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Temperature Analysis in the Combustion of the Fuel Spray in Diesel Engines

Conference Paper · November 2007

DOI: 10.4271/2007-01-2524

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Temperature Analysis in the Combustion of the Fuel Spray in
Diesel Engines
Copyright © 2007 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc
ABSTRACT
Diesel combustion is a complex, turbulent, tree-
dimensional, multiphase process that occurs in a high-
temperature and high-pressure environment. For the Diesel
combustion studies the knowledge of the temperatures in
the different areas of the fuel spray after the ignition
process is fundamental. Starting from the knowledge of
such temperatures, it is possible to study the mechanism of
the main pollutants formation such as the particulate matter
and NOX. The present work proposes an extension of the
phenomenological model of particulate matter emission,
previously proposed by the author, now with the objective
of foreseeing the temperature in some fundamental regions
of the Diesel spray in combustion, like the region adjacent
to the diffusion flame, where the oxidation of great part of
the particulate matter occurs and where the production of
the thermal NOX, which is responsible for the main part of
the NOX emissions, takes place. The model validation was
made through data from a single cylinder research engine,
including engine data to feed the model and the temperature
measurements of the spray in combustion directly inside the
combustion chamber, done through Rayleigh-thermometry.
The simulations showed a good correlation with the
experimental data and with the most current Diesel
combustion theories. The close agreement between
expected and predicted values serves to further strengthen
validity of the model and recommends future optimization
and expansion studies.
INTRODUCTION
To reach the rigorous current requirements of
emissions, fuel consumption, noise and performance for the
application of Diesel engines in commercial vehicles, the
detailed study of the combustion process is fundamental.
Mainly in relation to the trade off among the exhaust
emissions and the vehicle performance, it is necessary to
evaluate the impact of using exhaust after treatment
systems instead the use of techniques that act in the
combustion chamber. The option for one or the other
1
2007-01-2524
Celso Argachoy
MWM-INTERNATIONAL Motores
approach determines the positioning of the final product in
the market in terms of initial cost as in terms of necessary
infrastructure and operational costs. Mainly for the
approach focused in the reduction of the emissions in the
combustion chamber, the knowledge of the temperatures of
the main areas of the Diesel spray in combustion is
decisive. To proceed the adjust in the injection timing,
looking for controlling the heat release rate inside the
combustion chamber, or to evaluate the percentage of
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to be established for the
control of the NOX emissions, among other challenges, it is
important to have access to a prevision of the temperatures
inside the combustion chamber. The use of Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) connected with a chemical
equilibrium software, or even the use of a three-
dimensional tool dedicated to the combustion analysis, as
the software KIVA, offer excellent results, but they
determine the use of special workstations and highly
specialized professionals, demanding a relatively long time
to be implemented. For the daily needs of the professionals
in an engine development center, simple tools for the end
user are necessary, even when these tools bring embedded
concepts and algorithms that are relatively complex. It is
more and more common the development of
phenomenological or zero-dimensional methodologies for
pre-optimization of the combustion chamber geometry and
the engine operation parameters. The present work shows
an extension of the phenomenological model developed by
ARGACHOY & PIMENTA [1] for the evaluation of the
particulate matter formation in direct injection Diesel
engine, developed on the Matlab-Simulink1 platform. This
new model can operate either as a stand-alone device for
predicting temperatures in combustion chamber, or as a
sub-model in a larger system model of a modern Diesel
engine.
1
Matlab and Simulink are trademarks of The MathWorks,
Inc.
MODEL FORMULATION rich zone. Soot is burned out and NOX is produced on the
outside of the diffusion flame, where temperatures are high
According HEYWOOD [2], the fuel is injected into and oxygen and nitrogen are abundant.
the combustion chamber slightly before the desired time of
combustion, as the piston reaches the end of the
compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small
droplets, evaporates and mixes with the hot and compressed
air of the combustion chamber. Because the air temperature
and pressure are above the fuel’s ignition point,
spontaneous ignition occurs after a short delay. The time
interval between the start of injection and the first heat
release is called the ignition delay. After the ignition delay
period, the subsequent Diesel combustion process is
commonly divided into two stages. During the initial phase
the fuel which has mixed with air to within the
flammability limits combusts rapidly. This phase of the
combustion process is commonly referred as premixed
phase and is associated with high rates of heat release over
a few crank angle degrees. The combustion heat-release
history during this interval depends strongly on the fuel-air
mixture prepared during the ignition delay period. The Figure 1. Apparent heat release rate, cylinder pressure and
Figure 1, from ESPEY & DEC [3], shows a diagram with needle lift behavior for a Diesel combustion
the pressure history, needle-lift history and apparent heat process, according ESPEY & DEC [3].
release rate versus crank angle for one cycle of Diesel
combustion. The crankshaft angle is a common measure of CORRELATIONS USED IN THE MODEL
time when examining combustion in reciprocating engines
because it remains relative to the combustion event Considering the correlations mentioned in the work of
regardless of engine speed. Furthermore, needle lift is a ARGACHOY & PIMENTA [1], it is convenient to
good indication of the time over which fuel is being highlight those directly involved in the prediction of the
injected into the combustion chamber. The heat-release rate temperature fields of the Diesel combustion process.
indicates the rate of the fuel burning in the combustion
chamber. AIR TEMPERATURE IN COMBUSTION
CHAMBER (Tair) - It is considered as being the
Figure 1 illustrates the different events in a Diesel temperature of the entrained hot air that causes a divergence
combustion process by indicating the time over which they of the jet and vaporize fuel by the time it travels a given
occur. The first area marked with a light gray background is distance from the injector. This air temperature is resulting
the pre-mixed burn; the most common feature is the pre- from a complete adiabatic compression of the air inside the
mix burn spike in the rate of heat release. The second area, combustion chamber. The temperature (Tair) in K is
marked with a dark gray is the mixing-controlled burn, with obtained, in each instant of the evaluation, through the basic
more even burning of fuel as shown in the heat-release thermodynamic relationship expressed by the Equation 1,
curve. At the start of injection, fuel begins to penetrate into where P2 is the final compression pressure measured
the combustion chamber and high temperature air is through a sensor in the combustion chamber in Pa, V2 is the
entrained into the spray. The hot air evaporates the fuel and volume of the combustion chamber in m3, m is the air mass
beyond a fixed length, knows as the liquid length, no liquid in kg, calculated from the values of pressure and
fuel exists. The liquid length shortens slightly after the start temperature in the intake manifold, considering the
of combustion but remains relatively constant until the end volumetric efficiency, and R is the universal constant of the
of injection. Beyond the liquid length, the rich premixed gases, that assume the value of 286.9 J/(kg K).
fuel and air continue to be heated until they react in the rich
premixed reaction zone. The products of rich combustion P2 . V2 (1)
Tair =
continue downstream and diffuse and mix radially outward m. R
until reaching the surrounding cylinder gases. At a location
where the rich products and cylinder gases mix to produce a The volume of the combustion chamber is calculated
stoichiometric mixture, a diffusion flame is produced. The by the classic Equation 2, where D the diameter of the
diffusion flame surrounds the jet in a thin turbulent sheet, cylinder is in m, α is the crankshaft angle, r is the crank
which extends upstream toward the nozzle. The axial radius in m, l is the connecting rod length in m, and VC is
distance from the nozzle exit to the diffusion flame is the the cylinder compression volume in m3.
Lift-Off length. According to SIEBERS & HIGGINS [4],
the Lift-Off length controls the amount of oxygen entrained
into the fuel jet and therefore the stoichiometry of the fuel-

2
 π . D2  2  (2)
l l
V = . r .  1 + − cos α −   − sen α
2
 + VC
4  r r 
 
PRE-COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE (Tpre) - It is
the temperature reached by the air and the fuel in the
thermodynamic balance, in the condition of complete
vaporization of the fuel at the end of the liquid length. The
liquid length is defined as the maxim distance traveled by
the liquid fuel in the combustion chamber, starting from the
exit of the injection orifice, before being vaporized.
SIEBERS [4] developed a scaling law to predict the liquid
length. The assumptions made by SIEBERS, applied in his
model, include quasi-steady flow with a uniform rate,
uniform velocity, uniform fuel concentration and uniform
temperature profiles, which is perfect mixing inside the
spray boundaries, and finally no velocity slip between the
injected fuel and the entrained gas. Equation 3 shows the
liquid length expression (L+), where b is an empirical
constant with value 0.41 and B is obtained by a
thermodynamic balance.
2
2  (3)
L+ = b .  + 1 − 1
B  Solver, v 3.96 - Stanford University, 1995), for different
The liquid length relation depends on the ratio of
mass flows of air and fuel represented by the term B, which
itself is a balance of two thermodynamic relations,
according to SIEBERS [4]. The Equation 4 shows these
relations. Where εa is the compressibility of air at the
conditions of Tpre and Pa2, εf is the compressibility of the
vaporized fuel at the conditions Tpre and Pf2; Pa2 is the
partial pressure of air at thermodynamic equilibrium, Pf2 is
the partial pressure of the fuel at thermodynamic
equilibrium, Tpre is the temperature reached by the fuel and
air at thermodynamic equilibrium, Mf is the molar mass of
the fuel, Ma is the molar mass of air, ha1 is the initial
enthalpy of the entrained air, ha2 is the final enthalpy of the
entrained air at thermodynamic equilibrium, hf1 is the initial
enthalpy of the fuel, and hf2 is the final enthalpy of the fuel
at thermodynamic equilibrium.
ε a ( Tpre , Pa 2 ) . Pf 2 . M f h − ha 2
B = = a1 (4)
ε f ( Tpre , Pf 2 ) . Pa 2 . M a hf 2 − hf 1
Restricting the final state of the fuel to saturated vapor
and assuming the final mix of fuel and air to be in
thermodynamic equilibrium, allows an iterative approach to
finding the final temperature of the air-fuel mixture. After
an initial guess for Tpre is made, the vapor pressure of the
fuel can be found, as well as can the other properties of the
vaporized fuel in the hypothesized thermodynamic state.
The partial pressure of the air can be found by subtracting
the partial pressure of the fuel from the total cylinder
pressure, at the guessed temperature Tpre. At that point, it is
possible to determine all the other air properties at the
chosen state. If the two halves of Equation 4 are not equal,
3
a new guess is made, utilizing a binary search with a
continually narrowing search area.
TEMPERATURE OF SOOT FORMATION (Tsoot) -
It is the temperature in the soot formation region of the
Diesel spray combustion. This temperature is determined
establishing the temperature of the rich reaction products
and how they are affected by the diffusion flame and
pressure. To establish the temperature rise due to the rich
reaction, a simplified one-way reaction is used in which the
basic concept of adiabatic flame temperature, with ∆H = 0,
is applied, according KEATING [5]. The heats of formation
and mass fractions are used in equations 5 through 7 to
determine the temperature of the products. Reactants are n-
heptane, used as a single component fuel to simulate the
Diesel and air, taken as an oxygen and nitrogen mix.
Reaction products for an ideal reaction are assumed to be
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water, excess fuel (f2)
and nitrogen. According to ARGACHOY & PIMENTA [1],
the equivalence ratio (φ) is determined thought the spray
model, and the mass fractions of products are interpolate,
from tabulated data of STANJAN (Chemical Equilibrium
equivalence ratios.
H R = m f ( h 0f + Tpre . C p f ) + mO2 . Tpre . C p O2 + mN 2 . Tpre . C p N 2 (5)
H P = mCO2 ( hCO
0
+ Tsoot . C p CO2 ) + mCO . ( hCO
0
+ Tsoot . C pCO ) + mN 2 . Tsoot . C p N
( ) ( )
2
2
+ mH2O hH0 2O + Tsoot . C pH2O + m f2 h0f + Tsoot . C Pf (6)
HR = HP (7)
Where mx is the mass fraction of the species x, h x is
0
the heat of formation of the chemical species, Cpx is the
specific heat of the species, Tpre is the pre-combustion
temperature (initial temperature of the reactants), Tsoot is the
soot formation temperature (final temperature of products),
HR is the total energy of the reactants, and HP is the total
energy of the products.
TEMPERATURE OF NOX FORMATION (TNOx) - It
is the temperature in the diffusion flame region, that is a
turbulent flame front resulting from the combustion of the
fresh air with the incomplete combustion products of the
rich initial reactions. In this area occurs also the oxidation
of the soot originating from the pre-combustion. According
to DEC [6], this turbulent flame front is often considered to
be occurring near a stoichiometric condition. Thus, the
molar fraction of oxygen in the region of soot oxidation is
assumed to be equal the molar fraction of oxygen, on the
reactant side of a stoichiometric combustion of air with n-
heptane and carbon monoxide (basic products of an
incomplete reaction). The temperature of the NOX
formation is established in a similar way to that used to
determine the temperature of soot formation. However, the
simplified reaction is assumed to occur at an equivalence
ratio of 1, to simulate the stoichiometric conditions
considered in the diffusion flame. The Equations 8 to 10
(similar to the Equations 5 to 7) predict the temperature of
NOX formation through the combustion products. The
temperature of the reactants is assumed as being the
temperature of soot formation, until all of the fuel in the
soot formation is burned. Once all the fuel is burned the
oxidation of soot is dependent upon the air temperature in
the combustion chamber and oxidation is quenched when
the bulk mean temperature drops below 1000 K. The instant
jumping of temperatures represents the assumption of
instant mixing of the hot gases in and around the diffusion
flame region.

H R = m f ( h 0f + Tsoot . C p f ) + mCO . (hCO

0
+ Tsoot . C pCO ) + Figure 2. Single cylinder research engine in the dyno of
(8) ERC (Engine Research Center) in the University
+ mO2 . Tair . C p O2 + mN 2 . Tair . C p N 2
of Wisconsin-Madison.

H P = mCO2 ( hCO
0
2
( 2
)
+ TNOx . C p CO2 ) + mH 2O hH0 2O + TNOx . C pH O + Table 2. Summary of run conditions (except points 4 and 8)
+ mN2 . TNOx . C pN (9) of CARB 8 mode test made by KWEON et al. [7].
2

HR = HP (10) Modes 1 2 3 5 6 7

MODEL VALIDATION (1) 1800 1800 1800 1200 1200 1200

(2) 100 75 50 100 75 50
The temperatures calculated by the model were (3) 179.3 179.3 179.3 175.2 179.3 177.9
compared to experimental data to determine the validity of (4) 49.0 48.3 48.3 48.3 49.0 48.1
predictions made. The experimental data used for the (5) 0.69 0.50 0.34 0.82 0.69 0.41
comparisons were from a research single-cylinder Diesel (6) 0.172 0.146 0.140 0.168 0.160 0.141
engine from the work of KWEON et al. [7] in the ERC (7) 1.083 0.922 0.671 1.491 1.225 0.878
(Engine Research Center) of the University of Wisconsin- (8) -5 -5 -5 -11 -2 -2
Madison (USA). (9) 25 20 13 27 22 15

Table 1. The research single-cylinder engine specification, (1): Engine speed (min-1)
according to KWEON et al. [7]. (2): Load (%)
(3): Intake pressure (kPa)
Type Diesel, direct injection, 4 stroke (4): Intake temperature (°C)
Combustion chamber Quiescent (low turbulence) (5): Equivalence ratio
Chamber diameter 97.8 mm (6): Indicated specific fuel consumption (kg/ihp h)
Intake valves 2 (7): Indicated mean effective pressure (MPa)
Exhaust valves 2 (8): Start of injection (Crankshaft angle after TDC)
Injection System Electronic, Unit Injector (UIS) (9): Injection duration (Crankshaft angle)
Displacement 2.333 dm3
Bore/stroke 139.7 mm/152.4 mm The specification of the single-cylinder engine
Connecting rod length 304.8 mm employed in the experiments of KWEON et al. [7] is given
Nozzle orifices 8 in Table 1. Table 2 displays the run conditions for six
Nozzle orifices diameter 0.200 mm measurements of CARB 8 mode emissions test according to
Aspect ratio of orifices 4.1 (length/diameter of orifices) KWEON et al. [7], while the Figure 2 shows the
Spray angle 152° experimental assembly of the single-cylinder engine in the
Compression ratio 13.1 dyno of ERC (Engine Research Center) in the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. The six data set were generously
provided by Prof. Dr. David E. Foster, of the University of
Wisconsin-Madison (USA), for the model validations. The
cylinder pressure signal of the low load points,
corresponding to mode 4 (25% load, peak torque speed)

4
and 8 (10% load, idle speed) were not sent because were
deteriorated by noises, according information.
CALCULATED TEMPERATURES - Figure 3 shows
a time history of the four temperatures predicted by the
model (temperature in the combustion chamber, pre-
combustion temperature, temperature of soot formation and
temperature of NOX formation) for the conditions of mode
7 of CARB 8 mode test done by KWEON et al. [7]. The
temperature time-history for the other available CARB test
data were also calculated by the model. The diagrams of
temperatures corresponding to these data sets (points 1, 2,
3, 5 and 6), are shown respectively in the figures A1, A2,
A3, A4 and A5 in the Appendix of the present work.
Figure 3. Predicted time-history of temperatures for point
7 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test data of
KWEON et al. [7].
In the Figure 3 the temperature of soot formation is
observed as slightly higher than the air mean temperature in
the combustion chamber for most of the combustion
process. After the temperature increase for the products of
the initial reaction is established, the average temperature
difference between the products and the air temperature in
the combustion chamber remains constant owing to similar
heating effects from the diffusion flame and pressure on
both the soot formation region and the surrounding volume.
The NOX formation temperature is seen rising to a high
temperature during the center portion of combustion, or
while there is a diffusion flame, and lowering back to level
with the air temperature in the chamber, when the diffusion
flame dies. Finally, the pre-combustion temperature is the
temperature of the fuel and air mixture at the liquid length.
COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA –
To validate the temperature values predicted by the model,
it was necessary to establish comparisons with available
experimental measurements of temperatures in the
combustion chamber. FLYNN et al. [8] have been
measuring combustion spray temperatures using laser
diagnostics in Sandia National Laboratories with the same
5
single cylinder engine that KWEON et al. [7] used in their
evaluations (with 2,34 dm3 displacement), therefore with
the same single cylinder engine that the present work used
to predict combustion temperature history. FLYNN et al.
[8] measured the mean temperature values for some defined
regions of the Diesel spray in combustion according the
model of DEC [6]. These quantitative evaluations were
made through the Rayleigh-thermometry technique.
According to ECKBRETH [9], light can be absorbed or
emitted by molecules, if the resonance condition is fulfilled
(for example, laser induced fluorescence), but light can also
be scattered independently from its wavelength. One of the
so called non-resonant interactions between
electromagnetic radiation and matter is the Rayleigh-
scattering process. This process can be used for the
measurement of the total number density (n = N/V) of all
molecules (N) in the investigated volume (V). If the total
composition of the gas is known and pressure is constant,
temperatures can be directly evaluated from Rayleigh-
scattering measurements by using the ideal gas law. The
single cylinder engine used for the research has an optical
access to the combustion chamber to perform this kind of
laser diagnostics. The Figure 4 displays the measured
temperatures by FLYNN et al. [8] for each of the regions of
the spray in combustion (according to DEC [6]), in the
conditions corresponding to the point 7 of the CARB 8
mode test. Next to the measured temperatures are predicted
temperature ranges observed from simulation through the
proposed model. Close agreements between measured
values and predicted values attests the validity of the
model. The establishment of the thermodynamic conditions
of the fuel spray in combustion is the base for the soot
formation and oxidation modeling and also for the
modeling the NOX formation in the combustion chamber.
Figure 4. Comparison among the burning temperatures
measured by FLYNN et al. [8] and the
temperatures predicted by the model. The basic
picture is courtesy of Dr. John E. Dec [6].
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed model, developed on the Matlab-
Simulink platform, predicts the time history of the air
temperature in the combustion chamber, the pre-
combustion temperature, the temperature of soot formation
and the temperature of NOX formation in the combustion of
Diesel fuel spray. The predicted values have been compared
with experimental results from Rayleigh-thermometry
applied to a single cylinder Diesel engine. The predicted
values show coherence with the current models of
combustion in Diesel engines and achieved a reasonable
fidelity level with the experimental values. The close
agreement between expected and predicted values serves to
further strengthen validity of the model and recommends
future optimization and expansion studies. Knowing the
thermodynamic conditions around in the diffusion flame of
the spray in combustion and considering the reduction in
the peak of heat release rate in the first third of the
combustion process, induced by an exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR), it will be possible to predict the NOX
formation adopting the Zeldovich mechanism.
6. DEC, J. E., “A Conceptual Model of DI Diesel
Combustion Based on Laser Sheet Imaging”, SAE
Paper 970873, 1997.
7. KWEON, C. B., FOSTER, D. E., SCHAUER, J. J.,
OKADA, S., “Detailed Chemical Composition and
Particle Size Assessment of Diesel Engine Exhaust”,
SAE Paper 2002-01-2670, 2002.
8. FLYNN, P. F., DURRETT, R. P., HUNTER, G. L.,
LOYE, A. O., AKINYEMI, O. C., DEC, J. E.,
WESTBROOK, C. K., “Diesel Combustion: An
Integrated View Combining Laser Diagnostics,
Chemical Kinetics, and Empirical Validation, SAE
Paper 1999-01-0509, 1999.
9. ECKBRETH, A. C., “Laser Diagnostics for
Combustion Temperature and Species”, Gordon &
Breach Publishers, 2nd edition, ISBN: 9.05699.532.4,
1996.
CONTACT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. Celso Argachoy

Basic Engine Design Department
The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. David E. MWM-INTERNATIONAL Indústria de Motores da
Foster of the University of Wisconsin-Madison for single- América do Sul Ltda.
cylinder engine data used in the model validations, and Dr. Phone: 55 11 3882 3783
John E. Dec of Sandia National Laboratories (USA) for celso.argachoy@nav-international.com.br
information and the picture of Diesel combustion plume.
The author would also like to thank the MWM-
INTERNATIONAL Motores for the support for this study.

REFERENCES

1. ARGACHOY, C., PIMENTA, A. P., “Previsão da

Emissão de Material Particulado em Motores Diesel
de Injeção Direta”, SAE Paper 2005-01-3971, 2005.

2. HEYWOOD, J. B., “Internal Combustion Engine

Fundamentals”, McGraw-Hill, ISBN: 0-07-028637-
X, 1988.

3. ESPEY, C., DEC, J. E., “Diesel Engine Combustion

Studies in a Newly Designed Optical-Access Engine
Using High-Speed Visualization and 2-D Laser
Imaging”, SAE Paper 930971, 1993.

4. SIEBERS, D. L., “Scaling Liquid-Phase Fuel

Penetration in Diesel Sprays Based on Mixing-
Limited Vaporization”, SAE Paper 1999-01-0528,
1999.

5. KEATING, E. L., “Applied Combustion – 2nd

Edition”, CRC Press - Taylor & Francis Group,
ISBN: 1-57444-640-1, 2007.

6
APPENDIX

Figure A1. Predicted time-history of temperatures for Figure A4. Predicted time-history of temperatures for
point 1 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test point 5 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test
data of KWEON et al. [7]. data of KWEON et al. [7].

Figure A2. Predicted time-history of temperatures for Figure A5. Predicted time-history of temperatures for
point 2 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test point 6 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test
data of KWEON et al. [7]. data of KWEON et al. [7].

Figure A3. Predicted time-history of temperatures for

point 3 of the CARB 8 mode emissions test
data of KWEON et al. [7].

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