notavells cock/penis nota bells evolves into notavells
notation cock/penis notavells evolves into notation
A person who’s been stabbed experiences pain. It is just the

luba Criticize
same with a person being criticized.
Tassel cock/penis the image of a tassel is

The image of Chaka doll in the movie Bride of Chucky is
Chaka doll ugly
ugly.
Chaka ugly Chaka doll is shortened into Chaka.
The image of a backstage is at the back of a stage. It is just

Backstage looser/defeated the same with a person who is a looser, he/she is always at
the back.
CONCLUSION
Gay lingo defies the rules of the English grammar. Structurally,

gays would ungrammatically construct their utterances so that only
members of their group could understand. They would attach affixes to
familiar words creating meanings that do not coincide with the actual
meanings of the root. Gays were creative enough to express themselves
in a different way such that the discriminating heterosexuals would
not comprehend. Homosexuals use gayspeak as their shield from the
disapproving patriarchal society.
181
LITERATURE CITED
Lance, L. M.
2008 Social inequality on the college campus: a consideration
of homosexuality. College Student Journal. FindArticles.
com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/is_3_42/
ai_n28008972/; accessed on 25 Apr, 2011.
Casabal, N.V.
2008 Gay Language: Defying the Structural Limits of English
Language in the Philippines. Master’s Thesis, Lyceum of
Subic Bay, Philippines. http://150.ateneo.edu/kritikakultura/
images/pdf/kk11/gay.pdf; accessed on 25 April, 2011
Daniel, R.
2010 Gay Families. http://e-articles.info/e/a/title/Gay-Families/;
accessed on 26 April, 2011
Aniga, F.
2005 (March), “Homosexual Students and their Social Responsibility
and Acceptability: Gender Awareness, Development Integration”.
Unpublished Masters’ Thesis, Southern Leyte State University-
Tomas Oppus, San Isidro, Tomas Oppus, Southern Leyte.
182
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Perceptions of Secondary
School Teachers on the Utilization
of Educational Technology
VICPHER D. GARNADA
vdgarnada@yahoo.com
J.H. Cerilles State College
Dumingag Campus

Abstract - The study investigated the perceptions

of public and private secondary school teachers
in selected municipalities of Zamboanga del Sur
Province, Mindanao, Philippines on the utilization
of educational technology. The descriptive research
design is used in which questionnaire was employed as
main instrument in gathering data from the 132 public
and 34 private secondary school teachers. The study
revealed that majority of the respondents was female
and more or less 31 years of age. Most of them were
taking masters; Makabayan had a great share as to their
area of concentration. Nearly everyone was neophytes
with permanent status in the service and attended
1 to 3 times on trainings/seminars in educational
technology. The public secondary teachers mostly
utilized television, DVD player and radio/cassette
tape player, while majority of the private secondary
teachers utilized computer with internet connection,
computer printer and DVD player. The teachers both
in public and private secondary schools perceived
that they rarely used educational technology in their
183
teaching. They have uncertain disposition towards

the role of educational technology. The perceptions
of the two groups of respondents were no significant
difference between the responses of the public and
private secondary school teachers on the utilization of
educational technology.
Keywords – educational technology, perception,

utilization, secondary school teacher
INTRODUCTION
Technology permeates all sectors of our lives. Educators have been

under pressure to reform school through technology (Becker, 2001;
Mehlinger, 1996; Sheingold & Hardley, 1990). Its remarkable influences
improve today’s society especially in the field of education. Mentors
must be aware of their duty to convey the best quality education
to stakeholders. They must realize the importance of educational
technology to be integrated in the classroom instructions to improve
the students’ academic performance.
Teachers must stay ahead of the educational technology curve in
order to give their students the best possible educational experience.
There can be problems on the availability of any technology in school
because of inadequate budget. Or if there are any, nobody use because
of “technophobia”. Reluctance to incorporate computers can also be
attributed to unfamiliarity or basic conservatism.
In the last few years, many important changes have occurred in the
educational systems of the Asia-Pacific region which required teachers
to upgrade and refine their technology skills (Tan et.al., 1999). Most
countries in this region have been working hard the last few years to
develop policies and strategies for the schools to infuse technology
into schools (Williams 2000).
Working in an appropriately designed technology-rich
environment has the potential of producing a variety of positive
outcomes (Tiene&Luft, 2001): improved patterns of social interaction,
changes in teaching styles, more effective teaching, increased student
(and perhaps, teacher) motivation, and enhanced student learning.
184
Perceptions of Secondary School
Teachers on the Utilization of Educational Technology
Achieving this potential, however, is the challenge, and it requires the

correct vision of technology and its integration.
Cakir, Ismail (2006) stated that in recent years, a great tendency
towards the use of technology and its integration into the curriculum
has gained a great importance. Particularly, the use of video as an
audio-visual material in foreign language teaching classrooms has
grown rapidly because of the increasing emphasis on communicative
techniques, and it is obvious that the use of video is a great help for
foreign language teachers in stimulating and facilitating the target
language.
Fullan (2000), in a review of educational reform, reminds us that,
since technology is ubiquitous, the issue is not whether educational
technology is everywhere, but how we contend with it. He added that
as technology becomes more powerful, good teachers become more
indispensable.Today educators face many challenges. The number
of students enrolling in schools is increasing, at the same time the
number of teachers available to teach is decreasing. Schools continue
to deteriorate while academic standards rise. Technology can help
alleviate many of these problems (Weathersbee 2008).
In order to succeed in technology utilization, implementers must
come to realize that the technology itself cannot be the ultimate goal.
Those responsible for evaluating implementation must understand
the role that technology deserves in the teaching and learning process.
They need to understand that technology is not a means to an end.
Rather, it is simply a tool that when used efficiently and effectively,
can have a positive impact on students; zeal and impetus for school
(Rockman 1998).
Thus, teachers in Quality Learning Circle No.1 (QuaLCi-1) of the
Province of Zamboanga del Sur, Mindano, Philippines, comprising
the municipalities of Dumingag, Mahayag and Josefina could be
the enormous implementers in utilizing the available educational
technology to enhance learning of secondary school students.
This study looked into the perceptions of secondary school teachers

in QuaLCi-1 on the utilization of educational technology. Specifically,
185
the study sought to achieve the following objectives: (1) to describe

the profile of the public and private secondary school teachers; (2) to
determine the educational technology utilized by the respondents; (3)
to assess how often the respondents utilize educational technology; (4)
describe the perceptions of the respondents on the role of educational
technology utilization; (5) to relate the responses of the public and
private secondary school teachers on the role of educational technology
utilization.
The descriptive research design was used to attain the objectives

of the study. One hundred sixty-six (166) teachers from the selected
private and public secondary schools in Zamboanga del Sur Division,
comprising Dumingag, Mahayag and Josefina towns with secondary
schools. This study was purposely conducted in this area because the
researcher believes that there is a need for the teachers to understand
and to realize the impact of educational technology utilization.
The instrument used in the study was divided into four parts. Part
I drew out the respondents’ profile as age, sex, area of concentration,
length of service, status of employment, experience on the use of
educational technology and number of trainings/seminars attended in
educational technology. Part II identified the educational technology
utilized. Part III pertained to the extent of educational technology
utilization. Part IV concerned with the perception of respondents on
the role of educational technology utilization adopted from the study
of Dr. Sunday Taiwo. It used the 5-point rating scale – (5)strongly
agree, (4) agree, (3) uncertain, (2) disagree and (1) strongly disagree.
An approved permission was taken from the Schools Division
Superintendent in Department of Education (DepEd) Zamboangadel
Sur before the administration and distribution of questionnaires to the
respondents. After the retrieval process, the researcher went through
the process of tallying, computation, analysis, and interpretation of
data. In analyzing the data, descriptive statistics such as frequency,
percentage, rank and weighted mean were used. Frequency was used
to determine the distribution of the respondents in each category.
Percentage was used to determine the position of the respondents in
186
each educational technology utilized and the position in the scale of

comparison. Rank order was used to describe the positional importance
of an item in relation to other items as shown in the table. Weighted
mean was used to determine the perceptions of the respondents
toward the utilization of educational technology. To test the significant
difference between the perceptions of public and private secondary
school teachers on the utilization of educational technology, t-test was
used.
In terms of age, results show that most teachers both in public

and private high schools are in the age bracket between 31 to 40.
This indicates that a greater portion of the respondents belong to the
younger generation of teachers. When it comes to sex, data show that
most of the secondary school teachers in QuaLCi-1 are dominated by
females even to sum both public and private high school teachers.
In regard to the area of concentration of the respondents, out of 132
public secondary school teachers, results reveal both in public and
private school more teachers are in the area of Makabayan since it is
composed of MAPEH, Araling Panlipunan, Technology and Home
Economics and Values Education subjects.
For educational attainment, it has been observe that the respondents
have started to enrich themselves professionally. Results also show
that most of the respondents are considered neophytes both in public
and private secondary schools who got the highest percent share. It
also indicates that permanent status of employment got the highest
percent share among the responses. They give more importance on the
benefits that can be obtained if they are permanent in the service.
The table also shows the respondents’ consideration on the
experience of the use of educational technology. It shows that most of
the respondents both in public and private schools believed that they
are intermediate and that they can work independently, but have lots
more to learn on the use of educational technology. When it comes to
the number of training/seminars attended in educational technology.
It has been observed that most of the respondents both in public and
private secondary schools had attended 1 to 3 times on trainings/
187
seminars. They felt their lack of knowledge and skills on the utilization
of available educational technology.
Educational Technology Utilized
It is observed that for public secondary school teachers, television

ranked first, while for private secondary school teachers, computer
with internet connection ranked first. These are commonly available
educational technology utilized by the respondents in their respective
schools. It was found out that among the 22 educational technologies
presented, media player (MP3) and media player (MP4) got the
lowest response and ranked last. It is because these are not commonly
available for classroom utilization.
Utilization of Educational Technology by the Public Secondary

School Teachers
From the list of educational technology, eight were noted by

the respondents as “sometimes” utilized. These equipment include
television, DVD player, VCD player, radio/cassette tape player, radio/
cassette recorder, computer (stand alone), printer (computer) and
microphone (wired or wireless). According to the public secondary
teachers, they “rarely” utilized the following educational technology:
digital camera, still camera, slide projector, computer with internet
connection, computer in a network connection, speaker (computer),
overhead projector and photocopier and they “never” utilized gadgets
such as media player 3 and media player 4.
The respondents from this group considered their less extent of
utilization of the educational technology because in most cases, only
the laboratory subjects utilize this educational technology equipment.
Utilization of Educational Technology by the Private Secondary

School Teachers
From the list of twenty-two educational technology, only four

were identified by this group of respondents as “often” utilized. These
include the computer (stand alone), computer with internet connection,
188
computer in a network connection and computer printer. Among

these educational technology, seven were noted by the respondents
as “sometimes” utilized, which include television set, DVD player,
VCD player, radio/cassette player, radio/cassette recorder, speaker
(computer)and microphone (wired or wireless). According to the
private secondary teachers, they “rarely” utilized the following: laptop,
digital camera, slide projector, LCD projector, overhead projector and
photocopier. In addition, they “never” utilized still camera, video
camera, scanner, media player 3 and media player 4.
Results show that educational technology can still be rarely and
even never utilized in private schools due to lack of funding source
to acquire such equipment. Some also are not available for teaching
utilization.
Compared Responses of Public and Private Secondary School

Teachers
The respondents have varied views with regard to how often

they utilized educational technology. The public secondary teachers
had viewed television as utilized to fair extent, followed by the radio/
cassette tape player, which got the weighted average means of 3.10
and 3.03, respectively. On the other hand, the private secondary
teachers generally identified the computer printer to have high extent
of utilization followed by the computer in a network connection. It
can be deduced from the result that the private secondary teachers
highly utilized the information technology equipment rather than the
audio-visual equipment which fairly utilized by the public secondary
teachers. However both public and private teachers showed common
views on the less extent of utilization of educational technology of
which generally had an average mean of 2.30. It can be implied that
even if the respondents’ schools are in public or private, there is a
tendency that commonly the respondents had utilized to less extent
on educational technology.
189
Perceptions of Public Secondary Teachers toward the Role of

Educational Technology Utilization
Out of 25 statement presented, it is in item no. 14 where the

respondents rated high as affirmed by the highest weighted average
mean value of 4.25. They claimed to have a very high perception
towards the use of educational technology and should be encouraged
in school since they viewed it that will enhance their work.
However, the public secondary teachers were uncertain on
their perception toward the statement that educational technology
should be considered by the teacher as a device which saves teacher
preparation as evidence by the weighted average mean of 3.27. On the
other hand, they disagree that educational technology like television,
radio, stereo, cassette, etc. are manufactured not for learning, but for
relaxation as manifested by the lowest weighted average mean of
2.02. They believed that these equipment could be of great help in the
teaching-learning process.
Generally, the overall mean of 3.11 describes the respondents’
perceptions toward the utilization of educational technology as
uncertain. Most teachers have vague ideas to it because they could
not imagine how these media could be used without threatening
the traditional role, or at best position of classroom teachers. As well
as they are doubtful if these technology could really improve their
teaching skills that later enhance student achievement.
190
Table 1. Perceptions of public secondary teachers toward

the role of educational technology
Adjectival
Statement WAM
Equivalent
1. I believe I can teach well even when educational technology 3.55 Agree
is not available.
2. Students are dehumanized when educational technology 3.00 Uncertain
alone is used in institution.
3. Educational technology should be considered by the teacher 3.25 Uncertain
as a solution to problem of teacher’s shortage.
4. In any teaching-learning situation, teachers need no help 2.46 Disagree
from any source.
5. Television adds interest but teaches little. 2.89 Uncertain
6. The use of educational technology per se makes teacher 2.33 Disagree
redundant.
7. Educational technology should be considered by the teacher 3.27 Uncertain
as a device which saves teacher preparation.
8. Educational technology like television, radio, video, cassette, 2.02 Disagree
etc. are manufactured not for learning, but for relaxation.
9. The use of educational technology per se does not make 2.11 Disagree
better use of teacher’s time and sooner or later the teacher
may be declared unwanted.
10. Educational technology dictates to the teacher and thus limits 2.19 Disagree
his freedom.
11. Course of instruction taught by radio, tapes and recorders are 2.30 Disagree
bad because they not specify what the role of teacher will be.
12. Computer-assisted instruction is ineffective because it does 2.25 Disagree
not make better use of teacher’s time.
13. The major use of educational technology is to assist the 4.21 Agree
teacher by enhancing his/her effectiveness in the classroom.
14. The use of educational technology should be encouraged in 4.25 Agree
school because it enhances the work of teachers.
15. Teachers use educational technology because they see it as a 4.23 Agree
partner in progress.
16. I believe I can only teach well when I use educational 3.05 Uncertain
technology.
17. Both educational technology and teacher are indispensable 3.76 Agree
to each other.
18. The effectiveness of any teaching-learning situation depends 4.07 Uncertain
on the combination of teacher and educational technology.
19. No matter what method a teacher employs, without the use 2.82 Agree
of educational technology the quality of such learning is poor.
20. Educational technology, when used with teacher, provides 4.19 Uncertain
the teacher with the means of extending the horizon of
experience.
OVERALL MEAN 3.11
191
Perceptions of Private Secondary Teachers toward the Role of

Educational Technology
The revealed responses in Table 2 illustrate the perceptions of

private secondary teachers toward the role educational technology
utilization. With the 25 statement presented, item no. 15 got the highest
weighted average mean value of 4.62. They strongly asserted that
teachers use educational technology because they see it as a partner
in progress.
On the other hand, the same respondents in private schools were
uncertain on their perceptions toward the statement that educational
technology should be considered by the teacher as a device which
saves teacher preparation as manifested with the weighted average
mean of 3.47. However, a great number of respondents disagree on the
statement that computer-assisted instruction is ineffective because it
does not make better use of teacher’s time as evidenced in the lowest
weighted average mean of 2.09.
In general, the overall mean of 3.29 describes the perception of
private secondary teachers on the utilization of educational technology
as uncertain. Majority of the teachers have undecided disposition
toward the role of these educational technology in the teaching-
learning situation.
192
Table 2. Perceptions of Private Secondary Teachers

Toward the Role of Educational Technology
Adjectival
Statement WAM
Equivalent
1. I believe I can teach well even when educational technology 3.53 Agree
is not available.
2. Students are dehumanized when educational technology 3.18 Uncertain
alone is used in institution.
3. Educational technology should be considered by the 3.79 Agree
teacher as a solution to problem of teacher’s shortage.
4. In any teaching-learning situation, teachers need no help 2.47 Disagree
from any source.
5. Television adds interest but teaches little. 2.82 Uncertain
6. The use of educational technology per se makes teacher 2.59 Uncertain
redundant.
7. Educational technology should be considered by the 3.47 Uncertain
teacher as a device which saves teacher preparation.
8. Educational technology like television, radio, video, 2.24 Disagree
cassette, etc. are manufactured not for learning, but for
relaxation.
9. The use of educational technology per se does not make 2.26 Disagree
better use of teacher’s time and sooner or later the teacher
may be declared unwanted.
10. Educational technology dictates to the teacher and thus 2.24 Disagree
limits his freedom.
11. Course of instruction taught by radio, tapes and recorders 2.35 Disagree
are bad because they not specify what the role of teacher
will be.
12. Computer-assisted instruction is ineffective because it does 2.09 Disagree
not make better use of teacher’s time.
13. The major use of educational technology is to assist the 4.50 Agree
teacher by enhancing his/her effectiveness in the classroom.
14. The use of educational technology should be encouraged in
school because it enhances the work of teachers. 4.53 Strongly Agree
15. Teachers use educational technology because they see it as
a partner in progress. 4.62 Strongly Agree
16. I believe I can only teach well when I use educational
technology. 3.18 Uncertain
17. Both educational technology and teacher are indispensable
to each other. 3.85 Agree
18. The effectiveness of any teaching-learning situation
depends on the combination of teacher and educational 4.32 Agree
technology.
19. No matter what method a teacher employs, without the
use of educational technology the quality of such learning 3.53 Agree
is poor.
20. Educational technology, when used with teacher, provides
the teacher with the means of extending the horizon of 4.32 Agree
experience.
OVERALL MEAN 3.29 Uncertain
193
Table 3. Difference Between the Responses of the Public

and Private Secondary School Teachers on the Utilization of
Educational Technology
School Mean Standard Deviation Computed t-value Critical t-value

Public X1 = 46 SD1 = 14.57
Private X2 = 55 SD2 = 12.92 t = .623 t = 1.645
t = .623 cv = 1.645
df = 164 p = .05
The findings reveal that the computed t-value of .62 does not
exceed the critical value of 1.645 with 164 degrees of freedom at .05
level of significance; hence there is no sufficient evidence to reject the
null hypothesis. Therefore, there is no significant difference variation
as to the responses of public and private secondary school teachers
toward the role of educational technology utilization.
Both groups manifested similar responses regarding the role of
educational technology utilization. The unavailability of these media
leads to the lack of skills of knowledge of teachers.
CONCLUSIONS
Greater part of public and private secondary school teachers are

female, new in the service, have lots to improve in using educational
technology and seldom attended trainings/seminars in educational
technology. The public secondary schools could only afford audio and
visual instructional materials, whereas the private secondary schools
can even embraced the newest information technology available such
as the Internet. Thus, a clear gap on the availability of resources among
different schools. Educational technology was not very extensively
utilized in both public and private secondary schools. The teachers’
perceptions on the role of educational technology are apparently the
same. They are all doubtful of how these media could improve their
teaching skills and how could it become their partner in progress.
Lastly, the respondents’ rare utilization of available educational
194
technology leads to their uncertain perception on the role of educational

technology in teaching-learning process.
As recommended, teacher’s use of educational technology should
be encouraged and must be addressed by the school administrators
since it enhances students to learn more. If possible, any educational
technology available must be utilized and maximized. Strategies and a
well-planned program must be fully implemented and realized.
LITERATURE CITED
Becker, H.J.
2001 How are teachers using computers in instruction? Paper
presented at the 2001 meeting of the American Educational
Research Association. Retrieved: January 28, 2009 from http://
www.crito.uci.edu/tlc/FINDINGS/special3/
Cakir, I.
2006 The Use of Video as an Audio-Visual Material in Foreign
Language Teaching Classroom. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology , 5(4), 71-72.
Fullan, M.
2000 The three stories of education reform. Phi Delta Kappan,
81(8), 581–584.
Mehlinger, H. D.
1996 School reform in the information age. Phi Delta Kappan, 400-
407.
Rockman, I. F.
2004 Integrating information literacy into the higher education
curriculum: Practical models for transformation. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sheingold, K., & M. Hadley

1990 Accomplished teachers: Integrating computers into classroom
practices. New York: NY. Bank Street College of Education,
Center for Technology in Education.
195
Taiwo, S.
2009 Teachers’ Perception of the Role of Media in Classroom
Teaching in Secondary Schools. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, V8, pp.82-83.
Tiene, D., &P.Luft

2001 Teaching in a technology-rich classroom. Educational
Technology, 41(4), 23–31.
Williams M.D.
2000 Integrating Technology Into Teaching and Learning; Concepts
and Applications. Jurong, Singapore: Pearson Education Asia
Pte Ltd.
Weathersbee, J.C.
2008 “Impact of Technology Integration on Academic Performance
of Texas School Children”.Internet.Applied Research Projects.
Paper272.Available:http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/272.
January 27, 2009.

196
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Phytochemical and Pesticidal Properties

SOLITA EVANGELINE S. BAÑEZ
solitabanez@yahoo.com
LIZA CASTOR
University of Northern Philippines

Abstract - The study was conducted to test the

phytochemical screening and insecticidal testing
of Barsanga (Cyperus rotundus Linn). This study
made use of the experimental research design in
actual laboratory set-up. Three phases were included
in the pursuit of this study: the extraction process,
the qualitative test (phytochemical screening ) and
pesticidal test. Results showed that the ethanol
extracts of the leaves, stems and roots of barsanga
contain therapeutic components such as alkaloids,
tannins, flavonoids and sterols. This implies that the
plant is a good source of treatment for hypertension,
tumor, wounds, sores, boils, stomachache, diarrhea,
sore throat, burns, ulcer, nasal congestion, cough,
hemorrhage, malaria, other rectal disorders, viral
and fungal infections, inflammatory and cytotoxic
activities. The plant is not an excellent emulsifying
agent because it does not contain saponins and
therefore cannot be used as detergent to replace soap.
The Libermann-Burchard test for triterpenes showed
negative results which implies then that barsanga is
not a good source of Vitamin A. The tuber of Barsanga
(Cyperus rotundus Linn.) can be made into an effective
197
pesticide. It is more effective than Carbamate and has

almost the same efficacy as that of Organophosphate.
Based on the conclusions, the researchers present the
following recommendations: a follow-up study should
be conducted to quantify, isolate and identify the type
of alkaloids, tannins, saponins, sterols and flavonoids
present in barsanga (Cyperus rotundus Linn.,the
plant is recommended for microbiological and other
pharmacological screenings; further studies on the
plant’s therapeutic properties should be conducted
by interested researchers and drug companies; and
the plant should be included in the compilation and
documentation of medicinal plants in the Philippines
through REDTI,NRCP, DOST and UP and be indexed
at the Plant Resources of Southeast Asia (PROSEA).The
use of barsanga tubers as an ecology friendly pesticides
can be integrated in the production technology package
of local agricultural production.
INTRODUCTION
Plants are used by man in a variety of ways. Some are used for
landscaping and ornamentation, others for medicine while some
plants are also used in botanical pesticides.
Insect pests have been one of man’s most serious problems. Insects
are great nuisance because they increase in number, they cause diseases
such as H-fever, malaria, dengue, filariasis, etc. and they destroy crops.
Most pesticides today are synthetic and petroleum-based
chemicals. The increasing use of these pesticides poses dangers to
every living organism in the food chain.
It has been estimated that to develop a pesticide costs 45 million
dollars. Considering the cost and the environmental problems
that synthetic pesticides bring, the agricultural sector is looking for
alternatives order to switch to natural pesticides. In the countryside,
for example, some people burn dried peelings of lanzones to drive
away mosquitoes.
Another great social concern at present is expensive medicines that
ordinary people cannot afford to buy. The Department of Science and
198
Technology is developing medicines from plants and is encouraging

the use of herbal medicines. Besides being economical, medicinal
plants are effective and safe if properly used.
With these aforementioned reasons, the researchers investigated
the “barsanga” scientifically known as Cyperus rotundus Linn., a
common weed prevalent at the Philippines particularly in open areas
at low and medium altitudes. It is very common in lawns, along roads,
and waste places. It is pantropic in distribution.
The tuberous rhizome is slightly fragrant, and according to Chopra
it contains essential oils. Hooper adds that the fragrance resembles
lemon and cardamom. Nadkarni states that the tubers contain fat,
carbohydrates, albuminous matter, starch, fiber and alkaloids.
Quisumbing (1951) cited Tavera stating that in the Philippines,
“barsanga” is used for the treatment of dysentery. Furthermore, he cited
Chopra, Kirtikal, Basu, and Nadkarni stating that in India, the roots
are used medicinally and are demulcent. In China, Hooper reports that
the tubers are also used as tonic, stimulant and stomachic. Nadkarni
adds that the fresh tubers are applied to the breast in the form of paste
or warm plaster as a galactagogue; and when dried, they are applied
to spreading ulcers.
Commercial insecticides and drugs are very expensive that the
common “tao” cannot afford to buy them. Most of all, these have many
disadvantages because they cause air pollution and deplete the ozone
layer.
The researchers studied the therapeutic and pesticidal properties
of “barsanga” (Cyperus rotundus Linn.) because this plant is abundant in
the locality. Pesticides and drugs that will be made out from this plant
are environment-friendly and cheap.
The study was conducted to perform phytochemical screening,

and insecticidal testing of “barsanga” (Cyperus rotundus Linn.)

Specifically it tried to:
1. Determine the chemical constituents present in the leaves, stems
and roots of barsanga.
199
2. Test the efficacy of barsanga insecticides on the following test

insects: a) ants, b) aphids, c) flies and, d) cockroaches;
3. Determine the significant difference between and among the
three pesticides: barsanga and two commercial pesticides (X and Y)
using different test insects.
Scope and Delimitation
The focus of the study was to perform phytochemical screening,

and insecticidal testing of “barsanga” (Cyperus rotundus, Linn.)
Furthermore, it was conducted to find out the effectiveness
of barsanga as an insecticide against harmful insects. The product
was compared to two commercial insecticides: X (non systemic,
organophosphorous emulsifiable concentrate) and Y (with methomyl
and inert ingredient).
In the determination of the therapeutic components, only
qualitative tests were done. Quantitative test was beyond the scope
of the study. Only the stems, leaves and roots were subjected for
phytochemical analysis and only the tubers were used for pesticidal
testing.
The air drying and extraction processes were conducted in the UNP
Laboratory Room in July . The qualitative tests were done at DOST
Bicutan Taguig, Metro Manila in August-September . The pesticidal
test was done at Manangat Caoayan, Ilocos Sur and Salindeg, Vigan
City in April-May .
FRAMEWORK
The experimental paradigm showing the variables and their

interrelationships is presented in Figure 1.
200
Figure 1. Diagram showing the variables

and experimental processes.
The first frame shows the plant parts of barsanga which were used
as input variable in the study.
The second frame shows the processing variables. They refer to
the main processes involved in the study. These processes were: the
air-drying and extraction process and qualitative test (phytochemical
screening) and pesticidal test.
The third frame shows the output variables which refer to the
findings of this study as barsanga having therapeutic and pesticidal
properties.
Bañez, (2002) performed phytochemical screening of linlina-
aw (Peperomia pellucida Linn.) and determined its analgesic, diuretic
and antihypertensive properties. This is similar to the present study
because she also determined the chemical properties present in the
plant. They differ in the pharmacological aspect, because vermifugal
properties and toothache drop test were done. These were not included
in the previous study. Other aspects are herbal polvoron making with
201
barsanga included as an ingredient; and the pesticidal properties were

tested on ants, aphids, mosquitoes, houseflies, and cockroaches which
were not investigated in the previous study.
Morallo-Rejesus, et al. (1979) studied the insecticidal activity of
two purified principles from the roots of both tagestes (marigold) and
makabuhai (Tinospora rumpi Boer L.) by topical application. Two varieties
of marigold, tagestes erecta and tagestes patula were compared. Results
showed that the principles from T. patula L. was more than T. erecta
L. against housefly and diamond blackmoth but the reverse was true
against the rice green leaf hoppers. Principles from T. patula L. were
five times less toxic than malathion against housefly while acephate
and isoprocarb were equally as toxic as these principles against
diamond blackmoth and rice green leafhopper, respectively. These two
principles were identified as 5- (3-buten l-ynyl) -2-2-bithienyl (PA) and
terthienyl (PB) by infrared and ultra violet spectral analysis.
The study of Morallo (1979) is similar to the present study because
he determined the insecticidal property of the plant and made use
of housefly test insects, however it differs from the present study
because he didn’t include phytochemical analysis and vermifugal and
toothache drop tests. He made use of two plants and he used different
insects such as diamond blackmoth and rice green leafhopper. The
present study made use of barsanga (Cyperus rotundus Linn.) and
aphids, mosquitoes, ants and cockroaches as test animals.
Alcantara (1981) conducted a study on the insecticidal activity
of Ageratum conyzoides L. (bulak manok). The chloroform extract of
the leaves of this plant was separated into crude fractions by layer
chromatography and tested for insecticidal activity against four insect
pests, namely: Drosophila melanogaster, Musca domestica, Strophilus
zearmais and Drysdercus cingulatrus. Several fractions were highly
toxic against D. melanogaster and D. cingulatus. These results were
comparable with that obtained for the standard insecticide, malathion.
The study of Alcantara is similar to the present study because he

extracted the plant and studied its insecticidal property. It differs with
the present study because he didn’t perform phytochemical screening,
vermifugal, toothache drop test and polvoron taste test which were
included in the present study. He made use of different insect pests
202
and he used chloroform to extract the plant instead of ethanol which

was used in this study.
This section presents the design of the study, the materials used,
the experimental procedures and statistical treatment of the study.
Design of the study. This study made use of the experimental

research design in actual laboratory set-up. Five phases were included:
Phase I. The gathering, air drying, the garbling and extraction

processes were included in this phase.
Phase II. The qualitative tests for phytochemical screening to

determine the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, saponins,
flavonoids, triterpenes and sterols in the leaves, stems, and roots of
barsanga.
A. Materials
Qualitative Tests
Barsanga leaves, stems, and roots Spatula

Weighing balance Distilled water
Glass funnel Waterbath apparatus
Ethyl alcohol Filter paper
Petroleum ether Erlenmeyer flasks
Test tubes Beakers
Testtube rack Medicine dropper
Graduated cylinder Glass rod
Test tube brush Pipette
Evaporating dish Test tube holder
Ethyl alcohol

This portion deals with the experimental procedures which were
strictly followed during the conduct of this study.
203
B. Method
Phase I. Preparation of Extracts
Fresh leaves, stems, roots of barsanga were gathered in Metro

Vigan. They were washed thoroughly and air-dried for a week.
The leaves, stems and roots were finely cut into small pieces. Five
hundred grams of the finely cut materials were placed in an Erlenmeyer
flask and were weighed in a balance. The material was completely
submerged in a sufficient amount of ethyl alcohol, stoppered and
soaked for twenty-four hours. Then it was filtered through a glass
funnel.
The plant material was rinsed with 95% ethyl alcohol. Garbling
was done by removing all extraneous matters such as insects, dirt,
dust, etc. Extraction was done in water bath and rotavap apparatus.
The filtrates were concentrated under vacuo to about fifty milliliters.
The exact volume of the concentrated extracts was measured. The
extracts were transferred in tightly stoppered containers were stored
inside a refrigerator. The extracts were ready for chemical analysis.
Phase II. Qualitative Tests (Phytochemical Screening)

Phytochemical screening determined the presence of alkaloids,
glycosides, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, triterpenes and sterols in
the stems, leaves and roots of barsanga. Methods and procedures were
adopted from the Chemistry Division, Department of Science and
Technology, Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila that included the following:
Screening for Alkaloids (Alkaloidal test for leaves, stems and

roots). Ten milliliters of the ethanol extract was evaporated to syrup
consistency on an evaporating dish over a water bath. Five milliliters
of hydrochloric acid solution was added to the concentrated extract
while heating. The solution was stirred for about five minutes, then,
cooled to room temperature. To this was added about 0.5 gram of
sodium chloride powder. It was stirred and enough fresh hydrochloric
acid solution was added that brought the filtrate to a final volume of 3
milliliters. The solution was divided in two test tubes.
204
In the first test tube, 1 milliliter aliquot and a few drops of Mayer’s
reagent were added. The formation of precipitate upon the addition of
the Mayer’s reagent was suggestive of the presence of alkaloids.
In the second test tube, a few drops of Wagner’s reagent were
added and a precipitate for Wagner’s test indicated a positive result.
Test for Glycosides (Fehling’s Test). Ten milliliters of ethanol

extract was dissolved in a hot water and filtered. The filtrate was used
for the test. Two (2) ml each sample was placed in two test tubes. To
sample 1:1 ml diluted HCL was added. To sample 2, nothing was
added. Then the two test tubes were heated in a boiling water bath
for 5 minutes. Then the test tubes were cooled. Both were neutralized
with anhydrous sodium carbonate until no more effervescence was
produced. Fehling’s solution was added, then, the two test tubes were
heated over again in a water bath for two minutes. An increase in the
amount of brick red precipitate in the hydrolyzed sample as compared
to the other sample indicated the presence of glycosides.
Test for Tannins (Gelatin Test). Ten milliliters of the ethanol

extract was dried over a water bath and then cooled. The residue
was re-extracted with twenty milliliters of hot distilled water, cooled.
Five drops of 10% sodium chloride solution was added to salt out
undesirable constituents and then the residue was filtered.
The filtrate was divided into two test tubes A and B. Test tube A
was kept as the control. To test tube B, 3 drops of 1% gelatin solution
was added. The formation of precipitates suggested the presence of
tannins.
Test for Saponins (Froth Test). Ten milliliters of the ethanol

extract was dissolved in hot water. The aqueous extract was shaken
vigorously for about thirty (30) seconds and was allowed to stand and
was observed over a period of thirty (30) minutes. The formation of
honeycomb froths at a height of three (3) cm indicated positive results.
Test for Flavonoids (Color test). Two milliliters of the leaf extract
was treated with two ml 10% hydrochloric acid and magnesium
turnings. Red coloration was indicative of flavonoid presence.
205
Test for Triterpenes and Sterols (Libbermann-Burchard Test).

Two milliliters of leaf extract was dissolved in acetic anhydride. The
soluble portion was decanted and to this, 1-2 drops of concentrated
sulfuric acid were added. A pink to red color was indicative of
triterpenes, while a pink to blue was indicative of sterols.
Phase III. Pesticidal Test
Materials/Equipment
Barsanga Tuberous Rhizomes Organophosphate

Carbamate 3 spray bottles
2 beakers 2 Erlenmeyer flasks
1 stirring rod mortar and pestle
iron stand wire gauge
alcohol lamp denatured alcohol
water basin
ants aphids
mosquitoes houseflies
cockroaches thin clean cloth
Procedure
1. Gather 2 kgs. of barsanga tuberous rhizomes.

2. Wash the barsanga tubers thoroughly with water in a basin. Let
the tubers dry for 20 min.
3. Pound the barsanga tubers using mortar and pestle.
4. Add 100 ml of ethyl alcohol to the pounded barsanga and soak
overnight.
5. Boil the barsanga with alcohol in a beaker for 25 minutes.
6. After boiling, allow it to cool, then take the barsanga tuberous
rhizomes from the container and extract the juice using a clean
thin cloth.
7. For every 75 ml of barsanga insecticide, add 25 ml of water.
8. Place the barsanga insecticide in a spray bottle.

206
Ants, aphids, houseflies and cockroaches were collected, and

placed in wooden box and covered with fine nets and sprayed with
barsanga insecticides. Places where the sample insects are found to be
abundant were also sprayed.
The sample insects were sprayed several times. The
barsanga insecticide was then compared to commercial ones like
Organophosphate and Carbamate to determine its effectiveness. The
insects were keenly observed.
Statistical Treatment
To test the data that were gathered in this study, the following
statistical tools were employed.
1. Rank was used to indicate the effectiveness of the insecticides

used, barsanga, Organophosphate and Carbamate.
2. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine
the significant differences in the efficacy of insecticides used.
The Scheffe Test was used to determine which insecticides were
significantly different.
RESULTS
Qualitative Test (Phytochemical Test)
The therapeutic components in the barsanga leaves, stems, and

roots are presented in Table 1.
Alkaloids. As shown in Table 1, a yellowish precipitate for

Mayer’s test and reddish precipitate for Wagner’s test indicated a
positive result. Alkaloids are used as analgesic and sedative. They
reduce pain (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright, 2003).
They are particularly useful to relieve cough and they lower the reflex
irritability of the respiratory center.
They are also antihypertensive antineoplastic agents and
demonstrate encolytic property (anti-tumor activity). They are used to
relieve nasal congestion, stop hemorrhage, stimulate muscles, combat
207
malaria and dilate the pupil of the eye (US Educator Encyclopedia,
1987 p.61). The leaves, stems and roots of barsanga could be a potential
cure for the above-mentioned illnesses.
Glycosides. There was no increase of brick red precipitate in the

hydrolyzed sample in Fehling’s test which indicated negative result on
the leaves, stems and roots of the plant. This indicated that barsanga
cannot heal heart failure.
Table 1. Qualitative test of barsanga leaves, stems and roots.
THERAPEUTIC ALCOHOLIC
INDICATORS
COMPONENTS EXTRACT
Alkaloids Traces (+)

Formation of yellowish and reddish precipitates
No increase of brick red precipitates
Glycosides Negative (-)
Heavy precipitates in the mixture
Tannins Traces (+)
No formation of honeycomb froths
Saponins Negative (-)
Formation of red color
Flavonoids Traces (+)
Production of blue color
Sterols Moderate (++)
Pink color did not change to red
Triterpenes Negative (-)

Tannins. A heavy precipitation in the mixture upon the addition of
gelatin solution was observed which indicated a positive result.
Recent reports show that tannins have potential medicinal value.
They could be used as a treatment for diarrhea and extensive burns
and maybe used for relief of various rectal disorders and excretion.
They can also be used in the treatment of bedsore and weeping ulcers.
These tannins were also formerly used for sore throat and stomatitis
(Anderson, 1985, p. 490). Therefore, the plant could be potential source
of treatment of the above-mentioned diseases.
Saponins. No formation of honeycomb froths at 3.2 centimeters

high in the froth test indicated a negative result. This means that the
leaves, stems and roots of barsanga are not emulsifying agents. They
cannot be used as detergents to replace soap.
208
Flavonoids. The color test for flavonoids yielded a positive result.

There was a formation of red color when the ethanol extract was
treated with hydrochloric acid and magnesium turnings. This implies
that barsanga has antifugal, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities
(Capal, 1992).
Sterols. A production of blue color in the Liebermann-Burchard

test indicated the presence of sterols. This means that the plant could
be a good source of medicine in the treatment of menstrual disorder
and rickets and it could also be a good source of Vitamin D.
Triterpenes. The Liebermann-Burchard test for triterpenes yielded

a negative result on the leaves, stems and roots of barsanga. The pink
color did not change to red which indicated the absence of triterpenes.
This means that the plant is not a good source of Vitamin A. (Cabatit,
1997).
Table 2 presents the effectiveness of the three pesticides used to
test insects.
Table 2 Result of comparison among the three pesticides

using different test insects
No. Of
Frequency Of Effect-Iveness
Kinds Of Species Morta-
Species Sprays Time Rank
Pesticides Treated Lity
1. Ants Organophosphate 10 5 9 10 (sec) 2
Barsanga 10 5 10 10 (sec) 1
Carbamate 10 5 7 12 (sec) 3
2. Aphids Organophosphate 10 3 9 9 (sec) 1
3. Houseflies Organophosphate 10 7 9 19 (sec) 1
4 .
Organophosphate 10 6 9 14 (sec) 1
Mosquitoes
209
5. Cock-
Organophosphate 10 8 8 3 (min) 1
roaches
Barsanga 10 8 7 3 (min) 2
Carbamate 10 8 6 4 (min) 3

As seen in Table 2 with the ants as test animals, “barsanga”
ranked first because after 10 seconds, all the test animals died (10);
Organophosphate ranked second with 9 ants dead after 10 seconds;
and the last was Carbamate with seven dead after 12 seconds.
With the aphids, houseflies, mosquitoes and cockroaches as test
animals, Organophosphate ranked first as far as efficacy is concerned
followed by barsanga and last was Carbamate.
From the above data, it could be observed that the bigger the insect
the harder it was to kill it.
Table 3 shows the ANOVA results on the mortality

of insects using three pesticides.

Table 3. ANOVA Table on the differences of mortality of insects
Sum of Critical
Source of Variation df MSS f-ratio Interpretation
Squares Value
Between groups 6.9333 2 3.46665

4.75
3.88 Significant
Within groups 8.88 12 0.73
Total 15.7333 14
The f-ratio of 4.75 is significant at 0.05 probability level. This means

that there is significant difference between and among the pesticides
used in killing the insects.
Since the f-ratio is found significant, this is further subjected to
t-test to determine which pairs of pesticides are significantly different.
Table 4 gives the result of the t-test on significant difference on the

mortality between and among the pesticides used.
210
Table 4. Result of t-test on the significant difference

between and among the pesticides
ORGANO-
PESTICIDES BARSANGA CARBAMATE
PHOSPHATE
Organosphosphate Barsanga 0.73 3.79*
Barsanga Carbamate ------ 1.9*
Carbamate -------- -------- --------
*Significant at 0.05 level
Organophosphate when compared to Carbamate yielded a

computed value of 3.79 which is higher than the t-value of 1.86. This is
significant at .05 probability level. This implies that Organophosphate
is more effective than Carbamate.
Barsanga pesticide when compared to Carbamate showed a
computed value of 1.9 which is higher than the t-value of 1.86. This is
significant at .05 probability level. This implies that barsanga is more
effective than Carbamate.
Organophosphate and barsanga when compared did not show
significant difference at .05 probability level, this implies that
Organophosphate has almost the same effectiveness as that of barsanga
pesticide.
CONCLUSION
The ethanol extracts of the leaves, stems and roots of barsanga

contain therapeutic components such as alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids
and sterols. This implies that the plant is a good source of treatment for
hypertension, tumor, wounds, sores, boils, stomachache, diarrhea, sore
throat, burns, ulcer, nasal congestion, cough, hemorrhage, malaria,
other rectal disorders, viral and fungal infections, inflammatory and
cytotoxic activities. The plant is not an excellent emulsifying agent
because it does not contain saponins and therefore cannot be used as
detergent to replace soap. The Libermann-Burchard test for triterpenes
showed negative results which implies then that barsanga is not a good
source of Vitamin A.
211
The tuber of Barsanga (Cyperus rotundus Linn.) can be

made into an effective pesticide. It is more effective than
Carbamate and has almost the same efficacy as that of
Organophosphate.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are presented, based on the

results of the study.
1. The barsanga tuber can be a good substitute for commercial

pesticides. It is environment-friendly because it does not
contribute to air pollution. The farmers should patiently
prepare barsanga tuber pesticide for their crops and to solve
their problems regarding expensive commercial pesticides. This
way, they, too, help save the earth from total destruction because
barsanga pesticide does not contain hazardous chemicals that
deplete the ozone layer.
2. The greater the weight of the insect, the longer should be its
period of exposure to the barsanga pesticidal spray and dosage
should also be higher.
3. A follow-up study should be conducted for pesticidal/
insecticidal testing on other species of insects using other kinds
of plants.
4. The toxicity level of Barsanga(Cyperus rotundus) should be
determined to pave a way to other pharmacological studies of
the plant.
5. The result of this research is recommended to be listed in the
compilation and documentation of Medicinal Plants in the
Philippines through REDTI, NRCP, DOST and UP and be
indexed at PROSEA, Plant Resources of Southeast Asia.
212
LITERATURE CITED
Alcantara, J.
1985 Insecticidal Activity Screening and Identification of Two Major
Crystalline Fractions in Ageratum Conyzoides L. Unpublished
Masters Thesis, U.P. Los Baños, 1981.
Anderson, B.
1985 Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences. Pennsylvania: Mack Pub.
Co., 1975.
Bañez, S. S.
1995 Phytochemical Screening and Pharmacological Testing of Sanggumay
Orchid (Dendrobium superbum Reichb). UNP Research Journal,
1995.
Bañez, S. S.
2001 Toxicologic Analysis of Linlinna-aw (Peperomia pellucida Linn.)
UNP Research Journal.
Capal
1992 A Manual on Extraction Procedures and Microbiological Assay of
Medicinal Plants. Manila: DOST.
Guevara and Recio.

1985 Phytochemical, Microbiological and Pharmacological Screening of
Medicinal Plants. Manila: UST Printing Press.
Isleta, N. I.
1992 Herdin Current Awareness. Herdin: PCHRD.
Rejesus, M. B.
1975 Insecticidal Activity of Selected Plants with Emphasis on Marigold
and Makabuhai. Manila: NRCP Annual Report.
213
Quisumbing, E.
1951 Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing.
Santos, A.
1985 Phytochemical Screening of Medicinal Plants. Manila: UST
Research Center.
US Educator Encyclopedia, 1986.
WEB SOURCE
http:// www.people vcu .edu/urdesai/car.htm

214
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Poverty’s Political Face: The Case

of Pasil, Cebu City
RHODERICK JOHN S. ABELLANOSA
rhoderickjohn_abellanosa@yahoo.com
Department of Political Science, School of Law and Governance
University of San Carlos, Cebu City

Abstract - Coming from the notions of AmartyaSen

and Robert Chambers, on poverty as “capability
deprivation” and “absence of well-being”, this
study seeks to portray a “political face” of the poor’s
condition. Beyond the usual depiction of the poor as
living below the “poverty line” what kind of lives do
they have in the much larger landscape of the structure
of power relations? How do they position themselves
vis-a-vis the powerful politicians and how do they
understand themselves as actors of political processes
such as elections? The study believes that beyond the
totalizing views of poverty in mainstream social science
scholarship, the poor’s portrayal and understanding
of their own condition must be considered, not to
replace the existing explanations and views but in
order to interrogate and eventually enrich some of its
assumptions. A particular village, i.e. Pasil is used as a
case in order to provide an empirical illustration of the
study. The said village is located in Cebu City, a bigger
proportion of which is a slum area. Methodologically,
the study uses qualitative data collection techniques
215
such as Focus Group Discussion and Key Informant

Interview; socio-political analysis and analyis of
interview and discussion transcriptions are part of the
interpretive process.
Keywords – poverty, political face, well-being,

participation, deprivation
INTRODUCTION
A number of literatures in recent years has pushed for a multi-

dimensional approach to poverty (World Development Report
2000/2001, 15; henceforth WDR). Maxwell (1993) argues that there is
no single right definition of poverty although “current thinking does
allow some simplification.” It has spurred the social imaginations of
many social scientists and philosophers to think further about how
this world can reduce the number of people with limited resources
and capabilities (Vaughan 2009; Mead 1996); perhaps there is no other
universal attempt that best concretizes this other than the United
Nations MDG to reduce global poverty by 2015. But as a political
scientist rightly puts it, it “will continue to pose one of the most
difficult challenges for political theorists, economists, politicians, and
societies” (Vaughan 2009: 15) and if I may add, for policy makers and
development workers as well.
Therefore, within the context of a pluralist society that calls for
inter-disciplinarity in the arena of public discourse, individuals or
institutions who are concerned with the poor and all those whose
efforts are directed to poverty alleviation must continually think and
rethink their frameworks and approaches. Raquiza’s (2008) explanation
is built on the poverty literatures of Laderchi, Glewwe and Der Gaag,
Greeley, among others (1998):
How poverty is defined flows from epistemological assumptions
which cannot be taken for granted. As well-argued in the literature,
these assumptions and definitions of poverty have serious
implications in how poverty is measured, who is targeted, and what
policies are eventually formulated.
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of Pasil, Cebu City
A review of the different views on poverty would show that a single

approach or view (say monetary/income poverty) has its inherent
theoretic deficit. An example of this is a philosophical approach to
poverty, particularly Marxism. From a Marxist reading poverty is an
inevitable consequence of a capitalist mode of production. Any analyst
or social scientist who comes from this bias would not analyze the
phenomenon in terms of deprivations or capabilities but merely as a
consequence of a class divide – where capitalists dominate and sustain
such privileged domination in the superstructure. They use the State
and its legal system, the military and even religion/s in order to conceal
the false consciousness, the ideology which further conceals alienation.
Lenin’s interpretation of Marx stretched the analysis further and up to
the international or global level where capitalism reaches its highest
level in imperialism. A Marxist analysis, particularly that which comes
from the revolutionary strand, of poverty in the contemporary time –
interprets the phenomenon as a consequential pathology of western
expansionism that has been facilitated in the most diplomatic way, that
is, through trade liberalization, removal of protectionist provisions,
transplantation and implantation of western hegemonic culture in
non-western States – albeit globalization.
Philosophical approaches to poverty (like Marx’s) are powerful
sources of symbolic explanations that could heighten human passion
to struggle more for the removal of unjust structures. There also
are reflexive and heuristic values in such approach. However, a
philosophical reading or analysis of poverty is limited in that its
tendency is towards abstraction where in the end it may get stuck in
speculative explanations or “ought to be statements”. This approach
to poverty relocates the supposed-to-be central issue (poverty) to the
margins of the discussion, where it becomes relatively significant to
more central philosophical concerns like freedom and equality. Both
method and framework prevent the social or political philosopher
from giving empirical and quantifiable answers on the measure or
extent of poverty, and more importantly, as to who is poor.
The limitations of the above mention approach brings us to one of
the approaches to poverty in the Social Sciences. One of the economic
approaches to poverty is the income or monetary approach, which
discriminates the poor from the non-poor using a poverty threshold,
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which is defined as the minimum income or expenditure that is

required of an individual or family in order to meet the basic food
and non-food requirements. No less than our Republic Act (8425)
defines poverty as living in a conditions whether as an individual
or as a family – below the poverty threshold (National Statistical
Coordinating Board 2006, hence NSCB). Determining as to who is
poor is easier using the poverty threshold. Certainly, all those families
or households whose incomes are below the standard set (by whatever
state agency is tasked to do so) are poor. This approach satisfies some
analysts who content themselves with the mere availability of figures.
Consciously or unconsciously, they seriously live by the orthodoxy of
positivism where verifiability is a dogma.
However, poverty as a condition is not just about living below the
threshold. There are also social dimensions to such a condition such
as those that are political in nature. Poverty therefore is not just about
low purchasing power much less is it just about not earning within the
threshold above the poverty line.
The basic aim of this study is to present the political face of poverty
using barangay Pasil in Cebu City as a case. The political face of poverty
actually refers to the description of the kind of politics experienced by
the poor. This political face must be expressed and articulated by the
poor themselves.
This research employs qualitative data collection and interpretation.

Focused Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Information Interview (KII)
were conducted by the researcher to gather data. Depth and detail in
the answers are considered in lieu of numeric precision.
The criteria for the selection of respondents were identified and
assessed by the researchers on the basis of the study’s over-all theme
and objective. The criteria for the selection of KII differ from that of
the FGD. For the KII, the barangay officials, teachers who have been in
contact with the main respondents because of their parish apostolates
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of Pasil, Cebu City
and activities – were chosen. Their competence to speak on the matter,

frequent contact with the main respondents, and political position in
the barangay are bases of their competence to answer the questions.
On the other hand, a different set of criteria for selection was made
for the participants of the FGD. Initially, the respondents for the said
(type of) interview were determined on the basis of low income or
unemployment (this is to ensure that all the respondents live below
the poverty threshold set forth by the NSCB. In the Philippines, there
are many nuclear families and these may commonly exist in urban
barangays. The respondents were asked as to whether they have
sources of income other than that of their own livelihood, i.e. one for
example may be jobless but then a child may also be working abroad
as an OFW.
Also considered in the selection of the respondents is the area
where they live in the village. The researchers are very well aware that
although Pasil has been branded as a depressed urban area, some of
its residents are actually not poor and in fact are earning way above
the poverty threshold. In other words, it is not correct to sweepingly
label or categorize all residents of Pasil as poor. Thus, a group of 7 to
10 persons were gathered for the FGD in separate sessions. The two
groups (or sets) of respondents were all from the two identified sitios
where people belong to the C, D and E classes live.
The study, being descriptive, presents the political condition of the
poor in their barangay. Semi-structured questions are used as guides
for a systematic flow of discussions. One overarching question serves
as the starting point of the discussions among the respondents. Follow-
up or sub-questions however are asked in order to allow more topics
and issues to be touched or covered by the discussion.
Environment of the Study
The area of the study is Pasil, which is a coastal village in Cebu

City with a population that is more than seven thousand (and close
to eight thousand). It has been stereotyped as a slum area although a
visit and immersion in the place would reveal the inaccuracy of this
labeling. There are concrete houses as tall as three stories and some
residences are actually well-furnished. There are areas however in
219
the said barangay where destitution is glaring or evident. Two sitios

were identified by the barangay officials (Lawis and Mahayahay)
and the residents themselves admitted how contrastingly different is
their condition compared to those who are in the central part of the
barangay.� Selling sea foods as well as fishing is a common livelihood
among the people, although the folks are not themselves the owners of
the big fishing industry. Vending and other small enterprises are also
found in the area.
Analytic Lenses: AmartyaSen and Robert Chambers
This paper works within the framework that although poverty

is economic (being poor may be measured in monetary terms)
nevertheless it is also political (not just living below poverty line but
being paralyzed in many dimensions of human existence of which
participation in the established system is necessary, e.g. being able to
vote). It is important therefore to allow the poor themselves to describe
their condition instead of simply subscribing to what scholars have
said about them (Chambers 2007, 2006, 2005, 2001, 1995; Maxwell
1999).
Initially, this endeavor theoretically builds on AmartySen’s critique
of the limitation of the income approach to poverty is Amartya Sen.
From Sen’s point of view, poverty should be rethought as it may not
just be the lack or absence of the capability to purchase or acquire
but also in terms of participation. In this sense, poverty is viewed as
capability deprivation and not merely an economic depravity. For this
Indian economist, poverty is not just having low income as it includes
a condition that is tied up to some if not many unfreedoms. He goes
beyond the reductionist definitions of poverty that is identifying the
poor merely on the basis of their incomes (Sen 1999: 20 – 21). Poverty
as capability deprivation means not being able to acquire those things
that are intrinsically important (like health) (Sen, 89).
The “capability deprivation” view, though theoretically powerful
and convincing, is not enough for Robert Chambers (2007, 14) who
identifies three streams of research approaches to poverty: (1)
economic reductionism which is quantitative and non-contextual, (2)
anthropological particularism which is qualitative and contextual,
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of Pasil, Cebu City
and (3) participatory pluralism. Chambers considers Sen’s treatment

of poverty as basically not different in terms of bias from the other
approaches to poverty, say the monetary approach. This bias is evident
in the question “what is poverty?” Although Chambers agrees with
Sen that though income poverty is important nevertheless it is only one
aspect of deprivation still there is a gap in such an approach because
it reflects the “our’s” of development experts and not the “theirs’” of
the poor themselves. For Chambers, poverty is deprivation and it is
connected to social inferiority, isolation, physical weakness, seasonal
deprivation, powerlessness and humiliation. Poverty for chambers is
ill-being, the absence or lack of well-being (Chambers 1995: 173).
A summary of the different approaches and views presented above
highlights the following: (1) poverty is not just the state of not having
any income or money; (2) poverty as a state of life is characterized by
both capability deprivation and lack or absence of well-being; and (3)
poverty is not just economic depravity as it has so many dimensions
that affect a person’s participation to society’s activities.
1. Political Deprivation in the Form of Symbolic or “Let-appear”

Participation
Three unifying points are identifiable in the answers of the

participants and they substantiate the contention that there
is manipulation and taking of advantage over some people’s
powerlessness during election: (1) general perception among the
participants is one of distrust; (2) cheating as an evidence of short-
circuiting the democratic political process; and (3) representation as
something not rectified after the election. The three are considerably
factors that deprive citizens of genuine political participation because
they hinder the exercise of rights without any constraint, coercion or
any form of vitiation of choice.
Distrust among the participants in the system is a proof that
they do not see the value of the process in the same way as how it is
normatively understood by those in a condition of well-being. This
does not mean that for the poor the electoral process does not have
221
any value, it’s just that they see its use very differently. An evidence for
this is the fact that despite their consensus that cheating does happen
in their barangay during election they consider such to be normal, and
they believe that nothing can be done to change such.
Cheating which has become part of the system in the barangay’s
election is also a form of deprivation on the part of the poor in the
exercise of their political right. Although this paper does not seek to
fault as to who cheats who nevertheless it is not without basis to say
that the pervasion of cheating does not make the process credible,
and if the entire process cannot be trusted then the legitimacy of the
governance of the system is also questionable. The problem of cheating
in Pasil – and of course the poor as among those most vulnerable to its
ill-effects corroborated by no less than the Parish Priest of the area,
according to him:
Genuine participation in a democratic system is not expressed
merely by voting. Voting is not the end in a democratic system; in fact
it is merely the means to an end. It is as Abueva, quoting Huntington
(1991), would call the minimal or procedural meaning of democracy –
albeit political participation. As such there must be something more in
democracy than just voting, in other words and within the context of
this study, political participation cannot be assessed only in terms of
the people’s involvement more so “mere presence” on the election day
in their respective precincts. Abueva (1997: 2) argues that a political
system is optimally and substantively democratic if:
“[B]eyond fulfilling the minimal, procedural criterion, the people’s
will is being effected in the processes of governance, and the declared
constitutional and legal purposes and policies are being achieved
through the functioning of governmental and political institutions, in
relations to democratic norms and expectations.”
The poor’s perception of elections and their said-to-be electoral
participation show that despite their involvement in the actual voting
of candidates and their presence in the precincts on the day of the
election, there has never been much participation.
Arnstein (1969) as cited by the Combat Poverty Agency (2009)
identifies eight (8) levels of participation that can be further group into
three (3) types (see Table 11), the highest level being citizen control and
the lowest manipulation. The attendance, queuing, and voting of the
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of Pasil, Cebu City
poor on election day commonly gives observers the impression that

democratic and political participation in the Philippines is vibrant,
forgetting that too much of emphasis on such things is nothing but a
myopic view and understanding of democracy.
Again, applying Arnstein’s model in order to determine political
participation among the poor in Pasil, one cannot but conclude at this
point that based on the participants perceptions and observations,
manipulation is pervasive in the barangay. Manipulation is broadly
defined as a “means of achieving public support for the plans of the
authority” (Arnstein 1969; Combat Poverty Agency, 2009: 12). Actual
manipulation happened in the forms of literal gate-keeping, violation
of certain don’ts for political candidates and party watchers, and above
all vote-buying. According to the same author’s categorization of
participation, manipulation is actually a form of “non-participation”;
from a democratic point of view participation and manipulation
are contrarieties. Thus, it is not without basis to say that the poor
participants we have talked to are in away deprived insofar as political
participation is concerned.
Politics in Pasil especially during election period may be very
hot – figuratively speaking – as defined by one interviewee. To quote,
“mas politiko pa silasmgapolitiko.Angmga supporters maoanginitkaayo.
Mu abotnaspuntona mag kantsaway, mag intrigahay, mag bugal-bugalay,
magbutang-butangay, kanang di namaayo.”
However the vibrancy of democracy cannot just be measured in
terms of the numbers lining up in the precincts not even by the intensity
of the carnivalistic atmosphere during campaigns. What or who drove
them to line-up in order to vote or attend the politiko’s discourse is also
an important question to answer.
Coming from their own testimonies and perceptions there is no
unreasonableness in saying that their presence in the precincts “may”
not be indicative of vibrancy in the barangay’s democracy as it could
be part of the symbolic ritual that they believe must be complied as it
is unconsciously part of their self-definition as poor.
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Fig. 1.Chambers (2006). “Poverty in Focus” in International Poverty Center:

United Nations Development Program
Effects of Deprivation of Political Rights to Civil rights
The deprivation of political rights seriously affects the peoples’

civil rights. The latter being the people’s entitlement to protection of
their life, liberty, and property (1987 Philippine Constitution article III,
section 1) largely depends of course on the very political agency that
is tasked to insure such a task. It goes without saying that the peoples’
civil rights are at stake if the kind of government they get does not
have the will to protect them and uphold the rule of law. This happens
if the persons placed in power do not have any respect for the law itself
as evidence by their lack of conscience to respect the law; manipulate
the law instead and do all things possible just to stay in power.
People might not have noticed it but it is a serious matter to ask as
to why, despite the local government’s publicity of respect for human
rights, violations of the rights of the accused have continued in Pasil –
and becoming systemic? This challenges us to ask further as to what
the elected officials of the Barangay have done in order to address
the problem. In our conversation with the officials, they never get to
224
of Pasil, Cebu City
open the topic of unjustified warrantless arrests and cases of planted

evidences. The village Captain stressed instead the problem of video
carera, which of course is a lesser concern compared to the problem of
substance abuse.
Cases of this nature make us realize that the poor are not just
economically but also politically deprived, and this is what Chambers
refers to as powerlessness, vulnerability, and humiliation. As shown
in Figure 1, the economic aspects of poverty (material poverties) are
interwoven to the political aspects of deprivation (e.g. institutions and
access).
But again, the relation between the deprivation of political rights
and the deprivation of civil rights is not a one way direction, that is, the
matter must not be understood in the same way as a cause and effect
model between two things – would appear. In more concrete terms, we
aren’t simply saying that the deprivation of political rights is the cause
why civil rights are violated – hence the effect. The relation is more
of a dialogic instead where every time civil rights are violated, such
as the right to liberty, the constitutional rights of the accused among
others, political rights (e.g. suffrage, petition the government) are also
weakened such that in the end the people would not see any value of
their citizenship.
Effects of Deprivation of Political Rights and Civil Rights to Social

Rights and Economic Rights
The deprivation of political rights also affects the two other kinds
of rights: social and economic (Co, Fernan and Santa Ana 2007).
Sen’s view in Development as Freedom is once again instructive in this
context:
“The deprive people tend to come to terms with their deprivation
because of the sheer necessity of survival, and they may, as a result,
lack the courage to demand any radical change, and may even adjust
their desires and expectations to what they ambitiously see as feasible”
(1999: 63).
Social and Economic rights being generally understood as those
entitlements that people use in order to deal with others and in the
pursuit of self-expansion practically need the most basic entitlements
225
to life, liberty, and property. This means that in the absence of political
and civil rights, social and economic rights are impossible to achieve.
“Economic unfreedom can breed social unfreedom just as social or
political unfreedom can also foster economic unfreedom” (Sen 1999: 8).
The Indian economist’s point is that the poverty has serious effects to
a person’s life and this means being limited in the capability to expand
in the different dimension of life. He does not argue however for a
one way reading of the causal relation between economic freedom and
political freedom. Meaning to say it could also be that the reason why
the person lives in a condition of poverty despite an income is due to
the very limited opportunities to expand or improve one’s condition.
The reason why people are asked to participate in the electoral
process is for them to choose the best person who is not actually
expected to make them rich in an instance – but someone who governs
the locality and perform the constituent and ministrant functions of
the State in order to insure the people’s political and civil freedoms. It
would be hoped that the people can lead their lives in a space where
opportunities are available, and where threats and coercions are
absent. And so is this the case in Pasil?
The experience of manipulation in Pasil during elections is the one
of the reasons why they have been fixed in a location and space that
has defined their lives and identities as a people and not the other way
around. One would get to wonder for example why there is a relatively
significant number of unemployed and sick people in a barangay
where people are supposed to be free to choose those persons that
could help them in their problems; and again, the caveat is, that in
principle as well as in practice the elected officials are supposed to help
and not solve all the problems. But this help, understood in the context
of democracy, is not just any form of whispering to the political elites
in the higher level, more so not to broker for the poor in some kind of
a bargaining process. It must be understood as governance that has a
vision and function of creating opportunities for the people to improve
their lives.
It was said at the onset that not everyone in Pasil. There are
moneyed individuals in the barangay and against their improved lives
is the very contrast of the poor’s disabilities to perform due to lack
of education and social network. Interestingly, these poor have been
226
of Pasil, Cebu City
perceived as more active and even more interested than those who
belong to classes B and C in the area. To borrow the description of
the kagawad who was interviewed, the difference in the participation
among the rich (mgadatu), middle class (he calls it pobrenga middle)
and the poor (pobrengapobregyud)
Ironically, the poor are not so much the beneficiaries of the
politicians whom they have supported and placed in power. One old
woman admitted that she really does not know their locality’s policies.
For one there seems to be some confusion from her end as to what
policies are and how it differs from ordinary rules. If by policies we
mean the over-all set of principles governing the barangays direction,
then rules that carry sanction on gambling, cleanliness, etc are not
policies.
Such complex distinction set aside – considering their academic
nature, still it is evident that the poor’s condition of deprivation is
evidenced by the fact that the barangay itself has not translated into
concrete things the deliverables that the poor are expected to bring.
The implementation of programs on cleanliness may be cited here as
a typical example. RA 7160 clearly provides that one of the things that
the Sangguniang Barangay should do (duty) is to “organize regular
lectures, programs, or for on community problems such as sanitation,
nutrition, literacy, and convene assemblies to encourage citizen
participation in government” (sec. 391 [17]). The villager’s policies
remain to be inadequate in addressing the seemingly perennial
problems of health, order, and more importantly sanitation. As regards
sanitation, the problem of the drainage is a concrete issue that shows
the less attention given by officials to the people’s problems.
The effect of this is that the poor’s condition of deprivation has been
continually sustained not just in terms of the absence of money, the
lack or absence of capability in genuinely participations in politics, but
above all – concrete and physically structured in their isolated locations
– a real condition in a physical location that has literally prohibited
them in expanding in several things. For example, it is their location
and condition that makes them vulnerable to human rights violation;
privacy is lessened in the absence of secure doors and gates and clear
boundaries. Poor sanitation makes them physically weak. All these
being the picture – the face of poverty it is understandable we believe
227
of how easy it is for them to be contrasted from those who are not like
them. Such contrasts now come in the form of wealth, strength, literacy,
good health, and above all power – which are characteristics possessed
by a few men in their area. The contrasts being sustained, then the
political face of poverty is the face of a complexity of deprivations in
the different areas of political participation.
Policy is supposed to be the very litmus test as to whether elections
and representation are genuine. “Democracy is put to the test of policy
performance – the capacity of institutions and leader to deliver what is
promised and expected” (Abueva 1994; Miranda 1997). What we seen
unfortunately in Pasil is the opposite.
CONCLUSION
The political face of poverty as concretized in the situation of Pasil

is a condition of marginalization and manipulation on the part of the
poor in the power structure. There is consciousness on their part about
this but their limitations disable them from refusing the offers of the
rich and the powerful. The political system is for them both a means to
take advantage in order to gain money that can be spent even just for a
day. They do not see the system as transformative, i.e. transformation
happens because of formal processes and structures.
Politicians have been mouthing a lot on the difficulty and complexity
of poverty as problem. Whether consciously or unconsciously however
this problem has been used as the very means of division between the
powerful and the powerless, the strong and the vulnerable, the healthy
and the sick, the knowledgeable and the ignorant, and all other social
distinctions. In some cases poverty has been the reason why only a
powerful few has stayed in power, a privilege they have sustained
through the years, and this is because they are difficult to replace
228
of Pasil, Cebu City
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Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Predictors of Nursing Board

Examination Performance
REMEDIOS T. NAVARRO
AURELIA T. VITAMOG
RIZZA JOY C. TIERRA
DONNA MARIE J. GONZALEZ
alma_012768@yahoo.com
University of Northern Philippines

Abstract - This study determines if the UNP

College Admission Test (UNP CAT), Nursing Aplitude
Test (NAT) and academic performance are significant
predictors of the Nursing Board Examination
Performance of the graduates of the University of
Northern Philippines for the period 2006-2009. The
descriptive-correlational method of research was
employed with documentary analysis as primary tool
for data gathering. The respondents consisted of the 750
Bachelor of Science in nursing graduates, who were first
takers of the Nursing Board Examination. Data were
analyzed through frequency, percentage and multiple
regression analysis. Majority of the Nursing graduates
performed at a good level in the UNP-CAT, and at a
very good level in their academics. Most performed
at an average passed level in the NAT, and majority,
at a fair level, in the Nursing Board Examination.
The UNP-CAT, NAT and academic performance,
taken singly and as a whole are significant predictors
of performance in the Nursing Board Examination.
Students who perform better in the UNP-CAT, NAT,
232
and in their academics tend to perform better in the

Nursing Board Examination. Academic performance
as the best predictor underscores the importance of the
kind of education and training the university provides
to its studentry.
INTRODUCTION
Nursing is considered a caring profession. This is so because,

taking care of the sick requires the possession of appropriate virtues
and the adherence to proper nursing procedures to ensure the safety
and fast recovery of patients. In view hereof, not everybody has the
potential to deliver such procedures. Hence, students who would like
to be nurses should be properly screened to determine their aptitudes
and qualifications.
Many nursing schools administer a variety of tests to applicants who
have shown interest, ability, and inclination to pursue the profession
(Rubio, 1992). This includes pre-admission and aptitude tests. Upon
entry, strict retention is implemented. That is why, the ability of the
students is measured through their academic performance. Pace
(1979), as cited by Bajet (2001), contends that the students’ quality of
effort may be the single most influential variable in accounting for
their progress towards educational outcomes. Further, he mentioned
that the most common strategy, the faculty use to motivate students is
their grades.
Bañez (2002), however, believes that a person’s educational
accomplishment cannot be predicted by just finishing the course alone.
The extent of knowledge acquired is also measured by his performance
in a given examination and academic achievement contributes to the
outcome of examination. She further said that if a person has excelled
academically in the past, there is a greater chance for him to have a
successful performance in an examination.
Having finished the nursing course, graduates find their luck in
the board examination, to test their professional competence and have
a greater chance for employment. They must adhere to the provisions
of the Republic Act No. 9173 particularly Article IV, Section 12 which
mandates that “all applicants for license to practice nursing shall be
233
required to pass a written examination” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/

Philippine Nursing Licensure Exam). Like many other universities
in the Philippines, the University of Northern Philippines also offers
nursing as one of its curricula. Despite decline in employment demand,
locally and abroad, many students still aspire to be a part of the said
program.
To provide greater chance to graduates in the Licensure
Examination and land in gainful employment, the College of Nursing
endeavors to provide quality education to its students. Because of
this, prospective students are required to undergo screening with the
purpose of determining their qualifications for admission.
It is at this juncture that the staff of the University Testing Center,
tasked in administering the screening tests to students, became
interested in conducting a study on the Predictors of Nursing Board
Examination Performance. This undertaking tried to find out whether
variables like the UNP-College Admission Test (UNP-CAT), Nursing
Aptitude Test (NAT) and Academic Performance of graduates,
significantly influence their success in the Nursing Board Examination.
It is hoped that findings of this investigation may help improve the
quality of nursing program in the University of Northern Philippines.
Further, graduates of this profession may be assisted with the best
preparation so that a higher percentage of passing in the national level
may achieved.
FRAMEWORK
The very purpose of the educational system is to develop and mold

the minds of the young individuals to become responsible and rational
adults who are well-prepared for life. Educational experiences guide
and strengthen the foundation of one’s development towards achieving
one’s goal in life, which is success (Guirra, 1998). For the students to
attain this vision in life, they should have the much needed academic
preparation, to be able to pass a licensure examination (Blankas, 2003).
An entrance examination is conducted by educational institutions
to determine whether prospective students are qualified to enter. It
is also used to determine the candidate’s preparation for a course of
study (http://en.wikipedia.org).
234
Nursing institutions always administer entrance examination to

upgrade the professional standard, evaluate the intellectual capability
of the applicant as well as some other personal and social aspects.
Institutions that offer nursing course cannot just admit applicants who
cannot show excellent academic performance to meet the challenging
needs of the course (Bajet, 2001).
Aptitude tests measure one or more clearly defined and relatively
homogeneous segments of ability. They are often used to predict
success in an occupation, training course, or educational endeavor
(Gregory, 2004).
Research data show that individually administered aptitude
tests have the following qualities: a) excellent predictors of future
scholastic performance, b) provide ways of comparing an individual’s
performance with that of others in the same situation, c) provide a
profile of strengths and weaknesses, d) assess differences among
individuals, e) uncover hidden talents in individuals, thus improving
their educational opportunities, and f) serve as valuable tools for
working with the handicaps (http://www.ericdigest.org).
Achievement tests attempt to assess what a person has learned
following a specific course of instruction. These tests have as their
goal the endpoint evaluation of a student’s knowledge after a standard
course of training (Kaplan & Sacuzzo, 2001). Moreover, an achievement
test may also be used as a predictor of future learning.
In Blankas (2003), Robles as cited by Espiritu (2001), stated that a
certification examination is conducted to provide license to graduates
of a specific course for the professional practice. Licensing is a way of
assuring that practitioners meet the minimum qualifications required
for the proper practice in their area of training. Such test intends
to measure certain domains in the training that the graduate has
completed. If the test adequately assessed the particular domain that
it intends to measure, its scores should be significantly related with
other indices of the individual’s past training.
Roble (1995), as cited by Bajet (2001), concluded that the board
examination performance of Siliman University College of Nursing
(SUCN) graduates is significantly related with their academic
achievement. Further, Martinez (1980), Gagajena (1975), and Refuerzo,
(1989) also in Bajet (2001) pointed out that there exists a correlation
235
between academic achievement of nursing graduates and their

performance in the Nursing Board Examination. They also stated
that academic achievement is a good predictor of performance in the
Nursing Board Examination.
Braga still in Bajet (2001), found out that there is a positive
correlation between pre-entrance test and success in the nursing school
and the state board examination. Further, Rubio in Esguerra (1993)
stressed that there is a significant relationship between NCEE ratings
and academic achievement, and NCEE ratings and performance in
the Board Examination for Nurses. She also found out that academic
achievement is a better predictor of success in the Nursing Board
Examination than the NCEE ratings. Her dissertation study on the
other hand revealed that academic performance significantly relate
with Nursing Licensure Examination performance.
Martinez, et al. (1980) made An Analytical and Correlational Study
of State Board Examination Rating and Academic Achievement of
Nursing Students, and they deduced from the results of the study that
there is a strong relationship between performance in the nursing state
board examination and achievement in high school, pre-nursing and
nursing proper. They further stated that academic achievement is a
good predictor of performance in the Nursing Licensure Examination.
Likewise Carreon’s (1983) study showed that there is a substantial
positive correlation between college achievement and board
examination performance. In addition, Tolentino (2010) found that
college academic performance, nursing aptitude test, dominance and
perfectionism as components of personality test are factors significantly
related to passing the Philippine Nursing Licensure Examination.
The study focused on the predictors of Nursing Board Examination
Performance which included the UNP-CAT, Nursing Aptitude Test
and Academic Performance. This has a resemblance with the study
conducted by Tolentino (2010) as she used academic performance,
nursing aptitude test as factors related in passing the Nursing Licensure
Examination. In addition, the studies conducted by Martinez (1980),
Refuerzo (1989) and Roble (1995) correlated the academic achievement
of the nursing graduates with their performance in the Nursing Board
Examination.
236
This study tried to determine the predictors of Nursing Board

Examination Performance, of the nursing graduates of the University
of Northern Philippines, for the period 2006 – 2009.
Research Design. This study employed the descriptive-

correlational method of research. Documentary analysis was utilized
in gathering the needed data. Data gathered were analyzed through
frequency, percentage and multiple linear regression analysis.
Population. The 750 nursing graduates of the University of

Northern Philippines for the period 2006 – 2009 and who took the
board examination during the same period constituted the population
of the study. They are distributed as follows: 184 (2006); 225 (2007), 169
(2008), and 172 (2009), Re-takers of the Nursing Board Examination
were excluded in the study.
Data Gathering Procedure. The Staff of the University Testing

Center asked permission from the Dean of the College of Nursing to
gather the needed data. Upon approval of the request, the appraisal
sheets that contained the academic grades and the rooster on the
results of the nursing board examination were borrowed for scrutiny
and analysis. The weighted average grades of the respondents were
computed by the researchers to ensure the accuracy of data. On the
other hand, results of their UNP-CAT and Nursing Aptitude Test were
taken from the records filed at the UNP Testing Center.
Statistical Treatment of the Data. The study made use of frequency,

percentage and multiple linear regression analysis in treating the
collected data.
237
The data gathered are presented in tabular form, analyzed and

interpreted in this section.
Reflected in Tables 1 to 4 are the levels of performance of the nursing
graduates along the following variables: College Admission Test,
Nursing Aptitude Test, Academics and Nursing Board Examination.
Table 1. The Level of performance of the nursing

graduates in the UNP-college admission test
YEARS GRADUATED
Level of
2006 2007 2008 2009 As a Whole
Performance

F % F % F % F % F %
Superior 3 1.63 1 0.44 3 1.72 5 2.91 12 1.60
Very Good 39 21.19 58 25.78 82 48.52 159 92.44 338 45.07
Good 126 68.48 162 72.00 83 49.11 8 4.65 379 50.53
Fair /Passing 16 8.70 4 1.78 1 0.59 0 0 21 2.80
Total 184 100.00 225 100.00 169 100.00 172 100.00 750 100%
Legend:
Norm Scores Descriptive Rating
97-100 Excellent
91-96 Superior
85-90 Very Good
80-84 Good
75-79 Fair/Passing
74 & below Failure

Table 1 shows that as a whole, majority (379 or 50.53%) of the
nursing graduates performed at a “good” level in the UNP College
Admission Test (UNP-CAT). The finding suggests that the graduates
on those years covered have the potential to enroll in a degree
program. The said majority however, failed to meet the UNP-CAT cut-
238
off score of 85, which the university has set for an individual to qualify
for the BSN program. This indicates that the College of Nursing has
leniently implemented the said policy and has used other criteria in
their acceptance such as their high school average and results of the
interview which is conducted to further screen its applicants.
A closer look at the data shows that the majority of the graduates
of 2008 and 2009 (50.24% and 95.35%, respectively) performed at the
“very good” and “superior” levels. On the other hand, only 22.82%
and 26.22%, of the graduates of 2006 and 2007 respectively, performed
at the said levels.
Table 2. The level of performance of the nursing graduates

in the nursing aptitude test
YEARS GRADUATED
Level of
2006 2007 2008 2009 As a Whole
Performance
F % F % F % F % F %
High Passed 12 6.52 16 7.11 25 14.79 24 13.95 77 10.27
Average Passed 81 44.03 86 38.22 70 41.42 91 52.91 328 43.73
Low Passed 56 30.43 79 35.11 50 29.59 55 31.98 240 32.00
Failed 35 19.02 44 19.56 24 14.20 2 1.16 105 14.00
Total 184 100.00 169 100.00 100.00 750 100.00
Legend:
76-100 High Passed
51-75 Average Passed
26-50 Low Passed
1-25 Failed
As a whole, most (328 or 43.73%) of the BSN graduates for the period
2006 -2009 performed in the Nursing Aptitude Test at an “average
passed” level. Also, 77 of them (10.27%) performed at a “high passed”
level. These indicate that a total of 405 or 54% of said graduates have
good potentials and are expected to perform well and benefit from
their learning and trainings in the program. Given the right attitude
239
and the motivation, they can effectively handle the requirements of

their course and have higher chance of making it in the Nursing Board
Examination.
Further scrutiny of the data shows that it is among the graduates of
2008 and 2009, where the majority (56.21% and 66.86 %, respectively)
performed at the “average and high passed” levels in the NAT. Among
the graduates of the 2006 and 2007, only 50.55% and 45.33% respectively,
performed at the said levels. These data parallel the findings in the
UNP-CAT. The graduates of 2008 and 2009 performed better both in
the UNP-CAT and NAT, hence are also expected to perform better in
their subjects and in the board examination.
It is also interesting to note that 105 of the said graduates (14%)
failed in the NAT, with 2009 having the least percentage (1.16%). This
implies that said students may have experienced the greatest difficulty,
hence needed more time and effort to handle the demands of their
course.
Table 3.The level of academic performance
of the nursing graduates
YEARS GRADUATED
Level of
2006 2007 2008 2009 As a Whole
Performance
F % F % F % F % F %
Superior 1 0.54 4 1.78 0 0 2 1.16 7 0.93
Very Good 98 53.26 122 54.22 100 59.17 107 62.21 427 56.93
Good 85 46.20 99 44.00 69 40.83 62 36.05 315 42.00
Fair 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.58 1 0.13
Total 184 100.00 225 100.00 169 100.00 172 100.00 750 100.00
Legend:
97-100 Excellent
91-96 Superior
85-90 Very Good
80-84 Good
75-79 Fair
71-74 Conditional Failure
70 & below Failure
240
In terms of academics, table 3 reveals that as a whole, majority

(427 or 56.93%) of the nursing graduates for the period 2006 – 2009
performed at a “very good” level. This indicates that the graduates are
capable of handling the mental demands of their course. Further, this
indicates that they are capable of maximizing their potentials in varied
learning situations hence successfully carry out the requirements of
the nursing program.
While it is consistently shown that the majority of the graduates
per year obtained a “very good” level of academic performance, the
graduates of 2008 (59.17%) and 2009 (62.21%), still performed better
than those of 2006 (53.26%) and 2007 (54.22%). This finding is also in
consonance with findings on their performance in the UNP-CAT and
NAT.
Table 4. The Level of performance of the graduates

in the nursing board examination
YEARS GRADUATED
Level of
Perfor- 2006 2007 2008 2009 As a Whole
mance
f % f % f % f % f %
Good 3 1.63 9 4.00 27 15.98 13 7.56 52 6.93
Fair 127 69.02 109 48.44 107 63.31 123 71.51 466 62.14
Failure 54 29.35 107 47.56 35 20.71 36 20.93 232 30.93
Total 184 100.00 225 100.00 169 100.00 172 100.00 750 100.00
Legend:
97-100 Excellent
91-96 Superior
85-90 Very Good
80-84 Good
75-79 Fair
71-74 Conditional Failure
70 & below Failure
241
As a whole, the majority (466 0r 62.14%) of the graduates for the

period 2006 – 2009 performed at a “fair” level in the Nursing Board
Examination. Only 52 or 6.93 % performed at a “good” level. The
data show that they were hard up in the said examination. This could
imply the need to enhance the students’ preparation or strengthen the
nursing curriculum.
While a total of 69.07% of the graduates passed in the board
examination, a considerable percentage (30.93) did not make it. Said
percentage of failure indicates a need to undertake measures to
enhance performance in the board examination.
Further analysis of the data reflects a similarity in the trend of the
graduates’ performance in the UNP-CAT, NAT and in their academics.
The graduates of 2008 and 2009 still performed better (79.29 and
79.07 percentage of passing, respectively) than those of 2006 and 2007
(70.65% and 52.44% respectively).
Table 5. The multiple regression analysis on the

predictors of nursing board examination performance
Variables Beta t-value t-prob

UNP CAT 0.168 4.824** 0.000
NAT 0.270 7.465** 0.000
Academic Performance 0.343 10.534** 0.000
Multi R. = 0.635
R. Sq = 0.403
F-ratio = 167.689
Sig. = 0.000
When the three variables of the respondents: UNP-CAT, NAT

and Academic Performance were regressed, together, they yielded
a significant influence in the Performance in the Nursing Board
Examination (F-ratio=167.689; Sig. =0.000). This means that UNP-
CAT, NAT and Academic Performance significantly contribute to the
performance in the Nursing Board Examination.
242
Based from the value of RSq (.403), the variables, when taken
together, account 40.3 percent of the variance in the performance
of the graduates in the Nursing Board Examination. The remaining
59.7 percent can be explained by other factors not included in the
investigation such as the kind of review centers the graduates availed,
their physical, emotional and mental conditions during the board
examination, the physical condition of the test venues, the human and
non-human resources of the university.
Taken singly, UNP-CAT (t-prob = 0.000), NAT (t-prob = 0.000),
and Academic Performance (t-prob = 0.000), came out as significant
predictors of performance in the Nursing Board Examination.
These imply that graduates who obtained higher ratings in the
aforementioned variables tend to perform better in the board
examination. Academic performance (Beta=.343) as the best predictor
underscores the importance of the kind of education and training
the university provides to its studentry. Ultimately, the quality of
education the university provides, and how much the students make
out of it, will have the greatest impact in their performance in a board
examination which is generally curriculum-based.
The findings were supported by Rubio (1992), when she stated that
academic performance significantly relate with Nursing Licensure
Examination performance. Likewise, the results of the study conform
with the findings of Martinez, et al. (1980), in the existence of a
correlation between academic achievement of nursing graduates and
their performance in the Nursing Board Examination, and academic
achievement being a good predictor of performance in the said Board
Examination.
In addition, the above findings agree with Tolentino’s (2010) study.
She affirmed that college academic performance and nursing aptitude
test are factors related in passing the Nursing Board Examination.
CONCLUSIONS
In view of the above findings, the following conclusions are drawn:
1. Majority of the nursing graduates for the period 2006 - 2009

performed at a “good” level in the UNP- College Admission Test;
243
most of the respondents performed at an “average passed” level in

the Nursing Aptitude Test; majority of the respondents performed at a
“very good” level in their academics; and majority of the respondents
performed at a “fair” level in the Nursing Board Examination.
2. The UNP-CAT, Nursing Aptitude Test and Academic

Performance taken singly and as a whole are significant predictors
of performance in the Nursing Board Examination. Students who
perform better in the UNP-CAT, NAT and in their academics, tend to
perform better in the board examination. Academic performance as
the best predictor underscores the importance of the kind of education
and training the university provides to it studentry.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations

are advanced:
1. The College of Nursing should strictly and constantly implement the

85% or higher UNP-CAT rating as one of the standard requirements
for first year admission.
2. The conduct of the yearly Nursing Aptitude Test for the first year
students should be maintained and only the passers should be
allowed to pursue the nursing profession in the university.
3. The retention policies of the College of Nursing particularly along
academic performance should be re-evaluated and strictly followed
to ensure that only students capable of handling the mental demands
of the course are retained.
LITERATURE CITED
Gregory, R.J.
2004 Psychological Testing. USA: Pearson Education Group, Inc.
Kaplan, R.M. & D.P. Sacuzzo

2001 Psychological Testing Principles, Applications and Issues.
USA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company
244
Bajet, J. A.
2001 The Integrated Nursing Comprehensive Licensure Examination
Performance of the CHS, BSN, graduates of UNP. Unpublished
Master’s Thesis, University of Northern Philippines, Vigan
City
Bañez, S. E. S.
2002 Analysis of the UNP College of Teacher Education Graduates’
Performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Northern
Philippines, Vigan City
Blankas, R. C.
2003 The Licensure Examination for Teachers’ performance of
graduates of Northwestern University, Laoag City. Unpublished
City
Carreon, J.
1983 The predictive value of the high school achievement and
certain Psychological Tests to success in the Nursing course.
Masteral Thesis, Far Eastern University, Manila
Esguerra, L.R.
1993 Correlates in the success of State Universities graduates in
the Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET) in
Regions I, II, and National Capital Region (NCR). Unpublished
City
Espiritu, O.R.
2001 The Integrated Comprehensive Nursing Licensure Examination
performance of the BSN graduates in the University of
Northern Philippines. Unpublished Dissertation, University
of Northern Philippines, Vigan City
245
Guirra, G.A.
1998 Bachelor of Science in Nursing graduates of Northwestern
University: An analysis. Unpublished Master’s Thesis,
Northwestern University, Laoag City
Martinez, C.
1980 An analytical and correlative State Board Examination on
grades and academic achievement of the College of Nursing of
X hospital. Nursing Research in the Philippines: A Sourcebook,
Quezon City, JMC Press Inc.
Rubio, V. R.
1992 Factors Associated with the Licensure Examination Performance
of Nursing Graduates in Region I and NCR. Unpublished
City
Tolentino, L.S.
2010 Factors related to Passing the Philippine Nurses Licensure
Examination among Graduates of Tarlac State University.
INTERNET SOURCES
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Nursing_Licensure_Exam
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Entranceexamination
http://www.ericdigest.org/pre-9218/aptitude.htm
246
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
Enhancement Activities
for the Day Care Centers and
Development Workers
MARIA NANCY Q. CADOSALES
marianancy_qc@yahoo.com
College of Education and Graduate Studies
La Salle University – Ozamiz City
Date Submitted: Apil 18, 2011

Abstract - Day Care Centers are managed by Day

Care Workers (DCWs). These teachers contribute to
the total development of the early childhood learners.
In this present study, it was noted during the interview
and focus group discussion that the DCWs needed
enhancement activities for them to carry out their
teaching tasks. Exercises on letter sound were the most
priority need over teaching strategies, production
of instructional materials, and pedagogy. Thus, an
action plan for a three-day enhancement program was
proposed.
247
INTRODUCTION
Assessment is any variety of procedures used to obtain information

(Linn and Gronlund, 2000:32) to determine the strengths and identifies
improvement areas (Model for Need Assessment, 2005). A needs
assessment is a systematic process to collect and analyze information
on what a target group needs to learn. Conducting a needs assessment
is being used to develop curriculum for training programs. Needs
assessment should be conducted before any adult educational activity
so that the available resources can be used to the maximum benefit
of the learners (Ratnapalan and Hilliard, 2002). This information
serves as bases in planning actions for improvement or enhancement
activities. Thus, needs assessment identifies the areas to be addressed
in the enhancement programs. As Khan and Sarwar (2011) said that
training in which in this study referred to as enhancement program,
provides employees the knowledge and skills needed to do a particular
task, and also change their attitude in favor of their performance.
Rouda and Kusy (1995) states that needs assessment is a systematic
exploration of the way things are and the way they should be. To conduct
a needs assessment, the four steps should be considered. First, perform
a “gap” analysis that is to check the current situation to determine the
current state of skills, knowledge, and abilities of the people in the
organization. In the “gap” analysis of the situation, it is important to
identify the desired or necessary conditions for organizational and
personal success. Analysis of the situation focuses on the necessary job
tasks/standards, as well as the skills, knowledge, and abilities needed
to accomplish these tasks successfully. It is important that the actual
needs of the people are identified. The difference in the “gap” between
the current and the necessary will identify the needs, purposes, and
objectives. It is important that in addressing the “gap” the problems,
impending change, opportunities, strengths, new directions, and
mandated training will be identified. Secondly, identify priorities and
importance. The first step produced a large list of needs for training
and development, career development, organization development,
and/or other interventions. The second step examines these in view
of their importance to organizational goals, realities, and constraints.
Thirdly, identify causes of performance problems and/or opportunities.
248
Proposed Enhancement Activities
for the Day Care Centers and Development Workers
Prioritize and focus on critical organizational and personal needs,

then identify specific problem areas and opportunities in for the
organization. Know if people are doing their jobs effectively and if
they know how to do their jobs. This requires detailed investigation
and analysis of people, their jobs, and the organization. Fourthly,
identify possible solutions and growth opportunities. Some training
and/or other interventions might be designed if sufficient importance
is attached to moving our people and their performance into new
directions.
Moreover, learning needs assessments are often conducted to
identify deficiencies in knowledge, skill, behavior, or attitude in the
current teaching practices (Donald and Donald, 1992). There are
several methods of needs assessment described in the literature. This
present study utilized the following methods to assess the needs of the
Day Care Centers and Development workers, namely, documentary
analysis, interview, and focus group discussion.
Interviews. An interview can be viewed as a conversation with
the purpose of gaining in-depth insight into someone’s perspective.
The advantages of an interview are that it is personal and gives the
researcher an in-depth understanding of the learner’s perspectives.
Qualitative interviewing unveils a broader range of learning needs
and opportunities for program development than quantitative
methods alone (Crandall, 1998). The interview further assists the day
care workers to assess their teaching skills and formulate targets for
self-enhancement. As Sadler (2002 cited in Sy, 2011) emphasis that
community members need to set their direction through the formulation
of meaningful goals which one could perform by themselves. The
interview hopes to gather realistic needs that could be addressed in
the enhancement activities.
Focus Groups. Focus groups are usually, seven to ten randomly
selected participants who meet criteria to be considered by learners
for a particular service or educational activity. A skilled facilitator, who
encourages a sense of synergy but explores differences in opinion,
conducts the interview. Planning, developing core questions, facilitating
or moderating the session, and analysis of data are the essential steps
in conducting focus group interviews (Tipping, 1998). Focus group
interviews differ from individual interviews, because members of the
249
group draw strength from one another to express some opinions that
they may otherwise view as unpopular. Focus groups provide a broad
range of qualitative data in a timely, cost-effective manner and help to
clarify and elaborate the quantitative data (Ratnapalan and Hilliard,
2002).
Employing these methods to assess the needs of the Day Care Centers
and Development teachers, it is hoped to identify the improvement
areas to be addressed which will be the bases in designing enrichment
activities that truly mentor the Day Care teachers’ weaknesses. In this
present study, their teaching needs are assessed and become the basis
for the enhancement activities.
This study assessed the Day Care Centers and Development

teachers’ teaching needs for the academic year 2010-2011. An action
plan for enhancement activities was designed based on the findings of
the study.
This present study utilized the descriptive method of research.

It described, analyzed, and interpreted data concerning the teachers’
teaching needs for the academic year 2010-2011. The study also sought
to design an action plan for enhancement activities.
The respondents were the 89 Day Care Centers and
Development teachers of Ozamiz City. Data were gathered through the
use of documentary analysis, interview, and focus group discussion
Frequency and percentage distribution were used to describe the
profile of the teachers’ educational attainment.
This section presents, analyzes and interprets the data gathered on

the teaching needs of the Day Care workers in Ozamiz City.
250
Profile of the Day Care Center and Development

Workers’ Educational Attainment
The DCWs’ educational attainment was described either

undergraduate or graduate as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: DCWs’ educational attainment
Educational Attainment Frequency Percentage

Undergraduate 47 53
Graduate 41 47
BSED (7)
BEED (13)
Other Degrees (21)
TOTAL 88 100
The data show that there are more Day Care workers who are
undergraduate than those who graduated a degree. This data was
taken from the Masterlist of Ozamiz City Day Care Workers in June
2010. In an interview with Mrs. Marivic P. Kaamiño, TAD Chief and
Mrs. Gemma M. Hornijas, DCW 1 / Day Care Officer Designate, they
pointed out that applicant may be accepted to teach in Day Care
Centers if they had finished at 72 units in college. Thus, any applicant
with other degrees aside from education may be accepted to teach in
Day Care Center. Mrs. Kaamiño and Mrs. Hornijas further stressed
that Local Officials also recommends teachers for Day Care Center and
Development.
Thus this scenario conforms to Khan and Sarwar’s (2011) idea
that the teacher needs to have mastery of the content and curriculum,
appreciation of the various forms of standards, awareness of
assessment, ability to organize the lessons, the ability to engage students
in instructional decisions. The ways in which a teacher interacts with
students and organizes instruction are critically important aspects of
helping each child learn (Tharp, 1999; Tharp et al, 2003 in Khan and
Sarwar, 2011).
251
Enhancement Activities Needed by the Day Care Centers

and Development Teachers
In an interview with Mrs. Gemma M. Hornijas on February 2, 2011

regarding the teaching needs of the Day Care teachers, she pointed out
the difficulties of the teachers in teaching the letter sound. This concern
is part of the lesson content in teaching beginning readers. Mrs.
Hornijas further showed Form 2A on Accreditation Tools for Center-
Based ECCD Program. This accreditation tool addressed Area A which
is on advancement of children’s growth and development. Children
enrolled in Day Care Centers need to know the basic letter sound for
them to cope with the learning challenges in kindergarten. Children
enrolled in Day Care Centers will then enroll in the Department of
Education for kindergarten.
During the focus group discussion conducted by the Dr. Flordelis
J. Ejercito, Vice-Chancellor for Research, Development, Evaluation and
Linkages, and Dr. Maria Nancy Quinco-Cadosales, Dean, College of
Education and Graduate Studies with the Day Care Center teachers on
February 4, 2011, they affirmed their needs on how to teach the letter
sound above other needs on teaching strategies and preparation of the
instructional materials.
These needs affirms Khan and Sarwar (2011) findings that teachers
need training in preparation of instructional material, lesson planning,
use of audio-visual aids, time table development, test formation,
preparation of question papers, marking of tests, interpretation of
results and feedback based on evaluation. Thus, an action plan for their
enhancement activities was designed to address the Day Care Center
teachers teaching needs. A meeting with the faculty of the College of
Education was chaired by the Dean to put in place the enhancement
activities.
Moreover, Buivydas, et al. (2011) emphasized the value of “top
down” training seminars or workshops in partnerships with colleges
and universities for professional development. With this, it the aim
of the College of Education, La Salle University to be the delivering
university of the enhancement activities of the DCWs. As Isani and
Virk (2004 in Ullah, Khan, Murtaza, and Din, 2011) emphasized that
institutions of higher education have the main responsibility for
252
equipping individuals with advanced knowledge and skills required

for positions of responsibility in government, business, and the
professions. Thus, after a thorough analysis of the needs of the DCWs
from multiple sources, an action plan for the enhancement activities
was conceptualized.
Action Plan for Enhancement Activities
Staff development aims at building and promoting an effective

personality through learning and trait strengthening programmes. It
includes development of skill oriented vision, mental poise, unbiased
perception, vigilance, drive, communication skills, team building,
competence in decision making and problem solving capabilities,
honesty etc, and the art of encouraging as well as tolerating different
viewpoints (Sisodia, 2000 in Khan and Sarwar, 2011). Moreover, staff
development provides activities intended to upgrade and update
the knowledge, skills, and understanding of the human resource in
schools. It aims to create positive and productive changes in the human
resource’s thinking and behavior, and to secure compliance with school
and national policies (Seyfarth, 1991 in Bago, 2008). Further, Hicks
(1984 in Anvari, Amin, and Seliman, 2010) argued that if employees
are given reasonable information about the training program, the
employees can see how training fits with their needs. If they feel that
the match is good, they have a heightened desire to learn (Porter et
al., 1974, in Anvari, Amin, and Seliman, 2010), which is a prerequisite
to strategize training. It is clear that training attitudes in strategizing
training as a dimension of personal analysis needs was discovered by
results. Hicks (1984 in Anvari, Amin, and Seliman, 2010) indicated that
employees who received the reasonable training and those who had
a higher degree of choice were more likely to perceive the seminar
to be appropriate for them to take and were better able to profit from
training. Also, they were more committed to their decisions to attend
the training.
In this present study, the teaching needs of the Day Care Center
teachers were identified and became the bases in the action plan for
the enhancement activities. These enhancement activities hoped to
improve the abilities of the teachers to handle and teaching early
253
childhood learners. The action plan for enhancement activities is

shown in Table 2. After the conduct of the enhancement activities,
evaluation will be conducted. The result of the evaluation will then
serve as bases for the next years’ development programs for the Day
Care Center teachers.
254
Table 2. Enhancement activities for the early childhood care and
development workers May 18, 19, 20, 2011
Materials Responsible
Day/Time Activity Topic Methodology Expected Output
Needed Person
Day 1: May 18, 2011

Registration
Registration of Fill-up the forms Accomplished registration
8:00 – 8:30 AM CED Secretary
Participants Registration Form Ball pens forms
Seminar Kits
*Invocation
*Pambansang Awit
*Opening Remarks:
CSWD Director
Dean,
*Messages: Program for
CED Secretary Distributed the program to the
8:30 – 9:00 Opening Program - LSU President the Seminar-
Ms. Mary Grace people concerned
- CSWD Director Workshop
Daga-ang
*Orientation on the
Mechanics of the
Seminar -
Workshop
9:00 – 10:00 Input No to Styro Lecture LCD, Notes Engr. Larubis Suggested ways on how to
10:00 – 10:30 Snacks

Virtues of A Good Dr. Maria Nancy Revised one’s philosophy of
10:30 – 12:00 Input Lecture Handouts, LCD
Teacher Quinco-Cadosales teaching
12:00 – 1:00 PM Lunch
Produced the correct sound of
1:00 – 4:30 Input Letter Sound Oral Activities Handouts
each letter
Dr. Maria Nancy
Identified the difficulties of the
Processing of the Quinco-Cadosales
4:30 – 5:00 Open forum participants for the first-day
first-day activity Mrs. Marivic
activities
Kaamiño
Day 2: May 19, 2011
255
Morning Prayer,
256
Preliminary Checking of Ms. Mary Grace Settled the participants for the
8:00 – 8:30 AM
Activities Attendance, Daga-ang days’ activities
Energizers
Dr. Calixta Colarte

Dr. Wenny
Input: Teaching “Marungko Caseros Wrote a lesson plan using the
8:30 – 12:00 NN Lecture-discussion Handouts
Strategy Approach” Ms. Pablita Marungko Approach
JPAIR: Multidisciplinary Journal
Posadas
Ms. Irene Eguico
12:00 NN – 1:00
LUNCH
PM
Dr. Calixta Colarte

Dr. Wenny
Caseros
Teaching Demonstrations Critiquing of the Teaching Ms. Pablita Conducted a teaching
1:00 – 5:00 PM
demonstration Materials Posadas demonstration
Ms. Irene Eguico
Ms. Mary Grace
Daga-ang
Day 3: May 20, 2011
Morning Prayer,
Preliminary Checking of Ms. Mary Grace Settled the participants for the
8:00 – 8:30 AM
Activities Attendance, Daga-ang days’ activities
Energizers
Dr. Calixta Colarte

Dr. Wenny
Input: Teaching Caseros Wrote a lesson plan using the
8:30 – 12:00 NN “Number Concept” Lecture-discussion Handouts
Strategy Dr. Emma Suana Number Concept Approach
Dr. Maria Nancy
Cadosales
National Peer Reviewed Journal
12:00 NN – 1:00
LUNCH
PM
Dr. Calixta Colarte

Dr. Wenny
Teaching
Critiquing of the Caseros Conducted a teaching
1:00 – 3:30 PM Demonstrations Teaching Materials
demonstration Dr. Emma Suana demonstration
Dr. Maria Nancy
Cadosales
Evaluation of the
Answering the LSU Planning Conducted an evaluation of
3:30 – 5:00 PM Closing Program 3-day enhancement Evaluation Tool
evaluation Officer the activity
activities
Impressions from the 2 teacher- Expressed their learning from

Open forum
Day Care Teachers participants the enhancement activities
Dr. Flordelis
Synthesized the 3-day
Closing Remarks Speech Ejercito
activities
VC-RDEL
Dr. Emma Suana

VC-Academics
Distribution of Awarding of Distributed the certificate of
Certificates Dr. Maria Nancy
Certificates Certificates participation
Cadosales
Dean, CED
257
The College of Education provides the snacks during the three-

day enhancement sessions. Each participant is budgeted Php 50.00
for snacks per day. There are seventy expected people to include the
participants and resource speakers.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The present study found out that there more undergraduate and
non-education graduate Day Care Center workers. The educational
qualification for a worker to teach in Day Care Centers is at least 72
units in college. The insufficient educational qualifications of the Day
Care Center workers to teach are the main reason why they have
teaching needs. Thus, an action plan for enhancement activities was
designed.
Early childhood education requires workers to be competent
in handling and teaching young children. The workers’ ability to
prepare the lesson and teach the lesson is very vital in the children’s
love for school. The child’s learning in his/her experiences in the Day
Care Centers helped him/her to cope with the demands in the next
stage of his/her school life. Workers therefore, need to be equipped
with the necessary knowledge, skills, and pedagogy in teaching early
childhood.
1. The CSWD personnel should annually assess the Day Care
Center workers’ teaching needs as bases of a development plan.
2. Seminar-workshops must be conducted to enhance the Day
Care workers’ teaching competencies.
3. Further study may be conducted on the teaching skills of Day
Care Center workers in Ozamiz City.
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260
Vol. 6 May 2011 ISSN 20123981
The Ati-Atihan Festival: Its Impact

to the Economy and Tourism Industry
in Kalibo, Aklan
CHRISTOPHER G. CALOPEZ
polaris_tops@yahoo.com
CHARLOTTE GAAS
GILBERT LLEVA
DIANA ROSE MANECLANG
DENNIS FUSIN
St. Therese MTC-Colleges
Molo, Iloilo City, Philippines

Abstract - Ati-Atihan is a feast held annually in

honor of the Senior Sto. Niño concluding on the third
Sunday of January in the town of Kalibo, Aklan .The
study aimed at assessing the economic and tourism
impact of the Ati-Atihan Festival to the Municipality
of Kalibo, Aklan. This descriptive study involved 120
respondents composed of residents, businessmen and
local government officials who were selected using
the purposive sampling method. A one-shot survey
was conducted to gather pertinent data and treated
using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results
revealed that respondents believed that the Ati-Atihan
festival had an impact on the economy of the town by
bringing about the expansion and improvement of
local products and in increasing the economic activity
261
in the town. It had an impact on the tourism industry

by attracting tourists both locally and internationally.
However, significant differences were found
concerning the impact of Ati-Atihan festival. Thus,
certain recommendations were formulated for the
enhancement of the celebration as well as to boost the
tourism industry and the economy of the municipality.
Keywords - Ati-Atihan Festival, Tourism Impact,

Economic Impact, Tourism Industry, Economic Activity
INTRODUCTION
A festival is the most exciting and fastest growing industry

related to leisure, business and tourism. Festivals can be viewed as
part of the new wave of alternative tourism. This is the reason that
tourism organizations in many countries actively promote events.
Some researches about festivals documented that a spill-over effect
can be found in the local economy. Festivals have always been well
attended and thus have brought about significant economic profit
(Park, 2002).Business and tourism are not only industry fields, which
benefit from festivals, but the host cities and municipalities themselves
benefit. A festival demands infrastructure, such as transportation,
accommodation, stadiums, and necessary construction. Public facilities
improve the quality of residents’ lives in the host community.
One such festival is the Ati-Atihan Festival held every January in
Kalibo, Aklan. Giving the people glimpse of the history and origin, this
traditional fiesta is dedicated to the celebration of the Feast of the Santo
Niño or the Holy Infant Jesus. A celebration honoring the Sto.Niño,
a harvest thanksgiving, and a 13th-century friendship pact between
the native aetas and the Malays, the festival could be considered the
Mardi Gras of the Philippines: a weekend of uninhibited merriment,
of endless parades and processions of grouped revelers, soothed and
intricately costumed, marching an endless loop of streets, dancing
to the continuous, rhythmic and hypnotic beating of drums, while
countless Sto. Niño statues are carried by or hoisted over the parading
crowds or pushed through small make-do floats. It is a non-stop
262
to the Economy and Tourism Industry in Kalibo, Aklan
hyperkinetic street celebration, from morning until dusk, gradually

building to a maddening merging of dance and drumbeats (Toriano,
2009). The colorful and often uninhibited festival has been proclaimed
by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as the “Mother of Philippine
Festivals” a few years back.It is therefore important to determine
whether the Ati-Atihan Festival has indeed brought about a significant
impact on the economy and tourism of the host community of Kalibo,
Aklan.
The study aimed to assess theimpact of Ati-Atihan festival to the

economy and tourism industry in Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines.
The research design used in the study was the descriptive –

survey which determines the economic and tourism impact of the Ati-
Atihan Festival in Kalibo, Aklan. A one-shot survey was conducted to
gather data pertinent to the study. The sampling technique was the
purposive – convenience sampling method. This sampling method
is a non-probability type and is a combination of the purposive and
convenience sampling method. In this study, 120 respondents were
purposely selected with an equal number of 40 respondents for each
category.
The data gathering instrument was a researcher-made
questionnaire which was validated by three experts using the 8 point
criteria by Good and Scates. The instrument, it was pre-tested among
30 respondents to determine reliability.
A letter, addressed to the Mayor of Kalibo, Aklan was written
requesting permission to conduct the study among the city officials
and businessmen. Upon approval, copies of the questionnaire were
personally distributed by the researchers to the identified respondents
who were given ample time to completely answer the questionnaire.
The questionnaires were gathered, scored, tabulated and analyzed
using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools.
263
Economic Impact of the Ati-atihan Festival
As presented in Table 1, it was determined that the respondents

believed that the festival lead to an increase in the economic activity
in the Municipality of Kalibo, Aklan, the municipal and barangay
governments provided an adequate budget for holding the festival,
the festival brought about the expansion and improvement of
local products,the festival resulted in additional/increase costs and
expenditures for the local government and ithas resulted in generating
of higher income and enjoyment of more benefits to the people in the
municipality.

Table 1. Impact of the ati-atihan festival on the economy of the

municipality of kalibo among respondents when taken as a whole
group
Items Mean Interpretation Rank
1. On the Ati-Atihan Festival leading to an increase in

the economic activity in the Municipality of Kalibo,
Aklan
a. There is an increase in income in the hotel and Very high

4.21 1
restaurant industry. impact
b. Current and New businesses support the festival. 3.99 High impact 2
c. Income opportunities are provided for the residents. 3.83 High impact 3
d. Generates job opportunities for local citizens 3.53 High impact 4
Mean 3.89 High impact

2. On the municipal and barangay governments
providing an adequate budget for holding the Ati-
atihan festival.
a. Annual municipal budget is recommended by festival

Moderate
organizers for consideration by municipal council and 3.28 1
impact
approved by local executive
264
b. Competing ‘tribes’ are given subsidy by municipal

Moderate
government particularly for costumes and other 2.88 2
impact
necessary expenses
c. Part of barangay funds is set aside by barangay

Moderate
captain to finance participation after due 2.78 3
impact
consideration by the barangay council
d. Additional expenses for the festival are also provided

2.43 Low impact 4
by generous benefactors and sponsors
Moderate
Mean 2.84
impact
3. On the Ati-atihan Festival bringing about the

expansion and improvement of local products.
a. There is an increase in the sales of local products

such as abaca/pina/raffia fabrics, fashion accessories, Very high
4.34 1
house wares, handmade paper products, furniture impact
and furnishings
b. The festival serves as showcase for the local products

such as abaca/pina/raffia fabrics, fashion accessories,
4.10 High impact 2
house wares, handmade paper products, furniture
and furnishings
c. There is an increase in the investments for locally

3.79 High impact 3
produced products.
d. There is an increase in the patronage of the hotel and

3.55 High impact 4
restaurant industry of the municipality.
4. On the Ati-atihan Festival resulting in additional/

increase costs and expenditures for the local
government.
a. Expansion of program of activities undertaken

during the actual celebration resulted in increased 3.73 High impact 1
costs and expenditures as provided in the budget.
b. Different competing groups from various

barangays reported the increase in costs and
3.59 High impact 3
expenditures to be competitive during the
celebration.
c. Organizers of barangay participation recognize

the increasing costs and expenditures, hence
3.63 High impact 2
have resorted to fund solicitation outside the
municipality.
265
d. Local businessmen often spend more in building

3.44 High impact 4
stalls/kiosks and inventory of goods for sale
Mean Interpretation Rank

Items
5. On the Ati-ahtihan Festival having resulted in
generating of higher income and enjoyment of more
benefits to the people in the municipality.
a. Many local business have increased in sales and

3.63 High impact 1
capital because of the festival.
b. Entrepreneurs have reported higher earned income

3.57 High impact 2
during the actual celebration.
c. Revenue generated by hotels and restaurants have

3.55 High impact 3
increased considerably during the festival dates.
d. Influx of tourists have increased demand for Moderate
3.31 4
accommodation and food services impact
Composite Mean 3.56 High impact
Scale Interpretation
4.21 - 5.00 Very High Impact
3.41 - 4.20 High Impact
2.61 - 3.40 Moderate Impact
1.81 - 2.60 Low Impact
1.00 - 1.80 Very Low Impact
Tourism Impact of the Ati-atihan Festival

The Table 2 shows that the respondents believed that the Ati-
atihan Festival led to the development of the tourism industry by
attracting tourists/ visitors to the municipality. The respondents also
believed that the tourism office promoted the Ati-atihan festival.
Theactivities during the Ati-atihan Festival has attracted tourists both
locally and internationally.The festival provided a night during the
celebration which presents special programs to honor tourists/visitors,
266
especially balikbayans and OFWs.Lastly, the respondents of the study

also believed that the organizers and the local tourism office assured
tourists/visitors of the availability of accommodations for rest, dining
and relaxation

Table 2. Impact of the Ati-atihanfestival on the tourism industry of
the municipality of kalibo, aklan among respondents when taken
as a whole group
Items Means Interpretation Rank
1. On the Ati-atihan festival leading to the

development of the tourism industry by attracting
tourists/visitors to the municipality.
a. There is an increase in the variety of entertainment

4.51 Very high impact 1
in the area.
b. There is an increase in the awareness of the local
3.62 High impact 2
culture and heritage among the locals and tourists.
c. There is an increase in the cultural facilities and
3.56 High impact 3
activities in the community.
d. There is an improvement in local infrastructure
3.33 Moderate impact 4
and development.

2. On the tourism office promoting the Ati-atihan
Festival
a. The local tourism office coordinates with regional

3.58 High impact 1
office of the DOT to promote the festival.
b. The festival organizers make use of the world

wide web to make the festival known to other 3.34 Moderate impact 3
people.
c. The local tourism office has prepared information
technology-based presentation of the festival to 3.42 High impact 2
attract tourists.
d. The local government officials provide flyers,
brochures and other print materials to promote 3.28 Moderate impact 4
the festival.
Mean 3.40 Moderate impact

3. On the activities during the Ati-atihan Festival has
attracted tourists both locally and internationally.
a. The Ati-Atihan competition has improved and has

3.93 High impact 1.5
become more colorful.
267
b. The number of tribes competing provide a

3.80 High impact 4
variety for the tourists to see.
c. The street dancing provide the tourists and

3.93 High impact 1.5
visitors a chance to participate.
d. There are a large number of local and foreign

tourists who flock to the town during festival 3.92 High impact 3
dates.
4. On the having a night during the celebration

which presents special programs to honor tourists/
visitors, especially balikbayans and OFWs.
a. During the festival celebration, a special night is
allotted to balikbayans and OFWs in recognition 3.55 High impact 2
of their fund and logistics support to the festival.
b. Distinguished balikbayans and OFWs who have
excelled in their professions are awarded and 3.47 High impact 3
recognized.
c. Festival organizers have designed special
program for balikbayansand OFWs to show
3.57 High impact 1
tangible proof of the value and significance of
their support.
d. Every year, festival organizers have designed
a special presentation for tourists/visitors to 3.46 High impact 4
showcase the local products of the town.
5. On organizers and the local tourism office

assuring tourists/visitors of the availability of
accommodations for rest, dining and relaxation.
a. Organizers have instructed restaurant owners/
managers to have a list of menus with priced for 3.09 Moderate impact 1
information and convenience of the tourists.
b. Prominent families have been contacted to
accommodate special guests with provision for 2.79 Moderate impact 3
dining, rest and relaxation.
c. Owners/managers of hotels and restaurants have

been informed to maintain standards for safety
2.90 Moderate impact 2
and sanitation so as not to disappoint tourists/
visitors.
d. Local tourism office have assessed the quality
of accommodation and food services and duly 2.68 Moderate impact 4
informed festival organizers of their availability.
Mean 2.87 Moderate impact
Composite Mean 3.49 High impact
268
Significant Differences on the Perceived Economic Impact of the

Ati-atihan Festival among Categories of Respondents
Results of the ANOVa revealed an F Value of 21.84, with a

significance of 0.00. Since this was lesser than the p value of 0.05, this
indicated that there were indeed significant differences in the perceived
impact of the festival on the economy of the municipality. (Table 5)
Table 3.ANOVA Table for significant differences on the impact

of the ati-atihan festival on the economy
of Kalibo, Aklan among Categories of Respondents
Sum of Mean
df F Sig. Interpretation
Squares Square
Between Groups 20.96 2.00 10.48 21.84 0.00* Significant
Within Groups 56.14 117.00 0.48
Total 77.10 119.00
Significant at p<0.05
Significant Differences on the Perceived Tourism Impact of the Ati-

atihan Festival Among Categories of Respondents
Results revealed an F value of 2.70 with a significance of 0.07. Since

the significance was greater than the p value set for this study of 0.05,
this indicated that there were no significant differences in the impact
of the festival on the tourism industry of Kalibo, Aklan as perceived by
residents, businessmen and local government officials. (Table 4)
269
Table 4. ANOVA Table for Significant Differences on the

Impact of the Ati-atihan Festival on the Tourism Industry of Kalibo,
Aklan among Categories of Respondents
Sum of Mean
df F Sig. Interpretation
Squares Square
Between Groups 4.80 2.00 2.40 2.70 0.07 Not Significant
Within Groups 104.10 117.00 0.89
Total 108.90 119.00
Significant at p< 0.05
Significant Economic Impacts of the Ati-atihan Festival
The significant impact of the festival on the economy of the town

were on the festival resulting in additional/increase of costs and
expenditures for the local government with a Z value of 2.10 and a
significance of 0.04. Another significant impact was on the festival
having resulted in generating higher income and enjoyment of more
benefits to the people in the municipality, with a z value of -4.12 and a
significance of 0.00. (Table 5)
Table 5. Z-Test for Significant Economic

Impacts of the Ati-atihan Festival

Test Z
Items Assymp. Sig. Interpretation
Value Value
1. On the Ati-Atihan Festival

leading to an increase in
the economic activity in 3.89 -1.47 0.14 Not Significant
the Municipality of Kalibo,
Aklan
270
2. On the municipal and

barangay governments
providing an adequate 2.84 -0.62 0.54 Not Significant
budget for holding the Ati-
atihan festival.
3. On the Ati-atihan
Festival bringing about
the expansion and 3.95 -1.57 0.12 Not Significant
improvement of local
products.
4. On the Ati-atihan Festival

resulting in additional/
increase costs and 3.60 2.10 0.04* Significant
expenditures for the local
government.
5. On the Ati-ahtihan
Festival having resulted
in generating of higher
3.51 -4.12 0.00* Significant
income and enjoyment of
more benefits to the people
in the municipality.
p <0.05
Significant Tourism Impacts of the Ati-atihan Festival
The z-test for significant impacts of the Ati-atihan festival on

the tourism industry of Kalibo, Aklan revealed that only one item
was significant. This was on the activities during the festival having
attracted tourists both locally and internationally, with a z value of
-5.34 and a significance of 0.00.
271
Table 6.Z-Test for Significant Impacts of the Ati-Atihan Festival

on the Tourism Industry of Kalibo, Aklan
Test
Items Z Value Assymp. Sig. Interpretation
Value
1. On the Ati-atihan
festival leading to the
development of the
tourism industry by 3.75 -1.03 0.30 Not Significant
attracting tourists/
visitors to the
municipality.
2. On the tourism office

promoting the Ati- 3.40 -1.81 0.07 Not Significant
atihan Festival
3. On the activities
during the Ati-atihan
Festival has attracted 3.90 -5.34 0.00* Significant
tourists both locally
and internationally.
4. On the having
an night during
the celebration
which presents
special programs 3.51 -1.09 0.28 Not Significant
to honor tourists/
visitors, especially
balikbayans and
OFWs.
5. On organizers and
the local tourism
office assuring
tourists/visitors of
2.87 1.71 0.09 Not Significant
the availability of
accommodations
for rest, dining and
relaxation.
Significant at p< 0.05
272
CONCLUSIONS
The respondents believed that the Ati-atihan festival had an

economic impact to the town by bringing about the expansion and
improvement of local products and in increasing the economic activity.
They likewise believed that the Ati-atihan Festival had an impact to
the tourism industry of the town by attracting tourists both locally
and internationally. There were significant differences in the perceived
economic impacts of the Ati-atihan Festival in Kalibo, Aklan when
respondents are categorized to variables.
The significant economic impact of the festival were centered on the
festival resulting in additional/increase of costs and expenditures for
the local government and on the festival having resulted in generating
higher income and enjoyment of more benefits to the people in the
municipality The significant tourism impact of the festival centered on
the activities during the festival having attracted tourists both locally
and internationally.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To boost the economy of a certain Municipality the local government

should look into additional job opportunities and income generating
activities for the local citizens. Also, the local government should look
into more solicitations from generous benefactors and sponsors to help
defray expenses for the festival. Local hotels and restaurants should be
promoted since there is a need to increase patronage of these service
industries as evidenced from the low impact it had on the economy of
the town.
The municipality of Kalibo must improve and develop local
infrastructures in the locality to make it moreconducive to tourism.
Additional promotions should be made, especially on flyers, brochures
and print materials to promote the festival. It is recommended that the
internet be used as an effective medium of promotion. A campaign
for more tribal competition should be made to provide more variety
for tourists to see. It is also recommended that a study be made to
assess the economic impact of the festival based on actual income and
expenditure made in relation to its celebration.
273
LITERATURE CITED
Park, K. S.
2002 A case study of postexposition site utilization in Korea. Event
Management, Vol.7, 197-204.

Toriano, T.J.
2009 KalibotSto. Niño Ati-Atihan Festival Continues to Receive Visitors.
Friday,16, January2009.Retrievedfrom:http://www.kalibo.gov.
ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=240&Item
id=152

274
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Eddie R. Babor, Ph.D., Holy Name University

Andrea G. Azuelo, Ph. D., Central Mindanao University

Rumila P. Bullecer, Bohol Island State University

Ma. Rio A. Naguit, Ph.D., Jose Rizal Memorial State University

Consorcio A. Namoco, Jr., Mindanao University of Science and Technology

Donna Lou E. Neri, Ph. D., Liceo de Cagayan University

Anacleta P. Valdez, MD, Ph.D., Lyceum of the Philippines University - Batangas

Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D., Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines

AIMS AND SCOPE

The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Journal aims to publish new discoveries in

Volume 6 May 2011

17 Class Size and Academic Performance

31 Competencies of Instructors: Its Correlation

52 Correlates of Word Problem Solving

65 Development and Validation of Modules in English 2:

77 Dialects, Beliefs and Practices of the Tinguians of Abra

90 Determinants of L.E.T. Performance of the Teacher

103 Diversity and Status of Butterflies in

117 Gleaning, Drying and Marketing Practices of Sea Cucumber

142 Love and the Mentally Challenged:

163 Morphological Analysis of Gay’s Spoken Discourse

183 Perceptions of Secondary School Teachers on the Utilization

197 Phytochemical and Pesticidal Properties

215 Poverty’s Political Face: The Case

232 Predictors of Nursing Board Examination Performance

247 Enhancement Activities for the Day Care Centers

261 The Ati-Atihan Festival: Its Impact to the Economy

Pursuant to the international character of this publication, the journal is

The Peer Review System

Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting

Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of the

Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it is (1)

In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a

Pursuant to the international character of this publication, the journal is

Canonical Correlation Analysis

Date Submitted: April 20, 2011

Abstract - The study models student perceptions

Student satisfaction is an important indicator of service quality in

A number of different key factors that influence customer or

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study determined the canonical correlation analysis of

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study used the descriptive design with inferential techniques.

A Student Satisfaction Survey Tool was administered to the

Data set from this study is collected on two separate survey

The data sets were analyzed using canonical correlation procedures.

Canonical correlation analysis was performed to meet the objective

the derived second canonical function is of no particular significance,

Table 1.0 Overall fit of derived canonical functions

1 0.51 0. 27 21.96 16 0.00

2 0.06 0.00 0.48 7 0.85

Note: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.73, F (16, 2054)=21.96, p<0.01; Pilla’s

The canonical loadings for the predictor variate showed a strong

Further examination of canonical cross-loadings, shows that the

Table 2.0 Canonical cross-loadings for the first data-set

Subject Matter Knowledge 0.32 0.00

Table 3.0 Overall fit of derived canonical

1 0.64 0. 41 42.50 16 0.00

2 0.11 0.01 2.18 7 0.03

Note: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.58, F(16, 2176) =42.50, p<0.01; Pilla’s

Table 4.0 Canonical cross-loadings for the second data set

Subject Matter Knowledge 0.45 0.01

The findings of the study point to the importance of student’s