Dust Explosions and

Solid Epoxy Resins

Airborne dust created by the handling of many industrial materials
can combine in an air/dust mixture that could result in a violent,

Technical Bulletin
damaging explosion. The dust created from handling solid epoxy
resins is one of these materials. This Technical Bulletin describes
what a dust explosion really is, conditions under which an explosion
might occur, how to prevent such explosions and how all of this
applies to solid epoxy resins.

Dust Explosion Basics Figure 1. Dust Explosion

Dust is defined as small particles in
the atmosphere which can settle due
to their own weight, but which
remain airborne as a dust/air mix for
some time. Although it is generally
accepted that the actual shape of the
particles is less relevant, the particle
sizes are generally in the range of
400-500 µm (35-40 mesh)
maximum.
Approximately 70% of the powders
handled by industry, including dust
that may be generated from
handling solid epoxy resins, can
form combustible dust. If these
materials are finely dispersed in the
air and ignite, then the flames can
propagate through the dust/air
mixture similarly to what might
occur in gas/air mixtures. The
resultant explosion is normally
spontaneous, very violent and can
cause significant damage, injuries
and environmental problems.

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 Technical Bulletin
Preventing dust explosions has
gained increased attention in
recent years. In the United States,
for instance, the Chemical Safety
Board has proposed new
regulations to reduce the dangers
of combustible dust.
Meanwhile, the European Community
has already implemented two
directives for that same purpose.
Directive 94/9/EC, often referred
to as ATEX-95 (Atmosphères
Explosives), defines the safety
requirements concerning
equipment and protective systems
intended for use in potentially
explosive atmospheres. The other
directive, 1999/92/EC (ATEX
137), outlines the minimum
requirements for the protection
and safety of workers at risk from
explosive atmospheres.
A dust explosion can happen when
a flame propagates through
combustible particles that have
dispersed in the air and formed a
flammable dust cloud. Whether an
explosion happens or not depends
on the supply of oxygen to the fire
and the concentration of the fuel.
If the concentration of the oxygen
or the fuel is too high or low, then
an explosion is very unlikely to
occur. In the combustion engine,
such as the one in your car, three
combustion components (fuel, air/
oxygen and the ignition spark)
work together in a controlled way
to produce an explosion inside the
enclosed cylinder. For the
explosion to take place, the ratio
of fuel to air must be correct. If the
fuel tank is empty, the air source is
blocked or if the ignition does not
work, then any one of these
components is considered
2
controlled, combustion cannot
occur and the motor will not start.
Industrial dust explosions can be
triggered by many sources,
including static sparks, friction and
glowing materials.
Before dust can explode:
• The dust must be combustible.
• The dust must be capable of
becoming airborne.
• The dust must have a size
distribution capable of flame
propagation.
• The dust concentration must be
within the explosion limits.
• An ignition source must be
present.
• The atmosphere must contain
sufficient oxygen to support and
sustain combustion.
A dust explosion can happen only
if ALL of these requirements are
met at the same time. Eliminating
just one of these requirements
would make a dust explosion very
unlikely.
What is a Dust Explosion
Explosions are defined as sudden
reactions involving a rapid physical
or chemical oxidation reaction, or
decay generating an increase in
temperature or pressure, or both
simultaneously. When the flame
speed is greater than the speed of
sound, we call it a detonation.
Otherwise, the explosion is known
as a deflagration. Detonations are
much more destructive than
deflagrations. Typically, dust
explosions are relatively slow
combustion processes. If ignition
occurs in a dust cloud in an open
area, then little or no overpressure
results and the primary hazard is a
fireball.
The best way to get data
concerning a specific type of dust
is to do testing on the actual
substance. Most written technical
resources on dust explosions have
data for the minimum explosive
concentrations and other
properties of common powders.
What follows is a summary of the
factors that can determine and
affect the likelihood of a dust
explosion.
Factors Affecting Ignition
Sensitivity and Explosion
Violence
Although particle size/specific
surface area is the main factor in
determining the likelihood of a
dust explosion, other factors will
also have an influence. They
include:
• The dust’s chemical composition
and moisture content.
• Pressure and temperature.
• Particle shape and size
distribution.
• Concentration distribution in the
dust cloud.
• Turbulence in the dust cloud.
• Flame front disturbance by
mechanisms other than
turbulence.
• Radiant heat transfer from the
flame (dependent on chemistry).

The Fuel
No explosion will take place
without combustible fuel.
Generally, dust explosions arise
from the simple chemistry of
combustion:
Fuel + Oxygen yields Oxides + Heat
Sometimes, metal dusts can also
react exothermically with N2 or
CO2, but this is only in very
special cases. As such, only
materials with unstable oxides can
be involved in dust explosions.
The following chemical compound
types are unable to produce dust
explosions:
• Silicates
• Sulphates
• Nitrates
• Carbonates
• Phosphates
The risk of dust explosions is very
low in industries such as cement
manufacturing, sand quarrying
and limestone excavation.
Materials that can cause dust
explosions include:
• Natural organic materials (grain,
linen, sugar, etc.)
• Synthetic organic materials
(plastics including epoxy resins,
organic pigments, pesticides,
etc.)
• Coal and peat
• Metals (aluminum, zinc, iron,
etc.)
The severity of the resulting
explosions is related to the
calorific value of the materials.
Fuel Concentration
For a dust cloud explosion to
occur, the dust concentration must
be within certain limits. This is
analogous with the concept of
upper and lower flammability
limits for mixtures of gas (or
vapors) and air. In general, the
lowest concentration of dust that
can cause a dust explosion is
around 30-60 g/m3 and the
maximum is 2-4 kg/m3 (See Table 1).
These limits are dependent on the
particular material in question and
on the particle size distribution.
The most severe cases are usually
when the dust concentration is
slightly above the ideal
stoichiometric concentration. The
upper concentration limit is
dictated by the minimum amount
of oxygen needed for explosion
and the lower limit by the
minimum quantity of particles
needed to sustain combustion.
When considering the safety of the
workplace, the lower explosion
limit is the more important value.
A fuel concentration of at least 20
Table 1. Typical Critical Parameters for a Dust Explosion
Particle Size
Dust Concentration
Moisture Content
Oxygen
Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT)
Table 2. Explosion Classes
Dust Explosion Class(bar•m•s-1)
St1
St2
St3
Technical Bulletin
percent less than the lower
explosion limit is often considered
safe.
The optimum dust concentration
yields the highest pressure or rate
of pressure rise. The KSt value
(bar•m/sec) is a classifying
parameter that describes the
volatility of the combustion. It
equals the value for the maximum
speed of pressure build-up during
the explosion of a dust/air mix in a
container measuring 1 m3. The KSt
value is the basis for calculating
pressure discharge surfaces and
forms the basis for categorization
of dust clouds into three hazard
classes, listed in Table 2. These
St-classes give an indication of the
relative hazard and deflagration
vent sizing requirements. Dust St
hazard classes are generally not
used for vent sizing design, and
have been replaced by KSt values
(equation approach). However, the
St-classes are still used for
qualitative descriptions.
<0.05 mm
40 - 4000 g/m3
<11%
>12%
>10 mJ - 100 mJ
410 - 600˚C
KSt Value Pmax (bar)
>0 to 200 10
>200 to 300 10
>300 12
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Primary and Secondary
Explosions
The concentrations needed for a
dust explosion are rarely seen
outside of process vessels. The
most severe dust explosions start
within a piece of equipment, such
as: mills, mixers, screens, dryers,
cyclones, hoppers, filters, bucket
elevators, silos, aspiration ducts,
and pneumatic transit systems.
Explosions in these vessels are
known as primary explosions. It is
important to note that one of the
main differences between a dust
explosion and a flammable gas
hazard is that gas/vapor explosions
rarely happen inside vessels
because of the lack of air. Dust,
however, is generally suspended in
air within the process equipment,
which can allow dust explosion
conditions to form unless the
vessels are operated in pure
nitrogen atmospheres. This can
then cause the vessel to rupture if it
has insufficient pressure release
devices/venting or if the design
pressure is too low.
Secondary explosions are caused
when a dust film is disturbed by
the primary explosion and forms a
second dust cloud, which then is
ignited by the primary explosion.
The problem is that small amounts
of dust film occupy very little
space, but once disturbed can
easily form dangerous clouds. A
1 mm layer of dust of 500 kg/m3
can give rise to a 5 m deep cloud of
100 g/m3 dust. There can be a large
series of explosions triggered in
this manner, leading to devastating
results. The amount of dust
deposits must be minimized to the
greatest possible extent by routine
housekeeping.
Surface Area
No matter how combustible the
dust may be, a dust explosion will
generally not take place if the
particle size is too large. Although
there is a clear dependence on the
size and surface area of dust
particles, it does not vary linearly
with how explosive the powder
may be. Often, dust (e.g. coal dust)
will become more and more
explosive down to a certain size
limit at which it will then plateau.
Note that the particle size is/can
often be reduced via attrition or
size reduction during handling and
processing. The reduction of the
average particle size increases the
explosion hazard of the dust. A
useful indication of the particle
size is also the specific surface
area, which allows us to see
exactly how much surface area
there is per unit of mass. For
example, a cube of edge x will
have a specific surface area S that
is equal to:
S = 6x2 (area)/x3 (volume) = 6/x.

Figure 2. Primary and Secondary Explosions

Dust Cloud Formed Heat from Primary Explosion Ignites Dust Cloud

Blast Wave

Dust Layer

Primary Explosion Secondary Explosion

4

We, therefore, have a convenient
way of quickly estimating the
specific surface area from the
diameter and basic particle
characteristics. Essentially, the
higher the specific surface area,
the more danger there is of dust
being involved in a dust cloud
explosion. An explosion occurs in
three stages: volatile evaporation
from the particles, gas phase
mixing and gas phase combustion.
As the surface area is increased,
the evaporation of volatiles is
improved (i.e. the volatiles
evaporate more easily).
Figure 3. Minimum Ignition Energy
as a Function of the Particle Size
600
500
400
MIE (mJ)
300
200
100
0
0 40 80 120 160
Average particle size (µm)
Ignition
A dust cloud, within its
flammable concentration limits,
usually will not burn unless
sufficient energy is provided to
ignite it. The minimum energy of
an electrical spark that’s capable
of igniting the explosive dust/air
mix and causing flame propagation
is the Minimum Ignition Energy
(MIE) value. The MIE is strongly
dependent on particle size (Refer
to Dust Explosions in the Process
Industries, R. K. Eckhoff). Figure
3 illustrates this effect.
The moisture content of dust will
affect the ability of a dust cloud to
ignite and sustain an explosion.
An increase in moisture content
pushes the MIE value up
exponentially. The moisture
works in several ways. Heating
and evaporating the moisture
provides an inert heat sink. Once
evaporated, the water vapor
mixes with pyrolysis gases and
makes them less reactive. This can
also increase intermolecular
cohesion of the dust, effectively
creating a larger particle size.
200
Somewhat different is the
Minimum Ignition Temperature
(MIT), a measure of the sensitivity
of dust to ignition by hot surfaces.
The MIT and MIE are not
fundamental properties, but
depend strongly on the particle
size, moisture content, and test
methods. Some indicative MIT
and MIE values required for a
dust explosion to occur are shown
in Table 1 (page 3).
Technical Bulletin
Ignition Sources
Potential ignition sources include
items such as:
• Open flames (welding, cutting,
matches, etc.)
• Hot surfaces (dryers, bearings,
heaters, etc.)
• Heat from mechanical impacts
• Electrical discharges
• Electrostatic discharges
• Smoldering or burning dust
Explosion Hazard Zones
Classification
Hazard zones are defined so
appropriate explosion protection
measures can be taken. For the
European Community, zone
definitions are described in
Directive 1999/92/EC. Explosion
hazard zones are classified
depending on the frequency and
duration of the potentially
explosive atmosphere. This
classification provides the scope
of the measures to be taken
according to Annex II Section A
in the Directive 1999/92/EC in
conjunction with Annex I of the
Directive 94/9/EC.
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 Technical Bulletin

Zone 20 A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is
present continuously, or for long periods or frequently.
Zone 21 A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is
likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.
Zone 22 A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is
not likely to occur in normal operation but, if it does occur, will persist for a short period only.
Notes:
1. Layers, deposits and heaps of combustibles must be considered as any other source that can form an explosive atmosphere.
2. Normal operation means the situation when installations are used within their design parameters.

In the workplace, the explosion
hazard areas are normally
classified as zone 21 and 22. Zone
20 is restricted to very small and
inaccessible areas in workplaces,
or the inside of technical
equipment.
Epoxy Resin Dust
Epoxy resins, in the context of this
topic, are reaction products of
bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin.
The resins can range from low
Figure 4. Explosion Hazard Zones
Zone 20
molecular weight liquid products
to very high molecular weight
solids. Typically, the epoxy resins
become solids as soon as the
molecular weight of 1,100 is
reached or exceeded.
Subsequently, the pure solid
epoxy resin can be a source for
dusts and the associated dangers.
Epoxy resins are thermoset
materials that are typically
transformed to cured finished
materials by means of a chemical
Zone 21 Zone 22
Silo
Flap
Flour Sack
reaction. These cured materials
can, under certain circumstances,
form dust from grinding and
drilling.
The determination of accurate
data for dust, including solid
epoxy resin dust, is generally not
easy. As we saw, the MIE and
other factors are strongly
dependant on factors such as the
mean particle size, the moisture
content, etc.
A comprehensive database of
combustion and explosion
characteristics of dusts has
been created by the
Berufsgenossenschaftliches
Institute für Arbeitschutz, an
institute for research and testing
of the German
Berufsgenossenschaften (BG).
Important combustion and
explosion characteristics of more
than 4,000 dust samples, including
several epoxy resin examples, from
virtually all industry sectors have
been determined and are
summarized in a database located
on the web site at: http://www.
hvbg.de/e/bia/gestis/expl/index.
html. An extract of the database as
it pertains to epoxy is summarized
in Table 3.

Conveyor Belt

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Table 3. Explosion Characteristics of Epoxy Products

Dust Minimum Ignition
Particle Size;
Material Explosion Energy (=MIE) or
Median [µm]
Class Emin in [mJ]
Amine adduct with epoxy resin 15 <10
Coating powder, based on epoxy resin 30 St1 <10
Epoxy-polyester, grinding dust <52 St1
Epoxy resin and 2-methylimidazole (reaction product) <32 St2
Epoxy resin, glass fiber reinforced/copper/aluminum <38 St1
Glass fiber reinforced plastic (40% glass fibers, 40% epoxy resin), <60 St1
grinding dust
Grinding dust, clutch linings (epoxy resins, glass fibers, latex) 13 St1 100/103
Hardener, epoxy resin, 82% calcium carbonate, 15 St1 >104
18% 2-phenylimidazoline
Hardener, epoxy resin, 98% diuron <10 St1
(N,N-dimethyl-N’3,4-dichlorophenylurea)
Hardener, epoxy resin, 98% fenuron(N,N-dimethyl-N’-phenylurea) <10 St2
Hardener, epoxy resin, 98% toluenediisocyanatesurane <10 St2
(1,1'-4(Methyl-m-phenylene)-bis-(3,3'-dimethylurea)
Hardener, epoxy resin, 99% 1H-imidazole, 1% silica 16 St2
Hardener, epoxy resin, 99% 2-phenylimidazoline, 1% silica <27 St2
Hardener, epoxy resin, 99% 2-phenylimidazoline, 1% silicon dioxide 27 (St2) <10
Hardener, epoxy resin, phenolic resin amine adduct, 3% phenol 25 St2 <10
Knifing filler, based on epoxy resin 19 St1
Knifing filler, based on epoxy resin 24 St1
Moulding compound (26% epoxy resin, 64% quartz flour, <63 St1
10% glass fibers )
Polyester structural powder (approx. 60% polyester/epoxy resin mix) 24 St1 <10
Powder paint, thermosetting (based on epoxy/polyester resin) <37 St2
Printed circuit board manufacture (epoxy resin, copper, aluminum), <45 St1
drill shavings
Printed circuit board manufacture (epoxy resin, copper, aluminum), <63 St1
drill shavings
Printed circuit board manufacture (epoxy resin, copper, aluminum), <63 St1
drill shavings
Resin, carbon fiber epoxy <13 St1
Resin, epoxy 13 St1
Resin, epoxy <28 (St2)
Resin, epoxy <49 (St2)
Resin, epoxy <63 St1
Resin, epoxy (glass fiber reinforced with flame retardant) 22 St1 >104
Resin, epoxy, pigmented with hardener <63 (St2)
Resin, epoxy, sawdust <25 St1
Resin, epoxy, with acid hardener <40 (St2)
Resin, epoxy, with adhesive properties <33 (St2)
Resin, epoxy, with inorganic fillers <63 St1

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 Technical Bulletin

Table 4. Characteristics of a Powder Coating Based on Epoxy Resin

Characteristics Value
Particle size<125 µm (% by weight) 100
Particle size<63 µm (% by weight) 91 100 100
Particle size<32 µm (% by weight) 50 51 51
Particle size<20 µm (% by weight) 16 16
Median Value [µm] 32 30 30
Lower Ex-Limit [g/m3] 15
Max. Ex-Overpressure (bar) 7,6
KSt Value (bar m/s) 136
Explosibility St1
Minimum Ignition Energy (mJ) <10 <10 o.I.
Ignition Temperature BAM (˚C) 520
Combustibility BZ 3

Each entry in the database is The user must always be aware Additional MIE data have been
covered with additional that the tabulated values only reported for neat solid epoxy resin
parameters that can be extracted. serve as a guideline for the design in the range of 15 – 60 mJ at
An example is shown in Table 4. of preventive and protective moisture contents of up to 0.7%
measures. The data illustrates the by weight. As we have seen, the
The tables above specify limits of
problem involved with MIE is extremely dependent on
applicability of the combustion
combustible dusts – very different the surface area (i.e. particle size)
and explosion characteristics.
values can occur for what appear as well as moisture content.
These limits are based on the
to be the same dusts. This
broad variability of several
highlights the need to test the
properties (e.g. composition,
specific dust whenever it is unclear
particle size distribution, surface
if important influencing factors
structure, moisture content) on
(such as composition, fineness and
one hand, and the dependence of
moisture content) to determine if it
the numerical value of the
coincides with the existing
characteristics on the test methods
conditions.
on the other.

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Table 5: Technical Safety Parameters of Dusts
Parameter Definition/Description
Size of Particle Dust particles larger than 400 µm are typically not
combustible. Dust particles are combustible when they
measure less than 400 µm and up to 20 µm
Combustible As with gases, dust is combustible within certain
Dust concentration parameters:
Concentrations lower combustibility limit: approx. 20 - 60 g/m3 air
upper combustibility limit: approx. 2 - 6 kg/m3 air
Maximum In simple closed containers, flammable dusts can cause
Explosive an explosive pressure between 6 and 10 bar.
Pressure
KSt-Value This is a classifying parameter that describes the
volatility of the combustion. It equals the figure for the
maximun speed of pressure build-up during the
explosion of a dust/air mix in a container measuring 1 m3.
Moisture The moisture of a dust is an important factor for
potential ignitions and explosions. Although no exact
parameters exist, it is known that dust containing
higher amounts of moisture require a higher ignition
energy and are less likely to be swirled up.
Minimum The minimum energy of an electrical spark which,
Ignition under defined conditions, is able to ignite the explosive
Energy Emin dust/air mix.
Ignition The lowest temperature of a heated wall that ignites
Temperature the dust/air mix upon brief contact.
Ti
Smoldering The lowest temperature of a hot surface on which a
Temperature Ts 5 mm dust deposit is ignited.
Technical Bulletin
Remarks
Transportation and processing of large-particle dust
often cause abrasion, producing finer dusts.
These parameters vary widely across the spectrum.
Highly combustible dusts can form a flammable
mix with less than 15 g/m3.
In exceptional cases, such as with light metal dusts,
explosive pressure of up to 20 bar is possible.
This figure is the basis for calculating pressure
discharge surfaces.
Not every spark is capable of causing ignition. The
decisive factor is whether sufficient energy is introduced
into the dust/air mix to trigger an independent
combustion of the entire mix. A modified Hartmann
tube is used to determine the minimum ignition energy.
The shape of the vessel in which the ignition
temperature is measured has proven to be especially
critical. It may be assumed that ignition on differently
shaped surfaces is, in practice, only possible at much
higher temperatures. In the case of dust from food
products and animal feed, this figure is between 410
and 500 ˚C depending on type.
The smoldering temperature describes the ignition
characteristics of thin dust layers. If the layer is thicker,
or if the ignition source is completely buried in dust,
the thermal insulation provided by the dust layer
increases, which changes the smoldering temperature
entirely, sometimes lowering it considerably, which
could trigger an exothermal reaction. Experiments
have shown that the smoldering temperature decreases
nearly linearly as the thickness increases. Ts is
sometimes considerably lower than Ti for an airborne
mix of the same dust. The estimated maximum
permissible surface temperature for electrical
equipment may be higher, depending on the dust’s
thermal conductivity. Unnoticed smolder spots can be
present for long periods in thick layers of dust and
can, if the dust is swirled up, become effective
ignition sources.
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 Technical Bulletin
To Conclude...
The information in this Bulletin
provides you with basic knowledge
of the causes of dust explosions
and some steps to take to avoid
them so you may experience a
safer workplace. A proper
understanding of correct handling
procedures and conditions under
which dust explosions may occur
will contribute to a safer working
environment when handling solid
epoxy resins.
10
References:
Directive 94/9/EC of the
European Parliament and the
Council of 23 March 1994.
Official Journal L100, 19/4/1994,
pages 1-29.
Directive 99/92/EC of the
European Parliament and the
Council of 16 December 1999.
Official Journal L023, 28/01/
2000, pages 57-64.
“Dust Explosion Protection,”
September 2003 (Bartec brochure,
03-0330-0351-07/03-BCS-
A220270E)
“The Basics of Dust-explosion
Protection,” (Stahl brochure, S-
PB-dustex-00-en-04/2004, ID-Nr.
00 006 84 77 0)
Dust Explosions in the Process
Industries, R. K. Eckhoff, 1997,
Butterworth-Heinemann; ISBN:
0750632704
Dust Explosions, P. Field,
“Handbook of Powder
Technology,” 1982 Elsevier;
ISBN:0167-3785
Industrial Dust Explosions,
Cashdollar-Herzberg, 1986.
ASTM 04-958000-31
Dust Explosions and Fires, K.N.
Palmer, 1973, ISBN:412 09430 4
Explosibility Assessment of
Industrial Powders and Dusts, P.
Field, 1983, HMSO; ISBN:
0116713623
http://www.reade.com/Safety/
dust.html
http://www.chemeng.ed.ac.uk/
~emju49/SP2001/webpage/intro/
intro.html (George Williamson,
2002)
 Technical Bulletin

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®
Published December 2007 Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow Form No. 296-01753-1207X-TD
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